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Medicine
Medicine is the applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness in human beings.
Contemporary medicine applies health science, biomedical research, and medical technology to diagnose and treat injury and disease, typically through medication or surgery, but also through therapies as diverse as psychotherapy, external splints & traction, prostheses, biologics, ionizing radiation and others.
Conventional medicine is practiced by holders of M.D. (medical doctor) or D.O. (doctor of osteopathy) degrees and by their allied health professionals, such as physical therapists, psychologists, and registered nurses. Other terms for conventional medicine include allopathy and allopathic medicine; Western medicine, mainstream medicine, orthodox medicine, and regular medicine; and biomedicine.
Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous or folk medicine) comprises knowledge systems that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. It may include formalized aspects of folk medicine, i.e. longstanding remedies passed on and practiced by lay people. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as: "the health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being." In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs. When adopted outside of its traditional culture, traditional medicine is often called complementary and alternative medicine. Herbal medicines can be very ′lucrative, generating billions of dollars in sales, but adulteration or ´counterfeit herbs can also be a health hazard.
Alternative medicine is any practice used independently or in place of conventional medicine. It may be based on historical or cultural traditions, rather than on scientific evidence. Alternative medicine is frequently grouped with complementary medicine or integrative medicine, which, in general, refers to the same interventions when used in conjunction with mainstream techniques, under the umbrella term complementary and alternative medicine, or CAM. There is no clear and consistent definition for either alternative or complementary medicine. In Western culture it is often defined as any healing practice which has not been shown consistently to be effective.
Alternative medicine methods are diverse in their foundations and methodologies. Methods may incorporate or base themselves on traditional medicine, folk knowledge, spiritual beliefs, or newly conceived approaches to healing. Although heterogeneous, the major CAM systems have many common characteristics, including a focus on individualizing treatments, treating the whole person, promoting self-care and self-healing, and recognizing the spiritual nature of each individual. In addition, many CAM systems have characteristics commonly found in mainstream healthcare, such as a focus on good nutrition and preventive practices. Unlike mainstream medicine, CAM often lacks or has only limited experimental and clinical study; however, scientific investigation of CAM is beginning to address this knowledge gap. Thus, boundaries between CAM and mainstream medicine, as well as among different CAM systems, are often blurred and are constantly changing.
The terms 'integrative' or 'integrated medicine' indicate combinations of conventional and alternative medical treatments that have some scientific proof of efficacy; such practices are viewed by advocates as the best examples of complementary medicine.
Conservation medicine is an emerging, interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Also known as ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology.
Medical education in Russia
Medical education is the process by which individuals acquire and maintain the skill necessary for the effective practice of medicine. In general, initial training is taken at any Russian medical school. The curriculum includes a six-year course in medicine or a five-year course in dentistry and pharmacy.
Traditionally initial medical education is divided between preclinical and clinical studies. The former consists of the basic sciences such as anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pharmacology, pathology. The latter consists of teaching in the various areas of clinical medicine such as internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, and surgery. Teaching methodology in Russian medical schools includes lectures conducted by prominent specialists and regular practical classes throughout the course of studies.
During the third, fourth, and fifth years, students perform clinical work as nurses, feldshers, and clinical assistants. In the sixth year, medical students take their primary specialization in one of the following clinical subjects: Faculty of General Medicine (surgery, obstetrics, and gynecology), Faculty of Pediatrics (pediatrics, including childhood infectious diseases, and pediatric surgery, including orthopedics). Students are taught to use their knowledge, develop their professional skills, master up-to-date methods of diagnostics and treatment.
The sixth year of medical studies is spent in a hospital. On successful completion of the course, students have to pass a state examination according to the curriculum. They obtain a Doctor's Diploma, and complete a one-year internship in medical units under the supervision of medical specialists.
Medical education in Great Britain
Medical education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or internship, and/or residency. Medical schools are usually part of a university. England has more than 30 medical schools offering pre-clinical and clinical studies. A medical school is a tertiary [´tɜ: rʃi¸erɪ] educational institution that teaches medicine. Degree programs offered at medical schools often include Bachelor/Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Doctor of Philosophy, Master's degree. Many medical schools also offer a physician assistant/associate program in the form of a Bachelor's or, more commonly, a Master's degree.
Most of schools offer a training course of between three and six years in duration. The curriculum is traditionally divided into two parts: a preclinical course in which the basic science of how the human body works is studied; and a clinical course in which the student is introduced to actual patient care in a hospital.
Medical degrees are awarded to medical students after the completion of their degree program, which typically lasts five or more years for the undergraduate model and four years for the graduate model. Students have to pass examinations in all of these aspects of the course. Upon graduating, they receive a Doctor of Medicine (MD), Bachelor of Medicine (BM), or an equivalent degree.
Bashkirian State Medical University
Founded in 1932, the Bashkirian Medical University is one of the oldest educational institutions in the Republic. The University has a strong history of providing quality, career-oriented education for both undergraduates and postgraduates. It offers five- and six-year programmes at the Faculties of General Medicine, Pediatrics, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Health Protection, Microbiology and Social Activities (Service, Work). The curriculum is designed to provide students with the scientific background and clinical skills necessary for practicing medicine, pharmacy and dentistry after completion. The first two years are composed mainly of classroom basic sciences education, while the last two years primarily include rotations in clinical settings where students learn patient care firsthand. The programmes are designed for full- and part- time students with the vast majority of courses and electives. Postgraduate programmes are under way in most chairs.
Students enjoy the benefits of modern, well equipped teaching and research laboratories and classrooms, a 500 seat lecture theatre with the latest Audio Visual technologies, a Health Sciences Library on-site, incorporating many group and individual study spaces. The University’s staff are actively engaged in research, with interests in all major areas of medicine and adjacent sciences. Instructional methods emphasize the critical thinking, problem-solving and clinical skills necessary for future health care workers.
Health care provider
A health care provider is an individual or an institution that provides preventive, curative, promotional, or rehabilitative health care services in a systematic way to individuals, families or communities.
An individual health care provider (also known as a health worker) may be a health care professional within medicine, nursing, or a field of allied health. Health care providers may also be a public/community health professional. Health care practitioners include physicians, dentists, pharmacists (including clinical pharmacists), physician assistants, nurses (including advanced practice registered nurses), midwives, dietitians, therapists, psychologists, chiropractors, clinical officers, phlebotomists, physical therapists, respiratory therapists, occupational therapists, audiologists, speech pathologists, optometrists, emergency medical technicians, paramedics, medical laboratory scientists, medical prosthetic technicians, radiographers, social workers, and a wide variety of other human resources trained to provide some type of health care service. They often work in hospitals, health care centres, and other service delivery points, but also in academic training, research, and administration. Some provide care and treatment services for patients in private homes.
Health care practitioners are commonly grouped into four key fields:
Medical; Nursing; Dentistry; Health Professions including pharmacy, physical therapy, paramedicine, respiratory therapy, and many others health specialists.
A Physician
A physician is a professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury, and other physical and mental impairments. They may focus their practice on certain disease categories, types of patients, or methods of treatment – known as specialist medical practitioners – or assume responsibility for the provision of continuing and comprehensive medical care to individuals, families, and communities – known as general practitioners. Medical practice properly requires both a detailed knowledge of the academic disciplines (such as anatomy and physiology) underlying diseases and their treatment – the science of medicine – and also a decent competence in its applied practice – the art or craft of medicine.
Both the role of the physician and the meaning of the word itself vary around the world, including a wide variety of qualifications and degrees, but there are some common elements. For example, the ethics of medicine require that physicians show consideration, compassion and benevolence for their patients.
In Modern English, the term physician is used in two main ways, with relatively broad and narrow meanings respectively. This is the result of history and is often confusing. These meanings and variations are explained below.
Specialist in internal medicine.
Around the world the term physician refers to a specialist in internal medicine or one of its many sub-specialties (especially as opposed to a specialist in surgery). This meaning of physician conveys a sense of expertise in treatment by drugs or medications, rather than by the procedures of surgeons.
Currently, a specialist physician in the United States may be described as an internist. Another term, hospitalist, was introduced in 1996, to describe US specialists in internal medicine who work largely or exclusively in hospitals. Such 'hospitalists' now make up about 19% of all US general internists, who are often called general physicians in Commonwealth countries.
This original use, as distinct from surgeon, is common in most of the world including the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries (such as Australia, Bangladesh, India, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe), as well as in places as diverse as Brazil, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Ireland, and Taiwan. In such places, the more general English terms doctor or medical practitioner are prevalent, describing any practitioner of medicine (whom an American would likely call a physician, in the broad sense). In Commonwealth countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians who have sub-specialized by age of patient rather than by organ system.
Around the world, the combined term "Physician and Surgeon" is used to describe either a general practitioner or any medical practitioner irrespective of specialty. This usage still shows the original meaning of physician and preserves the old difference between a physician, as a practitioner of physic, and a surgeon. The term may be used by state medical boards in the United States of America, and by equivalent bodies in provinces of Canada, to describe any medical practitioner.
Health care institutions: hospitals
Health care institutions include hospitals, nursing homes, outpatient clinics, outpatient surgical facilities, and laboratories.
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment by specialized staff and equipment. Hospitals are largely staffed by professional physicians, surgeons, and nurses. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which is set up to deal with many kinds of disease and injury, and normally has an emergency department to deal with immediate and urgent threats to health. Larger cities may have several hospitals of varying sizes and facilities. Some hospitals, especially in the United States, have their own ambulance service.
Some patients go to a hospital just for diagnosis, treatment, or therapy and then leave ('outpatients') without staying overnight; while others are 'admitted' and stay overnight or for several days or weeks or months ('inpatients'). Hospitals usually are distinguished from other types of medical facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients. A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care and long-term care.
Types of specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric problems (see psychiatric hospital), certain disease categories, and so forth.
A hospital may be a single building or a number of buildings on a campus. Many hospitals with pre-twentieth-century origins began as one building and evolved into campuses. Some hospitals are affiliated with universities for medical research and the training of medical personnel such as physicians and nurses, often called teaching hospitals. Worldwide, most hospitals are run on a nonprofit basis by governments or charities.
Hospitals vary widely in the services they offer and therefore, in the departments they have. They may have acute services such as an emergency department or specialist trauma centre, burn unit, surgery, or urgent care. These may then be backed up by more specialist units such as cardiology or coronary care unit, intensive care unit, neurology, cancer center, and obstetrics and gynecology.
Some hospitals will have outpatient departments and some will have chronic treatment units such as behavioral health services, dentistry, dermatology, psychiatric ward, rehabilitation services, and physical therapy.
Common support units include a dispensary or pharmacy, pathology, and radiology, and on the non-medical side, there often are medical records departments and/or release of information department.
Health care institutions: clinics
The medical facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic, and often is run by a government agency for health services or a private partnership of physicians (in nations where private practice is allowed). Clinics generally provide only outpatient services.
A clinic (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a health care facility that is primarily devoted to the care of outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded, and typically cover the primary health care needs of populations in local communities, in contrast to larger hospitals which offer specialised treatments and admit inpatients for overnight stays. Some clinics grow to be institutions as large as major hospitals, or become associated with a hospital or medical school, while retaining the name “clinic."
Clinics are often associated with a general medical practice, run by one or several general practitioners or practice managers. Physiotherapy clinics are usually operated by physiotherapists and psychology clinics by clinical psychologists, and so on for each health profession. Some clinics are operated in-house by employers, government organizations or hospitals and some clinical services are outsourced to private corporations, specialising in provision of health services.
Health care institutions: polyclinics
A polyclinic (or policlinic), is a place where a wide range of health care services (including diagnostics) can be obtained without the need for an overnight stay. Polyclinics are sometimes co-located with a hospital.
A typical polyclinic is an outpatient facility that houses general medical practitioners (GPs) such as doctors and nurses to provide ambulatory care and some acute care services but lacks the major surgical and pre- and post-operative care facilities commonly associated with hospitals. Besides GPs a polyclinic can house outpatient departments of some medical specialties i.e. gynecology, dermatology, ophthalmology, ENT(ear, nose, throat), neurology, pulmonology, cardiology, endocrinology etc. In some university cities polyclinics house outpatient departments of all the teaching hospital in one building.
Polyclinics are common type of healthcare facility in many countries including France, Germany (long tradition), Switzerland and most of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (mixed Soviet-German model), as well as in former Soviet republics such as Russia and Ukraine; and in many countries across Asia and Africa.
A Pharmacy
A pharmacy (known also as a chemist's or in American English a drugstore) is a place where pharmacists (chemists) practise the profession of pharmacy. In the United States and Canada, drug stores commonly sell not only medicines, but also miscellaneous items such as candy (sweets), cosmetics, and magazines, as well as light refreshments or groceries. The people working in a pharmacy are called pharmacists or chemists (British English). These people can recognise simple diseases and give drugs for some of them.
More strictly a pharmacy / pharmacy counter is where you can buy prescription drugs. Certain drugs are special, because they can be addictive, or they change the way other drugs act, or they need to be taken in a special way. These drugs cannot simply be bought at a pharmacy. A prescription is necessary to get them. Medical doctors give out prescriptions, which can then be used to get the drug.
Many pharmacies do not sell drugs only. They also sell beauty products and hygiene-related products, like tampons for women and contraceptives.
Pharmacies are also located within hospitals and nursing homes and function as a department of these larger organizations. Such pharmacies are known within the pharmacy industry as "hospital pharmacies" to distinguish from "retail" or "community" pharmacies. Pharmacists in hospital pharmacies often have more complex medications whereas pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex business and customer relations issues.
The icon ['aɪkɔn] most commonly associated with the practise of pharmacy is the mortar and pestle. Apothecary [ə'pɔθɪkərɪ] is an older term used for pharmacy and pharmacists.
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