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Содержание

Введение ………………………………………………………………………..4

Part 1 Grammar Focus …………………………………………………………..8

Part 2 Topics……………………………………………………………………63

Part 3 Business English ………………………………………………………..88

Appendix to part 3 ……………………………………………………………..99

Part 4 Check Your Progress ………………………………………………….103

Part 5 Additional Texts for Reading ………………………………………….119

Part 6 Seminars and Reports ………………………………………………….165

Part 7 Useful References for Students ………………………………………..171

Список использованной литературы……………………………………….174

Введение

Современное высшее образование нацелено на формирование личности специалиста нового типа, способного работать в деловой сфере, часто иноязычной, требующей хороших навыков владения как устной, так и письменной формами иностранного языка. Иностранный язык сегодня не только цель образования, но и средство социализации, профессионализации и развития личности. Заявленная под результатом образования личность должна быть способна к саморазвитию, самообразованию, инновационной деятельности, что предполагает переход от парадигмы обучения к парадигме образования. В этом плане самостоятельная работа студентов (СРС) становится основой образовательного процесса. Усиление роли СРС означает принципиальный пересмотр организации учебно-воспитательного процесса в вузе, который должен строиться так, чтобы развивать умение учиться, формировать у студента способности к саморазвитию, творческому применению полученных знаний, способам адаптации к профессиональной деятельности в современном поликультурном мире.

Понятие «самостоятельная работа студентов» разнопланово. Самостоятельная работа с одной стороны, понимается как вид деятельности, стимулирующий активность, самостоятельность, познавательный интерес, как основа самообразования, толчок к дальнейшему повышению квалификации; а с другой - как система мероприятий или педагогических условий, обеспечивающих руководство самостоятельной деятельностью студентов, что подчеркивает тесную взаимосвязь преподавателя и студента в образовательном поле аудиторного и внеаудиторного времени. Поскольку самостоятельная работа предполагает максимальную индивидуализацию деятельности каждого студента, она может рассматриваться также как средство совершенствования творческой индивидуальности личности студента.

В представленном пособии СРС определяется как способ активного, целенаправленного приобретения студентом новых для него знаний и умений без непосредственного участия в этом процессе преподавателей.

Предметно и содержательно самостоятельная работа студентов определяется образовательным стандартом, рабочими программами учебных дисциплин, содержанием учебников, учебных пособий и методических руководств.

Условно СРС можно разделить на обязательную и контролируемую.

Обязательная самостоятельная работа обеспечивают подготовку студента к текущим аудиторным занятиям. Результаты этой подготовки проявляются в активности студента на занятиях и качественном уровне сделанных докладов, выполненных контрольных работ, тестовых заданий и др. форм текущего контроля. Баллы, полученные студентом по результатам аудиторной работы, формируют рейтинговую оценку текущей успеваемости студента по дисциплине.

Контролируемая самостоятельная работа (КСР) направлена на углубление и закрепление знаний студента, развитие аналитических навыков по проблематике учебной дисциплины. Подведение итогов и оценка результатов таких форм самостоятельной работы осуществляется во время контактных часов с преподавателем. Баллы, полученные по этим видам работы, формируют оценку по КСР студента и учитываются при итоговой аттестации по курсу.

Формами контроля КСР могут быть:

- устный опрос,

- доклад,

- реферат,

- самостоятельное исследование,

- тест,

- контрольная работа.

СРС проводится с целью:

- углубления и расширения теоретических знаний;

- систематизации и закрепления полученных теоретических знаний и практических умений студентов;

- формирования умений использовать нормативную, справочную документацию и специальную литературу;

- развития познавательных способностей и активности, творческой инициативы, ответственности, организованности;

- формирования самостоятельности мышления, способности к саморазвитию, самосовершенствованию, самореализации;

- развития исследовательских умений.

Применительно к лингвистическому образованию студентов вуза отметим, что для продуктивной организации СРС необходимо умело сочетать традиции и инновации российской системы языкового образования в свете современных требований. Принципиально новым в преподавании иностранных языков сегодня можно считать:

- соизучение языков и культур с целью формирования коммуникативной компетенции студентов;

- использование интернета, компьютерных технологий, спутникового телевидения, способствующих созданию мультимедийной среды обучения культуре через язык и языку через культуру.

Главными целями самостоятельной работы студентов в плане практического овладения иностранным языком являются:

- достижение соответствующего уровня иноязычной коммуникативной компетенции в период обучения в вузе;

- подготовка выпускников к проведению эффективной самообразовательной работы над иностранным языком после окончания института. (Учитывая важность второй, конечной цели, предоставляется правомерным говорить о необходимости формирования у выпускников самообразовательной компетенции как способности поддерживать и повышать в процессе самообразования уровень владения иностранным языком для непрерывного совершенствования профессиональной деятельности. С психологической точки зрения самообразовательная компетенция предполагает наличие устойчивого мотивационного компонента, знаний, соответствующих навыков, умений, привычек, личностных качеств. Становление самообразовательной компетенции может осуществляться только непосредственно в деятельности студентов по мере их возрастающей самостоятельности в овладении иностранным языком).

Самостоятельная работа, как одна из наиболее сложных форм деятельности, является наиболее продуктивной. По дисциплине «Иностранный язык» актуальными являются следующие виды самостоятельных заданий:

- для овладения знаниями: чтение текста первоисточника (дополнительной литературы); составление плана текста; конспектирование и выписки из текста; работа со словарями и справочниками, нормативными документами и др.;

- для закрепления и систематизации знаний: повторная работа с учебником, конспектом, первоисточником, дополнительной литературой; составление плана и тезисов ответа; ответы на контрольные вопросы; аннотирование, рецензирование, реферирование и др.); подготовка рефератов, докладов; тестирование;

- для формирования умений: выполнение различных упражнений; подготовка необходимых документов для устройства на работу в России и за рубежом; заполнение различных бланков; написание писем и открыток друзьям в других странах.

Активная самостоятельная работа студентов возможна только при наличии серьезной и устойчивой мотивации (причем необходимо различать внешнюю – стимулируемую извне, и внутреннюю – исходящую из потребности и осознания значимости осуществляемой деятельности самой личностью; последняя оправданно выступает более стойкой и важной). Самый сильный мотивирующий фактор - подготовка к дальнейшей эффективной профессиональной деятельности.

Среди факторов, способствующих активизации самостоятельной работы можно выделить следующие:

- полезность выполняемой работы;

- участие студентов в творческой деятельности;

- «интенсивная педагогика», предполагающая введение в учебный процесс активных методов, прежде всего игрового тренинга, в основе которого лежат инновационные и организационно-деятельностные игры;

- участие в олимпиадах по учебным дисциплинам, конкурсах научно-исследовательских или прикладных работ;

- использование мотивирующих факторов контроля знаний (накопительные оценки, рейтинг, тесты, нестандартные экзаменационные процедуры);

- поощрение студентов за успехи в учебе и творческой деятельности (стипендии, премирование, поощрительные баллы) и санкции за плохую учебу;

- индивидуализация заданий, выполняемых как в аудитории, так и вне ее, постоянное их обновление;

- мотивационным фактором в интенсивной учебной работе и, в первую очередь, самостоятельной является личность преподавателя.

Также, считаем важным отметить, что мероприятия, создающие предпосылки и условия для реализации самостоятельной работы, должны предусматривать обеспечение каждого студента:

- индивидуальным рабочим методом при выполнении теоретических и практических работ;

- информационными ресурсами (справочники, учебные пособия, банки индивидуальных заданий, обучающие программы, пакеты прикладных программ и т.д.);

- методическими материалами (указания, руководства, практикумы и т.п.);

- контролирующими материалами (тесты);

- материальными ресурсами (ПЭВМ, измерительное и технологическое оборудование и др.);

- временными ресурсами;

- консультациями (преподаватели);

- возможностью выбора индивидуальной образовательной траектории (элективные учебные дисциплины, дополнительные образовательные услуги, индивидуальные планы подготовки);

- возможностью публичного обсуждения теоретических и/или практических результатов, полученных студентом самостоятельно (конференции, олимпиады, конкурсы).

Представленное учебное пособие отражает рассмотренные выше целевые, содержательные и организационно-методические составляющие образовательного феномена «самостоятельная работа студентов», представляя задания для самостоятельного выполнения по следующим разделам дисциплины «Иностранный язык»: грамматика, страноведение, оформление письменной документации, чтение текстов по общеобразовательной и профессионально ориентированной тематике. Упражнения построены по принципу спиралевидного приращения знаний и навыков от простого к сложному, оснащены рекомендациями и библиографическими ссылками. Тематика материала отвечает требованиям образовательных программ для ВУЗов по дисциплине «Иностранный язык».

PART 1

GRAMMAR FOCUS

Грамматика (от греч. «запись»), как наука, есть раздел языкознания, изучающий грамматический строй языка, закономерности построения правильных осмысленных речевых отрезков на этом языке. Эти закономерности грамматика формулирует в виде общих грамматических правил.

Изучение иностранного языка включает несколько аспектов, одним из которых является грамматика, которая имеет первостепенное значение, так как с ее помощью происходит формирование умений устного и письменного общения. Это своего рода логический каркас, на котором базируется лексика. Сам по себе словарный состав не является языком — он лишь служит строительным материалом. Действенным инструментом словарный состав становится тогда, когда поступает в распоряжение грамматики.

Грамматика, как и основной словарный фонд, очень устойчива, так как создается носителями языка в течение долгого времени и развивается путем развертывания и совершенствования основных элементов существующего и функционирующего языка, используя то общее, что лежит в основе изменения слов и сочетаний слов в линейном ряду, выводя из него правила и законы.

Грамматики русского и английского языков имеют некоторое сходство, но во многом разнятся. Сходные черты грамматик помогают нам осваивать иностранный язык, а различия в грамматических системах создают определенные трудности в его изучении, которым следует уделять особое внимание.

В разделе “Grammar Focus” таблично оформленный теоретический материал по грамматике английского языка дополнен практическими упражнениями, позволяющими закрепить и систематизировать изучаемые грамматические явления. Терминология упражнений носит, в основном, традиционный характер, что позволяет студентам пользоваться различными учебниками и учебными пособиями. В раздел включены упражнения, содержащие страноведческий материал, чтобы сделать их информативными, содержательными, интересными для студентов.

В конце каждого блока раздела имеются контрольные задания по вариантам, при выполнении которых следует придерживаться следующих рекомендаций: при выполнении контрольной работы следует оставлять в тетради широкие поля для замечаний рецензента. Материал контрольной работы следует располагать в тетради по следующему образцу:

Левая страница	Правая страница
Поля Английский текст	Русский текст Поля

Задания должны быть выполнены полностью и в предложенной последовательности, условия заданий необходимо переписывать. Контрольная работа должна быть выполнена в отдельной тетради, на обложке которой следует указать номер контрольного задания, номер варианта, факультет, отделение и фамилию студента. Если контрольная работа выполнена без соблюдения указанных требований или не полностью, она возвращается без проверки.

Блок 1

СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОЕ, МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ,

ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНОЕ, НАРЕЧИЕ

Имя существительное, множественное число существительных, притяжательный падеж

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч. 1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упр. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 стр. 114-115, 6 стр. 138.

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч.2 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Л. Г. Памухина – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 11,12 стр.140.

Таблицы 1–12–множественное и единственное число существительных

Таблица 13 – притяжательный падеж

Местоимение

Таблица 14 – личные, притяжательные и возвратные местоимения

Таблица 15 – вопросительные и относительные местоимения

Таблица 16 – неопределённые и отрицательные местоимения

Таблица 17 – местоимения “much, many, few, little”

Таблица 18 – указательные местоимения

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч. 1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994: Упр. 2 стр. 94, 1,2 стр. 104, 4,5 стр.105, 6 стр.135, 7, 8, 9, 10 стр.136, 3, 4 стр. 202, 9 стр. 215, 1-4 стр. 193-195.

ИМЯ СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНОЕ (THE NOUN)

Таблица 1

Единственное и множественное число существительных

(The Singular and the Plural Forms of the Noun)

hat – hats bus – buses glass - glasses

boy – boys box – boxes bench - benches

country – countries brush – brushes match - matches

Таблица 2

hero – heroes но: piano - pianos

potato – potatoes photo - photos

volcano – volcanoes stereo - stereos

tomato – tomatoes kilo - kilos

echo – echoes radio - radios

Таблица 3

thief – thieves wife – wives но: roof – roofs proof - proofs

leaf – leaves shelf – shelves belief – beliefs serf - serfs

knife – knives wolf – wolves chief – chiefs safe - safes

life – lives half – halves gulf – gulfs cliff - cliffs

Таблица 4

man – men goose – geese louse - lice

woman – women mouse – mice brother - brethren

foot – feet ox - oxen

tooth – teeth child - children

Таблица 5

deer – deer fish – fish (fishes = kinds of fish)

sheep – sheep fruit – fruit (fruits = kinds of fruit)

swine - swine

Таблица 6

basis – bases datum – data

crisis – crises radius – radii

thesis – theses formula – formulae/formulas

criterion – criteria memorandum –

phenomenon – phenomena memoranda/memorandums

Таблица 7

means a means of transport – various means of transport

series a television series – many television series

species a species of birds – different species of birds

crossroads this crossroads – these crossroads

works (factory) a gas works – two gas works

Таблица 8

Только в единственном числе

linen progress money sugar behaviour

furniture business scenery bread evidence

knowledge information wood beef research

advice trouble weather macaroni trouble

luggage accommodation sand salt music

baggage equipment damage chaos spaghetti

permission traffic work justice luck

rubbish hair food machinery jewellery

Таблица 9

Только в единственном числе

news, mumps, measles,

economics, mathematics, physics, statistics

billiards, dominoes, darts, bowls

gymnastics, athletics

politics, tactics, optics, ethics

Таблица 10

Только во множественном числе

sights riches savings earnings lodgings clothes

goods people outskirts stairs poultry trousers

sweets police slums scissors cattle jeans

arms contents wages spectacles congratulations tights

Таблица 11

Как в единственном, так и во множественном числе

family crowd congress company clergy

team jury government crew gentry

group public committee board

staff army audience delegation

Таблица 12

Составные существительные

brother-in-law - brothers-in law

forget-me not - forget-me-nots

merry-go-round - merry-go-rounds

woman-teacher - women-teachers

Таблица 13

Притяжательный падеж (The Possessive Case)

В притяжательном падеже употребляются:

1. имена собственные и

одушевленные существительные

Jane’s friend, the students’ tests, women’s clothes, Dickens’s/Dickens’

books, Shakespeare’s plays;

2. составные существительные

sister-in-law’s marriage

3. существительные, обозначающие время и расстояние

a month’s holiday, a mile’s distance,

ten days’ rest

4. названия стран, городов, судов, а также слова world, country, city, ship

London’s theatres, the ship’s crew,

the country’s policy, the world’s

championship, the city’s parks

5. некоторые наречия

yesterday’s newspaper, today’s talks, tomorrow’s meeting

6. названия магазинов, отелей,

ресторанов, в которых есть имена их основателей

Selfridge’s, Claridge’s, Sothby’s

7. в некоторых устойчивых

словосочетаниях

at a stone’s throw – в двух шагах,

for order’s sake – порядка ради.

МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ (THE PRONOUN)

Таблица 14

Личные, притяжательные и возвратные местоимения

(Personal, Possessive and Reflexive pronouns)

личные местоимения (подлежащее)	косвенный падеж (после предлогов и глаголов)	возвратные местоимения	притяжательные местоимения	абсолютная форма притяжательных местоимений
I	me	myself	my	mine
he	him	himself	his	his
she	her	herself	her	hers
it	it	itself	its	its
we	us	ourselves	our	ours
you	you	yourself/ yourselves	your	yours
they	them	themselves	their	theirs

Таблица 15

Вопросительные и относительные местоимения

(Interrogative and Relative Pronouns)

	подлежащее	дополнение	притяжательное	относительное
о людях	who	who/whom	whose	who/that
о вещах	what	what		that/which

Таблица 16

Неопределенные и отрицательные местоимения

(Indefinite and Negative Pronouns)

some/somebody/someone/

somewhere

в утвердительных предложениях;

в просьбах и предложениях

any/anybody/anyone/anything/

anywhere

в отрицательных предложениях;

в вопросительных предложениях;

в предложениях с hardly, barely,

scarcely, without;

в значении «любой, какой-нибудь»

no/none/nobody/no one/nothing/

nowhere

в утвердительных предложениях для выражения отрицания

Таблица 17

Местоимения “MUCH, MANY, FEW, LITTLE”

many, few, a few с исчисляемыми

существительными во мн. числе

many/few/a few problems

much, little, a little с неисчисляемыми существительными

much/little/a little money/noise

Таблица 18

Указательные местоимения

(Demonstrative Pronouns)

число

определение

подлежащее

ед.

this – этот, эта, это

that – тот, та, то

This book is mine

That book is his

This is my book

That is his book

мн.

these – эти (это)

those – те, то

These books are mine

Those books are his

These are my books

Those are his books

ИМЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНОЕ И НАРЕЧИЕ

(THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB)

Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий, сравнительные конструкции:

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч. 1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 1-4 стр. 255-256, 8 стр. 157, 1-3 стр. 269, 5,6 стр. 270, 8 стр. 287, 9 стр. 310.

Таблица 19 – степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий

Таблица 20 – сравнительные конструкции

Таблица 19

Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий

(Degrees of Comparison)

прилагательные

положительная

степень

сравнительная

степень

превосходная

степень

1.Односложные

2.Двусложные

на –er, -y, -ow,

-le

big

early

hollow

simple

bigger

earlier

hollower

simpler

(the) biggest

(the) earliest

(the) hollowest

(the) simplest

многосложные

important

more important

(the) most important

исключения

much, many

little

good, well

bad, badly

far

less

better

worse

farther/further

(the) most

(the) least

(the) best

(the) worst

(the) farthest/

(the) furthest

Таблица 20

Сравнительные конструкции

(Types of Comparison)

при сравнении

одинаковых предметов:

as…as, the same…as,

twice as…as, three

times as…as

положительная

степень

She is as busy as a bee.

His father is the same age as his mother.

Petrol is twice as expensive as it was a few years ago.

при сравнении

различных

предметов:

not as… as, not so…as

положительная

степень

He isn’t as rich as I thought.

Italy is not so hot as Iraq.

than – чем

than me/than I am

сравнительная

степень

Your pronunciation is better than mine.

the…the – чем…тем

сравнительная

степень

The longer is the day, the shorter is the night.

Задания к блоку 1

1.1. Укажите номера предложений, в которых окончание –s является показателем: а) множественного числа имени существительного; b) притяжательного падежа имени существительного.

1. All Russian citizens are equal before the law; they enjoy equal rights and equal duties.

2. All the citizens enjoy freedom of speech: they are free to voice their opinions on any matter at meetings, in the press, on the radio and TV.

3. Not only people’s wages and purchasing power are growing, but also their needs and demands.

4. The main task facing our people now is to build up the country’s economy.

5. Scientists and engineers working in the aviation industry have to cope with many difficult problems.

1.2. Образуйте форму множественного числа следующих существительных.

a play, a cherry, a church, a tomato, a wife, a box, a photo, a roof, a leaf, a mosquito, a stewardess, a thief;
a sister-in-law, a storyteller, a merry-go-round, a passerby, a fellow student, a father-in-law, a forget-me-not, a shipmate, a grown-up, a stepdaughter, a stage director;
a sportsman, a schoolchild, a mouse, a deer, a woman, a goose, a postman, an ox, a sheep, an Englishman, a tooth, a fish , a child, a species, a series;
a memorandum, a fungus, a millennium, a crisis, a curriculum, a genius, an antenna, a diagnosis, a cactus, a formula, a phenomenon, a thesis, a radius.

1.3. Выберите один из предложенных вариантов ответа.

Unfortunately, the news (wasn’t / weren’t) as good as we expected.
1. Nowadays a lot of people have plastic money which (is/are) small plastic cards used instead of money for making payments.
  1. They consider that money (is / are) the soul of business.
  2. Please, bring us two (ice-cream / ice-creams) and a coffee.
  3. (This /these) information (is/are) rather unexpected.
  4. Mathematics (is / are) my favourite subject.
  5. During the school years pupils are supposed to write a number of (work/works).
  6. It was very difficult to find a (work / job) after I graduated.
  7. My luggage (was / were) delivered in time.
  8. There (is / are) gentlemen waiting for him downstairs.
  9. Do you think people (is / are) satisfied with the economic situation?
  10. Five days (isn’t / aren’t) long enough for a good holiday at the seaside.
  11. The personnel (is / are) very happy with the new premises.
  12. Where (is /are) the goods that we ordered last week?
  13. Your new jeans (look/looks) very stylish.
  14. The committee (raise / raises) their hands to vote “No”.
  15. She has to pay her rent out of her (wage / wages).
  16. The police (want / wants) to interview both men about the robbery.
  17. Positive feedback is necessary so that staff (know / knows) that their job is highly appreciated.
  18. Our new consultant was very helpful. He gave us some very useful (advice / advices).

1.4. Укажите номера предложений, в которых личные местоимения употребляются: a) в именительном падеже; b) в объектном (косвенном) падеже.

1. They are reading a book.

2. The students are listening to him.

3. Did you see the bear? – Yes, I saw it and it saw me. - Did it frighten you?

4. Where is Jim? – I haven’t seen him for ages.

5. Look at that bird. It always comes to my window.

6. They need it as soon as possible.

7. I haven’t seen them for three years.

8. She suggested going by train, but I didn’t like the idea.

9. We need pilots, not ground staff.

10. Jill found me a wonderful job.

1.5. Заполните пропуски подходящими по смыслу личными, притяжательными или возвратными местоимениями.

Doctors advise us that we have to exercise regularly in order to keep … healthy.
Goods get into the hands of those who really want … .
It was rather useful to exchange views; for us to hear theirs and for … to hear … .
Just between you and …, I think Mr. Thompson is going to lose … job.
Jessica has a house which … inherited from … parents. She wants this house to remain … in case of divorce.
OK, students, you mustn’t blame … for what has happened..
My boss congratulated … heartily on … promotion.
Scarcity is the imbalance between … desires and the means of satisfying … .
We need employees who are willing to exercise … own initiative.
Will you give … best regards to Mr. Frosty and tell … I hope to see … next month?

1.6. Укажите номера предложений, в которых указательные местоимения this, these, that, those употребляются в роли: a) определения; b) подлежащего.

1. These factors taken together ensure high production efficiency.

2. This is the DVD player of the latest type.

3. These refrigerators defrost themselves.

4. We should stay here, at this place. But see! What is there on that roof?

5. Those are the lorries carrying the workers to the factories.

6. Those people believe in better future for their country.

7. These are the young men who serve in the army.

1.7. Укажите номера предложений, которые содержат: a) вопросительные местоимения; b) относительные местоимения.

1. Who will pay the bills?

2. The artist whose landscapes are mentioned lived in France.

3. Who is the inventor of the radio?

4. We returned to our car which we had left near the corner.

5. Which model-plane has won?

6. She inquired politely after my brother whom she remembered as a child.

7. The lecturer repeated the date that he had already mentioned.

8. Whose bike broke down?

9. The author who wrote that play was really a genius.

10. Whom don’t you remember?

1.8. Укажите номера предложений, в которых встречаются конструкции, имеющие значения: a) такой же, как; b) не такой, как; c) чем; d) чем… тем.

1. The rivers in the east of Russia are longer than the rivers in the west.

2. The winter in St.-Petersburg is not so cold as the winter in Perm.

3. Manchester is as important as Birmingham from the economic point of view.

4. In Siberia and the Far East highways are not so economically effective as a railway.

5. The more you read the more you learn.

6. UFOs appear in science fiction and films more often than in real life.

1.9. Выполните контрольную работу по вариантам.

BAPИAHT 1

I. Определите по грамматическим признакам, какой частью речи являются слова, оформленные окончанием –s и какую функцию это окончание выполняет, т.е. служит ли оно:

a) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола b Present Indefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного.

Переведите предложения на русский язык.

The Big Ben clock weighs 13.5 tons.
Most of London's places of interest are to the north of the river Thames.
Hyde Park covers 360 acres.

II. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на особенности перевода на русский язык определений, выраженных именем существительным.

The bus stop it not far from here.
Several Moscow University physicists work at this problem.
There are only daylight lamps in this room.

III. Переведите на русский язык предложения, содержащие разные степени сравнения прилагательных, назовите их.

One of the most famous buildings in England is St. Paul's Cathedral.
This room is smaller than that one.
The longer is the night, the shorter is the day.

IV. Переведите на русский язык предложения, обращая внимание на значение неопределенных и отрицательных местоимений.

At some of the London Underground stations there are lifts, others have escalators.
Any student of our group can speak on the history of London.
No park in London is as popular as Hyde Park.

V. Задайте 5 вопросов различного типа к предложениям.

This student first came to Moscow in 2005.
The Port of London is to the east of the City.
In a few days she will leave for London.

VI. Прочтите и устно переведите текст на русский язык. Определите основную идею текста. Письменно переведите 1, 2 3 и 4 абзацы, предложения 1-го абзаца разберите по членам предложения.

London

1. London is the capital of Great Britain. It lies in the South East of England on both banks of the river Thames. London is one of the largest cities in the world and the largest port and industrial town in England. London is more than twenty centuries old.

The heart of the capital is the City. The territory of the City is only about one square mile, but it is the financial and business centre of the country. It contains almost all important English banks and offices.
The West End of London is famous for its beautiful monuments and palaces, fine parks, fashionable shops and big hotels. The East End is quite different from the West End. It is the district of factories, plants and the docks. The main branches of industry are machine-building, ship-building, metal-processing and others.
There are many places of interest in London. One of them is Trafalgar Square with the Nelson's monument 185 feet high. Buckingham Palace is the royal residence. Westminster Abbey is one of the most beautiful buildings in London. It contains the memorials of many famous citizens of Britain.
Across the road from Westminster Abbey are the Houses of Parliament, the seat of the British government. The clock tower towers over the Houses of Parliament. It contains “Big Ben” - one of the largest clocks in the world.
The Tower of London is one of the most interesting places in London. It was a fortress, a royal residence, a prison, now it is a museum. Not far from the tower you can see the Tower Bridge, one of the finest bridges in London.
London is famous for its green parks. Hyde Park is the most popular of them. It is the greatest park in London as well.
London is the centre of the country's cultural life. There are many picture galleries and museums there. The National Gallery houses a priceless collection of paintings. The famous British Museum is one of the best museums in the world.

BAPИAHT 2

a) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола b Present Indefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного.

Переведите предложения на русский язык.

The first mention of the city on the Volga dates back to 1589.
The doors of the Volgograd Young People's Theatre are always open to children of school age.
Both Russian and foreign artists take part in the performance of the Volgograd Circus.

1. During its four-century-old history the city experienced several dramatic events.

Volgograd is now a five-sea port.
The 40-meter-high arch which is the entrance to the Volga – Don Navigation Canal rises in the south of Volgograd.

III. Переведите на русский язык предложения, содержащие разные степени сравнения прилагательных, назовите их.

The Volga Hydro-Electric Power Station is the biggest in Europe.
The more experiments we carry out, the more data we obtain.
Volgograd is one of the most beautiful cities of the Russian Federation.

Any monument in Volgograd has its own history.
Nobody knew anything about this experiment.
The names of some streets and squares are living history of the heroic city.

V. Задайте 5 вопросов различного типа к предложениям.

1. Volgograd rose from its ashes more beautiful than before.

2. The entire country took part in the restoration of the hero-city.

3. The beautiful modern city of Volgograd is the best monument to the heroes who defended the city on the Volga during the Great Patriotic War.

VI. Прочтите и устно переведите текст на русский язык. Определите основную идею текста. Письменно переведите 1, 2 3 и 4 абзацы, предложения 4-го абзаца разберите по членам предложения.

Volgograd

1. Volgograd stands on the beautiful Volga. The town is about four hundred years old. The rapid development of industry and trade, river and railway transport in the 19th century led to the intensive growth of the city. The Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 when the city on the Volga became the scene of decisive battles in the fight for freedom and peace earned the city the immortal glory of a hero city.

2. The entire country participated in the restoration of the hero-city. The heroic labour of millions of people helped the city to rise from its ashes. And the best monument to the heroes who defended the city on the Volga is the beautiful modern city, wide squares and prospects, its parks and gardens. The city grows from year to year.

Today Volgograd is one of the biggest industrial centres: many industrial enterprises, large and small, function here. An endless stream of steel, aluminium, oil and steel cables, tractors, medical equipment and building materials, river boats and chemical products flows day and night from the ports and railway terminals of Volgograd to all corners of our country and abroad.
The Volga Hydro-Electric Power Station is the biggest in Europe. The total capacity of its aggregates exceeds 2.5 million kilowatts. The opening of the Volga-Don Navigation Canal meant the realization of an age-long dream of the people to join two Great Russian Rivers - the Volga and the Don. Volgograd is now a port of five seas.
Volgograd is also a cultural and educational centre. There are higher and secondary educational institutions. There are some theatres, a lot of historical museums, a Circus and a planetarium in the city.

ВАРИАНТ 3

a) показателем 3-го лица единственного числа глагола b Present Indefinite;

б) признаком множественного числа имени существительного;

в) показателем притяжательного падежа имени существительного.

Переведите предложения на русский язык.

The Library of Congress contains millions of books and manuscripts, including personal papers of the US presidents.
Living in Washington you can meet people of almost all nationalities.

3. Millions of emigrants from all the World’s corners cross the ocean, hoping to find a better life in the USA.

1. The reporter spoke about the fulfilment of the Food Programme in the region.

2. Not long ago our family moved into a large three-room flat.

3. This girl studies at Patrice Lumumba Friendship University.

III. Переведите на русский язык предложения, содержащие разные степени сравнения прилагательных, назовите их.

1. Washington is one the most beautiful capitals in the World.

2. The population of New York is greater than the population of Washington.

Pennsylvania Avenue is the longest street in Washington.

1. Any monument in Washington has its own history.

2. Some five hundred people were present at the meeting.

3. Does he know any foreign language?

V. Задайте 5 вопросов различного типа к предложениям.

1. The capital has world-known art galleries, museums and monuments

2. Many people living in Washington work for the federal government.

3. Washington, DC, the city on the East Coast of the USA, was founded in 1791.

VI. Прочтите и устно переведите текст на русский язык. Определите основную идею текста. Письменно переведите 2 3, 4 и 5 абзацы, предложения 5-го абзаца разберите по членам предложения.

Washington, DC

1. Washington, DC, the city on the East Coast of the USA, was founded in 1791. It was named after the first American President George Washington (1792-1799). In 1800 Washington, DC became the capital of the USA. Today its population is over 3.4 million people.

2. Washington, the capital of the United States, is situated on the Potomac River in the District of Columbia. Washington is not the largest city in the United States but in the political sense it is the most important city.

3. Washington has one major business and that business is government. Many people living in Washington work for the federal government. At 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue there is the White House where the President lives and has his office.

4. The Capitol, with its great Hall of Representatives and the Senate, is the highest building in Washington. There is a law against building structures more than 90 feet high in the capital. With its beautiful buildings and its tree-lined avenues Washington attracts a lot of visitors.

5. The capital has world-known art galleries, museums and monuments. One of the most interesting museums in Washington is the National Art and Space Museum. The museum has aircraft and spacecraft that were important in aviation history. There are even rocks that the astronauts brought to the Earth after their Moon landing.

Блок 2

ВРЕМЕНА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ГЛАГОЛА В АКТИВНОМ ЗАЛОГЕ

(the Active Voice of the English Verb)

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч.1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 1стр.113, 1,2 стр. 159, 1-4 стр.307-308.

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч.1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 7 стр. 107, 4 стр. 113, 9 стр. 127, 8 стр. 160, 6 стр. 184, 8 стр. 214, 1-3 стр. 243, 5, 6 стр. 309.

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч.2 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Л. Г. Памухина – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 1-4 стр. 79-80, 2 стр. 81, 4 стр. 141.

ФОРМЫ ГЛАГОЛА

Глагол в английском языке имеет следующие формы:

Infinitive - инфинитив - неопределенная форма глагола, которая отвечает на вопрос что делать? Признаком инфинитива является частица to. Не может быть сказуемым.

to test, to fly, to receive

первая форма глагола – инфинитив без частицы to – сказуемое в Present Simple Active.

test, fly, receive

вторая форма – у правильных глаголов образуется путем добавления окончания –ed к первой форме; у неправильных глаголов – вторая форма по таблице неправильных глаголов – сказуемое в Past Simple Active.

tested, flew

третья форма глагола – Participle II (PII) – у правильных глаголов образуется путем добавления окончания –ed к первой форме; у неправильных глаголов – третья форма по таблице неправильных глаголов. В качестве сказуемого употребляется после вспомогательных глаголов to have (для времен группы Perfect) и to be (для форм пассивного залога).

be tested, have flown

Participle I (PI) – образуется путем добавления окончания -ing к первой форме. В качестве сказуемого употребляется после вспомогательного глагола to be (для времен группы Progressive).

are testing, was flying

АКТИВНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ АНГЛИЙСКИХ ГЛАГОЛОВ

(THE ACTIVE VOICE)

Времена группы Simple обозначают действие, не связанное с определённым моментом времени (о действии сообщается как о факте).

Времена группы Progressive обозначают действие, которое происходит в определённый момент времени (длится).

Времена группы Perfect обозначают действие, которое завершилось к определённому моменту времени или закончилось ранее другого действия.

Времена группы Perfect Progressive обозначают действие, которое длится в течение определённого периода времени.

Глаголы, которые не употребляются во временах группы Progressive:

love, hate, want, wish, desire, see, hear, feel, notice, know, understand, remember, forget, believe, recognize, seem, appear, contain, consist, be, have – глаголы чувства, восприятия, умственной деятельности.

Таблица 21

Формы глагола в активном залоге

(The Active Voice of the English Verbs)

The Infinitive

Present

Past

Future

Simple

to ask

ask – do not ask

asks – does not ask

(3л., ед.ч.)

asked – did not ask

spoke – did not speak

shall

ask

will

Progressive

to be asking

am (1л., ед.ч.)

is (3л., ед.ч.) asking are (мн.ч.)

was ед.ч.

asking

were мн.ч.

shall

be asking

will

Perfect

to have asked

have

asked (PII)

has (3л., ед.ч.)

had asked (PII)

shall

have

asked

will

Perfect Progressive

to have been asking

have

been asking

has (3л., ед.ч.)

had been asking

shall

have been

asking

will

Таблица 22

Сигнальные слова для определения видовременной формы глагола

Present Simple

usually, often, seldom, always, normally, regularly, occasionally, sometimes, from time to time, once(twice, three times) a week, every week (day, year)

Past Simple

yesterday,

the day before yesterday,

last week (month, year),

a week (a month, a year) ago, in 2005

Future Simple

tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, soon, next week (month, year)

in a week (a month, a year), in 2020

Present Progressive

now, at the moment, still,

while

Past Progressive

at 5 o’clock, at noon, at midnight, at that moment all day long, all day yesterday, all the time, the whole evening, from 5 to 8, when I came (Past Simple)

Future Progressive

at 5 o’clock, at noon, at midnight, at that moment all day long, all day tomorrow, all the time, the whole evening, from 5 to 8,when I come (Present Simple)

Present Perfect

just, already, yet, ever, never, today, this week (month, year), lately, recently, up to now, many times, so far, before

Past Perfect

before, by 5 o’clock, by Saturday, by the 15th of September, by the end of the year, by that time

when I came (Past Simple)

Future Perfect

by 5 o’clock, by Saturday, by the 15th of September, by the end of the year, by that time

when I come (Present Simple)

Present Perfect Progressive

for a long time

since 5 o’clock

how long…?

Past Perfect Progressive

for a long time

since 5 o’clock

how long…?

Future Perfect Progressive

for a long time

since 5 o’clock

how long…?

Задания к блоку 2.1.

2.1.1. Выберите один из предложенных вариантов ответа.

Where (are you going / do you go)? – To the library. Would you like to join me?
1. Do you need these books? – No, I (have read / have been reading) them already.
2. Is it Mr. Cook? He (looks / is looking) so different in this dark suit.
3. It is clear to me that my time for action (has come / comes).
4. Look, I (am / am being) sincere with you. Your chances to get this position are high.
5. The company (is owning / owns) a great number of supermarkets.
6. We are all here now except Mr. Dickens who still (is having / has) lunch.
7. Have you seen my briefcase? I (am looking / have been looking) for it all morning.
8. What’s the matter? Why (are you shouting / have you been shouting) at me like that?
9. Is Mr. Alison in the office? – I don’t know. I (haven’t seen / don’t see) him all day.

2.1.2. Раскройте скобки, употребив глагол в одном из настоящих времён.

The students often (attend) courses in foreign languages to get a better knowledge of English.
They (learn) the French language since last year.
I (not see) you for ages. What you (do)?
A good brand (guarantee) a certain level of quality to customers.
I (know) Mr. Peacock all my life and we always (be) good business partners.
This notice is too high for me to read. What it (say)?
Don’t rush me. I (work) as fast as I can.
The technician (repair) the copy-machine. He (work) at it for an hour or so.
My friend (apply) for jobs without success for months.
It’s only 11 o’clock but the secretary already (type) ten business letters.
I (type) this report since yesterday and I (not finish) it yet.
I (not like) the new office manager, she continually (bother) me with silly questions.
I see you (write) letters of complaint all the morning. Is it the last letter you (write) now?
Peter says his sister (be) very tired recently. She (work) almost sixty hours a week for the past month.
I have an appointment with Mrs. Ranch. Can I see her? – I’m sorry, you can’t, she still (have) her lunch.

2.1.3. Выберите один из предложенных вариантов ответа.

While I (had / was having) supper I (looked / was looking) through newspapers.
How long ago (had you taken / did you take) optional courses?
Mr. Billboard (had been thinking / thought) over his decision during the last three days.
His assistant (typed / was typing) a letter when the telephone (rang / was ringing).
When (did she choose / had she chosen) to take a course in economics?
When I (looked / was looking) for the papers, I suddenly remembered I (left / had left) them on my table at home.
Mr. Bronx (was / had been) Rector of the University for twenty five years before he (had retired / retired).
Yesterday I (phoned / had phoned) the bank about my deposits.
The applicants were happy to hear that they (passed / had passed) the centralized test successfully.
When I (arrived / was arriving) at the station Mr. Pick (waited / was waiting) for me.

2.1.4. Раскройте скобки, употребив глагол в одном из прошедших времён.

I (not see) that information before the meeting, so it (put) me at a disadvantage during the discussion.
My colleague (read) some economic magazine while I (look) through a book in management.
I already (hear) the latest news before she (communicate) it to me.
At the time I (be) eighteen I (study) English for four years.
Freddy (not give) any explanation why he (be) often late for work.
She (keep) her job although the manager (threaten) to dismiss her several times.
I (send) her an e-mail just to see how things (go).
When we (get) to the airport, we (hear) that they (cancel) all the flights.
Sophie (confess) that she (make) a mistake and (apologize).
Susie was in poor mood as she (not manage) to prepare for her English exam.
The chairman constantly (interrupt) the speakers before they (finish).
They (close down) the factory because it (not get) profits for years.
We (make) a careful study of all the clauses before we (sign) the contract.
When I (get) back after lunch, my secretary (tell) me that somebody (phone) when I (be) out.
As soon as I (speak) to the engineer, I (realize) there had been a misunderstanding.

2.1.5. Выберите один из предложенных вариантов ответа.

Surely, Marry (will get / is getting) the job. She has a lot of experience.
Johann isn’t free on Saturday. She (will work / is working).
I can’t meet you tomorrow afternoon. (I’m having / I’ll have) business lunch with our perspective partners.
They (will have moved / will be moving) to their new office by January.
Tomorrow (I’ll interview / I’ll be interviewing) candidates all morning.
When the contract (is / will be) ready, I’ll let you know.
I wonder if he (will recognise / recognises) you. He hasn’t seen you for over a year.
I’ve just checked your flight details. Your plane for London (leaves / is leaving) at 9 p.m. – Can you find out what time the airport bus (leaves / will be leaving)?
Remember to give her the faxes when she (comes back / will come back). – OK. I (am not going to forget / won’t forget).
I don’t want to go to that official meeting alone. (Are you coming / Will you come) with me?

2.1.6. Раскройте скобки, употребив глагол в одном из настоящих или будущих времён.

By the end of the week we (finalize) the agenda of our meeting.
Did you post that letter for me? – Oh, I’m sorry. I completely forgot. I (do) it right now.
By this time next week I (work) on this project for a year.
Do you think you still (do) the same job in ten years’ time?
We (repay) the bank loan by September.
I (let) you know as soon as I (finish) the annual report.
If you need to contact me, I (stay) at the Hilton Hotel until Saturday.
In the future video-conferences (replace) many international meetings.
I’m not expecting any visitors, but if someone (to come) while I (be) out, could you say that I (to be) back at 6 o’clock?
Mark has applied for the job but he isn’t qualified for it. I (be) surprised if he (get) it.
Jennie is on holiday and she is spending her money very quickly. If she continues like this, she (spend) all her money before the end of her holiday.
Don’t phone me between 5 and 7. I (prepare) for the conference then.
We (have) our weekly meeting tomorrow instead of Friday.
They (to leave) the station when they (to lose) the sight of the train.

15. We (to discuss) the terms of the contract more fully at our personal meeting.

2.1.7. Поставьте сказуемое в форму, указанную в скобках, используйте соответствующее обстоятельство времени (сигнальное слово).

One hundred people apply for the job. (Past Simp.)
Mr. Fleming approved all pay raises. (Present Perf.)
Sheila proofreads all correspondence. (Past Cont.)
The complaint department received your letter. (Pr. Perf.)
They handle a large volume of printed material. (Past Perf.)
We process the insurance claims. (Pres. Cont.)
The warehouse receives the shipment. (Past Perf.)
They issue contracts on Mondays. (Fut. Simp.)
Clerical workers receive medical benefits. (Past Perf.)
More and more firms provide day care facilities for their employees. (Pres. Cont.)
We considered your proposal. (Pres. Perf. Cont.)
We hired the most qualified applicants. (Fut. Simp.)
They keep all important documents in the safe. (Pres. Perf. Cont.)

Слова к упражнению:

to proofread редактировать

an insurance claim страховая претензия

shipment партия товаров

to issue представлять

medical benefit пособие на медицинское обслуживание

day care facilities благоприятные условия для работы и отдыха

an applicant кандидат, претендент

ПОЛИФУНКЦИОНАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ

TO HAVE, TO BE, TO DO

To have

1. Смысловой глагол «иметь», «владеть», если за ним следует существительное или косвенное местоимение.

They have a laboratory with the most modern equipment.

2. Модальный глагол «должен», «вынужден», «приходится», если за ним следует инфинитив с частицей to.

They have to spend a lot of time in the laboratory.

3. Вспомогательный глагол (не переводится), если за ним следует III форма смыслового глагола (PII) .

They have tested the device.

4. Часть фразового сказуемого

dinner, supper, breakfast

a rest

to have a dream

a holiday

a game of chess

To be

Формы to be: Present Simple: am - 1л., ед. ч.

is - 3л., ед. ч.

are - мн. ч.

Past Simple: was - ед. ч.

were - мн. ч.

Future Simple: shall be / will be

Глагол to be в Present и Past Simple не требует вспомогательного глагола для образования отрицательной и вопросительной форм.

Last year they were not students.

Is he a student now?

1. Смысловой глагол «быть» = «находиться», «происходить», если за ним следует обстоятельство места или времени.

The necessary equipment was in the laboratory.

This event was not long ago.

2. Глагол - связка «быть» = «являться», «заключаться в том чтобы…», «состоять в…», если за ним следует любая часть речи без предлога, устойчивое словосочитание (напр: of great importance = very important), придаточное предложение.

That equipment is not very modern.

3. Вспомогательный глагол, если за ним следует смысловой глагол с окончанием -ing (PI) или в III форме (PII).

They are testing the device in the laboratory.

The device is carefully tested.

4. Модальный глагол «должен» (запланированное действие), если за ним следует инфинитив с to, а подлежащее при этом выражено конкретным существительным или личным местоимением.

The engineer (he) is to test the equipment.

Если за глаголом to be в личной форме следует инфинитив c to , а подлежащее при этом выражено абстрактным существительным (task, problem, question, step, stage, mission, aim, work, subject, difficulty…), то to be - глагол-связка (см. п. 2).

The task was to avoid overheating.

To do

1. Смысловой глагол «делать», «выполнять», если за ним следует существительное, косвенное местоимение, наречие.

He can do a lot. Do it for me!

2. Вспомогательный глагол для образования отрицательной и вопросительной форм в Present Simple Active и Past Simple Active (не переводится).

We do not understand…

Did they change the conditions?

3. Эмфатический глагол, если за ним следует смысловой глагол («все же», «конечно», безусловно»).

I do understand you.

4. Слово-заменитель (переводится значением ранее использованного глагола).

He has read the text as well as he did it at the previous lesson.

ОБОРОТ THERE + TO BE

(ЕСТЬ, ИМЕЕТСЯ, СУЩЕСТВУЕТ, НАХОДИТСЯ)

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч. 1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упр. 1-7 стр. 146-147.

Примечания:

I. Особенности перевода

Перевод надо начинать:

а) с обстоятельства места;

б) со сказуемого, если обстоятельство отсутствует.

II. Особенности употребления

а) Глагол to be (is, are, was, were, will be) согласуется с последующим именем существительным;

б) в отрицательных предложениях перед much и many и числительным вместо “nо” употребляется “not”.

Таблица 23

Утвердительные

предложения

Вопросительные

предложения

Отрицательные

предложения

1. There are deposits of diamonds in the country.

В этой стране есть запасы алмазов.

2. There is also a wide variety of non-metallic minerals.

Существует также большое разнообразие неметаллических

минералов.

3. There were oil deposits in the country.

В стране имелись запасы нефти.

1. Are there deposits of diamonds in the country? Есть ли запасы алмазов в этой стране?

2. Is there also a wide variety of non-metallic minerals?

Существует ли также большое разнообразие неметаллических

минералов?

3. Were there oil deposits in the country?

Имелись ли в стране запасы нефти?

1. There are no exploiting classes in our country.

В нашей стране нет эксплуататорских классов.

2. There will not be many mineral resources left in Europe soon.

В Европе скоро будет совсем немного минеральных запасов.

3. According to Western experts there were no oil deposits in the country.

По мнению западных экспертов, в стране не было месторождений нефти.

Задания к блоку 2.2.

2.2.1. Поставьте глагол to be в нужную форму (Present Simple, Past Simple, Future Simple).

1. How old … Mike when he went to school?

2. Last year we … given a lot of written homework in different subjects, but this year we … given few exercises to be done in writing.

3. Tomorrow evening I …… at home, you can call me and I will help you with your report.

4. There … a very interesting film in the cinema last night.

5. … this his watch? – Yes it ….

6. … there … a meeting next Monday?

7. Today some students … absent, but yesterday they … all present at the lecture.

8. Last summer they …in the Hermitage. There … an interesting exhibition there.

9. Where … you yesterday evening? I called you up several times, but there …no answer.

10. Jane … a student now, but about two months ago she … a schoolgirl.

2.2.2. Укажите, в какой функции употреблен глагол “to be” в следующих предложениях.

1. The plan is to ensure a further rise in the people s standard of living.

2. In a mixed economy some goods and services are provided by the state while others are provided by private sector.

3. The consumers’ demands are constantly changing.

4. The aim of mixed economies is to avoid the disadvantages of planned and market economies and to enjoy their benefits.

5. The country’s foreign trade ties are to expand.

6. Some countries are nearer to command economies while others are closer to free market economies.

2.2.3. Укажите, в какой функции употреблен глагол “tо have” в следующих предложениях.

1. Both planned and market economies have significant faults.

2. Firms have to have confidence in their future sales.

3. There have been no pay increases for many years.

4. You and your family have an annual income that is what you earn in a year.

5. A number of disadvantages have led to abandoning planned economies over recent years.

6. Russia has its own targets which correspond to the requirements of the time.

2.2.4. Укажите, в какой функции употреблен глагол “tо do” в следующих предложениях.

A planned economy doesn’t allow individuals to make economic decisions.
Nations do not waste resources duplicating production.
Scientists did indeed search for new ideas and some came up with remarkable solutions and innovations.
Why do people’s social needs remain unsatisfied?
A planned economy does have a number of advantages.
This small export company did its business in lemons.

2.2.5. Укажите, в каких двух функциях употреблен глагол “to do” в следующих ниже предложениях:

a) как смысловой; b) как слово-заменитель;

с) как вспомогательный;d) как эмфатический.

A danger of terrorism does exist for the United States as it does for all other countries of the world. But the source of the danger is not Russia, but the military crises caused the US policy.

2.3. Выполните контрольную работу по вариантам

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

When do students get degrees of Bachelor of Science?
When do students get a master’s degree?

Colleges and Universities in the USA

1. Young people in the USA get higher education in colleges and universities. Students choose “major” subject and make many courses in this subject.

After four years of study students get the degrees of Bachelor of Science (B. Sc.), Bachelor of Philosophy (B. Phil.) or Bachelor of Arts (B.A., if they study Greek or Latin). After a year or two of further study they get a master's degree. If they go on in their study and research, they will get a still higher degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D).
Higher education trains people to become teachers, engineers or to do other professional work.
. College students often continue their study at universities. Not all the students get grants. The minimum period of study is two years (in this case they don't get the degree of Ph. D.), three or even four years.
. Many cities have colleges and universities that hold evening classes as well as daytime classes. People who work in the daytime can get higher education attending evening classes.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 1, 2, 4.

III. Выберите нужную форму глагола to be и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. School education in the USA (is, was, will be) free.

They (are, were, will be) second-year students last year.
History (is, was, will be) the first lesson tomorrow.

IV. Напишите предложения в вопросительной, а затем в отрицательной форме и переведите их на русский язык.

1. They have five lessons every day.

We had four exams last term.
Students will have a lecture on history tomorrow.

V. Поставьте глаголы, данные в скобках, в Past Indefinite (прошедшее неопределенное время).

1. He (to get) a degree in chemistry last year.

I (to pass) my entrance exams successfully a few days ago.
They (to read) many books on management last term.

VI. Составьте три предложения из представленных слов и переведите их на русский язык:

There is 2,600 universities in the USA

There are many students at the university

a large library

VII. Заполните пропуски предлогами по смыслу.

There are three terms ... a school year.
University classes start ... September.
In America all children from 6 to 16 go ... school.

VIII. Напишите формулы образования следующих времён:

Present Simple;
1. Past Perfect;
2. Future Continuous.

IX. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на правило согласования времен в английском языке.

1. She told me that she had many friends in Moscow.

2. The teacher asked the students who had been to the Tretyakov Gallery.

3. Не said that he would go to Lake Baikal the following week.

ВАРИАНТ 2

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

When do pupils take their “O” level exam?
How many “A” levels are enough to go to university?

“O” Level and “A” Level Examinations

1. Pupils at secondary schools in England (that is, pupils between the age of twelve and eighteen) have two main exams to worry about. They take the first one when they are about fifteen. It's called “O” (ordinary) level.

Many pupils take “O” level in about seven or eight different subjects. There are a lot of subjects to choose from carpentry to ancient languages.
For a lot of jobs it's quite enough to have four or five “O” levels and usually these include English and Mathematics.
Some pupils leave school when they are fifteen. But if they stay at school, they go to the sixth form and start working for the second main exam: “A” (advanced) level. It's a difficult exam, so pupils don't usually take it in more than three subjects.
Three “A” levels are enough to go to university. But if they want to go to such universities as Oxford and Cambridge they take special exams as well. If you don't want to go to university, you get a good job with two or three “A” levels.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 1, 2, 4.

III. Выберите нужную форму глагола to be и переведите предложения на русский язык.

History (is, was, will be) my favourite subject at school.
Private schools (are, were, will be) expensive.
We (are, were, will be) engineers in five years.

IV. Напишите предложения в вопросительной, а затем в отрицательной форме и переведите их на русский язык.

They have secretarial courses this year.
This teacher had two lectures yesterday.
You will have three exams next term.

V. Поставьте глаголы, данные в скобках, в Past Indefinite (прошедшее неопределенное время).

The course of study (to last) five years.
He (to graduate) from the university last year.
They (to take) five exams last term.

VI. Составьте три предложения из представленных слов и переведите их на русский язык:

There is many students at the lecture

There are modern equipment in our town

only one private school in our language laboratory

VII. Заполните пропуски предлогами по смыслу.

English was difficult... me in the first term.
There are three terms ... a school year.
Usually our lessons begin ... 9 o'clock.

VIII. Напишите формулы образования следующих времён:

Past Simple;
Future Perfect;
Present Continuous.

1. She said that the delegation had arrived in New York the day before.

2. The teacher asked the students what that word meant.

3. Не told me that he would study English in the USA.

ВАРИАНТ 3

I Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

At what age do children go to school in Great Britain?
What does primary school include?

The Educational System in Great Britain

1. Public education in Great Britain consists of Primary, Secondary and Further Education. Primary and Secondary education is compulsory for all children. Further education is voluntary.

All children in Great Britain go to school when they are five. They leave school at the age of fifteen but many boys and girls stay at school until they are sixteen-seventeen and go to further education or to university.
The primary school includes nursery school (2-5), infant school (5-7) and junior school (7-11). The full secondary school age ranges from 11 to 18. Children go to a grammar school, or to a secondary modern school, or to a secondary technical school, or to a comprehensive school.
The academic year begins after summer holidays and has three terms with the interval between them. Day-schools work on Mondays to Fridays only, from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m.
Before lessons start, the teacher and all the boys and girls meet for prayers. Then they go to the classroom for the first lesson. At one o’clock children have a break for lunch. The break lasts about an hour. After lunch there is still time to go out and play.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 1, 2, 4.

III. Выберите нужную форму глагола to be и переведите предложения на русский язык.

They (are, were, will be) first-year students now.
She (is, was, will be) a professor at Oxford two years ago.
3. I (am, was, will be) an engineer in five years.

IV. Напишите предложения в вопросительной, а затем в отрицательной форме и переведите их на русский язык.

Children have a break for lunch in the morning.
We had a difficult test yesterday.
He will have an interesting job next year.

V. Поставьте глаголы, данные в скобках, в Past Indefinite (прошедшее неопределенное время).

My brother (to get) a grant for further education.
The teacher (to ask) many questions at the lesson.
He (to go) to primary school at the age of five.

VI. Составьте три предложения из представленных слов и переведите их на русский язык:

There is many institutes in our country

well-equipped language laboratories

There are a good library at our university

many students

VII. Заполните пропуски предлогами по смыслу.

There are 42 universities ... Great Britain.
About 5% of the population in Great Britain goes ... public schools.
Last year my brother left school and got a job ... a bank.

VIII. Напишите формулы образования следующих времён:

Future Simple;
Present Perfect;
Past Continuous.

1. I knew that she had gone to Great Britain two weeks before.

2. We asked her what places of interest she would visit in London.

3. She answered that she was a student of Moscow Aviation Institute.

Блок 3

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ И ИХ ЭКВИВАЛЕНТЫ

(Modal Verbs)

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч. 1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 9-13 стр 150, 1-7 стр. 169-172.

Особенности модальных глаголов:

Обозначают не действие, а отношение к действию.
Не имеют окончания –s в третьем лице ед.ч. настоящего времени группы Indefinite (Simple).
В предложении выполняют функцию вспомогательного глагола.
Следующий за ними смысловой глагол употребляется без частицы to.
Не имеют неличных форм (инфинитива, герундия, причастия), употребляются только в двух временных формах: Present Indefinite, Past Indefinite, глагол must – только в Present Indefinite.

Таблица 24

Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты (Modal Verbs)

Глагол

Эквивалент

Перевод

Примеры

Can (could)

to be able to

мочь, уметь

быть

в состоянии

This device can measure currents.

The engineer will be able to find practical application of these circuits.

May (might)

to be allowed to

to be permitted to

мочь

быть позволенным

(допустимость действия)

The engineer may change this design.

The engineer will be allowed to change this design.

Must

Mustn’t

to have to

to be to

should

ought to

need not

должен

нельзя (запрет)

вынужден, приходится (по обстоятельствам)

должен ( по плану)

следует, следовало бы

не нужно

The students must conduct these experiments in time.

The scientists had to solve many problems.

The students were to compare the currents.

You should be more attentive when you carry out the experiment.

They need not use all the equipment.

Таблица 25

Сочетание модального глагола с перфектной формой инфинитива

Модальный глагол	Значение	Перевод	Примеры
can’t, couldn’t	сомнение	неужели; не может быть чтобы	He couldn’t have done it. Не может быть, чтобы он это сделал.
Must	предположение	должно быть, по-видимому	Rigidity in the structure must have been essential. Жесткость в структуре, должно быть, существенная.
may, might	неуверенность	может быть, возможно	He may have got the instrument he needed. Возможно, он получил инструмент, который ему нужен.
needn’t	отсутствие необходимости в прошлом	можно было не; зря, напрасно	You needn’t have replaced that structural number. Зря ты заменил структурный номер.
should ought to	упрек по поводу действия, (не) совершенного в прошлом	(не) надо было (не) следовало	They should have paid more attention to that phenomenon. Им следовало обратить больше внимания этому явлению.

Задания к блоку 3

3.1. Поставьте на месте пропусков нужный модальный глагол или его эквивалент в нужной форме.

I really do think that you ______ get your hair cut.
Careful, darling. You _____ play with matches. They are too dangerous.
In my country you _____ get married at the age of 16.
Women ______ vote in England until 1922.
I am overweight. The doctor said I _____ eat too much sweets.
I phoned to the Gas Board because I thought I _____smell gas, which is very dangerous.
I like Saturdays because I _____ get up early.
Last night I _____ get into my house because I had forgotten my key.
My friend has a really bad memory for phone numbers. He _____ look them up in the book every time.
I’m learning car mechanics because I want _____ to service my own car. It costs a fortune if you send it to the garage.
You touch electric appliances with wet hands. You _____ do it. You _____ kill yourself.
She has a private income. She _____ never _____ to do one’s day work in the whole of her life.
When I was in school we _____ wear a uniform. Everybody hated it.
Many night animals _____ see very well, but they have a very developed sense of smell.
If you _____ do this exercise, you are very clever.

3.2. Поставьте на месте пропусков нужный модальный глагол (must, can’t, couldn’t, may, might, shouldn’t, should). Обратите внимание на перфектную форму инфинитива.

They _____ have lost their way, as they appeared only at night.
He _____ have entrusted this scientific work to a man he has known for such a shot period of time.
She rested her eyes on him thinking of all the things he _____ have done since she saw him last.
You _____ have seen him because he left the place two months ago.
There are so many mistakes in your test. You _____ have been more attentive.
In the morning I didn’t find him in his room, he _____ have gone leaving no note for us.
She _____ have overlooked something that _____ turn out to be important in proving his innocence.
In the fewest words he told them that a fatal accident _____ have happened to her.
Water or concrete _____ have been used for shielding.
That engine _____ have been made of that alloy, it isn’t strong enough.

3.3. Поставьте глаголы в скобках в нужную форму, а пропуски заполните необходимыми по смыслу модальными глаголами.

As you know, Britain is a monarchy. England (have) a king or a queen for over a thousand years. One of the most famous was Henry VIII who (become) king in 1547. He broke away from the Roman Catholic Church so that he ______ divorce or marry again. Elizabeth II (be) on the throne since 1952, and she generally (be) very popular. Many people consider that she has quite unenviable job. She _____ to meet a lot of people, who she probably doesn’t want to talk to, and keep smiling. How awful! Some people think she _____ give up the throne because she (rule) for such a long time. It’s quite possible. If she does, Prince Charles _____ become a king. Much _____ be read about the royal family, as there (be) so much in the press about them recently. People are fascinated to know what they are like as people, what they do, and everything about their private life. They often wonder what Prince Charles _____ do if he (not be) the Queen’s son. He (make) a lot of money in business or something like that. Anyway, he _____ be a very good king.

3.4. Выполните контрольную работу по вариантам.

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

What are the territory and the population of Russia?
What kind of country is Russia?

Russia

Russia is one of the largest countries in the world. It occupies an area of 17 million square kilometres. Russia is washed by three oceans and twelve seas and borders on fourteen countries.
The population of the country is about 150 million people. Russia is a constitutional republic with a President as the Head of the State. It is one of the leading powers in the world.
The climate of the country varies greatly. The coldest regions are situated in the North and the climate here is arctic. The climate of the central part is continental and in the South it is subtropical.
If you look at the map of Russia you will see the highest mountains in
the Caucasus and the Altai, the Urals, separating Europe from Asia, many rivers and large lakes. The longest rivers are the Volga in Europe and the Lena in Asia. The Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the world and it has the purest water on the earth.
Russia is a highly developed industrial country. Russia is very rich in natural resources such as oil, coal, gas, gold, diamonds and others. It has the largest oil and gas resources, concentrated in Siberia and Far East. It produces cars, machinery, chemicals, textile and many other items.

6. In 1957 our country successfully launched the world's first satellite. The first manned spaceship “Vostok” piloted by Yuri Gagarin, the citizen of Russia, was launched on April 12, 1961. It opened a new era in the history of mankind.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 1, 2, 6.

III. Напишите эквиваленты/заменители модальных глаголов can, may, must.

IV. Поставьте глаголы-сказуемые в каждом предложении в Past Indefinite (прошедшее неопределенное время), употребляя модальные глаголы can, may, must и их эквиваленты.

1. Не must work hard to finish his experiment.

2. I can devote myself to the scientific work.

3. You may repeat your experiment.

V. Перепишите следующие предложения; подчеркните в каждом из них модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Laser light can be used to transmit power of various types.

2. The application of digital computers should include all forms of automatic control in science and industry.

These new materials had to withstand much higher temperatures than metals.
Ethylene gas may be obtained by cracking petroleum.

1. He spent three weeks on the work that should have taken only a day or two.
2. Mike isn’t at home yet. He must have been held up at work.

3. Nobody knows when the documents disappeared. They might have been stolen.
4. He can’t have forgotten about the meeting. He talked to me about it only this morning.

VI. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be и to have.

1. The programme for the construction of new types of spaceships is to be carried out this year.

2. We had to change the design of this machine.

3. The speed of electrons is almost the same as that of light.

VII Напишите данные в упражнении предложения на английском языке.

1. Можно взять твой карандаш? – Да, можно.

2. Он не мог так поступить!

3. Вам следует подготовиться к тесту тщательнее.

ВАРИАНТ 2

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

How many states does the USA include?
What does the Congress of the USA consist of?

The USA

1. The United States of America lies in the central part of the North American Continent with the Atlantic Ocean to the East, the Pacific Ocean to the West, Canada to the North and Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico to the South.

The USA covers the area of about 3,000,000 square miles. The population of the country is 250 million people.
The climate of the country is varied. One can find high mountains and prairies, tropical heat and arctic cold, valleys and deserts because the country occupies nearly half of the continent.
The USA is a highly developed industrial country. The main branches of industry are electronic, electrical, metallurgical, textile, chemical and many others. The largest cities of the USA are New York, Los Angeles, Chicago and others.
The USA is a federation of 50 states which was established by the Constitution in 1787. Each state has its own government and its own capital city. The Federal Government is headed by the President and the Congress, consisting of Senate and the House of Representatives.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 1, 4, 5.

III. Напишите эквиваленты/заменители модальных глаголов can, may, must.

IV. Поставьте глаголы-сказуемые в каждом предложении во Future Indefinite (будущее неопределенное время), употребляя модальные глаголы can, may, must и их эквиваленты.

1. Не must check the temperature three times a day.

2. In this figure you can see the diagram of temperature changes.

3. Не may use a barometer to measure the atmospheric pressure.

One object may be larger than another one, but it may weigh less.
Mass can also be defined as a measure of inertia.
Manmade satellites had to use solar cells as a source of power.

4. Plastics should be reinforced by different kinds of fibres.

1. Call him up, hе must have returned home from work.

2. You need not do the investigation. Such experiment must have been carried out.

3. I don’t know why they are so late. They must have got lost.

4. She passed me in the street without speaking. She can’t have seen me.

1. Man had to learn to obtain electric power directly from the Sun.

2. At present most of the industrial enterprises have their own electric power stations.

3. The engineers are to study the problem of using cosmic rays.

VII. Напишите данные в упражнении предложения на английском языке.

1. Он умеет играть на гитаре, но не умеет играть на фортепиано.

2. Вероятно, он опоздает к ужину.

3. Вы должны подготовить доклад к пятому февраля.

ВАРИАНТ 3

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

What is the population of Great Britain?
What region of Great Britain is called “The Black Country”?

Great Britain

1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The area of the UK is 244,000 sq km and its population is 57 million people.

Great Britain has a maritime climate. British winters are mild. Summers are cold and rainy. Fogs often occur in autumn and in winter.
Most people live in cities and towns. Great Britain is a country of numerous cities. Birmingham is one of the largest cities in the country. It is well known for its high-quality steels, cars, aircraft, machinery and electrical engineering equipment.
Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. It is a great producer of coal and steel. Great Britain has shipbuilding, machine building, automobile industry, chemicals, textiles and others. The industries are concentrated in the central part of the country. This is the so-called “Black Country”. South-eastern England has less rain, more sun and more fertile soil. This part of the country is an old commercial and agricultural region and is called “Green England” for its fields.
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. The monarch has very little power and can only reign with the support of the Parliament. The Parliament consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 1, 3, 4.

III. Напишите эквиваленты/заменители модальных глаголов can, may, must.

IV Поставьте глаголы-сказуемые в каждом предложении в Past Indefinite (прошедшее неопределенное время), употребляя модальные глаголы can, may, must и их эквиваленты.

1. They must solve a number of scientific problems.

2. She can do this work in time.

3. You may use this method in your research.

Energy can exist in many forms and each form can be transformed into the other.
The computers should become an integral part of the organization of industrial
processes of all types.
These metal parts had to be subjected to X-ray examination.
The chemists may use the reactor to analyze various substances for their exact composition.

1. The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. I must have been asleep.

2. Не was lucky when he fell off the ladder. Не could have hurt himself.

3. He can’t have forgotten about the meeting. He talked to me about it only this morning.
4. I can’t find my bag anywhere. I might have left it in the shop.

1. These computers will have to perform millions of operations per second.

2. The operators dealing with radioisotopes must have protective suits.

3. The engineers are to study the problem of using solar energy.

VII. Напишите данные в упражнении предложения на английском языке.

1. Я могу Вам помочь? – Да, можете.

2. Ему следует быть осторожнее в незнакомом городе.

3. Погода, вероятно, переменится.

Блок 4

ВРЕМЕНА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ГЛАГОЛА В ПАССИВНОМ ЗАЛОГЕ

(the Passive Voice of the English Verb)

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч. 1 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 1-6 стр. 227-229.

- Учебник английского языка. В 2 ч. Ч. 2 / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Л. Г. Памухина – Мн.: Высш. шк., 1994. Упражнения 1-4 стр.32-33, 1 стр. 33.

Таблица 26

Формы глагола в пассивном залоге

(The Passive Voice of the English Verb)

Infinitive

Present

Past

Future

Simple

to be asked

am + PII

are

was

+ PII

were

shall

be + PII

will

Progressive

am being +PII

are

was

being + PII

were

_______________

Perfect

to have been asked

have

been +PII

has

had been + PII

shall

have been + PII

will

Таблица 27

Способы перевода сказуемого в пассивном залоге

Пример	Способ перевода	Перевод
This article was published in the newspaper two years ago.	Сочетание глагола "быть" с краткой формой страдательного причастия (в настоящем времени глагол «быть» опускается).	Эта статья была напечатана в газете два года назад.
The plane is controlled automatically.	Глагол с частицей -ся.	Самолет управляется автоматически
The plane was being controlled automatically. Books are read with pleasure.	Неопределенно-личное предложение со сказуемым в третьем лице множественного числа, если отсутствует дополнение с предлогом by, выражающее производителя действия.	Самолетом управляли автоматически. Книги читают с удовольствием.
The plane is controlled by the pilot.	Личным предложением с глаголом-сказуемым в активном залоге, если имеется дополнение с предлогом by, которое при переводе соответствует русскому подлежащему.	Пилот управляет самолетом.
This device is referred to in the next chapter. The problem was much spoken about.	Если в пассивном залоге стоит глагол с послелогом, то при переводе этот послелог относится к подлежащему.	На этот прибор ссылаются в следующей статье. Об этой проблеме много говорили.

Наиболее часто встречающиеся глаголы с послелогом:

to refer to ссылаться на

to work on (at) работать над

to pay attention to обращать внимание на

to speak to говорить с

to speak about говорить о

to send for посылать за

to act upon действовать на

to deal with иметь дело с

to insist on настаивать на

Задания к блоку 4

4.1. Выберите один из предложенных вариантов ответа.

Moscow State University (has been designed / was designed) by the Russian architect Kazakov.
Highly qualified specialists (are trained / are being trained) at numerous departments of Moscow State University.
The material base of the university (had been restored / was restored) by the end of the 1950s.
Another date for the meeting (will be set / will being set) next week.
At present our company (is being reorganized / is reorganized).
Further information can (be obtained / being obtained) from your immediate superior.
I hope the papers (will have received / will have been received) by tomorrow afternoon.
New software (was installed / has been installed) on my PC yesterday.
She (was appointed / had been appointed) Head of the Information Systems Department two months ago.
Why (has he given / has he been given) a promotion?

4.2. Выберите один из предложенных вариантов ответа.

Business letters usually (are written/write) on special forms.
They (will discuss/will be discussed) the matter at the next meeting.
The planets (attract/are attracted) by the Sun.
Our luggage (examined/ was examined) by the customs officers yesterday.
They (are discussing/ are being discussed) an urgent problem at the meeting.
The letter just (has typed/has been typed) by the typist.
I (shall have translated/shall have been translated) the article by 6 o’clock.
She showed me the article which (had translated/had been translated) by her brother.
We (use/are used) cranes for lifting heavy weighs.
The bridge across this river (will build/will be built) next year.

4.3. Поставьте предложения в пассивный залог (время указано в скобках), используя необходимые обстоятельства времени (сигнальные слова).

1. One hundred people apply for the job. (Past Simp.)

2. Mr. Fleming approved all pay raises. (Present Perf.)

3. Sheila proofreads all correspondence. (Past Cont.)

4. The complaint department received your letter. (Pr. Perf.)

5. They handle a large volume of printed material. (Past Perf.)

6. We process the insurance claims. (Pres. Cont.)

7. The warehouse receives the shipment. (Past Perf.)

8. They issue contracts on Mondays. (Fut. Simp.)

9. Clerical workers receive medical benefits. (Past Perf.)

10. More and more firms provide day care facilities for their employees. (Pres.Cont.)

11. We considered your proposal. (Pres. Perf. Cont.)

12. We hired the most qualified applicants. (Fut. Simp.)

13. They keep all important documents in the safe. (Pres. Perf. Cont.)

14. We spoke to each student separately. (Fut. Simple)

15. We couldn’t accept the terms upon which you insisted. (Pres. Simple)

4.4. Вставьте на месте пропусков необходимый предлог, переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. His books are referred … by all those who work at this problem.

2. The necessary equipment was sent … immediately.

3. I am sure this design will be insisted ….

4. The situation was dealt … very delicately.

5. The methods of doing this work should be paid more attention ….

6. Many aspects of social life will be spoken … at the conference.

7. Some people are acted … by the changes of atmospheric pressure.

8. They were being spoken … with great respect.

9. These works are completely forgotten, they are never referred ….

10. This chapter has hardly been worked ….

4.5. Выполните контрольную работу по вариантам.

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

What laws did Newton discover?
Can you formulate the Law of Universal gravitation?

Isaak Newton

Isaak Newton was born in 1642 in the family of a poor farmer. The boy began his first scientific experiments at school.
While studying at Cambridge University, Newton formulated the binomial theorem. In 1662 Cambridge was closed because of the plague and Newton returned to his native village. For the next two years he devoted himself to scientific experimentation.
Newton’s great discovery was the law of decomposition of light. The scientist proved that the white light of the sun is composed of rays of light of all colours of the rainbow. He also discovered the Law of Universal Gravitation which states that “every particle of matter is attracted by every other particle of matter with a force inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart”.
Newton applied the principle of gravitation to prove that the power which guides the moon around the earth and the planets around the sun is the force of gravity. Another application of the law of universal gravitation was Newton’s exploration of the tides.
Newton was highly honoured by his countrymen and in 1703 he was elected President of the Royal Society. Sir Isaak Newton died in 1727 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 3, 4, 5.

III. Письменно приведите из текста примеры употребления сказуемого в активном и пассивном залогах.

IV. Раскройте скобки, выбрав соответствующую активную или пассивную форму глагола, и переведите предложения на русский язык

Newton (was performed, performed) many experiments with light.
When Cambridge (was closed, closed) in 1662, Newton returned to his native town.
Mass (is measured, measured) in grams or kilograms.

V. Переделайте предложения из активной конструкции в пассивную и переведите их на русский язык.

1. Water from the radiator cools the engine.

Most cars use petrol engines.
The battery stores the electricity.

VI. Определите видовременную форму и залог сказуемого в каждом предложении. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Today scientists are still looking for the substance as a source of energy.

2. The Mendeleyev system has served for almost 100 years as a key to discovering new elements.

3. Synthetic rubber products were developed between 1914 and the 1930s.

4. The intensity of this process is influenced by many factors.

When much material had been looked through and some problems had been solved, the article was published.
Electric cars will be widely used in future.

3. Today plastics are being applied for car bodies.

4. This lecturer is listened to with great interest.

VII. Напишите требуемые формулы образования английских сказуемых. Подберите к каждому пункту свое предложение – пример.

Present Simple Passive;
1. Past Perfect Passive;
2. Future Continuous Active.

ВАРИАНТ 2

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

What was the boy interested in?
Which of Faraday's discoveries do you know?

Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday, English experimental physicist, was born in 1791
in a poor family. The boy began to work as an apprentice at a bookbinder’s
shop at an early age. One day a man entered the shop and found the boy studying an article on electricity. The man was surprised to see a boy so interested in such a difficult subject and gave him four tickets for the lectures at the Royal Institutions.
The boy went to the lectures and made notes of what he heard. At the end of the lecture he came to Sir Humphry Davy, the great English scientist, and showed him his notes. Davy was surprised. Later he made Faraday his assistant and helped him in his education.
Faraday had many important discoveries. Among his works are the concept of the magnetic field and the magnetic “lines of force”, production of new kinds of optical glass, and research on electrolysis.

4. Faraday produced the first mechanical motion by means of a permanent magnet and an electric current. This is the principle upon which the modern electric motor is based.

5. Faraday was very modest and he loved his work more than honours. He refused to become President of the Royal Society and also refused to be knighted.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 3, 4, 5.

III. Письменно приведите из текста примеры употребления сказуемого в активном и пассивном залогах.

IV. Раскройте скобки, выбрав соответствующую активную или пассивную форму глагола, и переведите предложения на русский язык.

The unit of electricity “farad” (was named, named) after M. Faraday.
The first lightning rod (was invented, invented) by B. Franklin, the
outstanding American scientist.
At Cambridge, Newton (was read, read) with great interest the writings of Galileo.

V. Переделайте предложения из активной конструкции в пассивную и переведите их на русский язык.

1. We use a lot of electrical devices at home.

2. We call the smallest piece of any substance an atom.

3. Small particles called atoms make up a molecule.

1. Russian chemical science is successfully solving many complex problems.

2. Radio astronomy has given mankind efficient means for penetration into space.

3. Becquerel’s discovery was followed by an intensive research work of Marie and Pierre Curie.

4. Heat energy is transmitted in two different ways.

When much had been done in the study of ecology by our institute it became an important scientific centre.
A curriculum of the new type of secondary school is offered by the Ministry of education.
The research of planets will be developed with the help of cosmic apparatus.
This material is unaffected by solar radiation.

Past Simple Passive;
Future Perfect Passive;
Present Continuous Active.

ВАРИАНТ 3

I. Прочтите текст и ответьте на вопросы:

How old was Lomonosov when he left his native village?
When was the first Russian University founded?

M. V. Lomonosov

l. M.V. Lomonosov was born in 1711 in the village of Denisovka near Arkhangelsk in the family of a fisherman. At the age of 17 he left his native village and made his way to Moscow. In Moscow he entered the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy. Lomonosov didn’t finish his last grade, as he was sent with eleven other pupils to St. Petersburg to study at the Academy of Sciences.

Less than a year after he came to Petersburg Lomonosov was sent abroad to study metallurgy and mining. In 1741 Lomonosov returned to Russia and began to teach chemistry and physics at the Academy.
Lomonosov established the fundamental law of chemical change of substance which is called the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Lomonosov founded a new science that we call today physical chemistry. He also studied electrical phenomena in atmosphere of the Earth, the nature of light, and designed an improved telescope. Lomonosov considered nature to be in a state of constant change and development. Coal, oil, etc. were all formed as a result of evolution.
Lomonosov was a great scientist. His works in poetry had a great influence on Russian literature. Owing to his efforts, the first Russian University was founded in Moscow in 1755. This university bearing his name became the centre of knowledge and science in Russia.

II. Переведите в письменной форме абзацы 3, 4, 5.

III. Письменно приведите из текста примеры употребления сказуемого в активном и пассивном залогах.

In 1745 Lomonosov (was appointed, appointed) a professor at the Academy of Sciences.
The first electric lamp (was invented, invented) in 1873 by A. N. Lodygin.
In 1911 Marie Curie (was received, received) the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

V. Переделайте предложения из активной конструкции в пассивную и переведите их на русский язык.

1. Power plants generate electricity for domestic and industrial use.

2. We call a building containing a turbo-generator a power station.

3. Newton discovered the Law of Universal Gravitation.

1. The radar has been used for the automatic control of ground transport.

Today plastics are being widely used instead of metals.
The construction of the dam has been completed this month.
The alloys were experimented upon in our lab.

1. The reactor is fast becoming a major source of heat and electricity.

2. Scientists have found ways of measuring the sizes and positions of bodies in the Universe.

3. Elements are transformed into other elements both by man and by nature.

4. The launching of Sputnik I was followed by many achievements in science and engineering.

Future Simple Active;
Present Perfect Passive;
Past Continuous Passive.

Блок 5

НЕЛИЧНЫЕ ФОРМЫ ГЛАГОЛА В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

(The Verbals)

ИНФИНИТИВ (THE INFINITIVE)

Таблица 28

Формы инфинитива в английском языке (The Forms of the Infinitive)

	Active	Passive
Simple	to test	to be tested
Progressive	to be testing
Perfect	to have tested	to have been tested
Perfect Progressive	to have been testing

Таблица 29

Функции инфинитива в предложении (The Functions of the Infinitive)

Функция	Способ перевода	Пример
Подлежащее (если стоит в начале предложения, где нет другого слова, которое могло бы быть под-лежащим; если стоит после безличного оборота It is important…, it is difficult…)	Начальная форма глагола или отглагольное существительное	To test the equipment is the main task of the engineers. - Испытание этого оборудования является главной задачей инженеров. It is difficult to test this equipment in this laboratory. - Трудно испытать это оборудование в этой лаборатории.
Часть сказуемого: 1) модального 2) именного (инфинитив стоит после личной формы глагола-связки to be; подлежащее выражено абстрактными существительными - aim, object, plan, difficulty, task problem, purpose, mission.	1) начальная форма глагола 2) заключается в том, чтобы + начальная форма глагола; состоит в + отглагольное существительное	The engineers must test this equipment. - Инженеры должны испытать это оборудование. The task of the engineers is to test the equipment. - Задача инженеров заключается в том, чтобы испытать это оборудование.
Дополнение	Начальная форма глагола. Отглагольное существительное	We would like to obtain these data in other way. - Нам бы хотелось получить эти данные другим путем.
Обстоятельство	Неопределенная форма глагола с союзом “чтобы”, “для того, чтобы”; отглагольное существительное с предлогом “для”.	To determine the resistance of a circuit he used an ohmmeter. - Чтобы измерить (для измерения) сопротивление цепи, он использовал омметр.
Определение	Придаточное определительное предложение с союзом “который”, сказуемое которого имеет оттенок долженствования или будущего времени.	The student must study the data to be obtained as a result of this experiment. - Студенты должны изучить данные, которые будут получены в результате этого опыта.

Таблица 30

Конструкция «Объектный падеж с инфинитивом» (Complex Object)

Конструкция «объектный падеж с инфинитивом» состоит из существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объективном падеже и выполняет функцию сложного дополнения (the Complex Object). Она употребляется:

После глаголов умственной деятельности

(инфинитив с частицы to)

know

believe

think

consider

expect

to finish the work in two days

We believe him to be finishing the work

to have finished the work

После глаголов, выражающих желания, чувства и намерения

(инфинитив с частицей to)

want

wish

hate

desire

intend

to come on Sunday.

He wants me

to be invited there.

После глаголов чувственного восприятия

(инфинитив без частицы to)

see

hear

feel

watch

perceive

notice

observe

I saw him cross the street.

После глаголов, выражающих побуждение к действию

(инфинитив без частицы to)

let

make

have

get (to)

She made him drink some milk.

It is not easy to get him (to) take part in the show.

4а. Глагол get допускает употребление инфинитива как с частицей to, так и без нее.

После глаголов речи

(инфинитив с частицей to)

tell

ask

order

command

allow

The captain ordered the sailors to load the cases.

The captain ordered the cases to be loaded.

Таблица 31

Конструкция «Именительный падеж с инфинитивом»

(Complex Subject)

Конструкция «именительный падеж с инфинитивом» не имеет аналогии в русском языке, но как видно из названия этой конструкции, ее компонентами являются подлежащее предложение с инфинитивом, которые связанны вторичной предикативной связью.

Эта конструкция употребляется в следующих случаях:

2.1. При сказуемом в страдательном залоге, выраженном глаголами речи, умственной деятельности, чувственного восприятия и побуждения

say

report

announce

know

believe

think

find

suppose

see

hear

make

His theory is believed to be correct.

He is supposed to have come bask.

She was made to rewrite the test.

You are known to have been working at the problem for last three years.

2.2. При сказуемом в действительном залоге, выраженном глаголами

happen

seem

appear

prove

chance

turn out

He seems to know the man.

The weather seems to be changing.

2.3. При сказуемом, выраженном сочетанием глагола–связки to be в личной форме с прилагательным

likely

unlikely

sure

certain

She is sure to come.

They are likely to have completed their work.

ГЕРУНДИЙ И ПРИЧАСТИЕ (THE GERUND AND THE PARTICIPLE)

Таблица 32

Формы герундия и причастия I в английском языке

(The Forms of the Gerund and Participle I)

	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
NON-PERFECT	testing	being tested
PERFECT	having tested	having been tested

Таблица 33

Функции герундия в английском предложении

(The Functions of the Gerund)

Функция	Способ перевода	Пример
Подлежащее	Существительное, начальная форма глагола	Testing a new device is important for us. - Испытание нового прибора (испытать новый прибор) важно для нас.
Именная часть сказуемого (после глагола-связки to be, подлежащее выражено абстрактными существительными aim, purpose, step, task, work, problem и т.д.)	Состоит в том, чтобы + начальная форма глагола; Заключается в + существительное	Our task is testing a new device. - Наша задача заключается в том, чтобы испытать (в испытании) этот прибор.
Часть глагольного сказуемого (после глаголов begin, start, stop, finish, go on, continue, keep)	Существительное, начальная форма глагола	The students began testing a new device. - Студенты начали испытывать (испытание) нового прибора.
Дополнение (с предлогом, без предлога)	Существительное, начальная форма глагола	We need testing this device. - Нам нужно испытать этот прибор. We are interested in testing this device. - Мы заинтересованы в испытании этого прибора.
Обстоятельство (времени с предлогами after, before, on; образа действия с предлогами by, without, in; сопутствующего обстоятельства с предлогами besides, instead of)	Существительное с предлогом, деепричастие, начальная форма глагола	After testing this device we checked the results. После испытания этого прибора мы проверили результаты.
Определение (левое - в устойчивых словосочетаниях или терминах; правое – с предлогами of, for , in после абстрактных существительных)	Существительное, начальная форма глагола	…the idea of testing the device - …идея испытать прибор living standards - условия жизни, melting point - точка плавления

Таблица 34

Функции причастия в английском предложении

(The Functions of Participle I, II)

Функция	Способ перевода	Пример
PI - Левое определение (без зависимых слов)	Действительное причастие настоящего или прошедшего времени (с суффиксами –ущ, -ющ, -ащ , -ящ, -вш)	a receiving station - принимающая сигнал станция, a transmitting antenna - передающая антенна
PII - Левое определение	Страдательное причастие, заканчивающееся на –нный, -мый, -тый.	a transmitted signal - переданный сигнал, a forgotten rule - забытое правило
Правое определение (с зависимыми словами) PII в качестве правого определения может не иметь зависимых слов.	Причастным оборотом или придаточным определительным предложением)	The engineer testing the new device is very experienced. - Инженер, испытывающий (который испытывает) новый прибор, очень опытный. The device tested in the laboratory works well. - Прибор, испытанный (который испытали) в лаборатории, работает хорошо.
Обстоятельство (может использоваться с союзами when, while, if)	Деепричастие, обстоятельственное придаточное предложение, существительное с предлогом “при”.	(When) testing this device the engineer made some improvements. - Испытывая (при испытании; когда испытывал) этот прибор, инженер сделал некоторые усовершенствования. (When) heated this substance evaporates. - При нагревании это вещество испаряется.

Таблица 35

Независимый причастный оборот

(The Independent Participial Construction )

Признаки

Месторасположение в предложении

Перевод

1. Сочетание

существительного или местоимения с причастием I , II

2. На письме всегда отделяется запятой.

В начале предложения

These devices being reliable, we use them in our experiment.

Придаточное обстоятельственное предложение времени, условия, причины с союзами "когда", "так как", "если".

- Так как эти приборы надежные, мы используем их в нашем эксперименте.

В конце предложения

Radio was invented in Russia, its inventor being the Russian scientist A.S. Popov.

Самостоятельное предложение с союзами "а", "и", "но", "причем".

- Радио изобрели в России. И автором этого изобретения является А.С. Попов.

Глаголы, после которых употребляется только инфинитив:

agree, dare, decide, expect, fail, happen, hope, manage, mean, offer, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, wish, want, would like, would prefer.

Глаголы, после которых употребляется только герундий:

avoid, can’t help, deny, fancy, feel like, finish, give up, imagine, keep on, mind, miss, postpone, practice, put off, risk, can’t stand, suggest.

Глаголы, после которых употребляется как инфинитив, так и герундий (без особого изменения смысла сказанного):

hate, love, like, prefer, begin, continue, intend, propose, start.

Глаголы, после которых употребляется как инфинитив, так и герундий (смысл сказанного при этом меняется):

remember + инфинитив – помнить (не забыть) о том, что надо выполнить действие.

remember + герундий – помнить о выполненном действии.

I remember to put an advertisement in the newspaper. (Я помню, что надо дать объявление в газете).

I remember putting an advertisement in the newspaper. (Я помню, что давал объявление в газете).

try + инфинитив – сделать попытку, приложить усилие, чтобы выполнить действие.

try + герундий – делать что-л. в качестве эксперимента.

Please try not to cry at me. (Пожалуйста, попробуй не кричать на меня).

He lost his way in the forest, he tried crying but nobody heard him. (Он заблудился в лесу, пробовал кричать, но никто его не слышал).

stop + инфинитив – остановиться, чтобы сделать что-то.

stop + герундий – остановить (прекратить) какое-либо действие.

The engineer stopped to connect the other device. (Инженер остановился, чтобы подсоединить другой прибор).

The engineer stopped connecting the devices. - Инженер прекратил соединять приборы.

regret + инфинитив – сожалеть о предстоящем действии.

regret + герундий – сожалеть о (не)совершенном действии.

I regret to warn you about the danger. (Мне очень жаль, что нужно предупредить тебя об опасности).

I regret not warning you about the danger. (Я пожалел, что не предупредил тебя об опасности).

go on + инфинитив – изменение рода деятельности.

go on + герундий – продолжать выполнение какого-л. действия.

She went on to speak on the problem of environmental protection. (Она перешла к выступлению по проблеме защиты окружающей среды).

She went on speaking on the problem of environmental protection. (Она продолжила говорить о проблеме защиты окружающей среды).

Задания к блоку 5

5.1. Поставьте глагол в скобках в правильную форму (инфинитив или герундий). В некоторых случаях возможны два варианта.

1. Do you mind (travel) such a long way to work every day?

2. I don’t like that house. I’d hate (live) there.

3. After graduating I would like (get) a well-paid job.

4. She continued (speak) on the same problem.

5. The student failed (understand) the task.

6. Can you imagine (have) a holiday somewhere abroad?

7. The director refused (discuss) that financial problem.

8. My friend gave up (smoke) several years ago.

9. They promised (be) in time.

10. Would you prefer (drive) to the destination.

11. I very much enjoy (listen) to classical music.

12. We both couldn’t help (admire) that wonderful landscape.

13. Will you manage (prepare) everything for the conference?

14. Our friends suggested (spend) the weekend in the country.

15. Don’t you want (help) me with preparing the report?

5.2. Выберите правильную форму (инфинитив или герундий).

1. Jessica regrets (to forget/forgetting) your telephone number. Will you phone her?

2. We regret (to inform/informing) you that we won’t be able to deliver the goods on time.

3. After the report the committee went on (to answer/answering) the questions of the journalists.

4. Go on (to answer/answering) the questions, please.

5. I remember (to make/making) two copies of this paper. I’ll do it immediately.

6. I remember (to make/making) two copies of this paper. They must be on your desk.

7. I’m short of money. I tried (to borrow/borrowing) some, but found nobody who could do that.

8. I have no money to buy this cottage. – Try (to borrow/borrowing) from the bank.

9. The plant stopped (to produce/ producing) that kind of machinery.

10. On our way to the top of the mountain we stopped (to have/having) a rest.

5.3. Прочитайте тексты, обращая внимание на выделенные неличные формы глагола. Определите их функции в предложении.

English character

Almost every nation has a reputation of some kind. The English are reputed to be cold, reserved, rather haughty people. They are steady, easy-going and fond of sports. There are certain kinds of behavior, manners and customs peculiar to England.

The English are naturally polite and never tired of saying “Thank you” and “I am sorry”. They are generally disciplined; you never hear loud talk in the street. They don’t rush for seats in buses and trains, but they take their seats in queues at bus stops. English people do not shake hands when meeting one another. English people don’t like displaying their emotions even in dangerous and tragic situations, and ordinary people seem to remain good-tempered and cheerful under difficulties.

The Englishman doesn’t like boasting or showing off in manners, dress or speech. Sometimes he conceals his knowledge: a linguist, for example, may not mention his understanding of a foreigner’s language.

The English are a nation of stay-at-homes. The Englishman says “My house is my castle” because he doesn’t wish his doings to be overlooked by his neighbours. It is true that English people prefer living in small houses, built for one family. The fire is the focus of the English home. They like to sit round the fire and watch the dancing flames, exchanging the day’s experience.

The love of gardens is deep-rooted in the British people. Most men’s conversations are about gardens. It may be a discussion of the best methods of growing cucumbers, a talk about the plot which differs from all the others.

The British like growing plants in a window-box outside the kitchen or in the garden near the house.

How do they spend their week-ends? Every Englishman is fond of staying in the country in a nice cottage with roses in the garden, fresh air and bright sun. No crowds of people, silence and leisure.

Those who stay at home try to do all the jobs they were too busy to do during the week. Some go shopping on Saturday mornings, some do the house - washing, cleaning. Some men do and watch sporting events.

Saturday evening is the best time for parties, dances, going to the cinema or theatre.

On Sunday after breakfast they may go to work in the garden take a dog for a walk, play a visit to a pub. Sunday is a day for inviting friends and relatives to afternoon tea.

American Character

American society is much more informal than the British. Students don’t rise to greet a teacher entering the room. One does not always address a person by his title. The respectful “Sir” is always used in the northern and western parts of the country.

However, it is best to use a person’s first name when first meeting him/her, and then allow the person to tell you how he/she wishes to be called.

They use first names when calling each other, slap on the back, joke and are much freer in their speech, which is slangier than the conversational British English. You will hear the word “Hi” used instead of the usual “Hello” and “Howdy” instead of “How do you do?”

Yet, in spite of all the informality, Americans show consciousness of social distinction. One is likely to use somewhat more formal language when talking to superiors. While the informal “Hello” is an acceptable greeting from employee to employee, the employee is more apt to say “Hello, Mr. Fergusson” while the employer may reply “Hello, Jim.” Southerners make a point of saying “Yes, sir” or “Yes, Ma’am” or “No, sir” or “No, Ma’am” when talking to an older person or a person in a position of authority. While this is good form all over the US, “Yes, Mr. Weston” or “No, Mr. Weston” is more common in a similar situation in the North or West.

Certain forms of politeness are observed on social occasions. Women may wear hats in church, restaurants, and often when attending luncheons in public places and other public social functions accept those that take place in the evening. Men who do wear hats remove them in elevators, churches, restaurants, private homes, business offices – in most public situations when they wish to show respect.

Cross-Cultural Communication

Travelling a lot for your job you may notice some cultural differences in different parts of the world. Coming to Great Britain you shouldn’t expect people to shake hands with you when you see them regularly. But in France in the same situation you must shake hands. There are some differences between the States and Europe. In the States people may ask personal questions about your family, for example, even if they don’t know you very well. You should avoid asking such questions in Europe, especially in Southern Europe. In America you may be surprised at your partners using your first name right from the start. You should use their first names in return. You shouldn’t smoke without asking permission. Nobody expects you to shake everyone’s hand every time. But you are expected to say “Hi” seeing a person for the second or third time. People in America don’t often pay in cash, so you’d better have one internationally used credit card. They say that visiting a restaurant you shouldn’t treat waiters as servants and you shouldn’t go away without leaving tips.

5.4. Выполните контрольную работу по вариантам.

ВАРИАНТ 1

I. Прочтите текст и письменно ответьте на вопрос: Where are lasers and masers used?

Пояснения к тексту

vacuum tube – электронная лампа
operating current – рабочий ток

3. transistorized circuitry – цепь, собранная на транзисторах

tunnel diode – туннельный диод
ring radio set – радиоприемник, встроенный в кольцо

Electronics

To separate electronics from the concepts of electricity is extremely difficult. The field of electricity is generally concerned with magnetism, light, heating and the production of electricity by generators and chemical action.
Electronics usually deals with the application of electricity in communications, in radio, television and other devices where vacuum tubes and transistors are employed. We know the vacuum tube and the transistor to be major components of various electronic devices.
The many disadvantages of vacuum tubes include high cost, bulky construction, high amount of operating current, limited life and high operating temperature. However the vacuum tube is ideal in many situations where electrical energy is readily available and where heat is no problem.
A more recent invention - the transistor - is known to have replaced the vacuum tube in many situations. The transistor operates on a minimum amount of electrical energy, emits very little heat and has a long life. The transistor is tiny compared to the size of the vacuum tube of equivalent energy output. This feature has permitted an electronic circuit to be so small that the electronic technician uses magnifying lenses to aid him in his circuit construction and repair.
Later research has revealed a device which has revolutionized the field of transistorized circuitry. A Japanese investigator, Lew Ksaki, discovered a simple semiconductor class of crystal that is even more amazing than the transistor. The tunnel diode, as it is called, operates on a negligible amount of electric current, its diameter being some few thousandths of an inch. With such a transistor a man is able to see telephones to be worn on wrists, pocket-size TV sets and ring radio sets.
Several recent developments in the field of electronics have led to better ways to communicate efficiently over long distances. The maser and the laser permit man to beam extremely coherent and concentrated energy with almost no loss of intensity. Lasers and masers are known to have been used for transmitting power, radio waves and other waves used in communication.

II. Выпишите из текста примеры употребления в английском предложении неличных форм глагола.

III. Найдите в предложениях Participle I и Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

Molecular crystals are solids constructed of molecules held together by relatively weak forces.
A body moving with a certain velocity carries within itself the kinetic energy of motion.
While absorbing the energy of cosmic rays the upper atmosphere becomes radioactive.
Unless properly treated the metal must not be applied for space technology.

IV. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, определите функцию инфинитива в каждом предложении.

It is necessary for a modern specialist to know a foreign language.
Our scientists were the first to construct and launch the space rocket.
The idea of engineers was to design a new device for automatic control.

4. To increase the productivity of labour one must use the methods we have just
described.

V. Найдите и определите в предложениях неличные формы глагола, Письменно переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. A capacitor is used for storing electricity.

2. Marconi was only twenty-one years old when he succeeded in transmitting signals by radio waves.

3. You can get an electric shock by touching a faulty apparatus.

VI. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, принимая во внимание, что инфинитивные и причастные обороты соответствуют придаточным предложениям.

The atoms are usually combined chemically into groups called molecules, these molecules being in constant motion.
In order to calculate the volume of any object you must measure its height, width and depth.

3. The rays passing through the object being examined produce an image on X-ray film.

The engineers are interested in plastics because they offer a rare combination of properties found in no other materials.
Electrical forces seem to play a very important part in holding crystals together.

ВАРИАНТ 2

I. Прочтите текст и письменно ответьте на вопрос: What phenomena are not yet understood in biochemistry?

Пояснения к тексту

sophisticated – усложненный
cell – клетка
afflict – страдать
despite of – несмотря на…
retina – сетчатка
storage capacity – объем памяти

Biochemistry

1. The chemistry of life, or “biochemistry” as chemists call it, is an area in which the classical fields of chemistry and biology meet. It can be called “molecular biology”. Biochemistry is the study of the structures and reactions of the thousands of compounds involved in life process. Biochemistry is considered to be the most complex area of chemistry.

Living things represent the most efficient, sophisticated, compact chemical “factories” ever known. How, for example, do cells of the body know when to divide and multiply into new cells having the same characteristics as the original cells? When the body is afflicted by disease or by a wound how does the body protect itself and repair the damage? We know these processes to involve thousands of different chemical compounds.
When we compare the nervous system to man-made electronic computers the efficiency and complexity of the biological systems become even more impressive. Despite great advances in computer technology, the greatest computer ever built is almost insignificant being compared to a human brain weighing little more than a kilogram. A computer can perform mathematical operations millions of times faster than a person, but think of some of the things the nervous system can do. For example, it can cause your arm to reach out and touch an object. The brain can translate signals from the retina of the eyes into three dimensional colour images. It can translate a series of frequencies detected by the ear into thoughts whereas a computer can only perform operations being programmed by a person.
The chemical processes of our bodies involve enormously complex sequences of reactions, details of these processes being far from complete understanding. Nevertheless great progress has been made in our understanding of the processes that occur in the body.

II. Выпишите из текста примеры употребления в английском предложении неличных форм глагола.

These reactions convert hydrogen into helium, giving off a great amount of light and heat.
The formula E = me2 deduced by Einstein is perhaps the most well-known equation in the world.

Soils containing too much sand or clay are of less value in agriculture.

Plastics articles are often difficult to repair if broken.

1. The teacher told the students to learn the poem by heart.

The Soviet Union was the first country to send man into space.
To translate a sentence is to discover its meaning.

4. The experiment to be carried out is of great importance for our research.

1. Oxygen can form oxides by combining with metals.

2. The students began making the experiments with oxygen.

3. There are different ways of obtaining oxygen.

1. The atoms are usually combined chemically into groups called molecules, these molecules being in constant motion.

2. In order to calculate the volume of any object you must measure its height, width and depth.

3. The rays passing through the object being examined produce an image on X-ray film.

4. The engineers are interested in plastics because they offer a rare combination of properties found in no other materials.

5. Electrical forces seem to play a very important part in holding crystals together.

ВАРИАНТ 3

I. Прочтите текст и письменно ответьте на вопрос: What purpose will the Moon’s surface be used for in future?

Пояснения к тексту

far side – обратная сторона
rock – горная порода
mantle - мантия
glassy globule – стекловидный шарик
melting point – точка плавления

Lunar Exploration

1. The Earth’s nearest neighbour - the Moon - is only 384,400 km away from us. That is why it appears sufficiently large and bright. Lunar exploration began in 1959 when the Soviet Union sent its Luna-3 spacecraft around the Moon. It radioed back the first photographs of the Moon’s far side. In July 1969 two American astronauts landed on the Moon and carried out a variety of experiments on the surface of the Moon.

2. The kilometres of film exposed by the astronauts, the specimens of rock brought back to the Earth and other data studied by hundreds of scientists from countries all over the World have led to new views on several basic problems.

3. Before the Moon landings it was thought that the Moon was a simple body with the same composition throughout. But we now know it to be a body with a metallic core at its centre, a silica-rich mantle and a crust. Lunar soils proved to contain a type of structure that is not common on the Earth. Small glassy globules were present in the soil.

4. The types of rocks that were encountered on the Moon are familiar to our geologists. However, almost all of these rocks have lower proportions of elements with lower melting points than does the Earth. Detailed examinations of the lunar rocks indicate to relatively high proportions of elements with high melting points such as calcium, aluminium and titanium. So the Moon and the Earth seem to be more similar than had been thought. None of the lunar rocks contain any trace of water bound inside their minerals. This ends all hope that water and life existed on the Moon at any time in the past.

5. Thus due to the lunar exploration the scientists were provided with some information about the composition of the solar system, with the information of the Moon and its relationship to the Earth. One day we may be able to use the far side of the Moon as a site for scientific observatories, for optical, ultraviolet or infrared observations. We may be able to visit the Moon as researchers or even as tourists.

II. Выпишите из текста примеры употребления в английском предложении неличных форм глагола.

Natural rubber is a thermoplastic material that becomes soft when heated and hard when cooled.

Matter composed of any chemical combination of elements is called a compound.

3. The smallest particle having all the characteristics of an element is called an atom.
4. While bombarding the upper layers of the atmosphere, cosmic rays reach the surface of the Earth.

To design new buildings is the work of an architect.
To measure volumes we must know the dimensions of a body.
Our plant was the first to install the automatic equipment.
Architects have built houses to be heated by solar radiation.

1. The Congress is responsible for making laws.

2. After graduating from the university he got a well-paid job in the capital.

3. Russia is a land of a great number of rivers, some of them being among the longest in the World.

1. Many sources of X-rays are supposed to exist in the Universe, but the technical difficulties of observing them are great.

2. Having subjected crystals to X-radiation the scientists could obtain materials with special properties.

3 . Welded joints were X-rayed to examine the strength of welding.

Architects have designed and built houses to be heated by solar radiation.
Radioisotopes being produced in atomic reactors, the engineers began to apply them for physical measurements and in radiography.

PART 2

TOPICS

В данном разделе представлены 4 темы: “Family and Friends”, “Education: University”, “English-speaking Countries”, “English as the language of international communication”, объединенные принципом аутентичности представленного материала.

В практике изучения иностранных языков под аутентичными принято понимать материалы, которые создавались носителями языка, и в дальнейшем без каких-либо купюр или обработок нашли применение в учебном процессе, ориентированном на коммуникативный подход к обучению иностранному языку вне языковой среды. Данный принцип распространяется в разделе и на формулировки заданий. Рекомендуется тщательно проработать первый блок раздела для облегчения выполнения заданий последующих блоков в силу идентичности их структуры.

Блоки раздела включают информативное введение, в текстовой форме предоставляющее лексическую базу темы, и речевые упражнения, цель которых - помочь студенту сформулировать тематическое устное высказывание.

Данный раздел пособия ориентирован на расширение страноведческого тезауруса студентов. Большой объем информации по актуальным темам раздела призван совершенствовать навыки просмотрового и изучающего видов чтения.

Section 1

FAMILY and FRIENDS

Read information below paying special attention to the words in bold, translate the unknown words to broaden your topical vocabulary.

Family names

Your parents give you a first name, e.g. James and Sarah are common first names in Britain. Your family name, usually called your surname, is the one that all the family has, e.g. Smith and Jones. Your full name is all the names you have, e.g. Sarah Jane Smith.

Relatives (= members of your family)

male female

Your parents' parents

Your parents' brother and sister

Your aunt's/uncle's children

The father and mother of the person you marry

The brother and sister of the person you marry

Your brother's/sister's children

If the person you marry dies, you are a ...

If your mother or father remarries, you have a ...

grandfather(s) grandmother(s)

uncle(s) aunt(s)

cousin(s) cousin(s)

father-in-law mother-in-law

brother-in-law sister-in-law

nephew(s) niece(s)

widower widow

stepfather stepmother

Talking about family and friends

I've got two brothers and a sister. My brothers are twins (= two children born to one mother at the same time), and they are three years younger than me. I'm the oldest and I take after my father (= I am similar to him in appearance and/or character). My sister takes after my father in some ways, but she looks like my mother (= her appearance is similar to my mother's). We're a close family (= we have a good relationship). My best friend Pete is an only child (= without brothers or sisters); he spends a lot of time with us and he's almost one of the family.

Friends

an old friend (= someone you have known for a long time)

a close friend (= a good friend/someone you like and trust)

your best friend (= the one friend you feel closest to)

classmates (= other people in your class)

flatmates (= people you share a house/flat with, who are not your family)

colleagues (= people you work with; they may or may not be friends)

Ages and stages - growing up and growing old

age

stage

0-1 approximately

1-2

2-12 approximately

13-17 approximately

18 +

20-29

30-39

40 +

60 or 65

75 +

a baby

a toddler

a child - this period is your childhood

a teenager (14 = early teens)

an adult

in your twenties (24-26 = mid-twenties)

in your thirties (38 = late thirties)

people are middle-aged

retirement (= when people stop work; they are retired)

old age (you can describe people as elderly)

What's he/she like?

He's very self-confident. (= feels he can do things, and is relaxed in social situations).

When you first meet her she seems shy. (= finds it difficult to talk to people and make conversation). She doesn't show her feelings. (= you don't know what she is thinking or feeling)

He's got a great sense of humour. (= laughs a lot and sees the funny side of life).

Describing character in opposites

positive

negative

warm and friendly

kind (= cares about others)

nice, pleasant

generous (= happy to give/share)

optimistic (= thinks positively)

easy-going (= relaxed, calm)

sensitive (= thinks about people's feelings)

honest (= always tells the truth)

good fun (= enjoyable to be with)

broad-minded

hard-working

punctual (= always on time)

reliable

clever

flexible

ambitious

has lots of common sense (= thinks in a practical way)

cold and unfriendly

unkind

horrible, unpleasant

mean (= never gives to others)

pessimistic (= thinks negatively)

tense (= nervous; worries a lot; not calm)

insensitive

dishonest

boring

narrow-minded (= unable to accept new ideas)

lazy (= never does any work)

not very punctual; always late

unreliable (= you cannot trust him/her)

stupid

inflexible (= a fixed way of thinking)

not ambitious (= no desire to be successful)

has no common sense

Exercises to the topic

1.1. Look at the family tree and complete the sentences below.

Albert + Mary Dodds

John + Susan Jill + Paul Barry+Shaila

(died 2000)

Eve Ana Timothy Tom

1. John is Jill's .....................................

2. Timothy is Jill's .....................................

3. Eve and Ana are Timothy's .....................................

4. Eve is Sheila's .....................................

5. Albert Dodds is Tom's .....................................

6. Barry is Eve's .....................................

7. Susan is Timothy's .....................................

8. As Paul died in 2000, Jill is a .....................................

9. Tom is Mary's .....................................

10. The only two people who are not related are .................. and .....................................

1.2. Fill the gaps with the correct word.

Did you say his ..................................... name was Boris?
He looks like his mother but definitely takes ..................................... his father in character.
There is an increasing number of single- ..................................... families in Britain.
Most of my ..................................... at work are married, and I don't see them socially.
I've known him for years; he's an ..................................... friend.

1.3. Answer these questions about yourself:

1. What's your first name?

2. What's your surname?

3. Are you an only child?

4. Are you a part of a very close family?

5. Do you look like your father or mother?

6. In character, who do you take after?

7. Do you know any twins?

8. Who is your best friend?

9. Do you work? If so, how many of your work colleagues are also your friends?

1.4. How would you describe a person in each of these situations:

1. She's always here on time.

2. He never bought me a drink in ten years.

3. She often promises to do things but half the time she forgets.

4. I don't think he's done any work since he's been here.

5. She finds it difficult to meet people and talk to strangers.

6. He can work in any of the departments - on his own or as a part of a team.

7. One of her qualities is that she is so aware of what other people think or feel.

8. I know Mike wants to be the head of the department and then go on to a bigger company.

1.5. Your task is to fill in the gaps and prepare the oral message about yourself and your relatives.

My Family

Let me introduce myself. My first name is_________ and_________is my surname. Right now I'm years old. I was born on the " " of____________in 19____in_______city of_________region.

As you can see I'm rather tall / of medium height / small. My hair is blonde / fair / red / brown and my eyes are of _______ colour. I think I've got a sense of humor because I like to joke and to laugh - guys say I'm always a good company.

Speaking about the sphere of my interests, this is / these are ___________. I like to watch (satellite) TV, I prefer ____________ channel and the most impressive movie I've ever seen is ____________. As for books, the last I’ve read was _______________by ____________. Also I often listen to music on the radio / CD / mp3 player and my most favorite singer / band is ___________.

At present I'm a first-year student so-called "freshman". I study at the branch-campus of Moscow Aviation Institute situated in Akhtubinsk.

I'm married / single / divorced. My wife's / husband's name is ___________. Her / his age is_____. We were married _______ years ago. She / he works in ____________. I love her / him from the bottom of my heart and appreciate her / his support so much!

Now I want to tell you a few words about my parents. My parents have been

married for _______ years. My father is ________years old. He is a ________by profession. His name is _____________. He works in/ ___________

is retired. He is very experienced and considered to be a high-rate professional.
My father is a busy man but always helps me when I'm in trouble. My father is
fond of football / ice-hockey / ______________.

My mother's name is___________. She is__________but she looks much younger. She is slim / stout. My mother has __________eyes and _______hair. She is very beautiful and my father is a lucky man to have such a woman! She is a _____________by profession. She works in / ________is retired and likes it very much. My mother keeps house. She is extremely good at cooking. She always cooks something special when we gather for family dinners.

It is really a great pleasure for me to have a brother / sister. He / she is (not) married and has (n't) a family of his / her own. He / she is a _________(and his wife / her husband is a __________. They have a son / a daughter / twins who is/ are ________ years old. My brother / sister is my

best friend. I can always turn to him / her with my problems.

We've got a lot of relatives who are also members of my family. I mean my grandparents, my uncles and aunts, a great number of cousins, as well as all the in-laws, good friends and what not! We are deeply attached to each other and we get on very well.

Section 2

EDUCATION: UNIVERSITY

Read information below paying special attention to the words in bold, translate the unknown words to broaden your topical vocabulary.

Subjects

You can normally do/study these subjects (arts or sciences) at university but not always at school.

(The underlining shows the syllable you must stress in each word).

medicine engineering architecture agriculture

law psychology

politics

history of art

philosophy sociology

business studies

economics

Studying at a British university

If you want to go to (= enter) university, you must first pass examinations that most students take at the age of 18 (called “A” levels). Students usually take three or four “A” levels (examinations in three or four subjects), and they must do well to get a place at university.

If you get a place, most students have to pay part of their tuition fees (= money for teaching). Some students also get a government grant (= money to pay for living expenses: food and somewhere to live). Students at university are called undergraduates while they are studying for their first degree.

Most university courses last (= continue for) three years, some courses last four years, one or two courses, for example medicine, are five years. During this period students can say they are doing a degree, and when they finish and pass their exams, they can say they have a degree. This can be a BA (= bachelor of arts) or a BSc (= bachelor of science).

Postgraduate courses

When you complete your first degree, you are a graduate. Some students then go on (= continue) to do a second course or degree, called a postgraduate course/degree (or postgraduate course). These students are then postgraduates and they often study for:

- a MA (Master of Arts), e.g. I'm doing a Master in English.

- a MSc (Master of Science), e.g. She did a Master in biology.

- a PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) [minimum three years], e.g. He's got a PhD in computer science.

When people study one subject in great detail (often to find new information), they are doing research, e.g. My sister is doing research into/on the effects of stress at work.

School vs university

School has teachers and lessons; at university you have lecturers and lectures. The department (also called a faculty) at a university is usually headed by a professor. (An ordinary teacher or lecturer is not a professor).

Exercises to the topic

2.1. Read these sentences spoken by university students. What is each person studying?

We have to know every bone in a person's body.
The way we use fertilizers is much more precise than 20 years ago.
We're going to concentrate on Freud and Jung this term.
I've been reading some books on time management.
Expressionism was really a reaction to the work of the Impressionists.
We've spent a lot of time on American foreign policy.
You must know this case; it's one of the most famous in legal history.

2.2. What do you call:

the money some students receive if they get a place at university?
the name we give students during their studying period at university?
teachers at university?
students when they have completed their first degree?
students studying for a second, higher degree?
the study of one subject in great depth and detail, often to get new information?
the lessons that students go to while they are at university?

2.3. Answer these questions:

Do you need to pass examinations before you can go to university?
Do some students get a grant to study at university?
Do most degree courses last three years?
What is your equivalent of the British BA or BSc?
Do you have similar postgraduate degrees in your country?

2.4. Read and memorize the words and phrases on the topic.

a first (second-, third-) year student быть первокурсником

a branch-campus филиал

the establishment учреждение, заведение

to train готовить

highly-qualified высококвалифицированный

to be in great demand иметь большой спрос

the day (evening)-time department дневное (вечернее) отделение

the correspondence department заочное отделение

to deal with иметь дело с чем-либо

to master овладевать

Computer Processing of Information информатика

well-equipped laboratories хорошо оборудованные лаборатории

to have at one's disposal иметь в распоряжении

the latest achievements новейшие достижения

Strength of Materials сопромат

Vocational Training профессиональное обучение

Electrical Engineering электротехника

Electro power Engineering электроэнергетическая техника

Economy and Organization of Production экономика и организация

производства

Technical Servicing техническое обслуживание

a research work исследовательская работа

a course paper курсовая работа

the graduation thesis (work) = a diploma paper дипломная работа

a degree (ученая) степень

according to согласно

an academic plan учебный план

to gain получать, приобретать

to defend защищать

the State Examining Board Гос. экзаменационная комиссия

a graduate выпускник

an industrial enterprise промышленное предприятие

to be provided with быть обеспеченным чем-либо

a post-graduate course аспирантура

an opportunity возможность

department отделение, кафедра

school = faculty факультет

junior students студенты младших курсов

senior students студенты старших курсов

Aircraft Engineering авиационная техника

Radio Electronics for Flying Vehicles радиоэлектроника летательных

аппаратов

2.5. Your task is to fill in the gaps and prepare the oral message about the institute you study at.

I am a Student

I am a _______________________________student of the branch-campus of Moscow Aviation Institute situated in Akhtubinsk. It is one of the largest higher educational establishments in our town. During the years of its activity the institute has trained many highly-qualified engineers. Such specialists are in great demand nowadays.

There are _____________________________departments in our Institute. Those who combine studies with their work are trained at the _______________department. The organizational structure of the Institute is based on separate schools (named "faculties" according to the Russian academic tradition) which are headed by deans. We have ______________________________________________________________Schools. I am a student of the __________________faculty.

The junior students are taught______________________________________.

We attend lectures, do laboratory work and tests. We have quite a number of well-equipped laboratories at our disposal. There is a library that provides students with textbooks, encyclopedias and literature on various special subjects, either printed or electronically.

The senior students study special subjects such as: __________________________________________________________________.

The fourth-year students combine their studies with their research work. We write _________________________on the scientific problems of our research work.

Many highly-qualified skilled teachers work at the departments of our faculty, some of them have candidate's degrees and scientific ranks. They do their best to help students in studying.

According to the academic plan the fifth-year students are sent to work at different plants and enterprises, where they learn to employ in practice the knowledge they gained at the institute.

The final and the most important period in the student's life is the defense of the________________________in the presence of the___________________________.

Our graduates are provided with everything necessary for a scientific career, entering a post-graduate course.

In a word we have a wide range of job opportunities.

I'm very proud to be a student of______________________________________.

2.6. Read the text. Try to understand it without the dictionary. Find additional information about the history and academic year of Moscow Aviation Institute on www.mai.ru (the English version).

Moscow Aviation Institute (MAI) was founded in 1930 when institutions which specialized in aviation became advanced enough to join into one aircraft engineering education center.

Until the present, the development of Russian aviation and astronautics was based mostly on the activities of institute professors and alumni.

The designers Tupolev A.N. (class "TU" aircraft), Mikoyan A.I. (class "MIG" aircraft), Yakovlev A.S. (class "YAK" aircraft) were the first Institute professors. Well-known academicians, scientists and several astronauts number amongst MAI alumni.

Moscow Aviation Institute is a large scientific research center. Significant scientific ideas are developed here; new technological principles are discovered; new devices are invented and constructed. Five fundamental scientific discoveries for dynamic systems have been patented; the optoelectronic device "Photon" designed here is now operating in outer space. Recently the new superlight small-size aircraft "Aviatica" has been designed and constructed in MAI by staff and students. This aircraft is now in very great demand in our country and abroad.

Currently MAI is a large educational and scientific center with approximately 2000 professors and tutors, 4000 research officers, engineers and personnel, and 14000 students.

Since 2007 the Moscow Aviation Institute has been headed by Professor Anatoliy Nikolevich Gerashenko, the Doctor of technical sciences. He is a 1977 MAI graduate.

In 1993 Moscow State Aviation Institute was given one more name: "University of Aerospace Technologies".

Section 3

ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES

Read information below paying special attention to the words in bold, translate the unknown words to broaden your topical vocabulary.

The following is a list of sovereign states and territories where English is an official or language of government.

Sovereign countries where English is the official language
Country	Region	Population
Barbados	Caribbean	294,000
Belize	Central America / Caribbean	288,000
Botswana	Africa	1,882,000
Cameroon	Africa	18,549,000
Canada	North America	33,531,000
Dominica	Caribbean	73,000
Ethiopia	Africa	82,101,998
Eritrea	Africa	5,224,000
Fiji	Oceania	827,900
The Gambia	Africa	1,709,000
Ghana	Africa	23,478,000
Grenada	Caribbean	106,000
Guyana	South America / Caribbean	738,000
India	Asia	1,143,540,000
Ireland	Europe	4,581,269
Jamaica	Caribbean	2,714,000
Kenya	Africa	37,538,000
Kiribati	Oceania	95,000
Lesotho	Africa	2,008,000
Liberia	Africa	3,750,000
Malawi	Africa	13,925,000
Malta	Europe	412,600
Marshall Islands[	Oceania	59,000
Mauritius	Africa / Indian Ocean	1,262,000
Federated States of Micronesia	Oceania	111,000
Namibia[	Africa	2,074,000
Nauru	Oceania	10,000
Nigeria	Africa	148,093,000
Pakistan	Asia	165,449,000
Palau	Oceania	20,000
Papua New Guinea	Oceania	6,331,000
Philippines	Asia	90,457,200
Rwanda	Africa	9,725,000
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Caribbean	50,000
Saint Lucia	Caribbean	165,000
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Caribbean	120,000
Samoa	Oceania	188,359
Seychelles	Africa / Indian Ocean	87,000
Sierra Leone	Africa	5,866,000
Singapore	Asia	4,839,400
Solomon Islands	Oceania	506,992
South Africa	Africa	47,850,700
South Sudan	Africa	8,260,490
Sudan	Africa	31,894,000
Swaziland	Africa	1,141,000
Tanzania	Africa	40,454,000
Tonga	Oceania	100,000
Trinidad and Tobago	Caribbean	1,333,000
Tuvalu	Oceania	11,000
Uganda	Africa	30,884,000
Vanuatu	Oceania	226,000
Zambia	Africa	11,922,000
Zimbabwe	Africa	13,349,000

In many countries English is the dominant language, but does not have official status.

In Australia, English is spoken by the vast majority of the population and is the only language used in government institutions, yet Australia does not have an official language. The case is the same in the United Kingdom and the United States, though many states and regions within the USA do have English as an official language.

English is the official language of Canada along with French.

English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Commonwealth Games. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, European Union and the International Olympic Committee.

Many of these countries are current or former colonies or dependencies of the United Kingdom or of the United States.

India's linguistic picture is complex. According to the Constitution of India Hindi is the official language of the union, but English is mandated for the texts of all federal laws and Supreme Court decisions, and (along with Hindi) is one of the two languages of the Indian Parliament. English is used almost for all higher education, business and science. All school courses are taught in English. English is extensively used for administrative purposes in India. India is the 2nd largest English-speaking country in the world by population next to the USA. As such, many consider English to be the de facto official language of India.

The linguistic makeup of Pakistan is similarly complex. While the national language is Urdu, English is an official language and used in business, government, education and law.

Countries where English is the de facto language
Country	Region	Population
Antigua and Barbuda	Caribbean	85,000
Australia	Australia	22,374,370
Bahamas, The	Caribbean	331,000
New Zealand	Oceania	4,294,350
United Kingdom	Europe	61,612,300
United States	North America	309,442,000

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK)

Location	Europe, the British Isles (the largest of them are Britain and Ireland, but there are hundreds of smaller islands)
Structure	It consists of 4 countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The capital of England is London. Its national day is April 23 (St George’s Day); its symbols are a red rose, a lion, a bulldog. The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh. Its national day is November 30 (St Andrew’s Day); its symbols are a thistle and tartan. The capital of Wales is Cardiff. Its national day is March 1 (St David’s Day); its symbols are leek and a dragon. The capital of Northern Ireland is Belfast. Its national day is March 17 (St Patrick’s Day); its symbol is a shamrock.
Heraldy	The Flag has the name of Union Jack; it represents the crosses of patron saints of England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The Hymn –“God Save the Queen”.
Government	Unitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy (the current monarch is Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, the role of the monarch is rather symbolic, the real head of the country is the Prime Minister) Parliament (the oldest in the World) consists of 2 chambers: the upper House – the House of Lords and lower House – the House of Commons.
Area	Total 243,610 km2 (the 80th in the World) Water (%) 1.34
Currency	Pound sterling
Main cities	Except for the capitals they are Liverpool, Manchester, Glasgow and Leeds.
Places of interest	Buckingham Palace (the official residence of the Queen), Westminster Abbey (the cathedral where the British monarchs are crowned), the British Museum (situated in London), the Tower of London, St Paul’s Cathedral (designed by Sir Chr. Wren after the great fire in 1666), Stonehenge (the oldest monument in England), Big Ben (the largest clock tower and the bell of the Houses of Parliament), Hyde Park, Trafalgar Square with the Nelson Column, etc.

The United States of America (the USA)

Location	The country is situated mostly in central North America. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the European continent. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
Structure	The country consists of 50 states: 1 Айдахо - выдуманное слово, предположительно от индейского «сокровище гор» 2 Айова - от названия индейского племени 3 Алабама - от индейского выражения «я расчищаю заросли» 4 Аляска - по названию полуострова. По-алеутски означает «большая земля» 5 Аризона - от индейского «ключ, источник» 6 Арканзас - от названия племени 7 Вайоминг - от индейского выражения «изменчивые горы и долины» 8 Вашингтон - в честь Джорджа Вашингтона, первого президента Америки 9 Вермонт - по-французски «зеленая гора» 10 Виргиния - в честь королевы Елизаветы I, Королевы-Девственницы (Virgin) 11 Висконсин - от индейского племени 12 Гавайи - от названия полинезийской хижины 13 Делавэр - от имени губернатора лорда Де Ла Вэрра 14 Джорджия - в честь английского короля Георга 15 Западная Виргиния - в честь английской королевы Елизаветы 16 Иллинойс - от индейского «люди» 17 Индиана - штат был густо населен индейцами 18 Калифорния - от названия воображаемого острова из старинного испанского романа 19 Канзас - от индейского племени, прозванного соседями «люди южного ветра» 20 Кентукки От индейского «завтрашняя страна» 21 Колорадо - от реки, название которой переводится с испанского как «окрашенный, цветной» 22 Коннектикут - от индейского выражения «на берегу большой бурной реки» 23 Луизиана - в честь французского Короля Людовика XIV 24 Массачусетс - от индейского «маленькое место на большом холме» 25 Миннесота - от индейского «небесно-голубая вода» 26 Миссисипи - «Большая река» по-индейски 27 Миссури - от названия индейского племени 28 Мичиган - по-индейски «великая вода» 29 Монтана - по-испански «гористая» 30 Мэн - предположительно, от значения «материк» 31 Мэриленд - в честь английской королевы Марии, супруги Карла 32 Небраска - от индейского названия реки 33 Невада - «Заснеженная» по-испански 34 Нью-Гемпшир - от английского графства Гемпшир 35 Нью-Джерси - от острова Джерси 36 Нью-Йорк - в честь английского города Йорк 37 Нью-Мексико - от ацтекского «бог войны» 38 Огайо - «Великий» по-ирокезски 39 Оклахома - от индейского выражения «краснокожий народ» 40 Орегон - предположительно от испанского выражения «лопоухие люди» 41 Пенсильвания - переводится «леса Пенна». Уильям Пенн — основатель колонии, silva по-латыни «лес». 42 Род-Айленд - от нидерландского «roodt eylandt» (в прежней орфографии) — «красный остров» 43 Северная Дакота - «Союз с друзьями» на языке сиу 44 Северная Каролина - в честь английского короля Карла 45 Теннеси - от названия поселка индейцев чероки 46 Техас - от индейского «друзья, союзники» 47 Флорида - от испанского «покрытая цветами» 48 Южная Дакота - «Союз с друзьями» на языке сиу 49 Южная Каролина - в честь английского короля Карла 50 Юта - от названия индейского племени
Heraldy	The flag “Stars and Stripes”: 13 stripes symbolize the 13 states that on the 4th of July 1776 formed the country having declared the declaration of Independence, 50 stars stay for present American states. The national symbol – the bald eagle (since 1782). Motto: In God We Trust
Government	Federal presidential constitutional republic Congress as the main power body consists of the Upper House - Senate and the Lower House - House of Representatives
Area	Total 9,826,675 km2 (the 3d in the World) Water (%) 6.76
Currency	United States dollar ($)
Main cities	Washington D.C. (the capital of the country), New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, Dallas, Philadelphia, Houston, Miami, Atlanta.
Places of interest	Niagara Falls (situated on the border of the USA and Canada), Grand Canyon (national park in Arizona),the Statue of Liberty (situated on Manhattan Ireland in New York, was presented by France), the Capitol, the White House (the official residence of the US president), Times Square, Broadway (the most famous streets in New York – so-called Big Apple), etc.

Canada

Location	It is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories
Official language(s)	English and French
Heraldy	Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare (Latin) - "From Sea to Sea" A maple leaf is the symbol of the country which is represented on its flag.
Government	Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy Parliament consists of the Upper House - Senate and the Lower House - House of Commons
Area	Total 9,984,670 km2 (the 2d in the World) Water (%) 8.92
Currency	Canadian dollar ($)
Main cities	Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver, Quebec
Places of interest	Archeological sites, botanical gardens, fountains, golf clubs, castles, lakes, monuments, museums, parks, zoos, etc.

Australia

Location	Officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Official language(s)	None The national language is English (de facto).
Heraldy	Australia's National Flag comprises the Union Jack, the Commonwealth Star, and the Southern Cross. The Hymn "Advance Australia Fair”. Symbols: Red Kangaroo, Emu (as a national bird)
Government	Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy Parliament consists of the Upper House - Senate and the Lower House - House of Representatives
Area	Total 7,617,930 km2 (the 6th in the World)
Currency	Australian dollar
Main cities	Canberra (the capital of the country), Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide
Places of interest	Sydney Opera House (opened in 1973), Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), museums, monuments, national parks, etc.

New Zealand

Location	It is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean, comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island) and numerous smaller islands.
Official language(s)	Māori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages, with English predominant
Heraldy	It has 2 hymns -"God Defend New Zealand" and "God Save the Queen", unofficial symbol is the bird kiwi, the flag is a blue one with the Union Jack in the left corner, and four red stars with white borders to the right, which represent the constellation the Southern Cross
Government	Parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy
Area	Total 268,021 km2 (the 75th in the World) Water (%) 1.6
Currency	New Zealand dollar
Main cities	Wellington (the capital of the country), Auckland, Christchurch, Tauranga
Places of interest	Archeological sites, botanical gardens, fountains, golf clubs, castles, lakes, monuments, museums, parks, zoos, etc.

Famous places = places of interest = sights = tourist attractions

1 palace

2 market

3 temple

4 statue

5 castle

6 cathedral

Tourist activities:

to buy a guidebook (= book of information for tourists) and a map of the town you are visiting;

to go sightseeing;

to do a bit of/a lot of sightseeing;

to have a look round (= visit somewhere casually);

to take pictures (= photos);

to spend money;

to get lost (= lose one's way);

to have a great/nice/terrible time;

to go out (= leave home/your hotel to go to a social event, e.g. restaurant or disco).

Describing “places” (the word place can describe a building, an area, a town, or a country):

Venice is beautiful but it's always packed (= very crowded) with tourists. New York is very cosmopolitan (= full of people from different countries and cultures).

St Petersburg has lots of historic monuments (= important places built a long time ago).

Many beautiful cities are now very touristy (= a negative word: “too much tourism”).

Sao Paolo is a really lively place (= full of life and activity) and the nightlife is fantastic.

To ask if it is a good idea to visit a place, use be worth + -ing or noun.

E.g.: A: If I go to Scotland, is it worth spending a few days in Edinburgh?

B: Yes, definitely - and Glasgow is worth a visit as well.

Exercises to the topic

3.1. Find out the right definition for the following words: a city, a town, a capital.

1) large and important town; town given special rights in self–government;

2) town or city where the government of a country is carried on;

3) centre of population larger than a village, smaller than a city.

3.2. Choose the words and phrases which characterize a capital of a country.

Important; main; beautiful; attractive; small; amazing; terrible; magnificent; quiet; a historical, cultural, administrative, commercial centre; a heart and soul of the country; unimportant; place of interest.

Characterize the capital of your native country using these words.

3.3. Match the name of the country with its capital.

Australia Berlin

Canada London

China Madrid

France Moscow

Germany Ottawa Italy Paris

Japan Peking Rome Russia

Spain Canberra

The UK Tokyo

The USA Washington D.C.

3.4. Complete this postcard. You may need a word or phrase in each space.

Hi everyone,

I’ve been in Paris for over a week now and I’m having a great (1)………………. . In the first days I did quite a lot of (2) ………………. – the Eiffel Tower, Notre Dame, and all the usual tourist attractions. Most places are absolutely (3) ………………….. with tourists, so yesterday I decided to have a (4) …………………… round the shops. Today I’ve been to a couple of interesting art (5) …………. I got (6) ………………… on my way back to the hotel, but it did not matter because I discovered a really fascinating (7) …………….. with lots of little stalls, selling just about everything from apples to antiques.

I ate in the hotel the first night but usually I (8) ………………. For dinner – the restaurants are great. I’m afraid I’ve (9) ……………. A lot of money, but it’s a great place You’ll be able to see for yourself when I get back – I’ve taken lots of (10) …………………. .

I hope you’re all well. I’ll write again next week.

With love, Emma.

3.5. Which of these places do you usually visit or go to when you are on holiday?

museums art galleries churches and cathedral tourist shops

concerts discos/nightclubs castles/palaces/temples the cinema

markets restaurants bars the theatre

3.6. Agree with the information in the questions without repeating the same words and phrases.

Example A: You've got quite a few pictures, haven't you?

B: Yes, I took lots of photos.

1. A: It's a fabulous city, isn't it?

B: Yes, it's a

2. A: There's a big mix of people in London, isn't there?
B: Yes, it's very

3. A: It was very crowded, wasn't it?

B: Yes, it was

4. A: There's a lot to do in the evenings, isn't there?
B: Yes, the is very good.

5. A: Did you enjoy yourselves?

B: Yes, we had a

6. A: Kyoto is a good place to go to, isn't it?

B: Yes, Kyoto is definitely

3.7. Think of a place in your country (a different place for each number) which is:

cosmopolitan 5)famous for its historic monuments
lively 6)worth visiting

3)very touristy 4)not worth visiting

3.8. Your task is to fill in the gaps and prepare the oral message on the topic.

English Speaking Countries

Today, more than 300 million people use ___________as their native language.

Although English is the official or one of the official languages in over 45 countries, the most important English speaking countries are ___________________________.

I am going to give a brief description of all these countries.

The full name of the United Kingdom is _________________________________. The capital of the UK is ______________.

Other important cities are _______________________________________________.

Great Britain is actually the biggest island in Europe containing __________________. Population of the UK is about 60 million people. Almost 80% of the population which is 45 million people lives in England, in Scotland over 5 million, in Wales over 3 million, and in Northern Ireland about 2 million people. Ethnically, the country consists of English, Scots, Welsh, and Irish, although there are large immigrant communities representing India, Turkey and other countries.

Great Britain is administratively divided into 55 counties with certain amount of autonomy in local matters. The UK is a _________________, although the monarch plays a rather symbolic role.

The British Parliament is one of the oldest in the world and consists of two houses:_______________________________.

The United Kingdom is a highly developed country with many scientific and cultural centres. This country gave us a world language, almost all modern ball games and many other kinds of sport. It created a culture which influenced the evolution of the world civilization.

The biggest English speaking country is ___________. It occupies almost half of the continent of _________________and borders on __________in the north and Mexico in the south. The population is about 250 million people, most of whom live in towns and cities. The administrative and political centre of the country is its capital __________________, named after the first US President George Washington. Here are many federal institutions are situated such as the Capitol, the main building of US Congress, and the____________, which is the official residence of the US President.

At the same time, the main economic and financial centre of the USA is_________, lovingly called “Big Apple”. The ______ Street in New York is the symbol of financial power of the USA. Other important US cities are: _________________. The USA consists of _______states. Each state has its own constitution, a parliament and a government headed by a governor. The most powerful political parties of the USA are the Democratic and the Republican parties, which alternatively win the general elections for the president’s office. The importance of the USA in today’s world politics, technology, and pop-culture cannot be overestimated and is evident.

______________is situated north of the USA. It is the second largest country in the world after Russia. Its climate and nature is very much like in our own country. It has two official languages with equal status: French and English. It is divided into 10 provinces and 2 northern territories. The population is about 25 million people. Most developed territories are those adjacent to the US border. ___________ is the capital of the country.

___________is the only country in the world taking up the territory of a whole continent, which has the same name. This country is unique in many ways. It has no land borders with any countries. Its flora and fauna has exotic plants and animals you can meet only there, such as kangaroos and humming-bird. Most Australians are of British or Irish origin because it used to be the British colony and the local population used to be mercilessly killed by the colonists.__________, the capital of the country, was founded in 1913 as a planned capital. It is the largest wool producer in the world.

According to some estimates, there are more sheep living in Australia than people!

Australia’s only close neighbouring country is_____________, which is situated on two islands: the North and the South Island. The capital of the country is _______. It has a population of nearly 3.5 million people, most of whom speak English and are of European origin. Officially, the country is headed by the British monarch, who is represented by the governor-general.

Ireland’s official name is the Irish Republic. It is separated from Britain by the North Channel. Its population is almost 4 million people. The official languages are English and Gaelic. The capital of the city is Dublin, the birthplace for many famous people such as James Joyce or Jonathan Swift. For eight hundred years up until 1922 Dublin had been under the English rule. Country’s favourable geographic position on the way of the warm ocean current called Gulf Stream makes it a nice country to visit. It is a wonderful country with striking coastlines and unspoilt landscapes.

Section 4

ENGLISH AS THE LANGUAGE OF INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Read information below; translate the unknown words to broaden your topical vocabulary.

Страна (англ.) Страна (рус.) Национальность Столица

Afghanistan Афганистан Afghan Kabul

Albania Албания Albanian Tirana

Algeria Алжир Algerian Algiers

Argentina Аргентина Argentinean Buenos Aires

Australia Австралия Australian Canberra

Austria Австрия Austrian Vienna

Bahamas Багамские о-ва Bahamian Nassau

Belgium Бельгия Belgian Brussels

Brazil Бразилия Brazilian Brasilia

Bulgaria Болгария Bulgarian Sofia

Canada Канада Canadian Ottawa

Chile Чили Chilean Santiago

China Китай Chinese Beijing / Peking Cuba Куба Cuban Havana

Cyprus Кипр Cypriot Nicosia

Czech Чехия Czech Prague

Republic Denmark Дания Dane Copenhagen

Egypt Египет Egyptian Cairo

Finland Финляндия Finn Helsinki

France Франция Frenchman Paris

Germany Германия German Bonn

England Великобритания

The United Kingdom      Соединенное
                                        королевство
                                           Англия       British / Briton /Englishman     London

Greece Греция Greek Athens

Hungary Венгрия Hungarian Budapest

Iceland Исландия Icelander Reykjavik

India Индия Indian New Delhi Iran Иран Iranian Tehran

Iraq Ирак Iraqi Baghdad Ireland Ирландия Irish(man) Dublin

Israel Израиль Israeli Jerusalem

Italy Италия Italian Rome

Japan Япония Japanese Tokyo

Mexico Мексика Mexican Mexico Netherlands / Нидерланды / Netherlander/

Holland Голландия Hollander Amsterdam

New Zealand Новая Зеландия New Zealander Wellington

North Korea Северная Корея North Korean Pyongyang Norway Норвегия Norwegian Oslo

Poland Польша Pole Warsaw Portugal Португалия Portuguese Lisbon Russia Россия Russian Moscow

South Korea Южная Корея South Korean Seoul

Spain Испания Spaniard Madrid

Sweden Швеция Swede Stockholm Switzerland Швейцария Swiss Berne

Syria Сирия Syrian Damascus Taiwan Тайвань Taiwanese Taipei Thailand Таиланд Thai / Thailander Bangkok Turkey Турция Turk Ankara

The United States of America США American Washington DC

A world language is a language spoken internationally which is learned by many people as a second language.

A world language is not only characterized by the number of its speakers (native or second language speakers), but also by its geographical distribution, and its use in international organizations and in diplomatic relations.

Historical world languages include Sumerian (язык древних шумеров), Akkadian (ассиро-вавилонский язык), Old Aramaic (древнеарамейский язык), Koine Greek (койне – античный греческий язык), Latin, Arabic, Sanskrit, Chinese, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French, Russian and English.

The suggestion of a given language as a world language or "universal language" has strong political implications. Thus, Russian was declared the "world language of internationalism" in Soviet literature, which at the same time denounced French as the "language of fancy courtiers" and English as the "jargon of traders".

A number of international auxiliary languages have been introduced as prospective world languages, the most successful of them being Esperanto, but none of them can claim the status of a living world language.

A living world language has the following properties:

- a large number of speakers,

- a substantial fraction of non-native speakers,

- official status in several countries,

- a linguistic community not defined strictly along ethnic lines (multiethnic, pluricentric language),

- one or more standard registers which are widely taught as a foreign language,

- association with linguistic prestige,

- use in international trade relations,

- use in international organizations,

- use in the academic community,

- significant body of literature.

The most important World languages of today are:

Language	Native speakers	Total speakers	Official Status Distribution	Official Status Maps
English	328 M	1800 M	Anglosphere
Spanish(Castilian)	329 M - 400 M	500+ M	Hispanosphere
French	67.8M -110 M	500 M	Francophone
Portuguese	178 M	220 M	Lusophone

Nowadays English has become the world's most important and most universal language. It is the official language in over forty countries and the most used language in international business, science, medicine, trade and cultural relations. Over 300 million people speak it as a mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great Britain, the USA, Australia and New Zealand. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada, and the South African Republic.

It is one of the official languages of the United Nations Organization and other political organizations. It is the language of world's scientific literature and computers technology.

England's history helps to understand the present condition of the English language. Many English words were borrowed from the language of Angles and Saxons. Hundreds of French words came into English. Many new words were brought by traders and travellers.

To know the English language today is absolutely necessary for every educated person, for every good specialist. English is everywhere in our life. It is in signs, clothing, soft drinks, and household products around the world. The names of pop groups, computers software, and magazines are often written in English.

English words are also used as elements of magic to be included on T-shirts, sweaters, caps etc. Some think English is chic, stylish, even when the language on these designed items makes no sense.

That is why in order to understand ourselves and the world around us we have to study foreign languages and English in particular.

Vocabulary
1. political implications – политические последствия

2. mother tongue [tʌŋ] - родной язык
3. to be borrowed - быть заимствованными (о словах)
4. soft drinks - безалкогольные напитки
5. products - предметы домашнего обихода
6. software ['sɔftwɛə] - программное обеспечение
7. T-shirt - футболка
8. sweater ['swetə] - свитер
9. chic [ʃik] - шикарно
10. stylish ['staɪlɪʃ] - современно, стильно
11. designed items - надписи на изделиях
12. to make no sense - не иметь смысла
13. in particular - особенно

14. fraction – доля

15. auxiliary languages – вспомогательные языки

Exercises to the topic

4.1. Read the texts and answer the offered questions.

Text 1

Varieties of English

As English has spread there are now several recognized varieties of English. While the English spoken in Britain's former "white" colonies — the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand — is still very similar to British English, and differs from it only in matters of vocabulary and phraseology, the English spoken in the West Indies and in the countries such as India where English is the second language can be very different in syntax and grammar.

American English, for example, has been influenced by American Indian languages, by Spanish, and by the languages of all the ethnic groups that have immigrated to the US over the years. But it still understood without difficulty by the speakers of British English. Indeed, many "Americanisms" — words or phrases which originated in America — have been assimilated back into British English; words such as skunk (American Indian), canyon, banana, potato (Spanish) or expressions such as to take a back seat, to strike oil, to cave in.

Other words — automobile, cookie, crazy, highway, mail, movie, truck — still have an American flavour but are increasingly used by speakers of British English. A few words — remain decidedly American, as do some forms of spelling (color — colour, theatre — theatre, tire - tyre).

Australian English also has its own "home-grown" words, some of which have made their way into international English (boomerang, budgerigar), though others (cobber = friend, sheila = girl, tucker = food, dinkum = good) remain distinctively Australian.

Vocabulary:

to assimilate — поглощать, ассимилировать
flavour — особенность
to remain — оставаться

budgerigar – волнистый попугайчик

Questions:

1. What countries is English spoken in?
2. How has American English been influenced?
3. Which American words have been assimilated back into British English?
4. What words remain decidedly American?
5. What words remain distinctively Australian?

Text 2

Why do We Study English

People began to speak many centuries ago, and since then they have been speaking different languages. Every language reflects the soul, behaviour and temperament of each nationality. Peoples created their own alphabets and rules, but they always wanted to communicate with each other, to understand and to know more about each other.

Languages help people to understand each other better, they help them to solve different economic and political problems, which stand before them, and so people learn foreign languages.

All languages are different. Some are very hard, some are easier, some are similar, but there are no identical languages in the whole world. There are more than 2,700 languages in the world. Many of them are "alive" because people use them, but there are some "dead" languages, for example Latin.

Two thousand years ago, Latin was the world's most important international language. Today this title belongs to English. It's a global language of travel, business, pop culture, sport and science.

Over one billion people speak English. That's almost one fifth of the world's population. For over 400 million it's their first language. For the other 600 million it's either a second language or a foreign language.

Today, in fact, over 250 million people are learning English. That's more than the population of the USA.

The average person in Britain has a vocabulary of between 10,000 and 15,000 words. In his plays William Shakespeare used a vocabulary of about 30,000 words. Shakespeare was born over 400 years ago. At that time, only six or seven million people spoke English.

Now English is spoken practically all over the world, it has become the world's most important language in politics, science, trade and cultural relations. It is spoken as a mother tongue in Great Britain, the United States of America, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Besides, a lot of people speak English in Japan, India, China, Africa and many other countries. English is one of the official languages of the United Nation Organization. Half of the world's scientific literature is in English. It is the language of computer technology.

To my mind English is worth studying. There is a proverb: "A new language is a new world". "Knowledge is a power", one great man said. Speaking a foreign language one can not only read the papers, magazines and original books by outstanding writers, but as well watch satellite programmes, travel easily to different parts of the world. Besides, understanding and speaking a foreign language became necessary while applying for a good and well-paid job.

Now I know that it is a must for XXI century professional no matter what job to choose. The world is getting smaller and international connections tighter. A lot of foreign delegations keep coming to our country; hundreds of joint ventures have recently appeared in every city of our country. So without doubt you can't do without learning this beautiful language.

Vocabulary:

to reflect — отражать
soul — душа
behaviour — образ действий, манеры, поведение
to create — создавать
similar(to) — подобный, похожий, сходный
average — нормальный, обыкновенный, обычный, средний
a mother tongue — родной язык
worth — достойный, заслуживающий
satellite — спутниковый
to apply for — обращаться с просьбой, заявлением (особ, в письменной форме); for — за чем-л.
well-paid job — хорошо оплачиваемая работа
joint venture — совместное предприятие
do without — обходиться без

Questions:

1. What was the world's most important international language two thousand years ago?
2. How many people speak English as their first language, a second language or a foreign language?
3. How many languages are there in the world?
4. How large is the vocabulary of the average British person?
5. Where is English spoken?
6. Why do you learn English?

4.2. Answer the questions to the topic in a written form.

1. Has English become the world's most important language? Why?
2. How many people speak it as a mother tongue?
3. In what countries do people use English as a native language?
4. Can you name any English words that have entered the Russian language?
5. What is English to you?

4.3. Translate the given information into the Russian language using the Russian-English dictionary.

Основные функции английского языка как международного языка, или сферы его использования, можно свести к следующим:

1) официально-дипломатическая;

2) официально-государственного регулирования;

3) официально-деловая (бизнес, торговля, транспорт, связь);

4) образовательная;

5) информационная (наука, средства массовой информации, Интернет, спорт, медицина и т.д.);

6) развлекательная (кино- и видеопродукция, поп-музыка);

7) рекламная (этикетки, торговые марки и пр.).

4.4. Prepare the report on the topic “English as the language of international communication” using information of the section.

PART 3

BUSINESS ENGLISH

В нашей стране с переходом экономики на рыночные отношения и развитием предпринимательства, созданием совместных предприятий растет число всевозможных контактов с зарубежными партнерами. Необходимость написать письмо деловому партнеру возникает постоянно. Так как английский язык является общепринятым международным языком делового общения, то особый интерес представляет письмо именно на английском языке.

На Западе очень большое значение уделяется этике бизнеса. Считается, что крайне необходимо письменно подтвердить предварительную договоренность или прием заказа, извиниться за непредвиденную задержку его исполнения, дать промежуточный ответ, поблагодарить за оказанную любезность или сделанную покупку, официально поздравить коллегу с повышением по службе или днем рождения. С этой точки зрения данный раздел окажет помощь в бизнесе не только в отношениях с зарубежными партнерами, но и с фирмами внутри страны.

ОФОРМЛЕНИЕ ДЕЛОВОГО ПИСЬМА

Прежде чем мы подробно остановимся на содержании различных деловых писем, необходимо отметить ряд существенных деталей по поводу того, как правильно оформить письмо. Именно его внешний вид формирует первое впечатление читателя.

Когда черновик письма уже составлен, и вы готовы его напечатать, помните о трех вещах:

Письмо должно быть напечатано через один-два интервала. Между абзацами интервал должен быть удвоен. Качество печати должно быть отличным. Для исправления ошибок используйте «Штрих» или вклейки.
Следуйте логике, когда делите ваше письмо на абзацы, но и не забывайте при этом о его внешнем виде. Желательно разбивать письмо на абзацы приблизительно одинаковой величины.

3. Не забывайте о полях, которые должны быть со всех сторон. Если письмо короткое, не печатайте его в верхней части страницы, если оно слишком длинное, не старайтесь уместить на одном листе.

Расположение текста письма по вертикали

В вертикальном расположении письма существует определенный стандарт.

Название и адрес вашей компании. Обычно отпечатано типографским способом вверху страницы («фирменный бланк»). Используется только для первой страницы письма.
Дата пишется через пять строк после указанного в пункте первом.
Адрес получателя, тот же, что и на конверте.
Конкретный адресат: в случае, если письмо отправляется на адрес компании или организации, но вы хотите, чтобы оно было вручено конкретному человеку, заглавными буквами пишется слово «ATTENTION» и имя получателя.
Обращение. Старайтесь обращаться по имени. В том случае, если оно неизвестно, можно в качестве обращения использовать титул или должность адресата. Обращения “Dear Sir”, “Dear Madam”, “Gentlemen” возможны, но помните, что они придают письму официальный тон.
Заглавие или тема письма. Хотя эта позиция и необязательна, но, указав тему письма, вы лишний раз продемонстрируете свое вежливое отношение к адресату. Ему сразу станет ясно, заслуживает ли письмо немедленного внимания. Тему письма следует подчеркивать или написать заглавными буквами.
Непосредственно текст письма. Абзацы текста рекомендуется отделять друг от друга интервалами.
Вежливое, формальное завершение письма. Могут быть использованы следующие стандартные фразы: “Yours truly”, “Truly yours”, “Sincerely yours”, “Respectfully yours”, фамильярности в данном случае следует избегать. Например, фразой “Best wishes” можно завершить письмо, если адресат вам хорошо знаком. Такие выражения, как “Fondly”, “Love” лучше использовать в частной переписке.
Название вашей компании. Этот пункт часто опускается в менее формальной переписке. Название следует ставить, если автор письма пишет не от своего лица, а от имени всей компании. Но поскольку эта информация стоит в начале письма, некоторые не ставят подпись в конце вовсе.
Имя написавшего, его должность и звание. Печатается четырьмя строками ниже предшествующего пункта, чтобы оставить место для подписи.

11. Инициалы автора и инициалы исполнителя письма. Инициалы автора пишутся большими буквами, затем через дробь или двоеточие маленькими буквами — инициалы напечатавшего письмо. Благодаря этому всегда можно узнать, кем оно было подготовлено.

12. Перечень приложений. Если таковые имеются, то необходимо написать слово “Enclosure” и составить список прилагаемых документов. Это будет гарантией того, что вложенные в письмо важные бумаги не будут случайно выброшены в мусорную корзину вместе с конвертом.

13. В случае, если копия письма была направлена другому адресату, в конце вы ставите знак “сс” и имя этого человека.

ПИСЬМО-ЗАПРОС ИНФОРМАЦИИ (INQUIRY/REQUEST LETTER)

Письмо-запрос информации (Inquiry/Request Letter) отправляется, когда необходимо получить более подробную информацию об интересующем вас товаре или услуге.

В начале письма следует поместить название и адрес вашей компании, ниже должно идти название компании, в которую вы обращаетесь. Составить текст письма вы можете с помощью следующих стандартных выражений:

1. Официальное обращение, поскольку с адресатом вы не знакомы.

Dear Sir or Madam, Dear Sirs

2. Указание источника информации о компании.

With reference to your advertisement (ad) in ... - Относительно вашей рекламы в …

Regarding your advertisement (ad) in ... - Касательно вашей рекламы в …

3. Просьба выслать необходимые данные.

Could you please send me ... - Не могли бы вы выслать мне …

I would be grateful if you could… - Я был бы благодарен, если вы…

Can you give me some information about …? - Можете ли вы дать мне информацию о …

Could you send me more details …? - Могли бы вы выслать мне подробную информацию …

4. Дополнительные вопросы.

I would also like to know ... - Я бы также хотел узнать…

Could you tell me whether ... - Скажите, пожалуйста…

5. Подпись.

Yours faithfully - Искренне Ваш (если имя Вам не известно)

Yours sincerely - (если имя Вам известно)

ПИСЬМО-ЖАЛОБА (COMPLAINT LETTER)

Письмо, содержащее жалобу или претензии по качеству приобретенного товара и оказанных услуг, называется Complaint Letter. Основная цель такого письма - передать полную информацию по возникшей проблеме. Письмо также может выступать в качестве официального документа, уведомляющего о необходимости проведения проверки и устранения неполадок.

Письмо должно содержать всю необходимую информацию, касающуюся данной услуги или товара. Напишите полное название и описания товара, дату приобретения или указания услуги и т.д. Ваша цель – объяснить все детали, но не перегружать письмо ненужными подробностями. Кроме того, необходимо указать ваши пожелания, условия и сроки устранения проблем.

Кому адресовать данное письмо?

При приобретении товара или заключении договора, на предоставление услуг, вы получаете контактный адрес или телефон человека, который может решить все возникшие сложности. Обычно в небольших компаниях эти вопросы решает владелец компании. В организациях среднего уровня – его заместитель или высший руководящий состав. В крупных компаниях обычно существует отдел по работе с клиентами, который занимается решением таких вопросов.

Из каких основных частей состоит письмо?

1. Вступление

The name of the contact person - Полное имя адресата (если известно)

The title, if available – Должность (если известно)

Company Name - Название компании

Consumer Complaint Division - Отдел по работе с клиентами

Street Address, City, State, Zip Code - Адрес компании

Dear, (Contact Person) - Обращение

2. Введение, содержащее информацию о приобретенном товаре либо услуге.

On (the 1st of July), I (bought, leased, rented, or had repaired) a (name of the product, with serial or model number or service performed) at (location and other important details of the transaction). - 1 июля я (приобрел, сдал в наем, арендовал, отремонтировал) (полное название товара с серийным номером или вид услуги) по адресу … (далее указывается другая важная информация о совершенной сделке).

I am writing to draw your attention to a problem in your customer service section. - Я пишу, чтобы привлечь ваше внимание к проблеме в отделе по работе с клиентами.

I wish to complaint in the strongest possible terms about the treatment I received from a member of your staff - Я бы хотел выразить претензии к обращению со мной вашего сотрудника.

I am writing to express my strong dissatisfaction with the goods I received this morning. - Я пишу, чтобы выразить недовольство продуктами, полученными сегодня утром.

I am writing to complain about the quality of the product I purchased on-line from your website. - Я пишу, чтобы выразить недовольство качеством продуктов, заказанных на вашем сайте.

I am writing in connection with the negative attitude of a member of your staff. - Я пишу в связи с негативным отношением члена вашей компании.

3. Описание возникшей проблемы

“Unfortunately, your product (or service) has not performed well (or the service was inadequate) because (state the problem). I am disappointed because (explain the problem: for example, the product does not work properly, the service was not performed correctly, and I was billed the wrong amount, something was not disclosed clearly or was misrepresented, etc.)”. – «К сожалению, ваш товар (услуга) не отвечает необходимым требованиям, так как (указывается проблема). Я разочарован, поскольку (объясняется ситуация: например, прибор плохо работает не качественно, мне предъявили неправильную сумму к оплате, что-то не было объяснено)».

“The equipment I ordered has still not been delivered, despite my phone call to you last week to say that it was needed urgently”. – «Заказанное оборудование все еще не доставлено, несмотря на то, что я уже звонил вам на прошлой неделе и сообщил, что оно требуется немедленно».

“To resolve the problem, I would appreciate it if you could (state the specific action you want—money back, charge card credit, repair, exchange, etc.). Enclosed are copies of my records (include copies of receipts, guarantees, warranties, cancelled checks, contracts, model and serial numbers, and any other documents)”. – «Для решения проблемы, я был бы благодарен, если вы (указываются ваши требования: вернете деньги, кредит, проведете ремонт, произведете обмен и т.д.) Копии документов прилагаются (приложите копии квитанции, гарантийный талон, чеки, контракты и другие документы)».

“I look forward to your reply and the resolution of my problem, and will wait until (set a time limit) before seeking help from a consumer protection agency or the Better Business Bureau. Please contact me at the above address or by phone at (home and/or office numbers with area code)”. – «Я жду вашего ответа с решением по моей проблеме и буду ждать до (указывается крайний срок) прежде чем обратиться за помощью в организацию по защите прав потребителей. Свяжитесь со мной по следующему адресу или телефону (указывается адрес и номер телефона)».

“Please deal with this matter urgently. I expect a reply from you by tomorrow morning at the latest”. – «Пожалуйста, решите эту проблему немедленно. Я жду вашего ответа не позднее завтрашнего утра».

“I insist on a full refund otherwise I will be forced to take the matter further”. – «Я настаиваю на полном возмещении расходов, иначе я буду вынужден …»

“Unless I receive the goods by the end of this week, I will have no choice but to cancel my order”. – «Если я не получу данный товар до конца недели, у меня не будет другого выбора, кроме как аннулировать заказ».

“I hope that you will deal with this matter promptly as it is causing me considerable inconvenience”. – «Я надеюсь, вы разберетесь с этим делом немедленно, поскольку это доставляет мне серьезные неудобства».

4. Окончание письма.

Yours sincerely…/Yours faithfully…

ПИСЬМО-ПРИГЛАШЕНИЕ (INVITATION LETTER)

Составляется письмо в случае необходимости приглашения на какое-то мероприятие: концерт, благотворительный вечер, семинар, совещание, конференцию и т.п.

Текст приглашения должен содержать четкую и конкретную информацию о дате и месте проведения торжества. Письмо может быть адресовано как одному лицу, так и нескольким одновременно.

Отправляется письмо-приглашение, как правило, за несколько дней или даже недель до проведения мероприятия, чтобы приглашенный человек имел время и возможность принять решение и собраться на торжество.

На письмо-приглашение желательно отправлять ответ, даже в случае отказа от предложения. Отказ необходимо сформулировать вежливо, указать причину отказа, пусть даже выдуманную.

Оформление письма-приглашения осуществляется согласно правилам, установленным для делового письма.

ЭЛЕКТРОННАЯ ПОЧТА (E-MAIL)

Электронная почта стала основной формой общения между представителями различных организаций по самым разным вопросам.

Следуйте следующим правилам при общении по электронной почте:

- Хорошо представьте себе адресата. Оттого, кому вы пишите, будет зависеть стиль письма. Чем ближе отношения - тем меньше формальностей.

- Составляйте послание по возможности кратким и четким. Это правило распространяется на все виды делового общения, но для электронной почты становится наиболее актуальным, поскольку воспринимать информацию с монитора сложнее, чем с листа. Дайте возможность вашему адресату ответить также коротко. Например, вместо того, чтобы писать: “Let me know what you think”, лучше поставить вопрос так: “Is 3 PM or 5 PM best for you?”

- Поле «тема» должно быть заполнено так, чтобы четко отражать основную идею письма.

- Приветствие (Dear Sir/Madam) не обязательно для стандартной переписки, однако в деловых письмах не будут лишним.

- В первых словах надо сформулировать, в связи с чем вы пишите письмо: вы отвечаете, назначаете встречу или высказываете свои соображения в связи с чем-то. Например: I am replying to your letter dated 15 January 2007 wherein you asked for information concerning our Spring courses on Business Writing.

- Если в электронном письме вы начинаете слово с заглавной буквы, это означает, что вы хотите выделить его, как наиболее важную мысль.

- Длина каждой строки не должна превышать 65 знаков, в противном случае текст может исказиться при прочтении письма на другом компьютере.

- Письмо должно быть хорошо структурировано - вступление, основная часть (факты) и вывод.

- KISS (Keep it short and simple). Помните, что вероятно ваш адресат получает десяток писем в день - стоит экономить его время.

- Использование стандартных сокращений, характерных для повседневной переписки, такие как ”IMHO” (In My Honest Opinion) также не приветствуются.

- Тщательно проверьте письмо, изменить или удалить его после отправки.

- Обратный электронный адрес и имя отправителя лучше написать в конце письма, на случай если письмо будет выведено на печать.

- Общение по электронной почте предполагает активное взаимодействие поэтому, получив электронное письмо, на которое вы не можете ответить немедленно, следует отправить сообщение о получении письма и предполагаемом времени отправки полного ответа.

СЛУЖЕБНАЯ ЗАПИСКА (MEMORANDUM)

Служебная записка (memorandum - в единственном числе, memoranda - во множественном). Если Вы плохо владеете латинским языком, то можете использовать соответственно memo или memos.

Служебные записки - это письменные сообщения внутри компаний или в пределах подразделений компании. Они, как правило, предназначены для объявлений, обсуждения бизнес процессов, предоставления отчетности о работе компании, распространения информации среди сотрудников. Служебная записка является публичным документом, поэтому не следует в ней писать какую-либо конфиденциальную информацию.

При написании обычно используется неофициальный и дружественный стиль. Хотя Вам и не нужно быть слишком кратким, излишне официозным в тоже время лаконичность приветствуется. Структура служебной записки составляется таким образом, чтобы наиболее важная информация находилась в первом абзаце, а в последующих абзацах разъяснить эту информацию более подробно.

Все служебные записки имеют аналогичную структуру. В них присутствуют следующие элементы:

Получатель: выравнивание по левому краю, прописными буквами, в верхней части страницы.

Отправитель: по левому краю, прописными буквами, непосредственно под «Получателем».

Дата: по левому краю, прописными буквами, сразу под «Отправителем».

Тема: по левому краю, прописными буквами, под «Датой».

Несмотря на то, что большинство информации сегодня передается по электронной почте, использование прикрепленных служебных записок (документов) остается важным элементом в деловой переписке 21 столетия. Отправка в напечатанном виде возможно уже вчерашний день, но все еще важно использовать правильное оформление при отправке по электронной почте.

ПЕРЕПИСКА ПРИ УСТРОЙСТВЕ НА РАБОТУ

Резюме (в США резюме принято называть Resume, в Европе - CV - Curriculum Vitae) — это краткое описание всего, что вы можете предложить потенциальному нанимателю в своем лице. От того, как оно будет составлено, зависит первое впечатление возможного босса о вас, и, следовательно, надо постараться, чтобы оно было благоприятным. Резюме должно выглядеть профессионально и подчеркивать те качества, которые будущий начальник хотел бы в вас видеть.

Для начала составьте список. В любом порядке опишите следующие моменты:

- учебные заведения, которые вы посещали;

- область вашей специализации;

- посещение специальных курсов;

- членство в обществах;

- полученные награды и благодарности;

- виды спорта, которыми вы занимаетесь;

- знание иностранных языков;

- что представляет для вас наибольший интерес в работе;

- должности, которые вы занимали ранее.

Резюме должно быть напечатано на листе бумаги обычного формата. Сделайте ваш документ удобным для чтения. Сформировав общий план резюме, убедитесь, что в нем есть достаточно чистого пространства. Верхнее и нижнее поля должны быть не менее 1.5 сантиметров высотой, а боковые поля не менее 2. Между отдельными частями резюме оставляйте пробелы. Жирным шрифтом выделяйте названия пунктов, а также названий компаний и имена. Не подчеркивайте слова и не используйте курсив, для придания выразительности. Используйте стандартные шрифты Arial, Garamond, Helvetica, Tahoma или Times Roman. Не начинайте каждое предложение одинаковыми фразами и не вводите личные местоимения. Чтобы сделать текст более выразительным используйте разнообразную лексику. Предпочтительно уместить резюме на одном листе, а значит, вы должны отобрать только те сведения, которые заслуживают упоминания, и умело расположить их.

Начните с просмотра предварительного списка, о котором мы говорили выше. Выберите из него только то, что наверняка понравится вашему нанимателю. Все, что вызывает сомнение, опустите.

При отборе руководствуйтесь спецификой потенциальной работы. Какие ваши знания и умения лучше всего подходят для работы в этой области? Обязательно подчеркните их.

Вычеркнув из списка лишнюю информацию, перепишите его заново, соблюдая логический порядок

Теперь можно приниматься за составление резюме. Наверху страницы напечатайте в столбик ваши имя и фамилию, адрес и почтовый индекс, а также номер телефона. Эти сведения можно расположить по центру или сместить к левому краю. Этого достаточно для заголовка. Слово «резюме» не печатайте.

Далее излагайте те факты, которые вы оставили в своем списке.

Некоторые из возможных заголовков в резюме:

EMPLOYMENT (OR CAREER) OBJECTIVE — цель обращения

EDUCATION AND/OR TRAINING — образование

AWARDS AND HONORS — награды и почетные звания

WORK EXPERIENCE — трудовая деятельность

RELATED OR EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES — дополнительные сведения

SPECIAL SKILLS — специальные знания

PERSONAL DATA— разное

REFERENCES — рекомендации

Вовсе не обязательно описывать все эти пункты. Выбирайте только те заголовки, которые вам подходят. Порядок изложения фактов может быть произвольным. Вы можете на первое место поставить те сведения, которые характеризуют вас с наилучшей стороны или подчеркивают вашу профессиональную пригодность к именно этому виду работы.

Рассмотрим каждый заголовок в отдельности.

EMPLOYMENT OBJECTIVE. Специалисты советуют включать этот заголовок сразу после фамилии и адреса. Четкая формулировка производит благоприятное впечатление, составитель резюме выглядит организованным и целеустремленным человеком. С другой стороны, некоторые бизнесмены предпочитают текст более общего характера, например, «Acceptance in a management training program». Вероятно, это кажется ненавязчивым.

EDUCATION. Перечислите в обратном хронологическом порядке учебные заведения, которые вы закончили, с указанием названий, сроков обучения и упоминанием полученных дипломов и свидетельств. Обязательно укажите те предметы, которые имеют непосредственное отношение к вашей будущей работе. Если вы не закончили образование, перечислите дисциплины, которые успели изучить.

WORK EXPERIENCE. Здесь вы должны упомянуть все ваши места работы после окончания школы в обратном хронологическом порядке, включая вашу должность или звание, фамилию нанимателя и адрес (номер телефона желателен), даты работы и краткое описание ваших служебных обязанностей. Не указывайте причин смены работы, это может выглядеть как оправдание или указать на ваши возможные недостатки.

Если вы служили в армии, то опишите ваш опыт, либо под этим заголовком, либо под отдельным. Обязательно укажите род войск, сроки прохождения службы, особые задания и звание, в котором вы демобилизовались.

EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES and SPECIAL SKILLS. Под этими заголовками можно перечислить все факты, которые, на ваш взгляд, заслуживают упоминания, но не подходят под заголовки WORK или EDUCATION. Например, если вы умеете печатать на машинке, но никогда не работали секретарем, укажите здесь, сколько слов в минуту печатаете. Если вы знакомы с компьютером или знаете иностранный язык, упомяните и это.

Перечислите все иностранные языки, которыми вы владеете. Первым следует указывать знание английского языка и уровень вашего знания:

fluent или excellent - свободное владение английским языком;

good - хорошее владение языком;

upper intermediate - выше среднего;

intermediate - среднее;

pre-intermediate - ниже среднего.

PERSONAL DATA. Необязательно сообщать такие сведения, как ваш возраст, рост, вес, состояние здоровья и семейное положение. Но если какой-то из перечисленных фактов имеет значение для работы, на которую вы хотите поступить, его стоит включить в резюме.

REFERENCES. Это последний раздел резюме. Включите сюда фамилии и адреса тех людей, которые могут поручиться за вас. Лучшие рекомендатели — бывшие наниматели и преподаватели. Для каждого поручителя укажите фамилию, должность или звание, адрес места работы и номер телефона. Упомяните как минимум трех поручителей. Возможен и такой вариант: под этим заголовком напишите «References Available upon request». Тогда вы должны будете представить вашему потенциальному работодателю копии заранее подготовленных рекомендательных писем (прежде чем указывать фамилию поручителя, удостоверьтесь в его согласии).

Словарь должностей

инженер-механик Mechanic Engineer

инженер-энергетик Electric Power Engineers

горный инженер Engineer of Mining

диплом инженера Diploma in Engineering

инженер-геофизик Geophysical Engineer

инженер-испытатель Test Engineer

инженер-строитель Building Engineer

инженер-электрик Electrical Engineers

инженер-конструктор Design Engineer

программист Programmer, Developer

менеджер по продажам Sales Manager

торговый представитель Business Representative

бухгалтер Accountant

главный бухгалтер Senior Accountant

главный инженер Chief Engineer

менеджер по подбору

персонала HR Manager

юрист Lawyer

секретарь Assistant

офис-менеджер Office Manager

помощник менеджера Manager Assistant

менеджер по работе

с клиентами Account Manager

менеджер отдела сбыта Sales Department Manager

экономист Economist

ДОГОВОР/КОНТРАКТ (CONTRACT)

Договор как основной юридический акт является главным средством регулирования товарно-денежных связей, определяющим права и обязанности его участников. Договор на английском языке составляется в письменной форме в официальном стиле и подписывается сторонами-участниками.

Существуют правила составления договора на английском языке, которые следует строго соблюдать, иначе документ не будет иметь юридической силы. Любой договор можно разделить на следующие части:

Вводная часть договора (преамбула)
Предмет договора
Дополнительные условия договора
Прочие условия договора
Реквизиты, адреса и подписи сторон договора
Приложения к договору
Дополнения к договору

Важными составляющими контракта на английском языке словами являются:

contract №. (номер контракта);

place and date of signing (место и дата подписания);

names of the Sides which signed the contract (имена сторон, которые подписывают контракт);

subject of the contract (предмет контракта);

price per unit and total price (цена и общая сумма контракта);

delivery time and terms of delivery (сроки и условия поставки);

quality of goods (качество товара);

requirements for packing and marking (требования к упаковке и маркировке);

payment terms (условия платежа);

claims (претензии);

arbitration conditions (арбитраж);

force majeure (форс-мажор);

miscellaneous provisions (прочие условия);

judicial addresses of the Sides (юридические адрес сторон);

signatures of the seller and the buyer (подписи продавца и покупателя).

Необходимо обратить внимание на то, что продавец и покупатель в контрактах обозначаются словами Seller, Sellers, Buyer, Buyers с артиклем the или без артикля. Слова Seller(s) и Buyer(s) пишутся с заглавной буквы, а во вводной части контракта Seller(s) и Buyer(s) ставятся в кавычки.

Одной из специфических черт контракта на английском языке является употребление глагола shall, который редко используется в современном английском языке, но широко применяется в деловой переписке и деловых документах. Например, в выражении “The result shall be considered”. Оно равно по смыслу выражению “The result is to be considered” или “will be considered”.

Следует отметить, что в контракте для обозначения действия в будущем может встречаться сочетание глагола should с инфинитивом, однако такая конструкция показывает меньшую степень возможности совершения действия. Глагол should с инфинитивом часто употребляется в придаточном предложении. Например, “if a delay in the delivery should exceed 3 month”.

Во многих случаях глаголы shall и should имеют одинаковое значение. Например, “If the actual cost to us shall/should increase”.

Еще одной отличительной чертой, которую следует учитывать при составлении контракта на английском языке, является пропуск частицы if в придаточном предложении с глаголом should. В таких случаях глагол should становится первым элементом в предложении. Например, “Should the above circumstances continue to be in force...”, “Should the Buyers fail to open the letter of credit in time...”

APPENDIX TO PART 3

Образец написания письма-запроса

Kenneth Beare

2520 Visita Avenue

Olympia, WA 98501

September 12, 2000

Jackson Brothers

3487 23rd Street

New York, NY 12009

Dear Sirs,

With reference to your advertisement in yesterday's “New York Times”, could you please send me a copy of your latest catalogue? I would also like to know if it is possible to make purchases online.

Yours faithfully,

Kenneth Beare

Administrative Director

English Learners & Company

Образец написания служебной записки

Memorandum

TO: GTS Sales Staff

FROM: Karen Moore

CC: Mr. John Sakazaki

DATE: April 18, 2008

SUBJECT: Customer Presentation

The JSKL Marketing presentation you prepared last week to showcase our new product line was exceptional! Your enthusiasm, sales strategy, and product knowledge were impressive and certainly sealed the deal with Mr. Lockhart!

Thank you for your outstanding work and dedication. Bonus checks will be distributed next week.

My sincere congratulations to all of you!

Образец написания резюме

Alexey I. Maximov

123456, Moscow,

Lenin St. 1, apt.2

Tel. home: (495) 555-55-55

Tel. mobile: 8-ХХХ-555-55-55

E-mail: aleksey@nail.ru

Date of Birth: July 15, 1973

Objective:

To obtain a position of IT Specialist, Supply Support Engineer, Technical Support Engineer, Technical Representative and any position related to software and hardware of end-user system support.

Education:

1989 – 1995

Moscow Institute of Radioengineering, Electronics and Automatics (MIREA). Graduate as an Engineer of Electronic Engineering.

Work Experience: 1995 to present - working as a chief specialist in Scientific Technical Centre "SYSTEMA" of Federal Agency of Government Media under the President of the Russia Federation.

Responsibilities: programming, supporting, of end-user system, preparing documentation for software, design of software interface, participation in international exhibition. Producing Power Point presentations of software Computer articles, software and documentation translation (Eng-Rus, Rus-Eng). Two patents for created products.

Computing Skills:

MS Windows (3.11, 95, 98, XP) MS Word (6.0, 7.0, 97), MS PowerPoint, MS Excel, Internet (all popular browsers ), skills of handing multimedia files.

Language:

English – fluent

Personal information:

Russian native speaker, Moscow permanent resident. Responsible, communicative, work well individually and in team, willing to travel a lot.

Additional information:

Driving license, foreign passport.

Hobbies:

Skiing, climbing, music, foreign languages, travelling.

References:

Available on request.

Рис. 1. Образец оформления конверта к письму на английском языке

Рис. 2. Образец оформления делового письма на английском языке

Рис. 3. Образец оформления приглашения на английском языке

PART 4

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Результативность самостоятельной работы студентов во многом определяется наличием разнообразных методов ее контроля.

Существуют следующие виды контроля СРС: 1) внешний - осуществляется преподавателем по отношению к деятельности студентов; 2) взаимный - осуществляется студентами в отношении деятельности друг друга; 3) внутренний (самоконтроль) - осуществляется студентом в отношении собственной учебной деятельности.

В пособии контроль освоения учебного курса по дисциплине «Иностранный язык» предлагается проводить в форме тестирования, во-первых, по тому, что тестирование студентов сегодня – привычная и валидная процедура проверки остаточных знаний, во-вторых, тест сочетает в себе функции внешнего и внутреннего контроля, являясь обучающим проверочным заданием.

По содержанию материала в разделе представлены лексико-грамматические тесты, цель которых – определение уровня сформированности лингвистической, социолингвистической и социокультурной компетенций студентов. Поясним, что под социолингвистической компетенцией принято понимать умение варьировать речь в зависимости от социального статуса собеседников и общего контекста ситуаций общения; лингвистическая компетенция – степень владения языковыми средствами, основанная на знании лексики и грамматики изучаемого языка; социокультурная компетенция – умение эффективно и адекватно применять информацию о лингвострановедческих и социокультурных особенностях страны изучаемого языка в процессе межкультурной коммуникации.

В тесты включены также задания на проверку понимания письменного текста, выявляющие у студентов степень владения различными стратегиями чтения, проверяющие их интеллектуальные способности и навыки логического мышления.

THE TEST ON THE TOPIC “EDUCATION”

ЗАДАНИЕ № 1 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

When you complete your first degree, you are called a ______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Master 2) graduate

3) tutor 4) student

ЗАДАНИЕ № 2 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

The students who have good results in their exams can get ________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) subjects 2) food

3) grants 4) classes

ЗАДАНИЕ № 3 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

The students of our university get a good _______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) formation 2) education

3) establishment 4) cultivation

ЗАДАНИЕ N 4 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

Higher education provides the country with highly-qualified _______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) scientists 2) specialists

3) bachelors 4) teachers

ЗАДАНИЕ N 5 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

The academic year at any university in this country usually lasts 9 months and is divided into two _________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) degrees 2) exams

3) periods 4) terms

ЗАДАНИЕ N 6 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

After graduating from the university she decided to take _______ courses.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) postgraduate 2) doctoral

3) students 4) undergraduate

ЗАДАНИЕ N 7 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

Congratulations! I heard you ________your examination yesterday.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) revised 2) do badly in

3) passed 4) failed

ЗАДАНИЕ N 8 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

More and more people are doing online language ________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) subjects 2) degrees

3) stages 4) courses

ЗАДАНИЕ N 9 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

At the graduate level the university grants master’s and doctoral _______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) degrees 2) diplomas

3) notes 4) qualifications

ЗАДАНИЕ N 10 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения

Teacher: Thank you for your active participation at the conference.

Students: ______________________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Goodbye forever. 2) We are the champions!

3) Good luck. 4) Don`t mention it. Thank you for your

lessons, we enjoyed them.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 11 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения

Student: “Can you explain what the problem was with my composition?”

Teacher: “______________________”.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) No, I can’t. 2) You’ve had some problems

3) I’m afraid your handwriting wasn’t very good. 4) Very Bad.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 12 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения

Teacher: “There are some new words in the text.”

Student: “______________________.”

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Help! 2) When does this lesson finish?

3) Could you explain what they mean? 4) What?

ЗАДАНИЕ N 13 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения

Teacher: “Well, good-bye and the best of luck for the future.”

Student: “______________________.”

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Good-bye forever. 2) Let’s hope for the best.

3) Good luck. 4) Thank you for teaching me, I really enjoyed

your lessons.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 14 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

The oldest university in the Great Britain is_______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Cambridge 2) Oxford

3) London University 4) British University

ЗАДАНИЕ N 15 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск

The oldest university in the United States is_______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Harvard University 2) Princeton University

3) Yale University 4) Columbia University

ЗАДАНИЕ N 16 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, является ли утверждение к тексту “Distance Education over the World”:

Distance education is very popular, although it is rather young.

Distance Education over the World

1. Distance education over the world has a history of more than 100 years. But it gained popularity only after 1970s.

2. Many countries like China, England, Japan, Russia, Spain and the USA use this method, especially in higher education.

3. For example, the Open University in England has more than 80,000 students who take about 140 courses per year. This university has 260 local teaching and 13 regional information centres.

4. Such factors as age, place, daily activity do not serve as limiting factors in distance education. Distance education has two main advantages over traditional classroom education. The first advantage is a solution to the problem of teaching staff shortage and the second one is the low cost of education which gives many people an opportunity to receive higher education.

5. It is a system of education for different people at any age. This education allows each student to have an individual scheme of study.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) ложным 2) в тексте нет информации

3) истинным

ЗАДАНИЕ N 17 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Укажите, какой части текста “Distance Education over the World”

соответствует высказывание.

Distant education has two advantages over traditional system of studying.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) 5 2) 1

3) 3 4) 4

ЗАДАНИЕ N 18 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Укажите, какой части текста “Distance Education over the World”соответствует высказывание.

Distance education is the method widely used in the system of higher education.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) 1 2) 4

3) 2 4) 3

ЗАДАНИЕ N 19

Найдите в тексте “Distance Education over the World” предложение, раскрывающее его основную идею.

THE TEST ON COUNTRYSTUDYING

ЗАДАНИЕ N 1 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The UK consists of four parts. They are: __________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

England, Scotland, Wales and 2) England, Scotland, Wales and

New Zealand. Southern Ireland.

England, Scotland, Wales and 4) England, Scotland, Wales and

the British Isles. Northern Ireland.

ЗАДАНИЕ № 2 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Ответьте на вопрос:

How many official languages are there in Canada?

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) One 2) three

3) Two 4) four

ЗАДАНИЕ N 3 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The capital of Canada is ____________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Montreal 2) Vancouver

3) Toronto 4) Ottawa

ЗАДАНИЕ N 4 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The USA consists of _____ states.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) 20 2) 50

3) 35 4) 60

ЗАДАНИЕ № 5 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

_______ has more historic associations than any other building in Britain. It is the place where nearly all English kings and queens have been crowned.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Harrods 2) Buckingham Palace

3) Westminster Abbey 4) Trafalgar Square

ЗАДАНИЕ № 6 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск..

Loch Ness is in_____.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) England 2) Italy

3) Scotland 4) France

ЗАДАНИЕ № 7 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The most ancient monument in Great Britain is ______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) The lower West Gate 2) The Tower of London

3) Hadrian’s Wall 4) Stonehenge

ЗАДАНИЕ № 8 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Big Ben is ______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) A fortress 2) a bell

3) A museum 4) a palace

ЗАДАНИЕ № 9 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The Beatles started their career in ______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Birmingham 2) New York

3) London 4) Liverpool

ЗАДАНИЕ № 10 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

British Museum is situated in ______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Washington 2) Cambridge

3) London 4) Edinburgh

ЗАДАНИЕ № 11 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The traditional English drink is______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Tea 2) mineral water

3) Cocoa 4) coffee

ЗАДАНИЕ № 12 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The American holiday honouring the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4 is called _________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Labour Day 2) Thanksgiving Day

3) Columbus Day 4) Independence Day

ЗАДАНИЕ № 13

Ответьте на вопрос:

How many Bank Holidays are there in the UK? Name the most important of them.

ЗАДАНИЕ № 14

Ответьте на вопрос:

What country of the World is supposed to be the land of law and order? Why?

ЗАДАНИЕ № 15 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The unsafe (impolite) topics for conversation in Britain are _________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Religion and politics 2) Royal family, salary/income, health

3) Love and feelings 4) economical situation in the country

ЗАДАНИЕ № 16

Ответьте на вопрос:

To what nation does the proverb “My home is my castle” belong?

ЗАДАНИЕ № 17 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Fast food was originated in_________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Australia 2) Great Britain

3) Canada 4) the USA

ЗАДАНИЕ № 18 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Ответьте на вопрос:

How do American students address themselves to the lecturer?

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Sir 3) Mr/Mrs/Miss

2) Professor 4) Teacher

ЗАДАНИЕ № 19 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Tom: Hello, Kristin! How are you?

Kristin:___________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) How are you? 2) How do you do.

3) Good afternoon, Tom. 4) I’m fine, thank you, and you?

ЗАДАНИЕ № 20 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

A: What are you Mr. Palmer?

B: ___________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) I’m working now. 2) Unfortunately, I’m unemployed now.

3) I’m quite tall. 4) I’m an engineer.

ЗАДАНИЕ № 21 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The most acceptable form of greeting in the USA and the UK is ______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Embrace 2) handshake and embrace

3) Kiss 4) handshake

ЗАДАНИЕ № 22 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The distance between interlocutors is shorter in______. And touches are possible.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Japan 2) Russia

3) Great Britain 4) the USA

ЗАДАНИЕ № 23 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Найдите соответствующие русскому междометию «Боже мой!» английские междометия.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) For goodness sake! 2) God forbid!

3) Dear me! Goodness me! Oh dear! 4) For shame!

ЗАДАНИЕ № 24 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Что означает понижение тона в английском языке?

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Неуверенность, сомнение 3) вежливость

3) Уверенность, категоричность 4) просьба

ЗАДАНИЕ № 25 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

В английском предложении ударными могут быть _________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) артикли, союзы, предлоги 2) главные части речи

3) вспомогательные глаголы

ЗАДАНИЕ № 26

Ответьте на вопрос:

Five hundred years ago when Columbus was exploring the coast of the “New World” and William Caxton was printing the first books in English, the English Language was hardly used anywhere outside England. Nowadays is there an inhabited continent with no English-speaking countries on it?

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

Europe d) South America
Australia e) Africa
North America f) Asia

ЗАДАНИЕ № 27

Americans, Englishmen, Australians, etc. have little or no difficulty in understanding one another. Still, English used in different countries differs in pronunciation (A), spelling (B), vocabulary (C) and grammar (D). Find examples to illustrate these.

Americans say, “I suggest we go there, together”, the British say “suggest we should go there together”.
In Australia they say, “cobber”, in Britain they say, “friend”.
Americans write labor, color, the British write labour, colour.
In American English class and dance have the same sound as man, in British English it is the same sound as in park.
Americans call it subway, the British call it uderground.

ЗАДАНИЕ № 28

English is a living, ever-changing language. Many common words we use nowadays had a somewhat different meaning in the past. Try to guess the old meanings of the following words:

Girl A) food
Meat B) happy
Nice C) a child of either sex
Smart D) ignorant
Starve E) causing pain
Silly F) die

ЗАДАНИЕ № 29

Прочитайте текст “When in Rome, Do as the Romans do”; сформулируйте основную идею текста; объясните его название.

Traveling around the world gets easier and easier. We live in a “global village”, but how well do we know and understand one another? Here is a simple test. Imagine you have arranged a meeting at four o’clock. What time should you expect your foreign business colleagues to arrive? If they are Germans, they'll be on time. If they are Americans, they'll probably be 15 minutes earlier. If they are British they'll be 15 minutes late, and you should allow up to an hour for the Italians. As you see, we have a lot to learn about how to behave with our foreign business friends. For example:

The British are happy to have a business lunch and discuss business matters having a drink during the meal; the Japanese prefer not to work while eating. Lunch is time to relax and get to know one another, and they rarely drink at lunchtime. American executives sometimes signal their feelings of ease and importance in their offices by putting their feet on the desk whilst on the telephone. In Japan, people would be shocked showing the soles of their feet; it is the height of bad manners. It is a social insult only exceeded by blowing your nose in public.

Unless you know a foreign person really well, don’t treat him too informally as he might think you’re being over familiar or even insincere.

ЗАДАНИЕ № 30 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, является ли утверждение к тексту “When in Rome, Do as the Romans do”:

In intercultural conversation it is very important to learn cultural peculiarities of the interlocutors.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) В тексте нет информации 2) Истинным

3) Ложным

ЗАДАНИЕ № 31 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, какому виду письменной речи соответствует представленный фрагмент.

Dear Pete and Sarah, having a great time here in the Big Apple.

Weather brilliant - hot and sunny. Spent most of today shopping - fantastic department stores here: credit card's not looking too healthy! Hoping to do some sightseeing tomorrow - 5th Avenue, Times Square, etc. Nightlife also incredible ... nobody seems to go to bed!

Back in a couple of weeks, love Sue and Joe

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Resume / CV 2) business letter

3) Informal post-card 4) contract По данному образцу напишите подобный фрагмент, отражающий Ваши представления об особенностях англоязычной культуры и ее представителей.

THE FINAL TEST

ЗАДАНИЕ N 1 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The students of our university get a good _______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) formation 2) education

3) establishment 4) cultivation

ЗАДАНИЕ N 2 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Could you tell me what _________you’d like your wake-up call tomorrow morning?

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) procedure 2) news

3) session 4) time

ЗАДАНИЕ N 3 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

When used as aerial cranes helicopters have to maintain a stable __________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) elevation 2) lifting

3) propelling 4) proud

ЗАДАНИЕ N 4 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

___________is a long cylinder which carries the human flight crew, passengers or cargo.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) throttle 2) rudder

3) fuselage 4) cockpit

ЗАДАНИЕ N 5 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Cable TV and work desk with _________ telephone lines are available in each room.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) modernist 2) modernism

3) modernized 4) modernization

ЗАДАНИЕ N 6 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

That isn’t my key. _________ is here.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) mine 2) myself

3) my 4) me

ЗАДАНИЕ N 7 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The smaller is the house, the ______it will cost us to heat.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) less 2) little

3) more less 4) the least

ЗАДАНИЕ N 8 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

_____ book you gave me is very interesting.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) - 2) a

3) an 4) the

ЗАДАНИЕ N 9 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

It was his birthday and I wished him many happy returns _____ the day.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) - 2) from

3) of 4) in

ЗАДАНИЕ N 10 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

He ought to go to the dentist______ he has a toothache.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) or 2) but

3) as 4) because

ЗАДАНИЕ N 11 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Do you want a sandwich? No, thanks, I_____ just _____ lunch.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) had had 2) was having

3) have had 4) am having

ЗАДАНИЕ N 12 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

______ of her arrival, I went to see her.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) told 2) telling

3) being told 4) to tell

ЗАДАНИЕ N 13 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

I asked the receptionist to put me _____ to the manager.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) through 2) from

3) away 4) with

ЗАДАНИЕ N 14 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

You _____ not ring the bell, I’ve got the key.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) must 2) need

3) ought 4) can

ЗАДАНИЕ N 15 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The oldest part of London is ________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Hyde Park 2) the West End

3) the East End 4) the City

ЗАДАНИЕ N 16 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

When people travel to the United States, they want to see _______.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) the Great Barrier Reef 2) formed

3) the Eiffel Tower 4) the Statue of Liberty

ЗАДАНИЕ N 17 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Canada is situated in _______ .

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) North America 2) South America

3) North Africa 4) South Africa

ЗАДАНИЕ N 18 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

Bill Gates is a founder of _______ .

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) the largest automobile corporation 2) the Metropolitan Museum

3) the 1st entertainment theme park 4) the Microsoft Corporation

ЗАДАНИЕ N 19 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения:

Grandmother: “Happy birthday, my dear!”

Grandchild: “________”.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Thank you for your present, granny! 2) Where shall I put your box?

3) The same for you! 4) Not at all.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 20 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения:

Guest: “I want to speak to the manager!”

Receptionist: ___________________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) She is not available at the moment. 2) Be patient

Can I help you?

3) Try again immediately! 4) Fine.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 21 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения:

Student: “Can you explain what the problem was with my composition?”

Teacher: “______________________”.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) No, I can’t. 2) You’ve had some problems

3) I’m afraid your handwriting wasn’t very good. 4) Very Bad.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 22 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите реплику, наиболее соответствующую ситуации общения:

Boss: Do you understand what my opinion is?

Employee: _______________________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

Yes? But you are absolutely 2) Yes, but I`m not sure I quite agree.

wrong.

3) Yes, I do. 4) No.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 23 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The UK consists of four parts. They are: __________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) England, Scotland, Wales and 3) England, Scotland, Wales and

New Zealand. Southern Ireland.

England, Scotland, Wales and 4) England, Scotland, Wales and

the British Isles. Northern Ireland.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 24 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Заполните пропуск.

The capital of Canada is ____________.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Montreal 2) Vancouver

3) Toronto 4) Ottawa

ЗАДАНИЕ N 25 (выберите варианты согласно указанной последовательности)

Расположите части формального письма в правильном порядке.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Yours sincerely, 2) 24 Princess Street

Jane Mitchell. Holt

Manchester MN9 6RD

24 th of April, 2007

3) Mr Clark

The Manager 4) Dear Mr Clark,

ElectroWorld Superstore Following our telephone conversation,

Knowsley Way I am writing to complain about the Manchester M60 3BY Dekon UX-95 portable TV I

purchased from your store.

I am extremely dissatisfied with the service

You have provided. I would ask that you give

This matter your most urgent attention.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 26 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, к какому виду делового документа относится представленный ниже отрывок.

Personal details Name: Alexey Kosov

Date of birth: 21 January 1985

Martial Status: Single

Nationality: Russian

Address: 12, Orskaya Street, 27

Orenburg, Russia.

Education:

2003-to present Orenburg State University,

Mechanical Engineering

1992-2003 Secondary School N 119

Work Experience: Mechanic apprentice at a service station

Languages: Russian, English (fluent)

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Letter of enquiry / request 2) CV (curriculum vitae)

3) Contract 4) Memorandum

ЗАДАНИЕ N 27 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, является ли утверждение к тексту “Helicopter Configurations”:

There exist two most common anti-torque controls.

Helicopter Configurations

1. In a helicopter the creation of torque as the engines turns the rotor creates a torque effect which causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the rotor. To eliminate this effect some sort of anti-torque control must be used. The three most common controls used today are the traditional tail rotor, Eurocopter’s Fenestron (also called a fantail) and MD Helicopter’s NOTAR.

2. The tail rotor is a smaller rotor mounted vertically on the tail of a traditional single-rotor helicopter to overcome torque. This is the design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300 helicopter and it has become the recognized convention for helicopter design, although designs do vary. When viewed from above, designs from Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States are said to rotate clockwise. This can make it difficult when discussing aerodynamic effects on the main rotor between different designs.

3. The term Fenestron is a trademark of Eurocopter. A Fenestron (or Fantail) is a ducted fan mounted on the tail boom of the helicopter and used in place of a tail rotor. Its housing is integral with the tail skin and while conventional tail rotors possess a maximum of five rotor blades Fenestrons have between eight and eighteen blades. These are arranged in varying distance, so that the noise is distributed over different frequencies and thus appears quieter. The housing allows a higher rotational speed than a conventional rotor. The Fenestron was used for the first time at the end of the 1960s.

4. NOTAR, an acronym for NO Tail Rotor, is a relatively new helicopter anti-torgue system currently produced by MD Helicopters which eliminates the use of the tail rotor on a helicopter. NOTAR works to provide anti-torque the same way a wing develops lift. A variable pitch fan is enclosed in the aft fuselage section forward of the tail boom and driven by the main rotor transmission.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) ложным 2) в тексте нет информации

3) истинным

ЗАДАНИЕ N 28 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, является ли утверждение к тексту “Helicopter Configurations”:

Helicopters supplied with Fenestrons produce less noise than conventional helicopters.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) истинным 2) в тексте нет информации

3) ложным

ЗАДАНИЕ N 29 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, является ли утверждение к тексту “Helicopter Configurations”:

A helicopter can vibrate so much that it will shake itself apart.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) истинным 2) в тексте нет информации

3) ложным

ЗАДАНИЕ N 30 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите, является ли утверждение к тексту “Helicopter Configurations”:

Fenestrons possess a bigger number of blades than conventional tail rotors.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) истинным 2) в тексте нет информации

3) ложным

ЗАДАНИЕ N 31 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Укажите, какой части текста “Helicopter Configurations”соответствует высказывание.

The size of a Fenestron can be smaller than that of a conventional rotor.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) 4 2) 3

3) 2 4) 1

ЗАДАНИЕ N 32 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Укажите, какой части текста “Helicopter Configurations”соответствует высказывание.

When discussing aerodynamic effects on the main rotor one should take into account the design of the helicopter.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) 2 2) 1

3) 4 4) 3

ЗАДАНИЕ N 33 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Выберите ответ на вопрос по тексту “Helicopter Configurations”.

How does NOTAR operate?

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) It creates anti-torque the same way a wing develops lift.

2) It is enclosed in the aft fuselage section forward of the tail boom and driven by the main rotor transmission.

3) It eliminates the use of the tail rotor on the helicopter.

4) It is produced by MD Helicopters.

ЗАДАНИЕ N 34 (выберите один вариант ответа)

Определите основную идею текста “Helicopter Configurations”.

ВАРИАНТЫ ОТВЕТОВ:

1) Most helicopters are provided with a single main rotor, but require a separate anti-torque control.

2) A tail rotor is a smaller rotor which is used to eliminate a torque effect.

3) Sikorsky’s VS-300 has been recognized as a conventional for helicopter design.

4) A trademark of Eurocopter is “Fenestron”.

PART 5

ADDITIONAL TEXTS FOR READING

Умение читать литературу по специальности – важный аспект владения иностранным языком для будущих специалистов. Работа над текстом должна обеспечить развитие навыков перевода со словарем, при этом студенты должны уметь распознавать те или иные грамматические явления, находить нужные значения слов. При работе над текстами раздела следует пользоваться специализированными англо-русскими словарями (рекомендации по выбору словаря смотрите в разделе 7).

Отбор текстов для дополнительного чтения производился при соблюдении следующих принципов:

использование современных, аутентичных текстов, которые представляют собой реализацию стандартного стиля, употребляемого в технической литературе;
1. соответствие языковой сложности текстов интеллектуальному уровню и возрасту студентов.

Методические рекомендации при работе над текстами раздела:

прочитайте весь текст, старайтесь понять его общее содержание;
прочитайте текст во второй раз, обращая внимание и подчёркивая в нём карандашом незнакомые слова, для последующей работы со словарём;
разделите текст на абзацы, если они не обозначены, и приступайте к записи незнакомых слов в словарик. Если вы не знаете, какое значение слова вам нужно для понимания текста, выпишите несколько значений этого слова;
прочитайте каждый абзац текста, постарайтесь понять его содержание, пользуясь выписанными словами;
разберитесь с грамматическими явлениями, наиболее трудными для вас, в каждом предложении абзаца. Непонятные места отметьте карандашом для последующей консультации с преподавателем;
таким образом проработайте весь текст;
отберите из текста наиболее доступный для вас абзац и подготовьте чтение этого абзаца на английском языке (не забывайте о транскрипции);
в каждом абзаце отметьте главную мысль для последующего пересказа текста. Составьте план текста;
пользуясь выписанными словами и составленным планом, перескажите текст (10-12 предложений).

AVIATION

Aerospace Engineering

Aerospace engineering, also called aeronautical engineering, or astronautical engineering, field of engineering concerned with the design, development, construction, testing, and operation of vehicles operating in the Earth’s atmosphere or in outer space. In 1958 the first definition of aerospace engineering appeared, considering the Earth’s atmosphere and the space above it as a single realm for development of flight vehicles. Today the more encompassing aerospace definition has commonly replaced the terms aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering.

The design of a flight vehicle demands knowledge of many engineering disciplines. It is rare that one person takes on the entire task; instead, most companies have design teams specialized in the sciences of aerodynamics, propulsion systems, structural design, materials, avionics, and stability and control systems. No single design can optimize all of these sciences, but rather there exist compromised designs that incorporate the vehicle specifications, available technology, and economic feasibility.

The roots of aeronautical engineering can be traced to the early days of mechanical engineering, to inventors’ concepts, and to the initial studies of aerodynamics, a branch of theoretical physics.

Avionics

Avionics (derived from the expression “aviation electronics”) is the development and production of electronic instruments for use in aviation and astronautics. The term also refers to the instruments themselves. Such instruments consist of a wide variety of control, performance, and radio navigation devices and systems.

Control apparatus includes the attitude gyro and any number of instruments that indicate power, such as the tachometer (in propeller craft), torquemeter (in turboprops), and exhaust pressure ratio indicator (in turbojets). Performance instruments include the altimeter, Machmeter, turn and slip indicator, and varied devices that show airspeed, vertical velocity, and angle of attack. Electronic radio navigation equipment ranges from radar to instrument landing systems.

For advanced military aircraft, avionics represents as much as 35 percent of the total cost; when radar and other electronic and electro-optic system adjuncts are included, the value can exceed 50 percent. For some spacecraft, the equivalent equipment can reach 70 percent of the cost. Leading manufacturers of avionics systems include Rockwell Collins, Honeywell, and Litton in the United States and Thales Avionics in France.

Modern aerospace vehicles may have dozens of separate subsystems other than propulsion and avionics. The number of individual product items is too lengthy for even a catalog listing, but a sampling of important products illustrates the breadth of the secondary product line.

Aircraft secondary systems are reflected in an extensive industrial infrastructure, with products falling largely into four categories: 1) structural and mechanical, 2) propulsion and power-related, 3) environmental control, and 4) communications and navigation.

History of flight

The first man-made objects to fly were balloons, which were pioneered in France by the Montgolfier brothers in 1783. Some of the basic scientific principles of heavier-than-air flight were laid down in England in the early 19th century by Sir George Cayley. In the 1890s Otto Lilienthal of Germany became the first person to make and fly successful gliders. The American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright were inspired by Lilienthal and by 1902 had developed a fully practical biplane (double-winged) glider that could be controlled in every direction. Fitting a small engine and two propellers to another biplane, the Wrights on December 17, 1903, made the world’s first successful man-carrying, engine-powered, heavier-than-air flight at a site near Kitty Hawk, on the coast of North Carolina.

The Wright brothers’ success soon inspired successful aircraft designs and flights by others. Once the Wright brothers demonstrated that the basic technical problems had been overcome at the start of the 20th century, military and civil aviation developed quickly.

Important landmarks and events along the way to the invention of the airplane include an understanding of the dynamic reaction of lifting surfaces (or wings), building absolutely reliable engines that produced sufficient power to propel an airframe, and solving the problem of flight control in three dimensions.

The first manned flights

Although kites had been used as man lifters since ancient times, the kite’s greatest technological contribution was in the development of the airplane. In the 19th century the British scientist Sir George Cayley, known as the father of aeronautics, used modified arch-type kites to make “flying machines,” which in 1853 led to the first recorded manned flight in a glider. Cayley’s comprehension of both thrust and lift was the leap in understanding that would ultimately quell the ancient and faulty obsession with flapping wings as a means for manned flight. Other visionaries built man-lifting kites, many of which were rudimentary biplane gliders. Otto Lilienthal of Germany experimented with “aeroplane” kites in the 1890s and became the first man to soar in one of his kites in true hang-gliding fashion.

Around 1900 Orville and Wilbur Wright, self-taught aeronautical engineers who ran a bicycle shop in Ohio, began testing their biplane designs as kites. It was the Wright brothers who first focused on control - the missing ingredient for manned flight that had baffled other aviation pioneers. The brothers constructed a special box kite and braced the wings with wires in such a way that they could be twisted in opposite directions to make the kite bank and turn. They called the principle “wing warping,” and it was the breakthrough that had eluded the great inventors who had worked on flight—from Leonardo da Vinci to Alexander Graham Bell.

With the invention of the airplane, the kite fell from favour among adults. Except for occasional meteorologic survey work, which continues to the present, the kite’s status changed from a serious scientific instrument to a child’s toy once again.

The Russian Federation Air Force Museum at Monino

The Central Museum of the Air Forces at Monino, Russia is located approximately 38 kilometers (24 miles) from Moscow along the Gorky Highway in a lovely wooded area. It is the largest and best aviation museum in Russia. The museum was formerly known as The Russian Federation Air Force Museum and, prior to that, The USSR Air Force Museum.

The facility was an operational air base from 1932 through April, 1956. The museum was founded in 1958 and opened in 1960 at the original airfield location and in the original airfield structures.

The area was off-limits to civilians during the Soviet era so it has been neither easy to find nor easy to access. Advance permission to visit the museum was recently required for non-Russian citizens. Despite this, it is the finest Russian aviation museum in existence and will be the highlight of any enthusiast's visit. The facilities are largely unimproved and the majority of aircraft are exposed to the harsh Russian weather. The museum has long been run by the Russian government and there was no legitimate means of making monetary contributions to the museum at the time I visited. Many of the Russian aviation Design Bureaus (Tupolev, Ilyushin, Antonov, Mikoyan, etc.) have contributed exhibits and resources to the museum and its maintenance.

Despite these conditions, the aircraft are in surprisingly good shape and most are sitting on the original tires they landed at the Monino airfield with. This is a testament to the museum employees who have a great historical legacy to preserve.

In 2001, the museum became independent of the government and an official Web site was created.

Types of Military Airplanes, their Features and Purposes

Aircraft have been a fundamental part of military power since the mid-20th century. Generally speaking, all military aircraft fall into one of the following categories: fighters, which secure control of essential airspaces by driving off or destroying enemy aircraft; bombers, which are larger, heavier, and less-maneuverable craft designed to attack surface targets with bombs or missiles; ground-support, or attack, aircraft, which operate at lower altitudes than bombers and air-superiority fighters and attack tanks, troop formations, and other ground targets; transport and cargo planes, big-bodied craft with large amounts .

The term “civil aviation” refers to the air-transportation service provided to the public by airlines.

Attack Aircraft

Attack aircraft, delivering air-to-ground munitions, are deployed in force application and air control roles.

The force application role accomplished by attack air forces includes three missions differentiated by the intended goal of the mission. If the objective in striking a target is to destroy or neutralize the enemy’s ability to produce or sustain military forces or his will to use those forces, the mission is a strategic attack. If the purpose of force application is to destroy, delay, or disrupt existing enemy surface forces while they are far enough from friendly surface forces that detailed coordination of aerospace and surface activities is not needed, the operation is an interdiction mission. If force is applied in support of offensive or defensive surface operations against enemy forces whose proximity to friendly surface forces is such that detailed coordination is needed, the operation is a close-air-support mission.

Strategic attacks often comprise the most direct means available to force an enemy to cease fighting or to otherwise make decisions or concessions in line with friendly objectives. Since strategic strikes are theoretically unstoppable, their intended result - the capitulation of the enemy - has been viewed by some as inevitable. The reality has proven to be somewhat more complex. Technology has made possible aerial bombardment of strategic targets across the globe, but historical results have rarely fulfilled early theoretical assertions. It has often been proposed, for example, that aerospace power can “win” a war by itself, but strategic attacks cannot be guaranteed to directly compel a desired enemy response.

Air interdiction is defined as air operations conducted to destroy, neutralize, or delay the enemy’s potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly forces and at such a distance from friendly ground forces that detailed coordination is not required.

Battlefield Air Interdiction [BAI] is an Air Force task within the framework of the AI mission. The AI attacks conducted against hostile land forces that are not in close proximity to friendly forces are referred to as battlefield air interdiction if the hostile forces could have a near-term effect on the operation support or scheme of maneuver of friendly forces. Prior coordination is required between the Army and the Air Force for attack of BAI targets.

Close Air Support [CAS] is air action in operations against hostile targets of ground that are in close proximity to friendly forces and that require detailed integration of each air mission with the fire and movement of these forces. Close proximity means that friendly forces are close enough to the target that care must be taken to avoid casualties from air-delivered weapons effects.

Suppression of Enemy Air Defense [SEAD] is that activity which neutralizes, destroys, or temporarily degrades enemy air defense systems in a specific area to enable air operations to be successfully completed. SEAD is critical for all operations. Electronic warfare support measures and other target acquisition sources are used for this purpose.

Offensive Counterair [OCA] operations include attacks on air bases. Aircraft on air bases are often more concentrated and vulnerable than they are in flight and destroying them at their bases may be much easier than destroying them in aerial combat. Attacks on bases crowded with aircraft can have devastating results in the struggle for control of the air. Even if the attacker does not catch aerospace forces on the ground, destruction of critical base facilities can still be decisive.

Fighter Aircraft

Control of the atmosphere is achieved by counterair missions, including air-to-air operations by fighter aircraft. Missions that take the initiative to destroy the enemy’s ability to operate in the air by attacking systems (or their support systems) designed to operate in the atmosphere are called offensive counterair (OCA). Similarly, defensive counterair (DCA) missions protect against attack from enemy systems that operate in the atmosphere. Strategic air defense is the subset of DCA that defends the homeland from attack by systems operating in the air.

Air control normally is a commander’s first campaign priority. Control makes it possible to perform force enhancement missions, especially reconnaissance and surveillance, without unacceptable interference while simultaneously denying the enemy the same opportunity. Control makes possible the air force application role while making it more difficult for enemy air forces to apply firepower against friendly surface forces. Air control permits friendly surface forces to operate more effectively and denies that advantage to the enemy. The degree of air control is increased by increasing enemy losses to the point the enemy is unable or unwilling to conduct air operations.

Although attacking the enemy in the air may not always be as efficient as other offensive operations, it does offer the opportunity to destroy both enemy platforms and their crews. The extensive time and resources required to produce well-trained crews may make their loss far more important than the loss of aircraft. In addition, loss of personnel is likely to degrade the morale and tactics of surviving crews, allowing this approach to have an effect well beyond the physical destruction it achieves.

And while air superiority missions have many components, and many types of equipment are involved, the acquisition of U.S. fighter aircraft with the capability to defeat enemy fighters and other aircraft is expected to consume about 47 percent of the resources planned for air superiority missions. The Air Force, the Navy, and the Marines all have capabilities to defeat enemy fighters and other aircraft as a part of offensive and defensive air superiority missions using aircraft equipped with air-to-air missiles and guns.

Airlift Cargo Aircraft

Airlift operates across the range of military operations performing six broad tasks: deployment, employment, redeployment, sustainment, aeromedical evacuation (AE), and military operations other than war, such as foreign humanitarian assistance and noncombatant evacuation operations. Airlift is a cornerstone of global force projection. It provides the means to rapidly deploy and redeploy forces, on short notice, to any location worldwide. The main airlifts characteristics are speed, flexibility, range. The Airlift delivery is accomplished by two basic modes, air-land or aerial delivery. Air-land is the most frequently used delivery method and encompasses all situations where personnel and cargo are onloaded and off-loaded while the aircraft is on the ground. Aerial delivery includes all methods of delivering personnel, equipment, and supplies from an airborne aircraft.

The Army has the largest requirement for common-user airlift. In particular, Army light infantry, airborne, and air assault forces rely heavily on airlift for deployment, sustainment, employment, and redeployment. The Navy depends on common-user airlift to sustain forward deployed operations with personnel, materiel, and mail.

Airlift and air refueling forces provide speed and flexibility in deploying, employing, and sustaining military forces. Air mobility forces operate as part of a larger joint warfighting team, working with air, land, and naval forces to meet operational requirements for the unified commanders. Air mobility missions include the airlift and/or airdrop of troops, passengers, supplies, and equipment to locations around the globe, as well as air refueling for Air Force, other services, and allied aircraft. Air mobility forces also provide worldwide aeromedical evacuation of patients, participate in special operations, and support other national security requirements.

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

UAVs are aircraft that are guided autonomously, by remote control, or by both means and that carry some combination of sensors, electronic receivers and transmitters, and offensive ordnance. They are used for strategic and operational reconnaissance and for battlefield surveillance, and they can also intervene on the battlefield—either indirectly, by designating targets for precision-guided munitions dropped or fired from manned systems, or directly, by dropping or firing these munitions themselves.

The earliest UAVs were known as remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs) or drones. Drones were small radio-controlled aircraft first used during World War II as targets for fighters and antiaircraft guns. They fell into two categories: small, inexpensive, and often expendable vehicles used for training; and, from the 1950s, larger and more sophisticated systems recovered by radio-controlled landing or parachute. The vehicles were typically fitted with reflectors to simulate the radar return of enemy aircraft, and it soon occurred to planners that they might also be used as decoys to help bombers penetrate enemy defenses. (High-performance drones are still developed—for example, to test systems designed to shoot down antiship cruise missiles.)

It also occurred to planners that RPVs could be used for photographic and electronic reconnaissance.

Airports and Runways

Introduction

The first airports were simply grass fields (airfields) but as aircraft became heavier, paved runways were developed. This also meant that airplanes could land and take off in all weather conditions. Over the years airports have become bigger and busier with elaborate terminal buildings to improve passenger comfort and offer retail services. The world's biggest airport is now considered to be Atlanta, with Heathrow airport generally recognized as the world’s biggest international airport, though it faces serious competition from Charles de Gaulle (Paris), Frankfurt and Schipol (Amsterdam). Not everyone agrees on the “biggest” though, as an airport's size can be measured in terms of the number of movements (landings and take offs) that occur in a year, the number of passengers that pass through, the number of runways available or even the surface area occupied.

Airports are sometimes referred to as aerodromes, though the term is considered old-fashioned and often implies a small airport. The term airstrip is used when not much more than a small basic runway is provided (often used by the military).

When talking about airports, “big” is not always beautiful, in recent years there has been considerable controversy concerning the environmental impact of increasing traffic at large airports. Noise pollution is a particularly controversial issue, and expanding existing airports or building new ones is becoming increasingly difficult in many parts of the world

Organization

Airports are divided into airside and landslide areas.

Airside areas are where the airplanes can be found. These include runways and taxiways, as well as stands, where aircraft are parked for providing direct access to the terminal building through an air bridge or jetway. The airside area also includes the apron, where several aircraft may park at a distance from the terminal building (buses then take passengers to and from the aircraft).

Access to all airside areas is subject to tight security controls. Landside areas, on the other hand, which include shops, restaurants, car parks and check-in areas, are more accessible to the general public.

Air Traffic Control (ATQ is usually provided from a control tower situated on-site. At major airports ATC is separated into ground control (responsible for aircraft and all other vehicles using the apron and taxiways) and tower control (responsible for aircraft landing and taking off on the runways).

Runways

Small airports may have only one runway but most major airports have several. When a new airport is built or an existing one expanded, runway layout is of primary concern. Runways need to be laid out to make optimum use of the prevailing winds because aircraft need to take off and land directly into the wind if possible, Crosswinds can be a dangerous hazard. Assuming that the airport will be busy, the layout should also be efficient, ideally allowing runways to be used simultaneously. A further important consideration is the way in which local resident communities will be disturbed by noise.

The three main runway configurations are parallel runways, open-V runways (they diverge but do not intersect; when viewed overhead the shape is a “V”) and intersecting runways. The latter two types are relevant in locations where the direction of the prevailing wind changes.

Runways are labelled depending on their direction relative to the magnetic compass. This number is clearly indicated at the end of each runway, if a runway is labelled 09 at its starting point (runway threshold) because it runs due east (900) then it will be labelled 27 at the other end which is the runway threshold should the pilot need to land in a westerly direct on (2700). In this way, when a wind reverses direction, landings and take-offs follow suit. All runways are thus designated by two numbers the difference between which is 18. For example, on runway 13-31 pilots can either land or take off with a heading of 130° or 310°.

At international airports all runways must have ground markings and standardized lighting according to agreed international standards. The threshold and direction of a runway should be clearly marked as well as the touchdown zone and distance markers at various points to show a pilot how much runway is left. The centre line should also be clearly visible as well as the runway exits leading to taxiways. Standardized lighting is as follows:

- Green threshold lights mark the beginning of a runway

- Red lights mark the end of a runway,

- White or yellow lights mark the edges of a runway.

- Blue lights indicate taxiways.

Runway Incursions

People often think that you are safe once you have landed on the runway and the pilot has slowed the aircraft down. In fact most accidents happen on the ground and not in the air. The world's worst ever civil aviation disaster (disregarding terrorist attacks) was the accident at Tenerife airport m 1977 when two Boeing 747s collided on a runway killing 583 people. As traffic increases at major airports, so do the risks of collisions on the ground.

A runway incursion is the unauthorized entry onto a runway by an aircraft, a vehicle, a person or an object in such situations there is a serious danger to any airplane which may be taking off or landing. A runway incursion might be caused by an operational error on the part of an air traffic controller, a pilot deviating from issued instructions or by the driver of an airport vehicle.

Miscommunication can be the cause or a key contributing factor in a runway incursion. Problems with the lighting or markings of runways or taxiways, or just a general disorientation or failure to see a situation correctly are other potential factors.

When a runway incursion occurs, there is often more than one factor at work.

Navigation and Flight Planning

Introduction

In the very early days of powered flight pilots were content simply to get airborne and fly short distances. It was not however, before they began to fly further and had a need to find their way safely and efficiently to their desired destination, thus leading to the development of air navigation. This was initially based on nautical navigation, hence the term aeronautical. Navigating a course in the air is fundamentally different from navigating on land or at sea, as one cannot simply stop in order to decide the best course to follow. An airplane can also only carry a limited amount of fuel and failure to reach its destination (or another safe before this fuel runs out might have fatal consequences.

VFR / IFR

Nowadays all flights operate under VFR (Visual Flight Rules) or IFR (Instrument Flight Rules). A VFR pilot is qualified and authorized to fly only in good weather conditions and is responsible for maintaining separation from other aircraft and obstructions on the basis of what he / she can see. An IFR pilot is permitted to fly in all weather conditions, when visibility may be low, and relies on flight instruments and navigational aids to follow a safe course. Most IFR flights take place in controlled airspace where air traffic control services issue instructions to pilots to ensure the safe and efficient flow of traffic.

Basic Navigation (VFR navigation)

In the early days of flight, navigational aids did not exist and the basic technique followed was pilotage. Flights were at low altitude and the pilot simply looked out the window and navigated with reference to known landmarks, in some cases, it was just a question of following a road, river or railway to the desired destination. White a VFR pilot today will still use this technique; there is an obvious danger of getting lost, particularly if bad weather sets in suddenly. VFR pilots are nowadays advised to plan their flight carefully before taking off using the detailed aeronautical charts they have at their disposal. They plan their route, taking into account natural obstacles and airspace which may be restricted or controlled. They then mark this route on their charts.

For all aircraft, and light aircraft in particular, wind is an important factor in fight planning. A pilot who tries to fly along a planned route risks being blown off course unless a suitable heading is chosen based upon meteorological forecasts of wind strength and direction. The chosen heading will probably need to be altered in flight in response to changes n the strength or direction of the wind.

A heading is expressed in degrees with magnetic north as a reference. It should not be confused with the term bearing, also expressed in degrees, where an alternative reference is explicitly stated. For example a pilot may be heading due west (a heading of 270°) having just passed directly over a beacon, in which case the pilot has a bearing of 180° in relation to this beacon.

A technique known as dead reckoning serves as a check that all is going to plan. The pilot selects some easily recognizable landmarks along the planned route and calculates how long it will take to reach these points taking into account both the planned airspeed and wind. These points are known as checkpoints, and when the planned time has elapsed the pilot expects to identify the landmarks on the ground. When this happens he / she has made a fix and can confidently proceed with the next stage along the planned route.

The magnetic compass is the basic navigational aid that a VFR pilot will use.

Despite all their training and the existing regulations, VFR pilots do get lost from time to time, fly into airspace that they shouldn't normally be flying in or find themselves in IMC (Instrument Meteorological Conditions), such as flying through cloud, for which they are not necessarily equipped or trained. The consequences are potentially very serious and it often falls to the highly skilled air traffic controllers or perhaps to other more experienced pilots who are flying in the vicinity to do what they can to help.

IFR Navigation

The first and most obvious difference in navigation procedures for IFR is that pilots need to be qualified and licensed to fly IFR.

IFR pilots usually fly in controlled airspace. They have at their disposal special charts which indicate recommended IFR routes between navigational beacons (radio stations on the ground which emit signals). If they are travelling in remote areas where there are no navigation beacons, then they have to determine a suitable route by themselves. Distances between beacons, the bearings to be taken and the Lowest Safe Altitude (LSALT) are dearly marked tor the recommended IFR routes.

If an IFR pilot is flying through controlled airspace, he/she needs to file a flight plan with air traffic control services. In the case of commercial airlines that repeatedly fly the same route, they would normally file a repetitive flight plan that is valid for a certain period.

Navigational Aids

ADF (Automatic Direction Finding): ADF is a fairly old system of radio navigation, but it is still in use today. A Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) emits a radio signal and the pilot's cockpit display will show the direction of the beacon from the aircraft.

VOR (Very High Frequency Omni-directional Range):

This is a more developed system and is currently the primary air navigation system in countries where sufficient infrastructure is in place. A VOR station can determine and transmit to the pilot the exact direction that will take the pilot over the point where the VOR station is. Many VOR stations also have Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) which informs the pilot of his / her distance from the VOR station.

GPS (Global Positioning System)

Many cars are now fitted with a GPS system so that you can drive without consulting a map. Pilots are also now making use of GPS satellite navigation. Originally very expensive GPS equipment is now cheaper to buy and so even if a light aircraft is not fitted with a GPS cockpit system, many pilots will use a hand-held device. One of the benefits of GPS is the greater degree of precision that it affords to both plots and controllers. A pilot's position can now be identified within a few metres. For this reason required minimum levels of separation between airplanes are less nowadays than in the past.

One of the criticisms of GPS is that it was developed and is owned by the US military, it has been freely available for civilian use for several years, but the worry that one day this might change has led the Europeans to develop their own new satellite navigation system, Galileo, which is expected to be operational in a few years' time.

Air Traffic Control

IFR pilots can obviously not follow their desired course blindly while disregarding other traffic. When flying through controlled airspace a pilot will often ask for or receive vectors (instructions as to which heading to take, or we can say that the controller vectors the pilot) from an air traffic controller who is responsible for ensuring and maintaining safe separation between aircraft.

Aviation Technology

Introduction

The speed of technological development during the twentieth century was fully reflected in the aviation world, whether it was m terms of aircraft development, flight control systems or systems for controlling air traffic. The fast pace of change continues today. One of the most interesting, though controversial areas is the development of automated systems.

Fly-by-wire

For the eeriest aircraft, flight control systems were solely mechanical (using rods, cables and pulleys). The pilot in the cockpit made use of a control stick and pedals to carry out the three basic aerodynamic movements - roll, pitch and yaw. As aircraft got bigger, systems became hydraulic (using pumps, pipes, valves and actuators), so that pilots could move the important control surfaces without having to rely on their own strength. The development of these hydraulic systems was also an important way for the engineers to keep the weight of aircraft down. As aircraft continued to grow in size and with the development of large passenger jets, this requirement to keep weight down led to the development of fly-by-wire systems. Fly-by-wire means that the aircraft is controlled by an electrical system. Nowadays fly-by-wire systems are digital and large aircraft are controlled by a computerized command system. The world’s first digital fly-by-wire aircraft was the Airbus A320, which made its maiden flight in 1987. The greatest innovation was the in-built safety feature in which the computerized system prevented pilots making what would normally be considered unsafe manoeuvres (taking the aircraft outside the flight envelope. While this was the subject of much debate at the tune, it is now a standard feature of all new Airbus aircraft. Boeing was also developing digital fly-by-wire systems, but their systems allowed the pilots to take the airplane outside the flight envelope in an emergency situation. Thus there was a fundamental difference in philosophy between the two major constructors, Airbus and Boeing, which still exists to some extent today. An obvious question is what happens when the computer fails (instrument blackout). The pilot then has no control over the aircraft (a back-up hydraulic system would increase weight significantly). Large aircraft usually have at least four parallel computerized control systems to deal with situations where one or even two computers might be down.

With sophisticated computer controls in place, there is no longer any need for a control stick in the cockpit. Yet even the newest aircraft (the Airbus A380 or the Boeing 787) have something which resembles a control stick in the cockpit. Research conducted amongst pilots has shown that this should remain for reasons which have nothing to do with technology and everything to do with human psychology.

Automation in ATC

The computerization of cockpits led experts to question whether it was necessary for air traffic controllers to always give verbal instructions to pilots and whether there would be any benefits in a system where controllers sent messages electronically - Data link systems. Such systems are currently under development and already in use to some degree. For example, in many parts of the world, meteorological updates are now sent this way (previously they would have been read to pilots).

There are generally recognized benefits for both safety and efficiency. Potential misunderstandings are a natural feature of all verbal communication. Pilots and controllers face this danger when they speak to each other and are urged to constantly check, confirm and clarify information. An instruction given by a controller should normally be read back. As well as the potential for important mistakes being made, this is a rather inefficient use of time where messages can be submitted electronically.

More controversial has been the idea of free flight, with research having been conducted into fully automated ATC systems. The improvements in flight control systems have led to considerable reductions in the workload of pilots during the cruise phase of flight, which can often be entirely conducted by the autopilot. The advent of GPS has also meant that pilots are now much surer of their precise positions in the sky. The basic idea of free flight is that pilots would become responsible for plotting their optimal route and working out their own separation from other aircraft through direct pilot to pilot communications. Air traffic controllers would intervene only when necessary to resolve conflicts. Free flight has been investigated as a model for en route traffic above certain flight levels with arrivals and departures at airports still subject to normal ATC procedures.

Debate continues as to the feasibility of such a solution. In the US the increased efficiency that it could provide (in terms of allowing pilots to choose more direct routings) is often cited, in Europe, skies are more crowded and air traffic controls are generally unionized and opposed to a measure they see as designed to save money at their expense. In response to such criticism, advocates of free flight say that controllers will still be needed, simply that the nature of their job will change. At present, implementation of any free flight system is unlikely in the near future.

Pilotless Airplanes

Even more unlikely in the near future is the idea that an airliner might take off with no pilots on board, though the airlines would save a lot of money by not employing pilots. In fact the technology is almost in place for this to be feasible. Commercial flights can and often do conduct the entire cruise and landing phases on autopilot. Take offs are manual for the simple reason that current research indicates that the decision to take off or to abort take-off is still best made by a trained human pilot. Once this last remaining problem is addressed, the only argument resting against the implementation of pilotless commercial flights will be the reaction of passengers and their likely refusal to board such aircraft. Most experts believe that pilotless airplanes will one day be used but not in the near future. For the moment, pilotless airplanes are not something airlines or pilots are talking about publicly.

Safety and Human Factors

For years it was assumed in the world of aviation, as elsewhere, that humans were somehow more reliable than machines. This is no longer the case. While machines and systems do fail from time to time, nearly all accidents in civil aviation in recent memory have been the result of human error. Great progress has been made in ensuring the safety of civil aviation. Accident rates have steadily decreased throughout the history of flying and it is the safest form of transport. The continuing challenge is to make flying even safer. Any accident is a tragic event for those involved and their relatives. Images shown by the media have a very negative effect on the travelling public. As the number of flights increases, the number crashes appearing on the news will logically increase too, even if the very low rate of accidents remains constant. It is the opinion of most experts that there are gains in safety to be made torn technological developments,

An example of an accident which could have been averted due to available technology was provided by the tragic mid-air collision of two airplanes over Uberlingen, southern Germany, in 2002. Both aircraft were equipped with TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System). This system not only informed both plots that there was an aircraft nearby but also issued avoidance instructions to both cockpits, telling one pilot to climb and the other to descend. The problem was that one pilot followed an instruction from the air traffic controller and unfortunately both aircraft descended at the same rate and collided. Following this accident, a clear directive was issued to air crew worldwide that a TCAS instruction must always take priority over a conflicting instruction from ATC.

Security in Aviation

Introduction

Aviation has been a target for terrorists for many years. Despite continuous improvements in security procedures making it increasingly difficult to mount an attack on a civilian aircraft, the fear still exists that terrorists will always try to target aircraft because of aviation’s high profile and the resulting publicity to be gained. Security is likely to be a key concern for airlines for many years to come.

The first attacks on airliners in the 1960s and 1970s were almost always hijackings, with terrorists managing to smuggle weapons on board and demanding that the pilots fly them to a destination of their choice. Once there, they would seek asylum or make political demands threatening to kill some or all of the passengers if these demands were not met. Such hijackings caused a lot of fear and sometimes resulted in the loss of many lives. They only subsided when airport security measures were sufficiently enhanced to effectively prevent the smuggling of weapons on board.

In 1981, a bomb exploded on a flight as it flew over Lockerbie in Scotland, killing everyone on board and a further eleven people on the ground, it was subsequently discovered that the bomb had been placed in a suitcase in the hold, checked in by a passenger who had been due to board the aircraft in Frankfurt but who had not done so. To prevent any repeat of such a horrific attack, authorities worldwide outlawed the carrying on board of any baggage which isn't accompanied by the passenger who had checked it in, a rule still in place today.

The above-mentioned precaution, however, is obviously insufficient to prevent a suicide attack. Ever since September 11, 2001, security fears have centred around such attacks. As well as being prepared to die themselves, the September 11 hijackers were capable of piloting the airplanes and using them as extremely lethal weapons. It was tins latter aspect of the attacks which took virtually everyone by surprise and resulted m a major rethinking of security procedures.

Security Precautions

Since September 11, security has become much tighter. Many of the new precautions are clearly visible to passengers, with new rules as to what may be carried on board. Anything which could possibly be used as a weapon, even nail scissors, is strictly forbidden in the cabin. Much stricter controls are carried out on the identity of passengers, with authorities ready to use fingerprinting or biometric proving as an extra security precaution. All baggage entering the hold is systematically screened for any signs of explosive materials, through the use of explosive detection machines. The assumption nowadays is that terrorists are not afraid to blow up an aircraft they are travelling on themselves. A rule is now in place banning liquids (except for very small quantities earned in transparent bags) on all flights to or from an EU airport. This measure was introduced to prevent the possibility that liquids would be carried on board by different people and then mixed together to create an explosive device.

Anonymous armed air marshals operate on board aircraft in the US. While they existed prior to September 11, the US government was quick to recruit many more shortly afterwards and to declare their presence in order to deter terrorist attacks. When the British government considered their use they were met with an angry reaction on the part of the British Airline Pilots Association who claimed that having any guns on board would be counterproductive. For one thing they feared the risks of the depressurization that a stray bullet might cause and they also pointed out that terrorists might try to identify air marshals and seize their weapons.

Suspicious behaviour is no longer tolerated. Any passenger who seems to be acting in a way that suggests to security personnel that they have something to hide will be prevented from boarding a flight. In almost all such cases the passenger turns out to be innocent, but no airline wants to take the risk of suspicious behaviour once airborne as this would result in a costly diversion. Numerous cases of suspicious behaviour which starts in the air have likewise almost always had an innocent explanation, but the flight crews who choose to make a precautionary diversion are praised for their prudence.

Shoulder-launched missiles are considered to be a plausible threat to aircraft and this is why perimeter fencing patrols have been stepped up at airports. Military aircraft are routinely fitted with anti-missile defence systems and the same technology could be used on civilian aircraft as well, but it is expensive and for the moment there do not seem to be any plans to make this a standard feature.

Cockpit doors have been reinforced and are now locked during flight. No visitors to the cockpit are allowed. The lessons of the past have led those responsible for the security of civil aviation to attempt to stay one step ahead of terrorists by predicting future threats and responding before these threats become a reality.

Air Rage

Aggressive behaviour or air rage can be a major problem on board of an aircraft, presenting a threat at times to the cabin crew or other passengers, or even more seriously, to the safe operation of a flight. There are several reasons why the experience of flying itself might cause a passenger to behave in such a way. The feeling of being enclosed, the stress of the pre-flight check-in and security procedures, the stress caused by any delay, a fear of flying or the side effects of any drugs or alcohol the passenger may have consumed are all possible causes of subsequent unreasonable behaviour on board. A passenger may also have an underlying mental health problem which becomes worse when they are subjected to the stress of flying.

The consequences of antisocial or aggressive behaviour during a flight can be serious. Apart from the actual harm unruly passengers may cause to themselves or others, the pilots might decide that a diversion is necessary in the interests of the safety of all on board. This will be costly for the airline - unruly passengers can expect to be arrested once on the ground and may face serious legal repercussions. Increasingly, prison sentences, sometimes lengthy, are handed out to act as a deterrent.

The main precaution that an airline can take is to stop any passengers who exhibit signs of unruly behaviour on the ground from boarding. Passengers who are drunk, for example, can often be identified and stopped at the gate. Many airlines serve less alcohol on board than they used to, or even no alcohol at all particularly on short haul flights. But unruly behaviour has many other causes which can often not be detected untill it is too late. Cabin crew undergo training as to how to respond to unruly behaviour on board in an effort to contain the problem before it becomes too serious and a diversion becomes necessary.

Fuel Consumption and Environmental Issues

Introduction

The environmental debate which surrounds civil aviation is not new. Noise around airports has been a major concern of local residents for years and in the 1970s she entry of Concorde into service created great controversy. In the end, Concorde was authorized to land on the east coast of the US, but not to fly over the rest of the country, effectively preventing it from serving more than a minority of airports. Some analysts claim that it was this restriction which seriously affected the long-term commercial viability of supersonic travel.

Environmental concerns over the impact of civil aviation in general have grown significantly in recent years. There is no sign that they will diminish and nearly everyone agrees that the debate will grow in importance ii years to come with the increase in air traffic. Passenger numbers fell after September 11, 2001 and during the SARS crisis in 2004, but the current and forecast worldwide growth rate is at least 5% per year. Specific issues include aviation’s contribution to global warming, noise and air quality around airports, as well as the destruction of the environment caused by airport development itself.

Aviation and Global Warming

Over the last couple of years it has been the subject of particular attention by the media in most developed countries. Civil aviation authorities are usually backed by their governments when they claim that effects are minimal. This is because civil aviation provides a major contribution to a country’s economy. As well as directly generating revenue, the sector provides many jobs. Aircrafts bring people doing business into the country (thus helping to expand other sectors of the economy) as well as visitors and tourists who will spend money. Any attempt to limit or even reduce flights could have serious economic consequences. However, the environmental lobby argues that the economic consequences would be a price worth paying for the preservation of our planet. Both sides have different sets of figures and cite different sources to support their positions. It is a serious issue which will continue to be debated.

One of the most serious questions surrounding the issue is to what extent aircraft emissions at 30,000 ft might cause more serious damage than ground-level emissions (by cars, for example). Scientific evidence on this point is inconclusive at present.

The spotlight has also been on low-cost airlines in recent years as they have been at the forefront of a general reduction in fares for short haul European travel, leading to an increase in air travel. In many countries it is now more expensive to take a train than to fly.

One recent argument by the environmental lobby is that aviation fuel should be taxed. As part of a global agreement to encourage the growth of aviation (in the days when it needed encouraging) aviation fuel has been exempt from tax for many years. Demands for this exemption to be lifted are growing. But the airlines claim that higher fares and fewer passengers would bankrupt them.

Other Environmental Impacts of Aviation

Concerns over aircraft noise led to noise abatement procedures to minimize noise for people living near airports. The procedures are not new but they are becoming stricter as traffic increases and complaints grow. Depending on the airport concerned, authorities might restrict the hours when aircraft can land or take off, impose a steep rate of climb or descent on aircraft or ban older, noisier airplanes from using the airport altogether. Aircraft constructors are under increasing pressure to produce quieter aircraft and to a certain extent they are succeeding. When the Airbus A380 flew for the first time in 2005, many people were amazed by how quiet it was.

Air quality around busy airports is another concern. In recent years, partly because of the low-cost boom, traffic flying over London has increased greatly. Some child welfare groups claim that there is a direct link with the increasing rate of asthma among children in the London area. The aviation authorities contest this.

In many western countries it is now almost impossible to develop an existing airport or to locate a site for building a new one due to the powerful objections of local residents’ groups. Heathrow airport authorities have won provisional approval to build a third runway, but it is an extremely controversial development and those objecting believe they will be able to prevent it from ever happening. A few years ago the French authorities announced that they intended to construct a third airport for Paris. Once they began to name potential sites for the construction they encountered angry protests from the local people in the areas identified. They eventually withdrew the prefect and upset the people living near the other two Parisian airports who were hoping for a reduction in noise with some aircraft flying elsewhere.

Fuel Requirements

One critical question to be taken into account when planning a flight is how much fuel to take on board. In the case of commercial airlines, it is usually the job of a flight dispatcher to make the appropriate calculations and ensure that the fuel is correctly loaded. Running out of fuel (fuel starvation) in an aircraft is potentially fatal. The first question a pilot (or flight dispatcher) needs to ask is what should be the normal fuel consumption assuming all goes according to plan en route. Fuel consumption will depend on the type of aircraft being flown, the payload (weight of passengers, bags and cargo) as well as the weight of the fuel itself. After that, the pilot or flight dispatcher must add a certain reserve to cope with unexpected circumstances. These can result from changing weather conditions, the need to divert to another airport, the need to enter a holding pattern for some considerable time before descending to the planned destination and also the need to carry out a missed approach and go around. Excess fuel on board means more weight and less efficiency, but it is obviously better to think of safety and carry more fuel than is really necessary. A further consideration is that an aircraft should not have too much fuel remaining when it lands as the extra weight will cause what is termed an overweight landing.

An overweight landing can be a safety hazard and can also seriously damage an aircraft. In the case where an aircraft has to return to the airport just after take-off (for example an engine problem) the pilot may want to dump fuel. Air traffic controllers will then direct the pilot to a pre-designated area to carry out this operation.

If there is any doubt as to whether an aircraft will have enough fuel to enter a holding pattern, a controller will always ask the pilot to state the aircraft’s fuel endurance or “endurance” (how long the aircraft can continue to fly).

Depletion of Oil Reserves

Aviation fuel is a derivative of oil. Everyone agrees that oil will run out one day. Nobody seems to agree on exactly when but increasingly scenarios are suggesting it could be sooner than most people think. For the moment the price of oil remains high and this has already had a negative effect on the profitability of many airlines (hence the controversial fuel surcharge that some airlines place on tickets). Few analysts expect the price of oil to fail in the foreseeable future. The search for alternative fuel sources to power aircraft has begun but it is still in its very early stages. The automotive industry, for example, has conducted a lot more research and is better placed to deal with the future problems which will undoubtedly arise in both sectors.

RADIOELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY

Milestones in Radio Technology

Early beginnings. It is impossible to say exactly where the story of radio starts. The early scientists who saw and investigated the effects of electricity and magnetism were crucial to the story. But a number of people also noticed effects that were probably caused by radio waves. Galvani is thought to have witnessed the effects of electromagnetic waves as he was investigating the conduction of electricity. Others may also have witnessed effects as well.

Maxwell proves the existence of e/m waves. It was James Clerk Maxwell who first proved the existence of an electromagnetic (e/m) wave. He proved it mathematically, and published his findings in a number of papers. Much of this early work was performed whilst he was at Kings College, London. His work was summarised in a book entitled "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism." In 1871 Maxwell moved to Cambridge where he became the first director of the Cavendish Research Laboratory.

1887. Hertz discovers radio waves. In a series of experiments started in 1887 Heinrich Hertz proved the physical existence of radio waves that Maxwell had shown to exist mathematically. His transmitter consisted of a simple spark gap across an induction coil with a loop of wire to act as an antenna. The receiver consisted of a smaller gap in a loop the same size as that in the transmitter. In his experiments Hertz also discovered many of their properties. The results of his experiments performed in 1887-88 were published between 1888-90. Whilst other people had seen the effects before, nobody had realised what they were, and Hertz is rightly credited with having discovered radio or Hertzian waves as they were first called.

1894. The coherer is popularized. The coherer, an item used to detect radio waves, took many years to develop with the earliest observations dating back to 1850. The first person to use the idea of the coherer was a Frenchman named Eduard Branly. He discovered that the resistance of a glass tube filled with metal filings fell to a few hundred ohms when an electrical discharge occurred nearby. The filings could then be "de-cohered" by a sharp tap on the tube. These devices were effective in detecting the transmissions of a spark transmitter. The idea was popularised by Oliver Lodge, especially as a result of a lecture he gave in 1894.

1894. Marconi's first experiments. In the autumn of 1894 Marconi performed his first experiments with radio waves in the attic of his parents house in Bologna. Initially he was only able to achieve distances of a few metres, but he made significant progress, steadily increasing the distance over which he send the signals. He managed to send signals over a distance of about 2 kilometres, and realising the possibilities of the system for maritime communications he gave a demonstration to the Italian authorities. Unfortunately they were not impressed, and as a result Marconi moved to England.

1897. Marconi demonstrates radio waves travel over water. Marconi gave his first public demonstrations in December 1896. One major use for radio could be in crossing stretches of water. Cables were expensive and very vulnerable. Accordingly in the summer of 1897 Marconi set up a link spanning the 14 kilometres of the Bristol Channel. After this Marconi put on many other demonstrations and gave lectures: many were to the press and in this way he was able to gain the maximum amount of publicity. It also stimulated the interest of other experimenters.

1899. First cross channel link. Marconi steadily increased the range of his wireless system. In the spring of 1899 a first link was set up to cross the English Channel between an existing station at South Foreland in England and a station set up at Wimereux near Bologne in France. This was the first international wireless transmission. Another demonstration was organised later in the year and it was found that the signals from Wimereux could be heard back at Marconi's factory in Chelmsford over 130 kilometres away.

1901. First transatlantic transmission. With the successes in using radio waves to cross the English channel Marconi turned his eyes towards greater distances and being able to send messages across the Atlantic. If he could succeed in this he would be able to use his system to send messages across the Atlantic more cheaply than using a cable, and also keep in contact with ships over vast distances. Marconi started this venture by setting up stations at in Cornwall, England, and Cape Cod in Massachusetts, USA. Storms destroyed the huge antennas at both sites, and Marconi rebuilt the antenna in Cornwall, but relocated the station from Cape Cod to a site in Newfoundland. However the letter "S" being transmitted by the station in England was just received although with great difficulty in Newfoundland on December 12, 1901.

1904. Fleming invents the diode valve. Professor Ambrose Fleming of University College London acted as a consultant to Marconi and he was very aware that detectors used in the receivers were the weak link in the receiving equipment of the day. Having seen the Edison effect - an effect Edison discovered when he was trying to extend the life of electric light bulbs, Fleming wondered whether this could be sued to detect radio signals. He gave details to his assistant who set up an experiment that worked. The diode valve had been discovered. It consisted of a heated element in an evacuated glass bulb. A second element was also placed in the bulb but not heated. It was found that an electric current only flowed in one direction with electrons leaving the heated cathode and flowing towards the second element called the anode, and not in the other direction.

1906. De Forest invents the triode. In the USA de Forest, replicated Fleming's diode and went a stage further by adding an additional element to give a device he called and Audion. Although de Forest applied for several patents in the years between 1905 and 1907, the invention of the triode is normally taken to be 1906. Initially the triode was only used as a detector. Its operation was not understood, and this prevented its full potential from being utilised.

1912. The triode used as an amplifier. It took some time before the full potential of the triode was realised. Eventually it was de Forest who succeeded in using it as an amplifier and in 1912 he built an amplifier using two devices. This was demonstrated to AT&T who understood its potential for use as a repeater in long distance telephone circuits.

1918. Armstrong invents the superhet (супергетеродинный приемник). Although thermionic valves (tubes) enabled far greater performance to be gained in radio receivers, the performance of the devices was still very poor and receivers of the day suffered from insensitivity and poor selectivity. During the First World War a considerable amount of effort was devoted into resolving these problems. An intermediate solution was developed by a Frenchman named Lucien Levy, but in 1918, Edwin Armstrong developed a receiver where the incoming signal was converted down to a fixed intermediate frequency. Here it could be satisfactorily amplified and filtered. Unfortunately the idea did not gain much acceptance at first because the war ended, and superhet receivers were very expensive because of the numbers of valves they used. It took until the late 1920s before the number of transmitting stations rose to a level that the performance of the superhet was required and further developments meant they could be made more cheaply.

1920. Early broadcasts by the Marconi Company. The possibilities of broadcasting entertainment and news using radio soon arose. In Britain initial transmissions were made by the Marconi Company for experimental purposes. These broadcasts started in February 1920. Although only two daily programmes were broadcast they had an enormous impact. The famous international singer Dame Nellie Melba took part in one on June 20, 1920.

1921-23. Short wave transatlantic success. Long distance communications had until now been concentrated on the long wavelengths. Accordingly radio amateurs had been only allowed to use the short wave bands which were thought to be of little commercial value. However in the USA a number of amateur stations had made contacts over considerable distances. This made people wonder whether it would be possible to make contact across the Atlantic. After several sets of tests commencing in 1921 contact was finally made between the American stations 1MO and 1XAM and the French station 8AB in November 1923. Then in October of 1924 a station at Mill Hill School in the North of London made contact with one in Dunedin New Zealand on the opposite side of the globe. Meanwhile commercial interests were also exploring the capabilities of the short wave bands, and a number of links were set up.

1922. 2LO and the BBC. In May 1922 the Marconi Company was allowed to set up a broadcast station in London. Later in the year the British Broadcasting Company was formed and this took over the station that had the famous call 2LO. Initially it only had a power of 100 watts, which gave it a maximum coverage of about 40 miles. Later with a power of 1.5 kW its coverage was greatly increased.

1925 International Broadcasting. The Westinghouse Company set up a short wave broadcasting station (KDKA) in East Pittsburgh which transmitted on a wavelength of 62.7 metres. This was successfully received and rebroadcast in Britain. In Britain the amateur station 2NM run by Gerald Marcuse started broadcasts in 1927. These gained great popularity and shortly after their start the BBC commenced broadcasts from an experimental station. However it took until 1932 before the Empire service (the forerunner of the BBC World Service) was officially opened, broadcasting from Daventry in the Midlands.

1934. Frequency Modulation. Although wideband FM is widely used today it took many years for its advantages to be discovered, previously everyone had tried to improve its performance by reducing the bandwidth. It was Edwin Armstrong who made the breakthrough. However it took many years for him to convince people about its superiority. In 1935 he set up a demonstration. Then in 1939 he used his own money to finance a station to prove that the system worked. Shortly after this the idea began to take off and by January 1940 150 applications for FM broadcast stations had been submitted in the USA. In 1954 the BBC launched its wideband FM service.

1945. Arthur C Clarke proposes geostationary satellites. Up until this time all international communications relied on either short wave radio transmissions or cable links. Short wave radio was unreliable and subject to high levels of interference, and international telephone cables were exceedingly expensive. In 1945 the author Arthur C Clarke wrote a historic article in Wireless World describing a system that used satellites in geostationary orbit. Signals would be transmitted up to the satellite that would rebroadcast them back to the earth. In view of their altitude above the earth the signals would be able to be received many thousands of miles away from the original transmitting station. Clarke calculated that only three satellites would be required to cover around the globe. His idea was revolutionary, and it took many years before the technology was available for it to be implemented.

1957. Sputnik 1 launched. On 4th October 1957 the USSR (Russia) launched the first satellite into orbit. The satellite was in a very low orbit which took 96 minutes to circle the earth. It only transmitted a bleep, but it was sufficient to prove that satellites could be successfully put into orbit.

1962. Telstar launched. Several other satellites followed Sputnik. Some were launched by the Soviet Union and others by the Americans. However the launch of Telstar proved to be a major milestone in satellite development. On July 23, 1962 it was used to make the first live transatlantic television transmissions. Signals from the USA were seen live in many homes around Europe, making communication history. Another satellite named Relay was used to beam the pictures of the funeral of the Late President Kennedy to people all over the world. Since then the number of satellites has considerably increased, along with improvements in technology. Now most international communications are routed via satellites. Apart from this they provide many other useful functions including navigation, geological surveys, weather information, direct television broadcast and so forth.

The Basic Difference between Analog and Digital Technology

In analog technology, a wave is recorded or used in its original form. So, for example, in an analog tape recorder, a signal is taken straight from the microphone and laid onto tape. The wave from the microphone is an analog wave, and therefore the wave on the tape is analog as well. That wave on the tape can be read, amplified and sent to a speaker to produce the sound.

In digital technology, the analog wave is sampled at some interval, and then turned into numbers that are stored in the digital device. On a CD, the sampling rate is 44,000 samples per second. So on a CD, there are 44,000 numbers stored per second of music. To hear the music, the numbers are turned into a voltage wave that approximates the original wave.

The two big advantages of digital technology are:

- The recording does not degrade over time. As long as the numbers can be read, you will always get exactly the same wave.

- Groups of numbers can often be compressed by finding patterns in them. It is also easy to use special computers called digital signal processors (DSPs) to process and modify streams of numbers.

Bluetooth Technology

Bluetooth has now established itself in the market place enabling a variety of devices to be connected together using wireless technology. Bluetooth technology has come into its own connecting remote headsets to mobile phones, but it is also used in a huge number of other applications as well.

In fact the development of Bluetooth technology has progressed so that it is now an integral part of many household items. Cell phones and many other devices use Bluetooth for short range connectivity. In this sort of application, Bluetooth has been a significant success.

Development of Bluetooth Technology and Bluetooth SIG

The development of Bluetooth technology dates back to 1994 when Ericsson came up with a concept to use a wireless connection to connect items such as an earphone and a cordless headset and the mobile phone. The idea behind Bluetooth (it was not yet called Bluetooth) was developed further as the possibilities of interconnections with a variety of other peripherals such as computers printers, phones, etc. Using this technology, the possibility of quick and easy connections between electronic devices should be possible.

It was decided that in order to enable the development of Bluetooth technology to move forward and be accepted, it needed to be opened up as an industry standard. Accordingly, in Feb 1998, five companies (Ericsson, Nokia, IBM, Toshiba and Intel) formed the Bluetooth SIG - Special Interest Group.

The Bluetooth SIG grew very rapidly, because by the end of 1998 it welcomed its 400th member.

The Bluetooth SIG also worked rapidly on the development of Bluetooth technology. Three months after the formation of the special interest group - it was not yet known as the Bluetooth SIG, the name Bluetooth was adopted.

The Name Bluetooth

The name of the Bluetooth standard originates from the Danish king Harald Blåtand who was king of Denmark between 940 and 981 AD. His name translates as "Blue Tooth" and this was used as his nickname. A brave warrior, his main achievement was that of uniting Denmark under the banner of Christianity, and then uniting it with Norway that he had conquered. The Bluetooth standard was named after him because Bluetooth endeavours to unite personal computing and telecommunications devices.

Bluetooth Basics

The first release of Bluetooth was for a wireless data system that could carry data at speeds up to 721 Kbps with the addition of up to three voice channels. The aim of Bluetooth technology was to enable users to replace cables between devices such as printers, fax machines, desktop computers and peripherals, and a host of other digital devices. One major use was for wirelessly connecting headsets for mobile phones, allowing people to use small headsets rather than having to speak directly into the phone.

Another application of Bluetooth technology was to provide a connection between an ad hoc wireless network and existing wired data networks.

The technology was intended to be placed in a low cost module that could be easily incorporated into electronics devices of all sorts. Bluetooth uses the license free Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) frequency band for its radio signals and enables communications to be established between devices up to a maximum distance of around 100 metres, although much shorter distances were more normal.

Bluetooth is well established, but despite this further enhancements are being introduced. Faster data transfer rates, and greater flexibility. In addition to this efforts have been made to ensure that interoperation has been improved so that devices from different manufacturers can talk together more easily.

History of Mobile / Cell Phone

The development and history of the mobile phone has seen a tremendous number of changes since the first cell phones were introduced. It was only at the beginning of the 1980s when mobile phone technology started to be deployed commercially. Since then there have been many new cell phone or mobile phone systems introduced, and many improvements have been made in this form of radio communications technology. The mobile phones themselves as well as the associated equipment including base stations and the other network equipment and cellular technology has become much cheaper and far smaller.

One of the major changes is the level of market penetration that has been achieved. Cellular technology has enabled many people to have phones where it would not otherwise be possible. In many countries there are more mobile phone accounts than people, i.e. many people have more than one account, possibly one for private use and one for work. In this way cellular technology has enabled market penetration to become more than 100%.

With the development of cellular technology, mobile phones now have many more facilities and capabilities than the first ones to be sold. Mobile phone history will show a steady increase in the capabilities of these phones.

Mobile Phone History Overview

The phones themselves have undergone many changes during their history. Cellular technology that has been used has improved dramatically. The first systems to be launched were based on analogue technology. The early phones were very large and could certainly not be placed in a pocket like the phones of today.

The first generation (1G) phone systems as they are now known were overtaken in the early 1990s by the first digital systems.

The high levels of use and limited frequency allocation meant that greater spectrum use efficiency was needed. Accordingly the next or second-generation (2G) phone systems were introduced to meet this need.

As the usage of phones increased and people became more mobile, new possibilities emerged for using the phones for data transfer. They could be used to download information from the Internet, or to send video. The first stage in this migration was to provide a medium speed data transfer capability. These systems were accordingly known as 2.5G.

However the ultimate aim was to provide a relatively high-speed data transfer capability. These full third generation (3G) systems took longer to develop and roll-out than had been originally anticipated as a result of higher development costs and a downturn in the global economy. However they are able to provide a significant improvement in capability over the 2.5 G systems.

Analogue Systems

There was an enormous variety of first generation systems that were introduced. Much of the early development of cellular systems had been undertaken in the USA, but the first fully commercial system to be launched was the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system. Shortly after this a system known as the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) was launched commercially. This was developed primarily by Bell and was introduced in the USA although many other countries used this system later. A further system known as Total Access Communication System (TACS) developed by Motorola was introduced in the UK and many other countries.

These were the main systems that were developed, although around the globe many variants were developed to suit the needs of the individual countries.

Although there were differences in the specifications of the systems, they were all very similar in concept. The voice information was carried on a frequency-modulated carrier. A control channel was also used to enable the mobile to be routed to a suitable vacant channel. The channel spacing for each system was different. NMT used a 12.5 kHz channel spacing, AMPS a 30 kHz spacing and TACS a 25 kHz spacing. A later development of AMPS called NAMPS or narrowband AMPS used a 10 kHz channel spacing to conserve spectrum.

Digital Systems

The analogue systems were very successful, but their very success started to show some of their shortcomings. The main one was the inefficient way in which they sued the spectrum. With the growth rates that were being seen, there was insufficient spectrum to support the quality of service that was required. By converting to a digital system, considerable savings could be made. A number of systems arose from this initiative. These second-generation systems as they were termed, started to be deployed in the early 1990s and their history is just as remarkable.

The system that was developed in Europe was the result of 26 telecommunications companies working together. Work actually started in 1982, and the roll-out commenced in 1991. The system known by the letters GSM was originally called Groupe Speciale Mobile but this was later changed to Global System for Mobile communications in view of the wide involvement in its development. It used time division multiple access (TDMA) to allow up to eight users to use each of the channels that are spaced 200 kHz apart. The basic system used frequencies in the 900 MHz band, but other bands in the 1800 and 1900 MHz (USA) bands were added. New bands in the 850 MHz region were also added.

In the USA a system specially designed to operate alongside their AMPS system was devised. The system was known under a variety of names including Digital AMPS or DAMPS, and US Digital Cellular (USDC), although it is normally known just as TDMA today as it relies on TDMA technology. The system uses a 30 kHz channel spacing to make it compatible with the existing AMPS systems in operation.

Another development in the USA from Qualcomm took a major leap in technology. It introduced a totally new concept for multiple access. Based on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) that had previously been used for military transmissions, it used a multiple access system known as code division multiple access (CDMA). The new system offered far greater levels of spectrum efficiency although it required more complicated circuitry in the handsets.

Fibre Optic Communications

Fibre optic communication has revolutionised the telecommunications industry. It has also made its presence widely felt within the data networking community as well. Using fibre optic cable, optical communications have enabled telecommunications links to be made over much greater distances and with much lower levels of loss in the transmission medium and possibly most important of all, fiber optical communications has enabled much higher data rates to be accommodated.

As a result of these advantages, fibre optic communications systems has become widely employed.

Development of Fibre Optics

Since the earliest days of telecommunications there has been an ever increasing need to transmit more data even faster. Initially single line wires were used. These gave way to coaxial cables that enabled several channels to be transmitted over the same cable. However these systems were limited in bandwidth and optical systems were investigated.

Optical communications became a possibility after the first lasers were developed in the 1960s. The next piece of the jigsaw fell into place when the first optical fibers with a sufficiently low loss for communications purposes were developed in the 1970s. Then, during the late 1970s a considerable amount of research was undertaken. This resulted in the installation of the first optical fibre telecommunications system. It ran over a distance of 45 km and used a wavelength of 0.5 mm and had a data rate of just 45 Mbps - a fraction of what is possible today.

Since then, considerable improvements have been made in the technology. Data rates have improved and in addition to this the performance of the optical fibre has been improved to enable much greater distances to be achieved between repeaters. As an indication of this the speeds that can now be achieved along through a fibre optic system exceed 10 Tbps.

When the first fibre optic transmission systems were being developed, it was thought that the fibre optic cabling and technology would be prohibitively expensive. However, this has not been the case and costs have fallen to the extent that fibre optics now provides the only viable option for many telecommunications applications. In addition to this it is also used in many local area networks where speed is a major requirement.

Advantages of Fibre Optics

There are a number of compelling reasons that lead to the widespread adoption of fibre optic cabling for telecommunications applications:

- Much lower levels of signal attenuation.

- Fibre optic cabling provides a much higher bandwidth allowing more data to be delivered.

- Fibre optic cables are much lighter than the coaxial cables that might otherwise be used.

- Fibre optics does not suffer from stray interference pickup that occurs with coaxial cabling.

Fibre Optic Transmission System

Any fibre optic data transmission system will comprise a number of different elements.

The different elements of the system will vary according to the application. Systems used for lower capacity links, possibly for local area networks will employ somewhat different techniques and components to those used by network providers that provide extremely high data rates over long distances. Nevertheless the basic principles are the same whatever the system.

In the system the transmitter of light source generates a light stream modulated to enable it to carry the data. Conventionally a pulse of light indicates a "1" and the absence of light indicates "0". This light is transmitted down a very thin fibre of glass or other suitable material to be presented at the receiver or detector. The detector converts the pulses of light into equivalent electrical pulses. In this way the data can be transmitted as light over great distances.

Fibre Optic Transmitter

Although the original telecommunications fibre optic systems would have used large lasers, today a variety of semiconductor devices can be used. The most commonly used devices are light emitting diodes, LEDs, and semiconductor laser diodes.

The simplest transmitter device is the LED. Its main advantage is that it is cheap, and this makes it ideal for low cost applications where only short runs are needed. However they have a number of drawbacks. The first is that they offer a very low level of efficiency. Only about 1% of the input power enters the optical fibre, and this means that high power drivers would be needed to provide sufficient light to enable long distance transmissions to be made. The other disadvantage of LEDs is that they produce what is termed incoherent light that covers a relatively wide spectrum. Typically the spectral width is between 30 and 60 nm. This means that any chromatic dispersion in the fibre will limit the bandwidth of the system.

In view of their performance, LEDs are used mainly in local-area-network applications where the data rates are typically in the range 10-100 Mb/s and transmission distances are a few kilometres.

Where higher levels of performance are required, i.e. it is necessary that the fibre optic link can operate over greater distances and with higher data rates, then lasers are used. Although more costly, they offer some significant advantages. In the first instance they are able to provide a higher output level, and in addition to this the light output is directional and this enables a much higher level of efficiency in the transfer of the light into the fibre optic cable. Typically the coupling efficiency into a single mode fibre may be as high as 50%. A further advantage is that lasers have a very narrow spectral bandwidth as a result of the fact that they produce coherent light. This narrow spectral width enables the lasers to transmit data at much higher rates because modal dispersion is less apparent. Another advantage is that semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies because of short recombination time for the carriers within the semiconductor material.

Laser diodes are often directly modulated. This provides a very simple and effective method of transferring the data onto the optical signal. This is achieved by controlling current applied directly to the device. This in turn varies the light output from the laser. However for very high data rates or very long distance links, it is more effective to run the laser at a constant output level (continuous wave). The light is then modulated using an external device. The advantage of using an external means of modulation is that it increases the maximum link distance because an effect known as laser chirp is eliminated. This chirp broadens the spectrum of the light signal and this increases the chromatic dispersion in the fibre optic cable.

Fibre Optic Cable

In essence a fibre optic cable consists of core, around which is another layer referred to as the cladding. Outside of this there is a protective outer coating.

The fibre optic cables operate because their cladding has a refractive index that is slightly lower than that of the core. This means that light passing down the core undergoes total internal reflection when it reaches the core/cladding boundary, and it is thereby contained within the core of the optical fibre.

Repeaters and Amplifiers

There is a maximum distance over which signals may be transmitted over fibre optic cabling. This is limited not only by the attenuation of the cable, but also the distortion of the light signal along the cable. In order to overcome these effects and transmit the signals over longer distances, repeaters and amplifiers are used.

Opto-electric repeaters may be used. These devices convert the optical signal into an electrical format where it can be processed to ensure that the signal is not distorted and then converted back into the optical format. It may then be transmitted along the next state of the fibre optic cable.

An alternative approach is to use an optical amplifier. These amplifiers directly amplify the optical signal without the need to convert the signal back into an electrical format. The amplifiers consist of a length of fibre optic cable that is doped with a rare earth mineral named Erbium. The treated fibre cable is then illuminated or pumped with light of a shorter wavelength from another laser and this serves to amplify the signal that is being carried.

In view of the much reduced cost of fibre optic amplifiers over repeaters, amplifiers are far more widely used. Most repeaters have been replaced, and amplifiers are used in virtually all new installations these days.

Receivers

Light travelling along a fibre optic cable needs to be converted into an electrical signal so that it can be processed and the data that is carried can be extracted. The component that is at the heart of the receiver is a photo-detector. This is normally a semiconductor device and may be a p-n junction, a p-i-n photo-diode or an avalanche photo-diode. Photo-transistors are not used because they do not have sufficient speed.

Once the optical signal from the fibre optic cable ahs been applied to the photo-detector and converted into an electrical format it can be processed to recover the data which can then be passed to its final destination.

Fibre optic transmission of data is generally used for long distance telecommunications network links and for high speed local area networks. Currently fibre optics is not used for the delivery of services to homes, although this is a long term aim for many telcos (телекоммуникационная компания). By using optical fibre cabling here, the available bandwidth for new services would be considerably higher and the possibility of greater revenues would increase.

Global Positioning System

GPS, or Global Positioning System, is also sometimes called NavStar. GPS is a satellite based global navigation satellite system, GNSS that is used to provide accurate location and time information anywhere on or near the Earth.

GPS is run and maintained by the US government, although access to it has been opened up so that it is freely available worldwide when used with suitable GPS receivers.

Typically GPS is able to provide position information to within a few metres, allowing accurate positioning to be made. It is also possible to extract timing information that enables frequencies and time to be very accurately maintained. Frequency stability performance figures of systems using GPS timing are far in better than crystal or many other accurate frequency sources.

The performance and ease of use of GPS has meant that it is now an integral part of everyday life, with many portable or car-based "satnav" systems being used, as well as many mobile phones incorporating them to enable them to provide location information superimposed on the maps from the phone or satnav.

GPS Basics

The basic concept behind GPS is that signals are transmitted from the satellites in space and these are received by the receivers on or near to the surface of the earth. Using timing it is possible to determine the distance from each satellite and thereby using a process of triangulation and a knowledge of the satellite positions the position on Earth can be determined.

The satellites all send timing information so the receiver knows when the message was sent. As radio signals travel at the speed of light they take a very short but finite time to travel the distance from the satellite to the receiver. The satellites also transmit information about their positions. In this way the receiver is able to calculate the distance from the satellite to the receiver. To obtain a full fix of latitude, longitude and altitude, four or more satellites are required, and when the receiver is in the clear, more than four satellites are in view all the time. A fix of just latitude and longitude can be obtained from three satellites.

GPS Satellite Orbits

The fully operational GPS satellite system consists of a constellation of 24 operational satellites with a few more in orbit as spares in case of the failure of one. The GPS satellites are in one of six orbits. These are in planes that are inclined at approximately 55° to the equatorial plane and there are four satellites in each orbit. This arrangement provides the earth user with a view of between five and eight satellites at any time from any point on the Earth.

Using economic ground based receivers GPS is able to provide position information to within a number of metres. The economic costs have also meant that it is now fitted to many motor vehicles, while separate GPS receivers can be bought for a few hundred pounds or dollars. As a result it is widely used by private individuals, as well as many commercial and professional users. In fact the primary use for GPS is as a military navigation system. The fact that it is used so widely is a by-product of its success.

GPS Satellites

The satellites are orbiting above the Earth. Their orbits are tightly controlled because errors in their orbit will translate to errors in the final positions. The time signals are also tightly controlled. The satellites contain an atomic clock so that the time signals they transmit are very accurate. Even so these clocks will drift slightly and to overcome this, signals from Earth stations are used to correct this.

The GPS satellites themselves have a design life of ten years, but to ensure that there are no holes in service in the case of unexpected failures, spares are held in orbit and these can be brought into service at short notice.

The satellites are provide their own power through their solar panels. These extend to about 17 feet, and provide the 700 watts needed to power the satellite and its batteries when it is in sunlight. Naturally the satellite needs to remain operation when it is on the dark side of the Earth when the solar panels do not provide any power. This means that when in sunlight the solar panels need to provide additional power to charge batteries, beyond just powering the basic satellite circuitry.

GPS Receivers

A large number of GPS receivers are available today. They make widespread use of digital signalling processing techniques. The transmissions from the satellites use spread spectrum technology, and the signal processors correlate the signals received to recover the data. As the signals are very weak it takes some time after the receiver is turned on to gain the first fix. This Time To First Fix (TTFF) is of importance, and in early receivers it could be as long as twelve minutes, although modern receivers use many more correlators are able to shorten this considerably.

When using a GPS receiver the receiver must be in the open. Buildings, or any structure will mask the signals and it may mean that few satellites can be seen. Thus the receivers will not operate inside buildings, and urban areas may often cause problems.

GPS Applications

The primary use for GPS is as a military navigational aid. Run by the American Department of Defense its primary role is to provide American forces with an accurate means of navigation anywhere on the globe. However its use has been opened up so that commercial and private users have access to the signals and can use the system. Accordingly it is very widely used for many commercial applications from aircraft navigation, ship navigation to surveying, and anywhere where location information is required. For private users very cost effective receivers are available these days and may be used for applications including sailing. Even many motor vehicles have them fitted now to provide SatNav systems enabling them to navigate easily without the need for additional maps.

It can be said that GPS has revolutionised global navigation since it became available. Prior to these navigation systems were comparatively localised, and did not offer anything like the same degrees of accuracy, flexibility and coverage.

Navigation History before GPS

Before GPS became available a variety of systems were used, but none gave the same accuracy, especially on a global basis. Compasses using the Earth's magnetic field, as well as more localised systems such as LORAN and the Decca navigator system using hyperbolic patterns generated by three base stations were some of the main systems used. Aircraft also used systems such as TACAN.

Ideas for a satellite based global positioning system were based around some of the first satellite and space missions. With Sputnik in 1957 and the following American satellites the first steps towards a GPS system were set.

Using some of these early satellites, some the effects that would need to be incorporated into any future systems were able to be noted and investigated. One important point was the Doppler Effect where the speed of the satellite relative to the ground station caused a perceived shift in frequency of the carrier.

First Satellite Navigation Systems

One of the major limitations of ground based navigation systems was the fact that they were limited in range. Only magnetic and stellar based systems were global and these did not possess the accuracy or the convenience of use needed for many modern navigational requirements. Omega was a system using very low radio frequencies that became operational around 1971, and although global, it only provided navigation with an accuracy to within about 6km.

After the launch of the first satellites it did not take long before work started on some satellite based navigational systems. In 1960 a system called TRANSIT was tested by the US Navy. This satellite based navigation system used five satellites and was able to provide a fix about once every hour. The first satellite, TRANSIT IB was launched on 13th April 1960.

Later this year, Dr Ivan Getting and Dr Shep Arikin of Raytheon proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (Mobile System for Accurate ICBM Control) to the U.S. Air Force.

A further development took place when a project named Project 57 was initiated to investigate areas where space systems could be used to aid national security.

One of the next major developments was another US Navy system called Timation. This proved the ability to put very high accuracy clocks into space - a key element of GPS. In 1967, as part of this programme, an atomic clock was launched into space. However the three US forces were each pursuing their own development programmes and this slowed the rate of development as three separate programmes were being run in parallel.

Impetus from the Cold War

In order to develop a global positioning navigation system, it was realised that a huge amount of investment would be required. This could not normally be justified for commercial, or domestic use. Instead the impetus came from a military need.

During the Cold War, there was a significant threat from nuclear attack, and credible and effective deterrent was needed. Not only did the possible launch carriers (submarines, aircraft and vehicles) need very accurate positioning, but the possibility of cruise missiles using a global positioning system was also considered.

The first concrete steps towards the future global positioning system took place during a meeting in 1973 between heads of the US military. They discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System, DNSS. Later that year, the programme was named Navstar, and the overall system was called Navstar Global Positioning System, or Navstar GPS, or just GPS.

GPS Development and Launch

Once the decision had been made to develop GPS, a colossal amount of development was required.

The development of GPS included a launch programme of 10 satellites known as Block I satellites. This started in 1978, although the initial launch suffered a failure and the satellite was lost. This launch programme lasted until 1989, when on 9th October the last Block I satellite was launched.

The first production satellite, Block II, was launched in 1989, and the 24th satellite was launched in 1994. Block II consisted of a total of 28 satellites as this allowed for spares to be in place for any failures that might occur. The final Block II satellite was launched in 1997.

Finally, in December 1990, the Navstar system became operational, although not all the satellites had been launched by this time.

How Speakers Work

In any sound system, ultimate quality depends on the speakers. The best recording, encoded on the most advanced storage device and played by a top-of-the-line deck and amplifier, will sound awful if the system is hooked up to poor speakers.

A system's speaker is the component that takes the electronic signal stored on things like CDs, tapes and DVDs and turns it back into actual sound that we can hear.

Sound Basics

To understand how speakers work, you first need to understand how sound works.

Inside your ear is a very thin piece of skin called the eardrum. When your eardrum vibrates, your brain interprets the vibrations as sound -- that's how you hear. Rapid changes in air pressure are the most common thing to vibrate your eardrum.

An object produces sound when it vibrates in air (sound can also travel through liquids and solids, but air is the transmission medium when we listen to speakers). When something vibrates, it moves the air particles around it. Those air particles in turn move the air particles around them, carrying the pulse of the vibration through the air as a traveling disturbance.

To see how this works, let's look at a simple vibrating object -- a bell. When you ring a bell, the metal vibrates -- flexes in and out -- rapidly. When it flexes out on one side, it pushes out on the surrounding air particles on that side. These air particles then collide with the particles in front of them, which collide with the particles in front of them and so on. When the bell flexes away, it pulls in on these surrounding air particles, creating a drop in pressure that pulls in on more surrounding air particles, which creates another drop in pressure that pulls in particles that are even farther out and so on. This decreasing of pressure is called rarefaction.

In this way, a vibrating object sends a wave of pressure fluctuation through the atmosphere. When the fluctuation wave reaches your ear, it vibrates the eardrum back and forth. Our brain interprets this motion as sound.

Differentiating Sound

We hear different sounds from different vibrating objects because of variations in:

1) sound-wave frequency: a higher wave frequency simply means that the air pressure fluctuates faster. We hear this as a higher pitch. When there are fewer fluctuations in a period of time, the pitch is lower.

2) air-pressure level: this is the wave's amplitude, which determines how loud the sound is. Sound waves with greater amplitudes move our ear drums more, and we register this sensation as a higher volume.

A microphone works something like our ears. It has a diaphragm that is vibrated by sound waves in an area. The signal from a microphone gets encoded on a tape or CD as an electrical signal. When you play this signal back on your stereo, the amplifier sends it to the speaker, which re-interprets it into physical vibrations. Good speakers are optimized to produce extremely accurate fluctuations in air pressure, just like the ones originally picked up by the microphone. In the next section, we'll see how the speaker accomplishes this.

Making Sound

In the last section, we saw that sound travels in waves of air pressure fluctuation, and that we hear sounds differently depending on the frequency and amplitude of these waves. We also learned that microphones translate sound waves into electrical signals, which can be encoded onto CDs, tapes, LPs, etc. Players convert this stored information back into an electric current for use in the stereo system.

A speaker is essentially the final translation machine - the reverse of the microphone. It takes the electrical signal and translates it back into physical vibrations to create sound waves. When everything is working as it should, the speaker produces nearly the same vibrations that the microphone originally recorded and encoded on a tape, CD, LP, etc.

How Movies are Stored on DVDs

Even though the storage capacity of a DVD is huge, the uncompressed video data of a full-length movie would never fit on a DVD. In order to fit a movie on a DVD, you need video compression. A group called the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) establishes the standards for compressing moving pictures.

When movies are put onto DVDs, they are encoded in MPEG-2 format and then stored on the disc. This compression format is a widely accepted international standard. Your DVD player contains an MPEG-2 decoder, which can uncompress this data as quickly as you can watch it.

A movie is usually filmed at a rate of 24 frames per second. This means that every second, there are 24 complete images displayed on the movie screen. American and Japanese television uses a format called National Television Standards Committee (NTSC). NTSC displays a total of 30 frames per second; but it does this in a sequence of 60 fields, each of which contains alternating lines of the picture. Other countries use Phase Alternating Line (PAL) format, which displays at 50 fields per second, but at a higher resolution (see How Video Formatting Works for details on these formats). Because of the differences in frame rate and resolution, an MPEG movie needs to be formatted for either the NTSC or the PAL system.

The MPEG encoder that creates the compressed movie file analyzes each frame and decides how to encode it. The compression uses some of the same technology as still image compression to eliminate redundant or irrelevant data. It also uses information from other frames to reduce the overall size of the file. Each frame can be encoded in one of three ways:

As an intraframe, which contains the complete image data for that frame. This method of encoding provides the least compression.

As a predicted frame, which contains just enough information to tell the DVD player how to display the frame based on the most recently displayed intraframe or predicted frame. This means that the frame contains only the data that relates to how the picture has changed from the previous frame.

As a bidirectional frame. In order to display this type of frame, the player must have the information from the surrounding intraframe or predicted frames. Using data from the closest surrounding frames, it uses interpolation, which is sort of like averaging, to calculate the position and color of each pixel.

Depending on the type of scene being converted, the encoder will decide which types of frames to use. If a newscast were being converted, a lot more predicted frames could be used because most of the scene is unaltered from one frame to the next. On the other hand, if a very fast action scene were being converted, in which things changed very quickly from one frame to the next, more intraframes would have to be encoded. The newscast would compress to a much smaller size than the action sequence. This is why the storage capacity of digital video recorders (which store video on a hard drive using the MPEG format) can vary depending what type of show you are recording.

If all of this sounds complicated, then you are starting to get a feeling for how much work your DVD player does to decode an MPEG-2 movie. A lot of processing power is required -- even some computers with DVD players can't keep up with the processing required to play a DVD movie.

ECONOMICS

Economics as a Science

Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. In the 19th century economics was the hobby of gentlemen of leisure and the vocation of a few academics; economists wrote about economic policy but were rarely consulted by legislators before decisions were made. Today there is hardly a government, international agency, or large commercial bank that does not have its own staff of economists. Many of the world’s economists devote their time to teaching economics in colleges and universities around the world, but most work in various research or advisory capacities, either for themselves (in economics consulting firms), in industry, or in government. Still others are employed in accounting, commerce, marketing, and business administration; although they are trained as economists, their occupational expertise falls within other fields. Indeed, this can be considered “the age of economists,” and the demand for their services seems insatiable. Supply responds to that demand, and in the United States alone some 400 institutions of higher learning grant about 900 new Ph.D.’s in economics each year.

No one has ever succeeded in neatly defining the scope of economics. Many have agreed with Alfred Marshall, a leading 19th-century English economist, that economics is “a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life”.

Methodological Considerations in Contemporary Economics

Economists, like other social scientists, are sometimes confronted with the charge that their discipline is not a science. Human behaviour, it is said, cannot be analyzed with the same objectivity as the behaviour of atoms and molecules. Value judgments, philosophical preconceptions, and ideological biases unavoidably interfere with the attempt to derive conclusions that are independent of the particular economist espousing them. Moreover, there is no realistic laboratory in which economists can test their hypotheses.

In response, economists are wont to distinguish between “positive economics” and “normative economics.” Positive economics seeks to establish facts: If butter producers are paid a subsidy, will the price of butter be lowered? Will a rise in wages in the automotive industry reduce the employment of automobile workers? Will the devaluation of currency improve a country’s balance of payments? Does monopoly foster technical progress? Normative economics, on the other hand, is concerned not with matters of fact but with questions of policy or of trade-offs between “good” and “bad” effects: Should the goal of price stability be sacrificed to that of full employment? Should income be taxed at a progressive rate? Should there be legislation in favour of competition?

Managerial Economics

Managerial economics is the application of economic principles to decision-making in business firms or of other management units. The basic concepts are derived mainly from microeconomic theory, which studies the behaviour of individual consumers, firms, and industries, but new tools of analysis have been added. Statistical methods, for example, are becoming increasingly important in estimating current and future demand for products. The methods of operations research and programming provide scientific criteria for maximizing profit, minimizing cost, and selecting the most profitable combination of products. Decision-making theory and game theory, which recognize the conditions of uncertainty and imperfect knowledge under which business managers operate, have contributed to systematic methods of assessing investment opportunities.

Game Theory

Game theory is the branch of applied mathematics that provides tools for analyzing situations in which parties, called players, make decisions that are interdependent. This interdependence causes each player to consider the other player’s possible decisions, or strategies, in formulating his own strategy. A solution to a game describes the optimal decisions of the players, who may have similar, opposed, or mixed interests, and the outcomes that may result from these decisions.

Although game theory can be and has been used to analyze parlour games, its applications are much broader. In fact, game theory was originally developed by the Hungarian-born American mathematician John von Neumann and his Princeton University colleague Oskar Morgenstern, a German-born American economist, to solve problems in economics. In their book “The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior” (1944), von Neumann and Morgenstern asserted that the mathematics developed for the physical sciences, which describes the workings of a disinterested nature, was a poor model for economics. They observed that economics is much like a game, wherein players anticipate each other’s moves, and therefore requires a new kind of mathematics, which they called game theory.

Game theory has been applied to a wide variety of situations in which the choices of players interact to affect the outcome. In stressing the strategic aspects of decision making, or aspects controlled by the players rather than by pure chance, the theory both supplements and goes beyond the classical theory of probability.

Adam Smith and the Discovery of Modern Economics

By the end of the XIX century England was unchallenged as the world’s great economic power. The first phase of the first industrial revolution was over. By substituting machines for human skill, steam for human and animal force, English entrepreneurs brought about shift from handicrafts to mass manufacturing, and in so doing gave birth to a modern economy.

England in the 1840s was a country in crisis. A series of bad harvests had reduced demand for the goods being churned out by the new industries. Their producers couldn’t find enough foreign markets to sell excess production, so were forced to sack their workers. Despite all its economic achievements, the mass of England’s people were living in abject poverty. England’s ruling elite was split by a fierce debate on how a country could be so rich but its people so poor, and how to solve this problem before it set off a revolution. For support and ideas, the leaders of the debate turned to a group of thinkers known as “economists”.

At the beginning of the XIX century the term was nothing like as specific. In England it was applied to anyone who approached problems by putting every argument and doctrine, on whatever subject, to the test of facts.

It was no coincidence that England gave birth to the first industrial revolution and what has since become known as the classical school of economics at the same time. The three most important gospels of this school are Adam Smith’s “Wealth of Nations” (1776), David Ricardo’s “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” (1817), and James Mill’s “Political Economy” (1821). Together these books set out a view of political economy based on three ideas: while their predecessors had seen agriculture and land as the sole source of wealth, the classical economists emphasized manufacturing and labour; they believed that free competition benefited society as a whole; and they opposed government interference in the economy as it only upset the natural process of wealth creation.

II.

Adam Smith’s “Wealth of Nations” published in 1776 is the first classic of economic theory and one of the first known attempts to describe economic life as a whole.

The first key question is what is wealth? When Smith was writing, wealth equaled to bullion, gold and silver. The conventional aim of government policy was to create the largest possible trade surplus through manipulating tariffs on imports and subsidies on exports, so that the nation’s surplus of money increased. This approach Smith called “mercantile system of political economy”.

The fundamental mistake of mercantilism, smith wrote, was the view that national wealth consists in money. Real wealth is measured by the availability of consumable goods and the labour which produces them. An increase in wealth equals an increase in goods, and plenty means cheap goods. Anything that restricts the availability of goods reduces nation’s wealth. National wealth can only increase as trade does between and within nations. For trade to grow you need a market, and how the market works is the core of Smith’s book.

An effective market economy depends on a network of co-operation that is neither planned nor directed by a political power. The operation of market forces brings great benefits to society and raises the standard of living, but this benefit cannot be planned. Buyers and sellers in a market are motivated almost solely by self-interest, but serve the public interest without having intended it. If the seller is the sole producer of a popular product, he will push its price up as high as the market will bar. But a high price will attract rival producers. Once their goods are available in the market, the price will naturally fall. Thus the market is a self-regulating mechanism guided not by a government, but by what Smith called “the invisible hand”.

The wealth of a nation, Smith concluded, depended on trade, a market to make that trade possible, and the division of labour. Each of these is natural, unplanned and best left alone to act without political interference, for as Smith noted, “A great trader purchases his goods always where they are cheapest and best”.

III.

One of the bedrocks of Smith’s philosophy is that no government or group of men is wise enough to do a better job at managing trade than a market, which reflects the guesses and knowledge of millions.

In his view, the proper functions of government were limited but essential. They were, he wrote, to defend the country, to provide justice, and to carry out some projects which couldn’t be left to individuals or market, because they offered no immediate return. Under the final heading Smith was thinking of infrastructure projects like roads, bridges, canals and harbours, which are expensive and often unprofitable to build but lead to an increase in trade, and hence of national wealth.

IV.

Adam Smith was born in 1723, and was a student at Glasgow University in Scotland from 1737 to 1740, when John Kay invented the flying shuttle (ткацкий челнок). Between 1764 and 1766, Smith toured Europe as the tutor of the Duke of Buccleuch (герцог Бакли), the ancestor of the man who is still Britain’s largest private landowner. While in France Smith met Voltaire and was greatly influenced by a group of philosophers, who believed that government shouldn’t interfere in the natural course of things, that it was better for them to leave well alone. Meanwhile, back in England, James Hargreaves was inventing the spinning jenny (прядильная машина) and James Watt built the first condenser, which made it possible to harness steam power. On his return from France, Adam Smith sat down to write his great book, the full title of which was “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”, and which was published in 1776. The year before Richard Arkwrite invented the spinning frame (ткацкий станок), the final invention needed to make the mass production of textiles possible. Though Smith’s book was far from perfect work, it was he who was called “the discoverer of a new country”, and the name of that country was “the modern economy”.

Banking

What is a Bank?

A bank is a business. But unlike some businesses, banks do not manufacture products or extract natural resources from the earth. Banks sell services - financial services such as car loans, home mortgage loans, business loans, checking accounts, and credit card services.

Some people go to the bank in search of a safe place to keep their money. Others go to the bank seeking money for loans to buy houses and cars, start business, expand farms, or do any of the other things that require borrowing money.

Where do banks get money to lend? They get it from the people who open saving and other types of accounts. Banks act as go-betweens for people who save and people who need to borrow. If savers did not put their money in banks, the banks would have little or no money to lend.

Your savings are combined with everyone else’s savings to form a big pool of money. The bank uses that pool of money to make loans. The money does not belong to the bank’s president, board of directors, or stockholders. It belongs to the depositors. That’s why bankers have a special obligation not to take big risks when they make loans.

How did Banking Begin?

No one knows who started the world’s first bank, but it is safe to say that banking has its roots in the early trading civilization of the Mediterranean. Without trade there would have been little need to establish banks, and without banks there would have been far less money to finance trading ventures.

Imagine that you are a merchant in ancient Greece. You make your living by sailing to distant ports with boatloads of olive oil and spices. You do not grow the olives and spices yourself; you buy them from growers or other merchants. If all goes well, you will be paid for your cargo when you reach your destination, but before you set sail you must have money to outfit your ship.

You find it by seeking people who have money sitting idle. They agree to put up the money for your cargo and supplies in exchange for a share of your profits when you return from your voyage ... if you return.

The people with the idle money are among the world’s fist lenders and you are among the first world’s first borrowers. You complain that they are demanding too large a share of your profits. They reply that your voyage is perilous and they run a risk of losing their entire investment. Lenders and borrowers have carried on this debate ever since.

Today, most people who want to borrow money go to banks rather than to wealthy individuals. But the basic concepts of borrowing and lending have not really changed. People do not let you have their money for nothing.

It is risky to lend money. There is no guarantee that a lender will get the money back, even if the borrower is an old friend. So why lend money? Why take the risk? Because lending presents an opportunity to make even more money. People will often take a financial risk if they believe there is a good chance making more money.

For example, if a bank lends $50,000 to a borrower, the bank is not satisfied to just get its $50,000 back. In order to make a profit, the bank charges interest on the loan.

Interest is the price borrowers pay for using someone else’s money. If a loan seems risky, the lender will charge more interest to offset the risk. (If you take a bigger chance, you want a bigger payoff.)

Of course, the opportunity to earn lots of interest won’t mean much if a borrower fails to repay a loan. That is why banks often refuse to make loans that seem too risky.

Banks also use interest to attract savers. After all, people who have extra money do not have to put it in the bank. They have lots of choices:

- They can bury it in the backyard or stuff it in a mattress. But if they do that the money will just sit there. It won’t increase in value. It won’t earn interest.

- They can buy lend or invest in real estate. But real estate can tie up an investor’s money because buildings and land can take a long time to sell if the market is weak. There is always the risk of real estate dropping in value.

- They can invest in the stock market. But if the stock market drops, investors can lose their money.

- They can buy gold or invest in collectibles, but gold and collectibles fluctuate in value. Who knows what the value will be when it is time to sell? (In 1980, gold sold for $800 an ounce. By 1983 the price had sunk bellow $400.)

- Or they can put their money in a bank. Not only will the money be safe, it will also earn interest. In addition, many types of bank accounts offer depositors the added advantage of being able to get at their money quickly.

Advertising

Advertising is the techniques and practices used to bring products, services, opinions, or causes to public notice for the purpose of persuading the public to respond in a certain way toward what is advertised. Most advertising involves promoting a good that is for sale, but similar methods are used to encourage people to drive safely, to support various charities, or to vote for political candidates, among many other examples. In many countries advertising is the most important source of income for the media (e.g., newspapers, magazines, or television stations) through which it is conducted. In the noncommunist world advertising has become a large and important service industry.

In the ancient and medieval world such advertising as existed was conducted by word of mouth. The first step toward modern advertising came with the development of printing in the 15th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century weekly newspapers in London began to carry advertisements, and by the 18th century such advertising was flourishing.

The great expansion of business in the 19th century was accompanied by the growth of an advertising industry; it was the century that saw the establishment of advertising agencies. The first agencies were, in essence, brokers for space in newspapers.

Advertising Agencies

Advertising agencies are responsible for initiating, managing, and implementing paid marketing communications. In addition, some agencies have diversified into other types of marketing communications, including public relations, sales promotion, interactive media, and direct marketing. Agencies typically consist of four departments: account management, a creative division, a research group, and a media planning department. Those in account management act as liaisons between the client and the agency, ensuring that client needs are communicated to the agency and that agency recommendations are clearly understood by the client. Account managers also manage the flow of work within the agency, making sure that projects proceed according to schedule. The creative department is where advertisements are conceived, developed, and produced. Artists, writers, and producers work together to craft a message that meets agency and client objectives. In this department, slogans, jingles, and logos are developed. The research department gathers and processes data about the target market and consumers. This information provides a foundation for the work of the creative department and account management. Media planning personnel specialize in selecting and placing advertisements in print and broadcast media.

Marketing

Marketing is the sum of activities involved in directing the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers.

Marketing’s principal function is to promote and facilitate exchange. Through marketing, individuals and groups obtain what they need and want by exchanging products and services with other parties. Such a process can occur only when there are at least two parties, each of whom has something to offer. In addition, exchange cannot occur unless the parties are able to communicate about and to deliver what they offer. Marketing is not a coercive process: all parties must be free to accept or reject what others are offering. So defined, marketing is distinguished from other modes of obtaining desired goods, such as through self-production, begging, theft, or force.

Marketing is not confined to any particular type of economy, because goods must be exchanged and therefore marketed in all economies and societies except perhaps in the most primitive. Furthermore, marketing is not a function that is limited to profit-oriented business; even such institutions as hospitals, schools, and museums engage in some forms of marketing. Within the broad scope of marketing, merchandising is concerned more specifically with promoting the sale of goods and services to consumers and hence is more characteristic of free-market economies.

Based on these criteria, marketing can take a variety of forms: it can be a set of functions, a department within an organization, a managerial process, a managerial philosophy, and a social process.

How to Win a Market

If you want to market your product abroad for the first time you will find the task difficult. The international market is highly competitive, with very many manufacturers chasing the same customers.

It is very difficult to take business away from current suppliers. To be successful the newcomer must have a compelling offer to make the customer switch to his product.

In business and industrial marketing there are three compelling things: price, function and source.

Price: A lower price can be a tie-breaker. A substantially lower price can be a compelling offer. But it doesn't mean that the order always goes to the lower bidder. The product must always satisfy the function.

Function: The product must always perform the function for which it is intended and meet quality standards. However, in a world of rapid technological development customers are always looking for new products that do the job better, faster, more efficiently. This presents a good opportunity to the enterprises that can offer new products based on advanced science and technologies. The space program may serve as an example of advancements in science, medicine and technology.

Source: A company's reputation for quality and reliability of delivery are increasingly important. Quality and timely delivery are essential to customers.

Purchasing people are interested in price. Engineers are interested in function. Management is interested in source.

Articles and advertising in technical and professional publications, trade shows and exhibitions, seminars and symposia - all are basic tools of the industrial marketer. The extensive use of advertising builds in the minds of consumers the company's image for quality.

Russian industrialists planning to enter foreign markets should examine which compelling offer they can make. Then they should carefully plan their communications program. In a market of many choices, the communications must be as competitive as the product itself.

If you want to enter a new market you must answer the questions:

How far do we have the capability to produce the needed product?
How good is the service we can provide?

Training and Promotion

In all industrialized countries managers are typically recruited from university or postsecondary technical-school graduates. It is becoming rare for blue-collar workers without a college or technical school degree to rise beyond the level of first-line supervision into the ranks of higher management. As few graduates fresh out of a university or technical school have the experience necessary to assume broad-based or high-level managerial responsibilities, most organizations invest heavily in systematic management training and development efforts.

An initial part of the training involves socialization into the practices, values, and culture of the organization. Another source of training and development lies in the career paths and job rotation policies of the firm. A large multinational firm devised a 10-year management development plan for all its junior managers, assuming that within those 10 years the manager would change jobs at least five times. Each job change was expected to expose the junior manager to a different functional area, such as marketing, finance, technology or product development, and manufacturing and increase the number of people the manager supervised or the level of responsibility. This firm, like an increasing number of others, attempted to include international experience in the career path, especially for those young managers targeted early in their careers as having the potential to rise to the level of senior management.

Researchers have shown that managerial career patterns can be predicted quite accurately by the results of these early promotional outcomes. Some have used the analogy of a tournament to describe the process, in which “losing” at any step along the way significantly reduces one’s chance of “winning” – that is, getting to the top of an organization or profession. Thus, a failure to get a promotion one expects often is a signal for the manager to look for opportunities in another organization.

Financial Forecasting

The financial manager must also make overall forecasts of future capital requirements to ensure that funds will be available to finance new investment programs. The first step in making such a forecast is to obtain an estimate of sales during each year of the planning period. This estimate is worked out jointly by the marketing, production, and finance departments: the marketing manager estimates demand; the production manager estimates capacity; and the financial manager estimates availability of funds to finance new accounts receivable, inventories, and fixed assets.

For the predicted level of sales, the financial manager estimates the funds that will be available from the company’s operations and compares this amount with what will be needed to pay for the new fixed assets (machinery, equipment, etc.). If the growth rate exceeds 10 percent a year, asset requirements are likely to exceed internal sources of funds, so plans must be made to finance them by issuing securities. If, on the other hand, growth is slow, more funds will be generated than are required to support the estimated growth in sales. In this case, the financial manager will consider a number of alternatives, including increasing dividends to stockholders, retiring debt, using excess funds to acquire other firms, or, perhaps, increasing expenditures on research and development.

Once a firm’s general goals for the planning period have been established, the next step is to set up a detailed plan of operation - the budget. A complete budget system encompasses all aspects of the firm’s operations over the planning period. It may even allow for changes in plans as required by factors outside the firm’s control.

Wholesaling

Wholesaling is the selling of merchandise to anyone other than a retail customer. The merchandise may be sold to a retailer, a wholesaler, or to an enterprise that will use it for business rather than individual purposes. Wholesaling usually, but not necessarily, involves sales in quantity and at a cost that is significantly lower than the average retail price.

Wholesaling became particularly advantageous after the introduction of mass production and mass marketing techniques in the 19th century. Without wholesale organizations, large manufacturers would have to market their products directly to a great many retailers and/or consumers at high unit costs, and retailers or consumers would have to deal with a large number of manufacturers at great inconvenience.

There are three main categories of wholesalers: 1) merchant wholesalers, 2) manufacturers’ sales branches, and 3) merchandise agents and brokers. The most important are the merchant wholesalers. These independent businesses buy merchandise in large quantities from manufacturers, process and store that merchandise, and redistribute it to retailers and others. Manufacturers’ sales branches are businesses established by manufacturers to sell directly to retailers. They tend to be established by large companies which modify their products frequently and to whom rapid, accurate information on sales and suggestions for improvement are especially valuable. Merchandise agents and brokers sell complementary products of several manufacturers.

Organization of Business

Business organization is the entity formed for the purpose of carrying on commercial enterprise. Such an organization is predicated on systems of law governing contract and exchange, property rights, and incorporation.

Business enterprises customarily take one of three forms: individual proprietorships, partnerships, or limited-liability companies (or corporations). In the first form, a single person holds the entire operation as his personal property, usually managing it on a day-to-day basis. Most businesses are of this type. The second form, the partnership, may have from 2 to 50 or more members, as in the case of large law and accounting firms, brokerage houses, and advertising agencies. This form of business is owned by the partners themselves; they may receive varying shares of the profits depending on their investment or contribution. Whenever a member leaves or a new member is added, the firm must be reconstituted as a new partnership. The third form, the limited-liability company, or corporation, denotes incorporated groups of persons - that is, a number of persons considered as a legal entity (or fictive “person”) with property, powers, and liabilities separate from those of its members. This type of company is also legally separate from the individuals who work for it, whether they be shareholders or employees or both; it can enter into legal relations with them, make contracts with them, and sue and be sued by them. Most large industrial and commercial organizations are limited-liability companies.

Business Finance

Business finance is the raising and managing of funds by business organizations. Planning, analysis, and control operations are responsibilities of the financial manager, who is usually close to the top of the organizational structure of a firm. In very large firms, major financial decisions are often made by a finance committee. In small firms, the owner-manager usually conducts the financial operations. Much of the day-to-day work of business finance is conducted by lower-level staff; their work includes handling cash receipts and disbursements, borrowing from commercial banks on a regular and continuing basis, and formulating cash budgets.

Financial decisions affect both the profitability and the risk of a firm’s operations. An increase in cash holdings, for instance, reduces risk; but, because cash is not an earning asset, converting other types of assets to cash reduces the firm’s profitability. Similarly, the use of additional debt can raise the profitability of a firm (because it is expanding its business with borrowed money), but more debt means more risk. Striking a balance—between risk and profitability—that will maintain the long-term value of a firm’s securities is the task of finance.

Short-term financial operations are closely involved with the financial planning and control activities of a firm. These include financial ratio analysis, profit planning, financial forecasting, and budgeting.

Mail-order Business

Mail-order business also called direct-mail marketing is the method of merchandising in which the seller’s offer is made through mass mailing of a circular or catalog or through an advertisement placed in a newspaper or magazine and in which the buyer places an order by mail. Delivery of the goods may be made by freight, express, or parcel post on a cash-on-delivery basis. Retail mail-order selling was developed primarily for rural customers, but it now includes millions of customers in urban areas.

Most mail-order businesses have been small specialty firms selling by the traditional method, but department stores also do a significant volume of business through their mail-order divisions. Most mail-order volume, however, is accounted for by a few firms selling general merchandise lines. The largest in the world in the late 20th century were Sears, Roebuck and Company and Montgomery Ward & Company, both American firms. With the development of computerized mailing lists and techniques after about 1960, many large retailers combined mail-order circularizing with billing. Book and record clubs utilized direct mail to play a major part in the marketing of books and phonograph and tape recordings.

Mail-order operations have been known in the United States in one form or another since colonial days, but not until the latter part of the 19th century did they assume a significant role in domestic trade.

Ten Attributes of a Good Employee (by Bill Gates)

I am often asked how to be a good manager, a topic I have taken on in this column more than once. Less often does anybody ask an equally important question: What makes a good employee?

Here are 10 of the qualities I find in the “best and brightest” employees, the people companies should attract and retain.

If you have all of these attributes, you are probably a terrific employee.

First, it is important to have a fundamental curiosity about the product or products of your company or group. You have to use the products yourself.

This cannot be stressed enough in the computer world. It also carries special weight in other knowledge - based fields where technology and practices are advancing so fast that is it is very hard to keep up. If you do not have a fascination with the products, you can get out of date - and become ineffective - pretty quickly.

Second, you need a genuine interest in engaging customers in discussions about how they use products - what they like, what they do not like. You have to be a bit of an evangelist with customers, and yet be realistic about where your companies’ products are falling short and could be better.

Third, once you understand your customers’ needs, you have to enjoy thinking through how a product can help. If you work in the software industry, for example, you might ask: “How can this product make work more interesting? How can it make learning more interesting? How can it be used in the home in more interesting ways?”

These first three points are related. Success comes from understanding and caring deeply about your products, your technology and your customers’ needs.

Fourth, you as an individual employee should maintain the same type of long-term approach that a good company does. Employees need to focus on lifelong goals such as developing their own skills and those of the people they work with. This kind of self - motivation requires discipline, but it can be quite rewarding.

Management can also encourage motivation, of course. If you are in sales, quotas are important tools for measuring performance, and it is great when employees beat a quota. But if beating your sales quota or maximizing your next bonus or salary increase is all that motivates you, you are likely to miss out on the kind of team work and development that create success in the long term.

Fifth, you need to have specialized knowledge or skills while maintaining a broad perspective. Big companies, in particular, need employees who can learn specialties quickly. No one should assume that the expertise they have today will suffice tomorrow, so a willingness to learn is critical.

Sixth, you have to be flexible enough to take advantage of opportunities that can give you perspective. At Microsoft, we try to offer a person of different jobs through the course of a career. Anyone interested in joining management is encouraged to work in different customer units, even if it means moving laterally within the organization or relocating to a different part of the world.

We try to move people from our product groups out into the field and move field people into the product groups. We have many people in our U.S. subsidiary from other countries, and we have many U.S. employees who work for subsidiaries in other nations. This helps us better understand world markets, and while we do a pretty good job of cross-pollination, there is still not quite as much of it as I would like.

Seventh, a good employee will want to learn the economics of the business. Why does a company do what it does? What are its business models? How does it make money?

I am always surprised to learn of a company that does not educate its employees in the fundamental financial realities of its industry. Employees need to understand the “make or break” aspects of their industry so that they know what it is about their own job that really counts. Of course, employees have to be willing students who direct attention to the areas where it makes the biggest difference.

Eighth, you must focus on competitors. I like employees who think about what is going on in the marketplace. What are our competitors doing that is smart? What can we learn from them? How can we avoid their mistakes?

Ninth, you have got to use your head. Analyze problems but do not fall prey to “analysis paralysis.” Understand the implications of potential tradeoffs of all kinds, including the tradeoff between acting sooner with less information and later with more.

Use your head in practical ways, too. Prioritize your time effectively. Think about how to give advice crisply to other groups.

Finally, do not overlook the obvious essentials such as being honest, ethical and hard working. These attributes are critical and go without saying.

PART 6

SEMINARS AND REPORTS

Самостоятельная работа студентов по дисциплине «Иностранный язык» помимо подготовки к практическим занятиям и выполнения домашних заданий предполагает также следующие формы: подготовка к семинарским занятиям, подготовка к ежегодной студенческой научно-практической конференции, подготовка докладов-презентаций на страноведческую и профессиональную тематику с использованием Интернет ресурса.

Напомним, что семинар в ВУЗе является одним из основных видов практических занятий, особенно по гуманитарным наукам. Семинар предназначен для углубленного изучения дисциплины, овладения методологией научного познания.

Главная цель семинарских занятий – обеспечить студентам возможность овладеть навыками и умениями использования теоретического знания применительно к особенностям изучаемой отрасли, что развивает познавательные способности, самостоятельность мышления и творческую активность студентов.

На семинарах решаются следующие педагогические задачи:

- закрепление, углубление и расширение знаний учебной дисциплины;

- обучение студентов практическим приемам и методам анализа теоретических положений и концепций учебной дисциплины;

- изучение и анализ литературных источников по конкретной теме учебной дисциплины.

Формы семинарских занятий:

- Развернутая беседа. При проведении такой формы занятия студенты информируются заранее. Вопросы семинарского занятия делятся на несколько подвопросов. Проводится при наличии многообразия точек зрения специалистов по указанной теме.

- Небольшие доклады студентов с последующим обсуждением участниками семинара.

- Семинар – «мозговой штурм» - является эффективным способом активизации коллективной творческой деятельности. Его суть заключается в выдвижении гипотез и их критической оценки. Группа «генераторов идей» за отведенное время выдвигает максимальное количество гипотез (выдвигаются любые гипотезы). Группа экспертов выносит суждение о ценности выдвинутых гипотез.

- Семинар – деловая игра - представляет собой форму воссоздания предметного и социального содержания будущей профессиональной деятельности специалиста, моделирование таких систем отношений, которые характерны для этой деятельности как целого, иначе говоря, в деловой игре воспроизводится профессиональная обстановка, сходная по основным существенным характеристикам с реальной. Вместе с тем в деловой игре воспроизводятся лишь типичные, обобщенные ситуации в сжатом масштабе времени. В деловой игре студент выполняет деятельность, сочетающую в себе ученые и профессиональные элементы.

- Семинар дискуссия (диспут) – обсуждение вопросов большого социального значения, или вопросов, которые наиболее заинтересовали студентов.

Многие методические инновации связаны сегодня с применением интерактивных методов обучения. Интерактивный – означает способность взаимодействовать или находиться в режиме беседы, диалога. Следовательно, это, прежде всего, диалоговое обучение. Цель интерактивного обучения состоит в создании комфортных условий обучения, таких, при которых студент чувствует свою успешность, свою интеллектуальную состоятельность, что делает продуктивным процесс обучения. Указанные выше формы семинарских занятий и представляют собой интерактивное обучение.

ПЛАНЫ СЕМИНАРСКИХ ЗАНЯТИЙ ПО ИЗУЧЕНИЮ ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИХ ЯВЛЕНИЙ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

I. Фонетический строй английского языка

1. Английский алфавит.

2. Транскрипция – интернациональный код звукового произнесения.

3. Транслитерация.

4. Особенности произнесения звуков в английском языке:

- общие закономерности произнесения звуков;

- дифтонги;

- ударение.

5. Интонация английского языка – значимость и особенности.

II. Имя существительное в английском языке

1. Общая характеристика.

2. Категория числа английского существительного:

- общее правило образования множественного числа существительных;

- существительные, образующие множественное число не по правилу.

3. Категория падежа – общий и притяжательный падежи английского существительного.

4. Категория грамматического рода в английском языке.

5. Функции существительного в английском предложении.

III. Артикль – характерный признак английского существительного

1. Определение артикля, его грамматическая функция в английском языке.

2. Неопределенный артикль – форма, случаи употребления.

3. Определенный артикль – форма, смысловое и грамматическое значение.

4. Имена собственные и артикль.

5. «Нулевой» артикль, или когда артикль с существительным не употребляется.

IV. Имя прилагательное и наречие в английском языке

1. Общая характеристика.

2. Степени сравнения английского прилагательного:

- положительная степень сравнения;

- сравнительная степень сравнения;

- превосходная степень сравнения.

3. Имя наречие – общая характеристика, способы образования.

4. Прилагательные и наречия, образующие степени сравнения не по правилу.

5. Конструкция английского языка со степенями сравнения прилагательных и наречий.

6. Функции прилагательного (правое и левое определение) и наречия в английском предложении.

V. Предлог – служебная часть речи

1. Английские предлоги – способ выражения падежных отношений между словами в английском языке.

2. Предлоги времени.

3. Предлоги места.

4. Предлоги направления и движения.

VI. Типы вопросительных предложений в английском языке

1. Порядок слов в английском вопросительном предложении.

2. Общий вопрос – определение, структура.

3. Альтернативный вопрос - определение, структура.

4. Специальный вопрос - определение, структура.

5. Разделительный вопрос - определение, структура.

6. Специальный вопрос к подлежащему – вопрос-исключение в английском языке.

VII. Имя числительное в английском языке

1. Общая характеристика.

2. Количественные числительные.

3. Порядковые числительные.

4. Дробные числительные.

5. обозначение дат в английском языке.

6. Арифметические действия по-английски.

VIII. Местоимение в английском языке

1. Общая характеристика.

2. Классы английского местоимения:

- личные местоимения (в именительном и объектном падежах);

- притяжательные местоимения (2 формы);

- указательные;

- неопределенные и отрицательные;

- вопросительные;

- союзные;

- относительные.

Рекомендуемую литературу и интернет ресурсы для подготовки к семинарским занятиям смотрите в разделе 7.

ТРЕБОВАНИЯ К СТУДЕНТАМ ПО ПОДГОТОВКЕ

ДОКЛАДА-ПРЕЗЕНТАЦИИ

1. Доклад – это сообщение по заданной теме, с целью внести знания из дополнительной литературы, систематизировать изучаемый материал, проиллюстрировать примерами; развить навыки самостоятельной работы с научной литературой, познавательный интерес к научному познанию.

2. Тема доклада должна быть согласованна с преподавателем и соответствовать теме занятия.

3. Материалы при подготовке доклада должны соответствовать научно-методическим требованиям ВУЗа и быть указаны в докладе.

4. Необходимо соблюдать регламент, оговоренный при получении задания.

5. Иллюстрации должны быть достаточными, но не чрезмерными.

6. Работа студента над докладом презентацией включает отработку навыков ораторства и умения организованно проводить диспут.

7. Студент в ходе работы по презентации доклада отрабатывает умение ориентироваться в материале и отвечать на дополнительные вопросы слушателей.

8. Студент в ходе работы по презентации доклада, отрабатывает умение самостоятельно обобщить материал и сделать выводы в заключении.

9. Докладом также может стать презентация реферата студента, соответствующая теме занятия.

10. Студент обязан подготовить и выступить с докладом в строго отведенное время преподавателем, и в срок.

Инструкция докладчикам и содокладчикам

Докладчики и содокладчики - основные действующие лица. Они во многом определяют содержание, стиль, активность данного занятия. Сложность в том, что докладчики и содокладчики должны знать и уметь очень многое:

- сообщать новую информацию,

- использовать технические средства,

- знать и хорошо ориентироваться в теме всей презентации (семинара),

- уметь дискутировать и быстро отвечать на вопросы,

- четко выполнять установленный регламент: докладчик - 10 мин.; содокладчик - 5 мин.; дискуссия - 10 мин,

- иметь представление о композиционной структуре доклада.

Необходимо помнить, что выступление состоит из трех частей: вступление, основная часть и заключение.

Вступление помогает обеспечить успех выступления по любой тематике. Вступление должно содержать:

- название презентации (доклада),

- сообщение основной идеи,

- современную оценку предмета изложения,

- краткое перечисление рассматриваемых вопросов,

- живую интересную форму изложения,

- акцентирование оригинальности подхода.

Основная часть, в которой выступающий должен глубоко раскрыть суть затронутой темы, обычно строится по принципу отчета. Задача основной части - представить достаточно данных для того, чтобы слушатели и заинтересовались темой и захотели ознакомиться с материалами. При этом логическая структура теоретического блока не должны даваться без наглядных пособий, аудио-визуальных и визуальных материалов.

Заключение - это ясное четкое обобщение и краткие выводы, которых всегда ждут слушатели.

Порядок сдачи и защиты рефератов:

1. Реферат сдается на проверку преподавателю за 1-2 недели до зачетного занятия.

2. При оценке реферата преподаватель учитывает

- качество,

- степень самостоятельности студента и проявленную инициативу,

- связность, логичность и грамотность составления,

- оформление в соответствии с требованиями ГОСТ.

3. Защита тематического реферата может проводиться на выделенном одном занятии в рамках часов учебной дисциплины или конференции или по одному реферату при изучении соответствующей темы, либо по договоренности с преподавателем.

4. Защита реферата студентом предусматривает:

- доклад по реферату не более 5-7 минут,

-ответы на вопросы оппонента,

- на защите запрещено чтение текста реферата.

5. Общая оценка за реферат выставляется с учетом оценок за работу, доклад, умение вести дискуссию и отвечать на заданные вопросы.

Содержание и оформление разделов реферата

Титульный лист. Является первой страницей реферата и заполняется по строго определенным правилам.

После титульного листа помещают содержание, в котором приводятся все заголовки работы и указываются страницы, с которых они начинаются. Заголовки содержания должны точно повторять заголовки в тексте. Все заголовки начинаются с прописной буквы без точки на конце. Последнее слово каждого заголовка соединяют отточием / …………… / с соответствующим ему номером страницы в правом столбце оглавления. Заголовки одинаковых ступеней рубрикации необходимо располагать друг под другом. Заголовки каждой последующей ступени смещают на три - пять знаков вправо по отношению к заголовкам предыдущей ступени.

Введение. Здесь обычно обосновывается актуальность выбранной темы, цель и содержание реферата, указывается объект / предмет / рассмотрения, приводится характеристика источников для написания работы и краткий обзор имеющейся по данной теме литературы. Актуальность предполагает оценку своевременности и социальной значимости выбранной темы, обзор литературы по теме отражает знакомство автора реферата с имеющимися источниками, умение их систематизировать, критически рассматривать, выделять существенное, определять главное.

Основная часть. Содержание глав этой части должно точно соответствовать теме работы и полностью ее раскрывать. Эти главы должны показать умение исследователя сжато, логично и аргументировано излагать материал, обобщать, анализировать, делать логические выводы.

Заключительная часть. Предполагает последовательное, логически стройное изложение обобщенных выводов по рассматриваемой теме.

Библиографический список использованной литературы составляет одну из частей работы, отражающей самостоятельную творческую работу автора, позволяет судить о степени фундаментальности данного реферата.

В работах используются следующие способы построения библиографических списков: по алфавиту фамилий, авторов или заглавий; по тематике; по видам изданий; по характеру содержания; списки смешанного построения.

В приложении помещают вспомогательные или дополнительные материалы, / таблицы, карты, графики, неопубликованные документы, переписка и т.д. /. Каждое приложение должно начинаться с нового листа и иметь тематический заголовок. При наличии в работе более одного приложения они нумеруются арабскими цифрами. Нумерация страниц, на которых даются приложения, должна быть сквозной и продолжать общую нумерацию страниц основного текста. Связь основного текста с приложениями осуществляется через ссылки в основном тексте.

Темы рефератов:

1. Secondary Education in the UK.

2. Secondary Education in the USA.

3. Secondary Education in Russia and Abroad: Similarities and Differences.

4. Higher Education in Russia and Developed Countries.

5. The Oldest Universities in Great Britain, Their Customs and Traditions.

6. The Oldest Universities in the USA, Their Customs and Traditions.

7. The Political System of the UK.

8. The Biggest Cities of the UK.

9. Characteristics of American States.

10. The British Nation: National Character, Customs and Traditions.

11. The Americans: National Character, Customs and Traditions.

12. Choosing Means of City Transport.

13. Interesting Facts from the Lives of Scientists.

PART 7
USEFUL REFERENCES FOR STUDENTS

УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ И ИНФОРМАЦИОННОЕ ОБЕСПЕЧЕНИЕ ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ

а) основная литература:

1. Английский язык для инженеров: Учеб. / Т. Ю. Полякова, Е. В. Синявская, О. И. Тынкова. – М.: Высш. шк., 2009. – 463 с.

2. Английский язык для экономистов: Учеб. / И. П. Агабекян, П. И. Коваленко. – Ростов н/Д.: Феникс, 2011. – 413 с.

3. Бонк Н. А. Учебник английского языка. В 2-х ч. / Н. А. Бонк, Г. А. Котий, Н. А. Лукьянова. – М.: Высш. Шк., 1996.

б) дополнительная литература:

1. Качалова К. Н. Израилевич Е. Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка с упражнениями и ключами. – М.: ЮНВЕРС, 1996. – 295 с.

2. Павлоцкий В. П. British Studies. Знакомимся с Британией. – СПб.: Изд-во «Игрек-М», 1996. – 415 с.

3. Маннанова М. А. English Lessons - Lessons of Tolerance [Электронный ресурс]: учеб. пособие / М. А. Маннанова. - Оренбург: ОГУ, 2008. – 108 с.

4. Маннанова М. А. English Lessons – Lessons of Tolerance: воспитание межкультурной толерантности студентов вуза на занятиях по английскому языку: учеб. пособие / М. А. Маннанова. - Оренбург: ИПК ГОУ ОГУ, 2009. - 107 с.

5. Милешкина Н. А., Шанина А. И. Неличные формы глагола: Учебное пособие по грамматике английского языка. – Волгоград: Издательство ВолГУ, 2006.

6. Милешкина Н. А. Самолеты ОКБ П.О. Сухого : учеб. пособие / Н. А. Милешкина ; ГОУ ВПО «Моск. Авиац. Ин-т (Гос. техн. Ун-т) «МАИ», Фил. «Взлет», г. Ахтубинск. – Волгоград : Изд-во ВолГУ, 2010. - 36 с.

7. Павловец И. И. Методические указания к практическим занятиям с текстами на английском языке по самолето- и вертолетостроению / И. И. Павловец, Т. Л. Черезова, Ю. С. Асиновская. – М.: Изд-во МАИ, 1992. – 48 с.

8. Черезова, Т. Л. Методические указания к вводно-корректировочному интенсивному курсу английского языка (1 семестр) / Т. Л. Черезова, И. В. Резник, А. А. Лошакова. – М.: Изд-во МАИ, 1991. – 48 с.

9. Энфианджианц, Е. Н. Методические указания к работе над английской терминологией / Е. Н. Энфианджианц, И. В. Васильева, В. И. Данилова. – М.: Изд-во МАИ, 1991. – 52 с.

10. Murphy R. English Grammar in Use/ A self-study reference and practice book for intermediate students, - Cambridge University Press, 2004.

в) словари и периодические издания:

1. Аракин В. Д., Выгодская З. С., Ильина Н. Н.: Англо-русский словарь. – Москва: Русский язык: Медиа, 2006. - 559 с.

2. Гальперин И. Р., Медникова Э. М.: Большой англо-русский словарь: в 2-х т. – М: Русский язык, 1987. – 2110 с.

3. Пасечник Г. А. Англо-русский словарь-минимум военной терминологии. – М.: Воениздат, 1986. – 321 с.

4. Периодическое издание Aviation Week & Space Technology (интернет версия - http://www.aviationnow.com/);

5. Журналы для изучающих английский язык в формате PDF от http://www.english4u.dp.ua/ (Трудные слова переводятся на русский язык с транскрипцией);

6. Газета для изучающих английский язык – http://www.schoolenglish.ru/;

7. Газета на английском языке для экономистов http://www.economist.com/.

г) Интернет-ресурсы, электронные библиотечные системы:

http://www.wikipedia.org/ – универсальная энциклопедия;
http://www.abc-english-grammar.com/ – бесплатная on-line программа изучения английского языка;
http://www.library.ru/ – информационно-справочный портал, ссылки на интернет -библиотеки;
http://www.allsoch.ru/ – темы по английскому языку, рефераты, форум;
http://www.ssu.samara.ru/~nauka/ - путеводитель в мире науки (по гуманитарным наукам и естествознанию);
http://www.tryengineering.org/ – путеводитель по инженерным дисциплинам на английском языке;
http://www.mai.ru/ – официальный сайт Московского авиационного института;
http://www.usinfo.state.gov/journals/ - обучение чтению;
http://www.american-studies.narod.ru/ - страноведение;
http://www.denistutor.narod.ru/ – грамматические упражнения;
http://www.nytimes.com/learning/ - лексико-грамматические задания;
http://www.eleaston.com/;
http://www.webenglishteacher.com/ - ресурсы для преподавателей;
http://www.primaryresources.co.uk/ - презентации и обучающие игры;
http://www.english-test.net/ – обучающие тесты;
http://www.manythings.org/ - обучающие тесты;
http://www.writingguide.geneseo.edu/form.shtml/ - деловая переписка.

д) электронные словари:

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English http://www.longman.com/dictionaries/;
http://www.dictionary.com/;
http://www.webster.com/;
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/default.asp?dict=CALD/;
http://www.macmillandictionary.com/;
http://www.vocabulary.com/.

Список использованной литературы

Английский язык для студентов технических вузов: основный курс: учеб. пособие в 2 ч. / С. А. Хоменко, В. Ф. Скалабан, А. Г. Крупенникова, Е. В. Ушакова; под общ. Ред. С. А. Хоменко, В. Ф. Скалабан. – Минск: Высш. шк., 2006.
Блох, М. Я. Практикум по английскому языку: Грамматика: Сборник упражнений: Учеб. пособие для вузов / М. Я. Блох, А. Я. Лебедева, В. С. Денисова. – М.: ООО «Издательство Астрель»: ООО «Издательство АСТ», 2003. – 238 c.
Воронцова, И. И. Английский язык для студентов экономических факультетов: Учебное пособие / И. И. Воронцова, А. К. Ильина, Ю. В. Момджи. – М., 1999. – 144 c.
Гальстер, Г. Английский язык: практикум по грамматике: учеб. Пособие / Г. Гальстер, З. Бруггер. – М.: Астрель: АСТ, 2006. – 126 с.
Гуринович, В. В. Деловая переписка на английском языке: Учебно-справочное пособие. – М.: АСТ, Минск: Харвест, 2007. – 256 с.
Качалова, К. Н. Практическая грамматика английского языка с упражнениями и ключами / К. Н. Качалова, Е. Е. Израилевич. – М.: ЮНВЕРС, 1996. - 717 с.
Нестерова, Н. М. Страноведение: Великобритания: Учебное пособие. – Ростов н/Д.: Феникс, 2005. – 368 с.
Павлоцкий, В.П. British Studies. Знакомимся с Британией. – СПб.: Изд-во «Игрек-М», 1996. – 415 с.
Пиввуева, Ю. В. Уроки английского языка. К учебнику «English Grammar in Use» Р. Мерфи: для продолжающих обучение / Ю. В. Пиввуева. – М.: Эксмо, 2010. – 448с. – (Иностранный язык: освой легко).
Токарева, Н. Д. Америка. Какая она?: учебник по страноведению США / Н. Д. Токарева, В. Пеппард. - М.: Высш. шк., 1998. – 334 с.
Шляхова, В. А. Английский язык. Контрольные задания для студентов технических специальностей вузов: Учеб.-метод. пособие. – М.: Высш. шк., 2003. – 111 с.
Emery, H. Aviation English: Teacher's Book, - Macmillan, 2008. – 128 p.
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1. Политика Военного
2. тема Цель работы- Исследование математической модели резервированной восстанавливаемой системы расчет
3. Государственное управление социальнокультурной сферой
4. ЛЕСНОЙ ЦАРЬ из И
5. ТЕОРЕТИЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ ПЛАНИРОВАНИЯ И ФИНАНСИРОВАНИЯ РАСХОДОВ БЮДЖЕТА НА ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ
6. Прибыль на акцию ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Перед вВами одно из серии учебных пособий п
7. первых при поступлении в собственность нескольких лиц неделимой вещи либо вещи не подлежащей разделу в сил
8. ЧТЗУралтракт в экономике городского хозяйства Заключение Список используемой литературы Введение
9. Основні параметри які характеризують зорові умови роботи
10. Порядок будет изменен
11. Понятие и содержание права собственности 2
12. Правда при объединении их в одну процедуру как это сделано в законодательстве многих зарубежных государст
13. Объясняется это тем что люди судят по себе не только о других людях но и о всех других вещах и так как после
14. 2 32
15. на тему-Вопрос морали в современной философии Выполнил- аспирант Орлов И
16. Реферат- Аполлон Майков- поэт великой империи (к 185-летию со дня рождения)
17. Невербальный язык, или язык тела
18. Лабораторная работа 4 Тема Современные условия работы железных дорог
19. экономический оплот края на протяжении 25 лет своей истории считалась гарантом стабильности республики
20. тема телефонной связи

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