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Подписываем
Е.И. Курашвили, И.И. Кондратьева B.C. Штрунова
английский язык
для студентов-физиков
Второй этап обучения
Учебное пособие
Издание второе, переработанное и дополненное
Москва Астрель • ACT 2005
УДК 811.111 (075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ-923 К48
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Санитарно-эпидемиологическое заключение № 77.99.02.953.Д.000577.02.04 от 03.02.2004 г.
Курашвили, Е.И.
К48 Английский язык для студентов-физиков. Второй этап обу чения : учеб. пособие / Е.И. Курашвили, И.И. Кондратьева, B.C. Штрунова. — 2-е изд., персраб. и доп. — М.: Астрель: ACT, 2005. - 189, |3] с.
ISBN 5-17-019110-3 (ООО «Издательство АСТ») ISBN 5-271-06611-8 (ООО «Издательство Астрель»)
Основная цель пособия — совершенствование навыков и умений в различных видах чтения, а также обучение устным формам обшения по научной тематике. Задания к текстам имеют проблемный характер и ставят целью развивать у студентов логическое мышление и умение вести дискуссию.
Оригинальные тексты пособия представляют практический и познава тельный интерес для студентов технических вузов физического профиля.
Книга содержит четыре тематических раздела (20 Units): 1. Научно-технические и технологические достижения и общество; 2. Теории проис хождения Вселенной; 3. Мир субатомных частиц; 4. Современные научные открытия, теории и технологии, а также дополнительные тексты для чтения (Supplementary Reading).
УДК 811.111 (075.8) ББК 81.2 Англ-923
ISBN 5-17-019110-3 (ООО «Издательство АСТ»)
ISBN 5-271-06611-8
(ООО «Издательство Астрель»)
>Е.И. Курашвили, И.И. Кондратьева, B.C. Штрунова, 2003 (ООО «Издательство Астрель», 2003
READING
• Read the passage below looking for the ideas concerning the "good" and the "harm" of scientific and technological discoveries.
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS IN MODERN SOCIETY
Natural science is the main characteristic feature distinguishing the present civilization from the other civilizations in the past. From its early beginnings in the sixteenth century, the developments of science have influenced the course of western civilization more and more until today it plays'^ most dominant role. *It is not much of an exaggeration to say that we live in a world that, materially and intellectually, has been created by science.
This point is easy to illustrate on the material level. One merely needs to mention the telephone, the radio, the television, the automobile, and the airplane, or any of the count/ess devices invented by the application of science. There is hardly an article used in the homes, in the places of work, or in the places of enjoyment that has not been modified by technology based on science; the means of communication that bind the continents into a single community depend on scientific know-how; without modern sanitation it would be impossible to have large centres of population; without modern industry and agriculture it would be impossible to feed, to clothe, and to provide the "abundant life" to this large population.
There is, however, another part of the story, less obvious and less well known, but far more important. It is a story of expanding intellectual horizons — the impact of science on the mind of a man. *Fundamentally, science is an intellectual enterprise, an attempt to understand the world in a particular way. All the developments mentioned above are but the results, the outcomes of this intellectual activity.
Over the past 150 years the range of human knowledge has been doubled every twelve to fifteen years. In 1930 man knew four times as much as he did in 1900; by 1960 his knowledge had grown sixteenfold, and by the year 2000 it was a hundred times what it had been a century previously.
The second part of the twentieth century brought a number of technical innovations, which are still very young but which are taken so much for granted that it is as if they have always existed.
In the fifties of the last century hardly anyone would probably have believed that we should be able to sit at home and watch astronauts walking in space or that people could be kept alive by the heart of a dead man.
The transistor was not invented until 1948. This piece of electronic equipment found wide use in space technology, computers, transistor radios, medical instruments, television sets — in fact, wherever precise control and modulation of electrical signals was required. It seemed absurd to suppose
Parti
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS AND SOCIETY
Concern for man himself and his fate must always form the chief interest of all technical endeavours, concern for the greatest unsolved problems of the organization of labour and the distribution of goods — in order that the creations of our minds shall be a blessing and not a curse to mankind. Never forget this in the midst of your diagrams and equations.
Albert Einstein
INTRODUCTORY UNIT
Before reading the passage, let's ask the students of your group their opinions on some aspects of the problem of technological progress.
PUBLIC OPINION POLL
1. What do you think of science? Do science and technology do more good than harm, more harm than good, or about equal?
|
Opinion |
Men |
Women |
Total |
|
More good than harm |
|||
|
More harm than good |
|||
|
About equal |
2. Leaving out military applications, do you think that scientific discoveries can have very dangerous effects?
|
Opinion |
Men |
Women |
Total |
|
Yes |
|||
|
No |
• Discuss the results of the public opinion poll with your partners. Give reasons for your opinion.
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
Данное пособие предназначено для студентов II курса технических вузов физического профиля и является продолжением учебника «Анг лийский язык для студентов-физиков. Первый этап обучения». Изда-ниетрстьс, переработанное (автор Е.И. Курашвили). М., 2001.
Цель учебного пособия — подготовить студентов к работе с литера турой по специальности и ведению беседы по научной тематике с ис пользованием методического приема, который получил название «учеб ная дискуссия». Предусматривается дальнейшее совершенствование навыков и умений в различных видах чтения, а также обучение устным формам общения по научной тематике на материале предложенныхтек-стов и упражнений с изобразительной опорой в виде диаграмм, таблиц и логических схем. Задания к текстам, в основном, имеют проблемный характер и ставят целью развивать у студентов логическое мышление и умение вести дискуссию.
Учебное пособие разработано на основе оригинальных текстов по темам, представляющим практический и познавательный интерес для студентов физического профиля, и состоит из 20 уроков основною кур са и 10 уроков дополнительною чтения, рассчитанных примерно на 60-70 часов аудиторных занятий.
Тематически тексты уроков сгруппированы в три раздела, и при про хождении каждого раздела предусматривается проведение учебной кон ференции на основе пройденной тематики.
Раздел I посвящен научным и технологическим достижениям XX столетия и трудно разрешимым проблемам экологии и общества в це лом. Затрагивается вопрос об ответственности ученого перед обществом.
В разделе 11 обсуждаются современные теории происхождения Все ленной, а в разделе III — микромир элементарных частиц.
В разделе IV представлены некоторые современные теории, откры тия и технологии в области физики.
В каждом уроке представлено два тематически связанных текста: текст А, предназначенный для самостоятельной работы студентов и пред полагающий изучающее чтение (детальное понимание читаемого), и текст В, предназначенный для ознакомительного и просмотрового чте ния в аудитории. В конце пособия дастся поурочный словарь.
Авторы
that it could ever be replaced, however, the invention oflCs (integrated circuits) in 1958 brought in a new era of change in the field, so fundamental that it already has the characteristics of a second industrial revolution.
A mere twelve years separated the launching of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1 in 1957 and man's first landing on the Moon in 1969. The first long-term orbital station Salyut launched in 1971 opened a new era in space research, providing the possibility of conducting investigations in the field of astrophysics, space technology, medicine, biology, etc. under conditions inconceivable on the earth. Another period of ten years and in 1981 we could witness the launching of a typically new cosmic vehicle — the Shuttle.
It is not difficult to continue with other examples but the point is clear. Events such as these were characteristic of the rate of technological development in the second half of the 20th century. *They suggest that the technological innovations we are to experience during the next twenty years to come may well surpass our wildest fantasies and today's tomorrow may well become tomorrow's the day before yesterday. Science occupies a central position in modern society. It dominates man's whole existence. Research and innovations in technology should improve society's living and working conditions and remedy the negative effects of technical and social changes.
*Reccnt developments of nuclear weapons, satellites, space platforms and intercontinental ballistic missiles have attracted, and rightly so, public attention throughout the world. *Thcy make wars of annihilation possible and forcily thrust upon us the necessity of coming to an understanding with the other nations. It is not merely a matter of peace, but, rather, poses the question of the very survival of the human race.
• Answer the following questions using the information from the text or from any other sources.
Try to guess the meaning of the words and word combinations given in italics in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Think and say a few words about:
a) the rate of the human knowledge development basing on the figures below:
1900 1930 -> 1960 -> 2000 1 ->4-» 16 —» 100
b) space research development.
• Read the two summaries below. Which summary reflects the ideas of the passage more accurately? Why is the other one not good? Is it because
Summary 1
Natural science and technology play a dominant role in modern society. The range of human knowledge doubles every twelve to fifteen years. Research and innovations should improve living and working conditions and remedy the negative effects of technical and social changes.
Summary 2
Natural science is the main characteristic feature of the present civilization. Science and technology have modified our homes, places of work and enjoyment, means of communications. Science expands man's intellectual horizons. The range of human knowledge doubles every twelve years and by the year 2000 it was a hundred times what it had been a century previously. The second half of the twentieth century brought a number of technical innovations — transistor, ICs, satellites, etc. Recent developments of nuclear weapons make wars of annihilation possible and pose the question of the survival of the human race.
UNIT ONE
GRAMMAR: THE PASSIVE VOICE The Passive Voice
tobe + V3(Vc<])
|
Simple |
Continuous |
Perfect |
|
|
Present |
I am asked/sent |
1 am being asked/sent |
I have been asked/sent |
|
Past |
1 was asked/sent |
I was being asked/sent |
1 had been asked/sent |
|
Future |
I shall be asked/sent |
1 shall have been asked/sent |
ОСОБЕННОСТИ ПЕРЕВОДА НЕКОТОРЫХ ТИПОВ ГЛАГОЛОВ В PASSIVE VOICE
а) В ряде случаев при сказуемом в пассиве, выраженном глаголами типа
to show, to give, to tell, to offer, to permit и др., подлежащее английского
предложения может быть переведено на русский язык только кос-
венным дополнением в форме дательного или винительного падежа.
We were shown the new laboratory. Нам показали новую лабораторию.
б) Если после сказуемого, выраженного глаголом в пассиве, стоитотде-
ляемый предлог (т.е. предлог без последующих слов, относящихся к
нему), при переводе соответствующий русский предлог ставится в
начале предложения и, таким образом, подлежащее английского
предложения переводится предложным дополнением.
This article is often referred to. На эту статью часто ссылаются.
Запомните значения следующих глаголов:
to act on/upon — дейстиопать, нлиять на to deal with — рассматривать, излагать, иметь дело с to depend on/upon — зависеть от, полагаться на to rely on/upon — полагаться на
to refer to — ссылаться на, относиться к, обращаться к
• Translate into Russian.
в) При переводе пассивных форм английских переходных глаголов, которым в русском языке соответствуют глаголы с предложным до полнением, предлог ставится перед словом, являющимся в англий ском языке подлежащим.
The lecture wasfollowedby an experiment. За лекцией последовал экспери мент.
• Translate into Russian.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
V + -ion (-tion, -sion) = N
accelerate + -ion = acceleration
• Translate the following nouns and give the corresponding verbs.
explanation, utilization, evolution, relation, computation, direction, oscillation, division, collection, emission, civilization, exaggeration, communication
N + -al =A proportion + -al = proportional
Q
• Think of nouns corresponding to the following adjectives and translate them into Russian.
original, directional, universal, regional, centrifugal, conversational, gravitational, accidental, natural
READING (1A)
• Look through the first and the last paragraphs and find the sentences supporting the idea of the title.
TOMORROW IS NOW
The Julian calendar recorded the year 2001 — the beginning of the 21st century. It was far more than a chronological event, for the meaning and importance of chronological time is less vital now than ever before in history. Time began for man more than a million years ago and until today it has been the mover and shaker of man's destiny. However, the slow pace of nature has been augmented by the incredible speed of the developing technology since the last third of the 20th century. The technological innovations are revolutionizing our lives more than anything else. Events, inventions, moralities — all slide and change so swiftly that we seem to be rushing at tomorrow and our future has already arrived. In that sense the 21st century is already here, for the responsibility for the events and technology that will be produced is being formed today.
It is possible to extrapolate from certain seemingly well-rooted trends and technologies and thus gain a glimpse at the very least of the possible tomorrows that await us. The increasing sophistication of the rocketry, for example, prognosticates a continued assault on space. At the same time, we have virtually run out of frontiers on land and will probably turn at long last to the sea that blankets seven tenths of the earth's surface. *We shall ask more questions — at the beginnings of things, and where they are headed. *We shall have far more and better tools with which to pry loose the answers from a reluctant (unwilling) universe. "How did it all begin?" is certain to be a major intellectual question at which the cosmologists of the 21st century will launch themselves with all the exotica that a space-oriented society can offer. X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, orbiting astronomical observatories, and the stable, atmosphere-free far side of the moon, as the finest of all observatories will be the disciplines and the platforms we shall use to peer out into space and back into time to the origin of all things.
And what might man find there? No one today has answers. We can safely say only that the questions will be raised and countless voyages in search of answers will be undertaken. In truth, the 21st century will probably be a new age of exploration, as men ask the questions they have always asked, but to which they have ncverbefore had the means of seeking the answers.
The 21st century will surely provide those means. Already, the laser, the computer, and atomic energy have found their ways into our lives and are already being used for the tasks of today. These same tools will be applied to new tasks of the 21 st century, tasks we cannot even conceive of today.
In every area of human endeavour the future offers dazzling capabilities for exploring and understanding ourselves and the world about us. The question is in fact not so much what we will learn, but rather what shall we do with the incredible mountains of knowledge we are at this very moment heaping together. Shall we explore the other planets of the solar system or the depths of our oceans? Shall we control the weather or the human mind?
In all probability, we shall accept every challenge the human mind can find, in deepest space or inside its own cortex (кора головною мозга). These are simply broad areas of probability, yet it is to these only that wc can look in the hope of seeing where we are headed. For the technological avalanche threatens to inundate (затоплять) us by generating an ever more elaborate technology and in the process creating problems that could not have been foreseen. Moreover, the solution to these problems lies in creating a still more sophisticated technology, which creates still more problems not by failing in its designed goals but by succeeding brilliantly. With every new technological development there comes a new set of unforeseen problems, and we have reached a point where we cannot afford unforeseen problems, lest they outstrip (обго нять, опережать, iipeвосходить) our intellectual capacity to deal with them. Wc will soon learn to plumb the depths of the human gene and so present to nature on a molecular level our demands for the future of man. Shall we eliminate diabetes from the human race by substituting one gene for another? But what effect might that have on the other genes within the constellation of chromosomes that make up the blueprint of man? Can we determine the effect of changes we will make in the heart of a molecule or in the atomic nucleus of a star?
The 21st century will demand extreme caution and scientific discipline. For the targets of exploration are almost within our grasp, and the tools that will extend our reach are also close at hand. Wc shall pursue (run after) knowledge; it will be the preoccupation of the 21st-century man. The only questions remaining concern the uses to which such knowledge will be put and (he price we must pay for it.
Read carefully the second paragraph of the text and say a few words about the possible fields of investigation in the 21st century.
Read the passage carefully and find answers to the following questions.
Why does the author predict great researches of the seas and oceans?
What tools of investigation of the universe has the author mentioned?
Why is the author cautious while speaking of new technologies?
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
время было вершителем и мерилом судьбы человека; медленная по ступь; ожидающие нас возможные альтернативы завтрашнего дня; на ступление на космос; выведать ответы у неподдающейся природы; мы примем любой вызов; поток технологической информации угрожает затопить нас; заглянуть в космическое пространство; задачи, которые мы даже не можем и представить сегодня
• Topics for discussion.
Among the theoretical problems the main will be the origin of the Universe.
CLASSWORK
READING (IB)
• Read the passage as fast as possible. FVom the four titles presented below choose the one which better expresses the main idea. Explain your choice.
/. The development of scientific research.
Scientific research became so important in the 20th century that it is no longer possible to describe any human society without according it its rightful place.
Scientific activity, with all its technical and economic consequences, is at present passing through a period of particularly rapid development as compared with other human activities and may, broadly speaking, be said to be doubling in the course of each decade. This law of growth can be deduced from a fairly wide variety of statistical facts such as: the number of original publications appearing in the scientific journals and the number of abstracts published in a branch of science such as physics. It is also found to be true if the criterion adopted is the number of scientific personnel working in laboratories. Lastly, the number of significant scientific discoveries made each year can be estimated, and though such an estimate must, of course, be somewhat arbitrary, the result will again show the same rate of growth. A few figures will support the information given above. The number of scientific journals and periodicals which was about 100 at the beginning of the 19th century, reached 1,000 in 1850, more than 10,000 in 1900, approached 100,000 in 1960 and - if the rate of growth remains constant — should be in the neighbourhood of a million at the end of the century.
If we turn to the length of scientific papers, it is getting out of hand. In the past 35 years, the length of paper in fourdisciplines has increased by an average of 64 per cent. The average letter is 30 per cent longer today than it was 10 years ago, despite frequent editorial decrees that they should be short. To examine the problem the most prestigious publications in physics, chemistry, astronomy, and mathematics from three countries - the US, Britain and Japan - were studied. Between 1950 and 1980/83, the length of papers increased appreciably i n each country and for all publications. Values ranged from 13 per cent for the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society to 115 percent forlhc Journal of the Mathematical Society of Japan. Chemistry papers grew the most (93 per cent), with astronomy second (82 percent), then mathematics (77 percent), and physics (27 per cent). National averages were: Japan, up 85 per cent; the US, up 65 percent; and Great Britain, up 45 percent. The jump in the length of letters is even more dramatic. The average increase over the last 20 years is 74 per cent.
But how should we interpret those findings? Mainly, three reasons are detected for long papers. First, it is easier to write them. As Churchill put it, he needed a week to prepare a five minute speech on an important subject, but he could talk for an hour immediately. Secondly, scientists arc rewarded for overwriting. Thirdly, writing today is sloppier (неряшливый). Some people suspect that modern authors have to use more words to express a quantum of thought than earlier writers, because they have not learnt English grammar as thoroughly. Though, not everyone agrees with this interpretation. For example, Helmut Abt, longtime editor of the Astrophysical Journal believes that the length of papers has little to do with the three main points. He says that the answer lies in the scientific content (содержание). Science is more complex now. Instruments yield far more information and more space is needed for explanation. Many papers that would have been acceptable for publication 20 years ago arc not acceptable now because they do not have enough content.
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
Think and say a few words about:
a) the rate of growth of scientific journals and periodicals:
1800 -> 1850 1900 I960 ^ 2000 100 -> 1,000 -» 10,000 -» 100,000 —> ?
b) the length of scientific papers and letters.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian. Pay attention to the Passive Voice.
2. Translate into English. Use the following adjectives: out-of-date, valuable, reliable, useful, practicable.
UNIT TWO
GRAMMAR: МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ С PERFECT INFINITIVE
/. Must, may, might с Perfect Infinitive выражают различную степень вероятности совершения действия в прошлом.
Must
Вероятно Должно быть
May
Возможно Может быть
Might
Возможно
(Случайная возможность) + Perf. Inf.
The solution must have been wrong. Вероятно, решение было неверным.
They may (might) have made a mistake. Возможно, они допустили ошибку.
You might (could) have made it better. Вы могли бы сделать это лучше.
2. Cannot/Could not + Perfect Infinitive выражают почти полную уве ренность, что действие в прошлом на самом деле не произошло.
Cannot Could not
Не может быть, чтобы + Perf. Inf.
Не cannot/could not have made He может быть, чтобы он допустил
such a mistake. Не is a skilled такую ошибку. Он опытный
engineer. инженер.
15
3. Might, Could + Perfect Infinitive могут означать, что действие, которое в прошлом могло бы иметь место, на самом деле не про изошло, т.е. высказывается нереальное предположение. Иногда это совет, который уже нельзя осуществить. При переводе используется сослагательное наклонение.
Might Could
Мог бы
Можно было бы + Perf. Inf.
4. Should/Ought to + Perfect Infinitive обозначают действие, которое должно было состояться, но не состоялось. Иногда они обозначают упрек, сожаление. Переводятся сослагательным наклонением.
Should Ought to
Следовало бы Надо бы + Perf. Inf.
You should have used that Вам следовало бы пол ьзоваться
new device. тем новым прибором.
Не ought to have completed Ему надо было бы завершить этот
the experiment. эксперимент.
5. Need not + Perfect Infinitive выражает отсутствие необходимости совершения действия в прошлом,
Need not
Не было необходимости + Perf. Inf.
The technique needn't He было необходимости изменять
have been changed. технологию.
• Sentences to be translated.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
|
A + |
-ly = |
Adv |
|
accuratc + |
-iy = |
accurately |
• Form adverbs from the following adjectives and translate them into Russian.
pure, comparative, rapid, equal, ordinary, certain, accidental, radioactive, previous, rare, heavy, prcsunible, reasonable, separate, haughty, profitable, peevish, cold, sufficient, effective
READING (2A)
• First read the phrases and sentences given in italics, to get the main idea of the passage as a whole and of each paragraph separately. Then, read each paragraph carefully to find specific examples, reasons or details about the main ideas.
THE SCIENTISTS' RESPONSIBILITY
I think it may be reasonably maintained that neither the United States nor any other nation can, by itself, solve the important problems that plague the world now. The problems that count today — the steady population increase, the diminishing of our resources, the multiplication of our wastes, the damage to the environment, the decay of the cities, the declining quality of life — are all interdependent and are all global in nature.
No nation, be it as wealthy as the United States, as large as the Soviet Union, or as populous as China, can correct these problems without reference to the rest of the world. Though the United States, for instance, brought its population to a firm plateau |'phxtoii|, cleaned its soil, purified its water, filtered its air, swept up its waste, and cycled its resources, all would avail it nothing as long as the rest of the world did none of these things.
These problems, left unsolved, will weigh us down under a steady acceleration of increasing misery with each passing year; yet to solve them requires us to think above the level of nationalism. No amount of local pride anywhere in the world; no amount of patriotic ardor on a lcss-than-all-mankind scale; no amount of flag waving; no prejudice in favour of some specific regional culture and tradition; no conviction of personal or ethnic superiority can prevail against the cold equations. The nations of the world must co-operate to seek the possibility of mutual life, or remain separately hostile to face the certainty of mutual death.
Nor can the co-operation be the peevish agreement of haughty equals: each quick to resent slurs, eager to snuff out injustice to itself, and ready to profit at the expense of others. So little time is left and so high have become the stakes, that there no longer remains any profitable way of haggling over details, manoeuvring for position, or threatening at every moment to pick up our local marbles and go home.
The international co-operation must take the form of a world government sufficiently effective to make and enforce the necessary decisions, and against which the individual nations would have neitherthe right northc powertotake up arms.
Tyranny? Yes, of course. Just about the tyranny of Washington ovcrAlbany, Albany over New York City, and New York City over me. Though we are each of us personally harried by the financial demands and plagued by the endless orders of the officialdom of three different levels of government, we accept it all, more or less stoically, under the firm conviction that life would be worse otherwise. To accept a fourth level would be a cheap price to pay for keeping our planet viable.
But who on Earth best realizes the serious nature of the problems that beset us? As a class, the scientists, I should think. They can weigh, most accurately and most judiciously, the drain on the world's resources, the effect of global pollution, the dangers to a fragmenting ecology.
And who on Earth might most realistically bear a considerable share of responsibility for the problems that beset us? As a class, the scientists, I should think. Since they gladly accept the credit for lowering the death rate and for industrializing the world, they might with some grace accept a good share of responsibility for the less than desirable side effects that have accompanied those victories.
And who on Earth might be expected to lead the way in finding solutions to the problems that beset us? As a class, the scientists, I should think. On whom else can we depend for the elaboration of humane systems for limiting population, effective ways of preventing or reversing pollution, elegant methods of cycling resources? All this will clearly depend on steadily increasing scientific knowledge and on steadily increasing the wisdom with which this knowledge is applied.
And who on Earth is most likely to rise above the limitations of national and ethnic prejudice and speak in the name of mankind as a whole? As a class, the scientists, I should think. The nations of the world are divided in culture: in language, in religion, in tastes, in philosophy, in heritage — but wherever science exists at all, it is the same science; and scientists from anywhere and everywhere speak the same language, professionally, and accept the same mode of thought.
Is it not then as a class, to the scientists that we must turn to find leaders in the fight for world government?
From "Today and tomorrow, and ..."
by Isaac Asimov
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
можно с полным основанием утверждать; проблемы, беспокоящие мир; упадок городов; снижение уровня жизни; все это ничего не стоило бы; возрастающая нищета; патриотический пыл; никакие предрассуд ки в угоду...; этническое превосходство; неотвратимость обоюдной ги бели (смерти); высокомерные (надменные) равные стороны; каждая стре-мится опорочить; нажиться за счет; торговаться по мелочам; забрать свои «игрушки» и...; чиновничество; твердое убеждение; наиболее здра вомыслящие; принять на себя значительную долю ответственности за...; побочные эффекты (влияние)
• Examine each paragraph of the text above carefully and find answers to the following questions.
Why should the scientists be responsible (according to the author) for the problems that beset us?
Why could only scientists (according to the author) find the solutions to these problems?
Why are scientists most likely (according to the author) to rise above the limitations of national prejudice?
• Look through the passage and fill in the blanks with the proper information. In some cases grammatical changes are necessary.
PUBLIC OPINION POLL
Which, if any, of the things on the list do you think could be areas where scientific discoveries could have very dangerous effects (vd), dangerous effects (rf), not dangerous effects (я).
|
Branch of science/technology |
Men |
Women |
Total |
|
Nuclear energy |
|||
|
Biotechnology and genetic engineering |
|||
|
National defence and armaments |
|||
|
Space exploration |
|||
|
Agriculture and plant science |
|||
|
Medical research |
|||
|
Control and reduction of pollution |
|||
|
Robotics |
|||
|
New forms of energy |
|||
|
Information technology and computers |
|||
|
Astrology |
• Discuss the results of the public opinion poll in class. Give reasons for your opinion.
CLASSWORK
READING (2B)
• Read the passage and find arguments to prove that people can look up at the stars and down at the atoms with an equal degree of infer- and superiority.
OUR PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE
In our everyday life wc encounter objects of widely differing sizes. Some of them are as large as a barn and others are as small as a pinhead. When we go beyond those limits, either in the direction of much larger objects or in the direction of much smaller ones, it becomes increasingly difficult to grasp their actual sizes. We know that mountains are very large, but at a distance they look quite small. While at a short range we can see but a few rocks and cliffs. We know that bacteria are very small, but to sec them we have to use a microscope, through which they look quite big.
Objects that are much larger than mountains, such as our earth itself, the moon, the sun, the stars, and stellar systems, constitute what is known as the macrocosm (i.e., "large world" in Greek). Very small objects, such as bacteria, atoms, and electrons belong to the microcosm (i.e., "small world" in Greek).
Ifwc use the standard scientific unit, a centimeter (0.3937 inch), for measuring sizes, objects belonging to the macrocosm will be described by very large numbers, and those forming the microcosm by very small ones. Thus, the diameter of the sun is 139,000,000,000 cm, while the diameter of a hydrogen atom is only 0.0000000106 cm. Scientists customarily express such numbers in terms of positive or negative powers of ten, and write 1.39 x 10" cm for the diameter of the sun and 1.06 x 10 s cm for the diameter of a hydrogen atom. Sometimes special very large or very small units are used. Thus, in the macrocosm we use the so-called astronomical unit (symbol: A.U.), which is defined as the mean distance of the earth from the sun and is equal to 1.4964 x 10'3cm, or a still larger unit known as a light-year (symbol: l.y.) which is defined as the distance travelled by light in the course of one year and is equal to 9.463 x 10" cm. In the microcosm we often use microns (symbol: m ), defined as l()~4 cm, and Angstroms (symbdl: A), defined as 10 8 cm.
It is interesting to notice that the size of the human head is just about halfway between the size of an atom and the size of the sun, or halfway between the size of an atomic nucleus and the diameter of the planetary system (on the logarithmic scale in both cases, of course).
Similar vast variations will be found in the time intervals encountered in the study of the microcosm and the macrocosm. I n human history we ordinarily speak about centuries; in geology the eras arc usually measured in hundreds of millions of years, while the age of the Universe itself is believed to be about 10-20 billion years. The revolution period of an electron in the hydrogen atom, on the other hand , is 1015 sec, and the oscillations of particles constituting atomic nuclei have a period of only 10 22 sec. Notice that the wink of an eye is just halfway between the age of our stellar system and the rotation period of an electron in an atom. Thus, it seems that we are located pretty well in the middle between the macro- and microcosm and can look up at the stars and down at the atoms with an equal degree of infer- and superiority.
• Rc-rcad the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
повседневная жизнь; размеры колеблются от... до...; некоторые ве личиной с сарай; постичь их действительные размеры; так называемая астрономическая единица; одно деление масштабной линейки; другие размером с булавочную головку; десятичный логарифмический масш таб; с равной степенью неполноценности и превосходства; на малом расстоянии
• Look through the passage again and supply answers to the following questions.
Docs the title of the passage adequately express the main idea?
Why do you think so?
• Be prepared to give your opinion on these problems.
• Match the synonyms from both columns.
ordinarily, in terms of, similar,
to encounter, on the other hand, to
constitute, duration, to grasp, division
II
alike, from the opposite
point of view, usually, to
understand, regarding, to make up, separation, to meet, continuance
1. Objects that are much larger than mountains what is known as the
macrocosm.
something during which it moves from its original state to a new state and back again.
5. A of various durations encountered in the macrocosm, microcosm
and in our everyday life is given in Fig. 1
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
The international cooperation might have taken the form of an effective world government.
In this case individual nations couldn't have had the right to take up arms.
8. They couldn't have realized the serious nature of the problem.
2. Translate into English. Use modal verbs.
UNIT THREE
GRAMMAR: THE COMPLEX SUBJECT WITH THE INFINITIVE
Complex Subject
Noun or Pronoun
to change
(to have changed)
Predicate Infinitive
a) Passive
This value is said
It is supposed
is expected is believed, etc.
Перевод: Predicate — неопределенно-личное предложение
что эта величина меняется (изменилась).
Subject + Infinitive — придаточное предложение с союзом что
25
• Sentences to be translated.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
V+-ment = N develop + -ment = development
• Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into Russian.
move, establish, agree, adjust, improve, excite, appoint, develop
V+-ive = A act + -ive = active
• Think of the verbs corresponding to the following adjectives and translate them into Russian.
creative, refractive, indicative, attractive, explosive, representative, expressive, offensive, protective
READING (ЗА)
• The article below is concerned with the problem much too dangerous and difficult to solve. If you were responsible for the problem, what steps would you take?
What first steps would you take if you were the head of the scientific team dealing with the problem?
• Read the passage, think a little and answer the questions above.
PRESSING PROBLEMS
Atmospheric pollution raises problems of several types. First, there are local problems due to the production of smoke and offensive gases by factories. Secondly, there are regional problems created by industrial agglomerations which may spread the same harmful effects over whole areas. Thirdly, there are some types of pollution, such as those arising from nuclear explosives, which cover a considerable portion of the globe. And lastly, there appeared one more type of pollution which is threatening the globe as a whole.
Recent scientific research suggests that the protective layer of ozone around our planet is under severe attack. Alarm bells were sounded in 1982 when researchers in the Antarctic first identified a yawning (зияющий) hole over the Antarctic where the ozone layer is thinnest.
This was the first sign of a hole. Five years later it was reported that the hole had grown to an area the size of the United States.
The major cause of this weakening of the ozone layer is believed to be the increasing amount of harmful chemicals that arc being released into the atmo sphere by humankind.
Environmentalists and scientists point out that a further one per cent drop in the overall ozone layer can cause an increase of skin cancer.
The fundamental importance of the ozone layer is that it acts as a filter intercepting most of the sun's radiation including potentially harmful Ultra Violet B-rays which can cause melanoma — skin cancer.
The appearance of the Antarctic hole has intensified the search for a cause. Strong evidence now suggests that it is the growing industrial use of chlorine compounds called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which is responsible.
CFC is a propellent (движущая сила) gas commonly used in aerosol sprays, air cooling systems in fridges (холодильник) and air-conditioning. Once re leased CFC can hang around in the atmosphere for 100 years. Some eventually reaches the upper atmosphere to be broken down by the sunlight. In the process chlorine is released which combines with oxygen atoms thus reducing the amount available for ozone production.
According to measurements recorded by the US Environmental Protection Agency one chlorine atom has enough kinetic energy to destroy 100,000 mole cules of ozone. US space agency NASA has predicted that a rise of 2.5 percent in CFC emissions would cause an extra one million cancers over the lifetime of the present US population.
Researchers suggest that the level of CFCs in the atmosphere is actually increasing by 5 percent each year. Since 1969 the ozone level has fallen by 3 per cent over the densely populated cities of the US, Canada and Europe and by 4 percent over Australia and New Zealand.
In its "worst prediction scenario" NASA claims that an ever-thinning ozone layer could eventually allow a more harmful form of radiation, known as Ultra
Violet С, to hit the earth. Laboratory experiments have shown that Ultra Violet С can penetrate cells in the body and irreparably damage the nucleic acids and proteins which are the building blocks of life.
There is the need for an international agreement that would completely stop CFC production.
• Answer the following questions.
• Topics for discussion.
CLASSWORK
READING (3B)
• Read the passage carefully and discuss the following idea: "How can scientists so confidently predict what will occur in the next 100 years when we can't even predict the weather for tomorrow?"
IS THE EARTH GETTING HOTTER?
It sounded like nature's own apocalypse (апокалипсис). *"The earth's temperature would rise, melting the icecaps, raising the seas, flooding the land. Arisona would turn into a rain forest and the agricultural Midwest would become a desert." At least, that was how TV weathermen interpreted a report by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on the "greenhouse effect" that would begin altering the earth'sclimateby the 1990s. *The EPAprcdicted "catastrophic consequences" if contingency (непредвиденное обстоятель ство) plans weren't made with "a sense of urgency".
Fortunately, the news improved later when the National Academy of Scienc es said that although the greenhouse effect was very real, "caution (осторожность) not panic" was in order.
In fact, the science ofthe phenomenon is more interesting than frightening. *Thc greenhouse effect results when CO, and certain othergascs in the atmo sphere allow the sun's ultraviolet rays to penetrate and warm the earth but then absorb the infrared energy the earth radiates back into space — much as glass in a greenhouse effect does — forming a kind of "thermal blanket" around the planet. By burning huge amounts of fossil fuels, which release C02 into the atmosphere, man has raised the C02 level from 280 to 340 parts per million since 1860. And continued use of coal and other fossil fuels is expected to dou ble the concentration of CO, by the year 2050, elevating the earth's tempera ture by 3 to 9 degrees Fahrenheit. The greenhouse effect will mean much more than hotter summers and milder winters. It may alter rainfall, affect crop yields (урожай) and eventually— as glaciers begin to melt — raise the level ofthe sea.
Both reports predict that the temperature change will be greater in the polar regions than near the equator. In general, they speculate that snowfall will begin later, the growing season will lengthen and higher latitudes will get less rain. *The EPA says that the sea level will probably rise at least two feet before the year 2100, which could flood "many of the major ports of the world, disrupt transportation networks, alter ecosystems and cause major shifts in land devel opment patterns".
Although use of fossil fuels is the main cause ofthe CO, increase, the gov ernment agencies don't advocate any sweeping changes in energy policies. Even a total ban on the burning of fossil fuels in the United States wouldn't have much impact, because the United States accounts for only 25 percent of the world's total man-made C02 emissions. * A worldwide coal ban instituted in 2000 would delay the warming by about 15 years but is considered economically and polit ically unfeasible.
If we can't prevent the greenhouse effect, we can prepare forit. Suggestions include breeding (выводить) plants that need less water, improving irrigation systems, and many others.
However not all experts are convinced that the heat is coming. Some think that the use of primary energy sources such as coal could decline 60 percent by 2050 and, perhaps, "the opposite of the EPA scenario is true. If the rate of fossil-fuel use is going down, the amount of C02 we add to the air is getting less every year".
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Answer the following questions.
I. Is there a 100 per cent agreement on our planet's future climatic conditions?
HOMEWORK
{to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
2. Translate into English. Use the Complex Subject with the Infinitive.
Model: Конечно, все мы слишком хорошо знаем, что такое загрязне ние окружающей среды.
АН of us are certain to know very well what environmental pollution is.
Part II.
THE UNIVERSE PUZZLE
UNIT FOUR
GRAMMAR: FUNCTIONS OF THE INFINITIVE
Инфинитив в функции определения стоит после определяемого су ществительного и выражае i'действие еще не реализованное, возможное или необходимое, которое подлежит осуществлению в будущем. На рус ский язык обычно переводится придаточным предложением, сказуе мое которого имеет значение долженствования, будущего времени или возможности
The experiments to be made will help us a lot.
Эксперименты, которые необходимо провести, очень помогут нам.
Примечание: Инфинитив в функции определения, стоящий после слон: the first, the last, the next (the first to invent..., the last to use...), может не иметь модального оттенка и переводится глаголом в личной форме и том времени, и котором стоит сказуемое английского предложения.
Не was the first to come. — Он пришел первым.
Но
It was the first problem to be solved.
Это была первая проблема, которую необходимо было решить.
• Translate into Russian.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
V+ -ance/-ence = N emerge + -ence = emergence
• Think of verbs corresponding to the following nouns and translate them into Russian.
existence, coalescence, conductance, reference, difference, resistance, correspondence
READING (4A)
• First survey the block-scheme of the problem discussed in the passage 4A below.
The Universe
i
y
Problems I
Emergence of the Universe
Distribution of matter
Chemical composition
Life in the Universe
matter/energy -I
Hypotheses **.
I
Y
±L Big Bang i
Age characteristics I
Structure of cosmic systems
Superclustcrs
!
Y
clusters i
galaxies i
stellar systems I
stars/planets/ satellites
time
space
Investigation tools
— Telescopes i
X-ray astronomy i
Spectroscopy (red-shift law)
i
Radioastronomy
I
Y
Optical astronomy i
Sensitive detectors I
etc.
SUPERCLUSTERS AND VOIDS IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF GALAXIES
Rcd-shifl surveys of selected regions ofthe sky have established the existence of at least three enormous superclusters of galaxies. The surveys also reveal that huge volumes of space are quite empty.
Astronomers and cosmologists are much preoccupied these days with explaining the emergence and distribution of aggregates of matter in the universe. I low soon after the big bang, the presumed explosion of the primordial atom some 10 to 20 billion years ago, did matter begin to coalesce into the stars and galaxies we see today? Assuming that matter was more or less evenly dispersed before coalescence began, is the universe on the grand scale uniformly populated today by stellar aggregates of one kind or another? Recent observations by several groups of astronomers arc helping to answer these questions. Large-scale surveys have verified the existence of superclusters of galaxies: organized structures composed of multiple clusters of galaxies. Each cluster, in turn, may consist of hundreds or thousands of individual galaxies. Although the existence of superclusters has long been conjectured, their confirmation has been accompanied by at least one major surprise: equally large regions of space contain no galaxies at all.
Superclusters arc so vast that individual membergalaxies moving at random velocities cannot have crossed more than a fraction of a supercluster's diameter in the billions of years since the galaxies came into being. Evidently, superclusters offer an insight into evolutionary history that is simply not obtainable with smaller systems. At scales smaller than those of superclusters the original distribution of matter is smeared out by evolutionary "mixing". Astronomers hope that an understanding ofthe largest structures in the universe will clarify the processes that give rise to structures of all dimensions, ranging downward from galaxies to stars and planets.
It is impossible to determine who first conceived the idea that clusters of galaxies might be members of still larger aggregates, namely superclusters. As one reads old technical papers on extragalactic astronomy one is struck by the similarities between the speculations of 50 years ago and the better-understood concepts of today. What our immediate predecessors lacked were the observational tools that have finally provided the evidence to substantiate some of the early speculations. Although observations in the X-ray, ultraviolet, infrared and radio regions ofthe electromagnetic spectrum have opened exciting new windows on the universe, it is fair to say that the most important information for cosmology has been collected by telescopes that gather visible and near-visible light.
by Stephen A. Gregory and Laird A. Thompson
'1 1 .. И. Ky|lHlllh,UH
33
» Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
исконное (первоначальное) ядро; в грандиозном масштабе; широ комасштабные обзорные наблюдения; сверхскоплении (сверхсистемы) честно говоря;... позволяют понять историю эволюции; процессы, ко торые порождают...; "большой взрыв".
• Get ready to answer these questions.
• Match each word in column I with its 1
emergence, to presume, to verify, to conjecture, at random, to lack, to clarify, similarity, evidently, to conceive the idea
synonym in column II.
II
to make clear, to form in the mind, to confirm, to suppose, to guess, not to have, obviously, likeness, appearance, without reason or aim
• Choose a proper word and complete the sentences.
An understanding of the largest structures in the universe will (clarify/ clean/coincide) the processes that give rise to structures of all dimensions.
Astronomers and cosmologists are much preoccupied these days with explaining the (convergence/emergence/exislence) and distribution of aggregates of matter in the Universe.
CLASSWORK
READING (4B)
» Skim the passage rapidly (3 min.) and answer the questions.
It has become clear from the red-shift surveys that the present-day distribution of galaxies is highly inhomogencous out to a distance of several hundred million light-years. * // seems probable that the inhomogeneity extends out to billions of light-years and characterizes the entire universe. We must assume, however, that the universe may contain much matter that is nonluminous. The possible existence and volume of such matter is currently the subject of wide speculation.
There are two competing hypotheses. The more conventional model assumes that individual galaxies arose out of a nearly homogeneous primordial soup. *The main trouble with this model is explaining how the universe proceeded from its smooth state to the state in which matter was gathered into galaxies. The model assumes that once galaxies formed, small irregularities in their distribution would slowly be amplified by the operation of long-range gravitational forces. The end result of such amplification would be the superclusters seen today.
Л competing theoretical explanation was suggested in 1972 by two Russian astronomers, Yakov Zcl'dovich and Rashid Sunyaev. In their model the gas of the early universe did not condense into stars and galaxies immediately. Instead, slight but very-large-scale irregularities in the general distribution of the gas grew larger in response to gravitational attraction and became increasingly irregular. Eventually, the gas became dense enough to collect into vast sheets of material, which then fragmented into galaxies. *Accordingtothis hypothesis, clusters and superclusters form first as concentrations of gas, and only then do galaxies appear.
Do either ofthese models find support in the observations wc have made of superclusters? *Sincc the Zel'dovich-Sunyacv model requires all galaxies to have formed in clusters or superclusters, field galaxies, or random stragglers, should be rare. If the conventional model is correct and galaxies can arise almost anywhere at random, only later to be shepherded by gravity into groups or clusters, stragglers should be rather common. Actually, the only populations of isolated galaxies we have discovered in our red-shift surveys are galaxies scattered within the boundaries of superclusters. Moreover, the voids are genuinely empty. In sum, the observed distribution of galaxies within superclusters and the existence of huge voids between superclusters are entirely consistent with the Zel'dovich-Sunyaev model.
Explain the way you understand the italicized words and phrases in the passage.
Give an English-Russian translation of the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Give a free translation of the text below.
ЗВЕЗДА В 2.500 СОЛНЦ
Астрономы Висконсинского университета (США), анализируя дан ные, полученные с помощью искусственного спутника Земли, подтвер дили, что в газовой туманности Тарантул (Tarantula Nebula) в Большом Магеллановом облаке (Large Magellanic Cloud) существует сверхмас сивная звезда. Ученые, наблюдавшие ее ранее с использованием оп тических телескопов, высказывали предположение, что масса этого небесного тела больше массы Солнца в 200—1.000 раз, однако спут никовые наблюдения вносят поправку — в 2.500 раз!
Звезда расположена в центре самого яркого облака ионизированно го водорода — газовой туманности Тарантул, светимость которой в сто миллионов раз выше светимости Солнца.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
They can't have encountered serious difficulties in developing this theory.
You should have paid more attention to the problem of explaining the emergence and distribution of aggregates of matter in the Universe.
Individual member galaxies moving at random velocities cannot have crossed more than a fraction of a supercluster's diameter in the billions of years.
They ought to have accomplished large-scale surveys to verify the existence of superclusters of galaxies.
2. Translate into English using modal verbs.
UNIT FIVE
GRAMMAR: PARTICIPLE (FORMS AND FUNCTIONS)
FORMS OF PARTICIPLE
|
Active |
Passive |
|||
|
icipli |
1 Indefinite |
obtaining |
being obtained |
|
|
Part |
1 Perfect |
having obtained |
having been obtained |
|
|
11 |
— |
obtained |
||
|
FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLE |
||||
|
as an Attribute |
as an Adverbial Modifier of Time |
|||
|
articiple ndefinit |
Active |
The object obtaining this energy... |
Obtaining this energy the object... |
|
|
BU |
Passive |
The energy being obtained was... |
Being obtained, the energy... |
|
|
:iple I feet |
Active |
— |
Having obtained this energy the object... |
|
|
Partic Per |
Passive |
— |
Having been obtained, the energy... |
|
|
Participle II |
The energy thus obtained was... |
When obtained, the energy... |
concerned I данный, рассматриваемый,
involved j о котором идет речь
The problem concerned is of great significance.
38
I i k'uions ion",11;an ; '■.'■,n arc 'ч motion. 2. Being heated the subsumcc began to glow.
:> I ollow ing the inetuocl iuui'ved we "bund i*. to be effective.
6. Having been separated from a mixture the substance was investigated under the microscope.
"I When heated to a high temperature in a vacuum a metal gives off tree electrons.
8. flic results obtained agree with those oredicted by the theory.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
V ! -able/'-We - Л to measure ^-ablc = measurable
• \'-'or rJjc'.'th>. * from Hie following verbs using -ahle/-ible and translate them into Kussian.
naslu disiiuuubh, suit, reduce, compare.approach, move, convert,achieve,
fission, attach
READING (5A)
• Read the passage and answer the question:
What scientific discoveries made scientists change their attitude to the problems concerned with the Universe origin?
THE UNIVERSE ORIGIN
The puzzle oft he birth and deaths of the Universe is one of the most exciting problems in science comparable in importance with the puzzle of the origin of life. According to the hot big bang theory which is widely accepted by astronomers today, the Universe was born at some time / = 0, about 15 billion years ago, in a state of infinitely high temperature and infinite energy density. I he fireball expanded and cooled, with its energy being converted into particles that gave rise to the material from which all the stars and planets were built.
Cosmologists have been able ш.sketch the broad outlines ofthe evolution of the Universe from the fireball slate to the present day. The resulting standard model of the Universe is only some twenty years old: in the mid 1960s, the discovery ofthe cosmic microwave background radiation finally convinced astronomers and physicists that there really was a big bang. It was in 1965 that Arno Pcnziasand Robert Wilson, at the Bell Research Laboratories, discovered this weak radio noise with a temperature of about 3K that seems to fill the entire Universe. It was soon explained as a relict ofthe fireball which the Universe was born out of. But although the outlines of the standard model seemed satisfactory, there were some remaining problems which bothered many cosmologists during the 1970s. The most important of these problems were:
The singularity problem. The state of infinite density and zero volume at time t = 0 is called a singularity. One may wonder what was there before the singularity? — or putting it another way, where did the singularity come from? What is the origin ofthe Universe? The standard model of cosmology in the 1960s and 1970s made no attempt to answer this question, but started out from a state of very high energy density a fraction of a second after the moment of creation.
The flatness problem. According to the general theory of relativity, developed by Albert Einstein, the geometry of our Universe may be different from the Euclidean geometry of flat space. The Universe may be open in which case parallel lines diverge from one another, or it may be closed in the way that the surface of a sphere is closed, so that parallel lines cross one another like the meridian lines on a globe ofthe Earth. All the observational evidence is that our Universe is very close to being flat. A question arises -- why is our Universe so flat?
The homogeneity problem and the problem of galaxies. Astronomical observations also show that our Universe is homogeneous on very large scales — matter is distributed evenly through the Universe. The Universe is also isotropic; on the large scale, it looks the same in all directions. The size ofthe observable Universe is about 10** cm. On this scale, the deviations of the density of matter from a perfectly smooth distribution amount to no more than one part in 10,000. However, on smaller scales, the Universe is not homogeneous. It contains galaxies made up of stars, clusters of galaxies, and supcrgalaxies. What small disturbances in the early history of the Universe could have produced these minor inhomogeneities in an otherwise very smooth Universe У
The problem of the dimensionality of spacetime. There is a great deal of interest among mathematicians today in the possibility that space may have more than three dimensions. *ln the most interesting of these models, space has ten dimensions (the 1 Ith is for time), all but three of which have been "compacted", shrunk into thin tubes. But why should the compactification have stopped with three effective space dimensions, not two, or five, or some other number?
All these problems (and some others which are not given here) seemed for a long time more metaphysical than physical puzzles for philosophers, not scientists to debate. *Most physicists did not take the problems seriously, accepting that science might never find ultimate answers to such questions, or, at least, not for a very longtime. If the standard model of cosmology could explain 15 billion years of cosmic evolution, there was no great concern that the theory couid not explain what happened during the first millisecond. But in recent years, the attitude of physicists toward these metaphysical problems has changed radically. This shift in attitude began when physicists studying the interactions ofthe elementary particles began to develop theories of the way particles interact under conditions of very high energy densities, like those in the big bang.
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Think and say a few words about each of the problems posed by the author and their importance for science.
CLASSWORK
READING (5B)
• Before reading the passage, read its headline and say what you know about the problem. Discuss the problem with your partners. Then read the passage and find the facts supporting your ideas.
HOW MANY DIMENSIONS EXIST?
It is usually taken for granted that there arc three dimensions of space and a single dimension of time. That is, any event that occurs anywhere in the universe can be assigned a location in space using three coordinates and a location in time using one. *But physicists and mathematicians have studied hypothetical worlds in which more or fewer dimensions exist, and so questions arise as to whether the usual belief about our world is strictly correct, and if so, whether we can find any reason for it being true. For example, we might consider the possibility that there are really four dimensions of space, but that for some reason, all ofthe phenomena that we usually observe have the same value for one of the space coordinates.
It has been known for a century that if the dimensionality of space were other than three, and if free motion were possible in all ofthe dimensions in (he same way, then some of the known laws of physics would not obtain. Newton's inverse square law for the force of gravity is one such. This argument gives additional evidence that space is in fact three-dimensional, but does not explain why this is so. *Furthermore, it does not rule out the possibility that our world has more than the expected number of dimensions, but that most phenomena are restricted in how they can vary in the extra dimension.
Our approach to the question is to consider how spaces and times with different numbers of dimensions might behave. For example, one might find that the dimensionality of space and lime can itself undergo evolution, and that the values familiar to us are the present result of that evolution. Such an approach woulc involve relations between the number of dimensions and other physical quantities such as the temperature of the universe Through these relations, the dimensionality would be detei mined by these other quantities. Since dimensionality is usually taken to be a whole number, it might not be possible for a dimension to disappear through evolution. *Instcad, what might happen through evolution is that some extra dimensions could become suppressed in comparisons with others. Our present picture of the expansion of the universe makes this idea much more plausible than it was once. Since everything was once much closer together than it is now, we can imagine that there arc indeed more dimensions than we think. The expansion of the universe may have taken place asymmetrically, so that in one of the dimensions there has been little or no expansion, and the scale of distances in that dimension would still be as small as it was at the beginning of the universe.
If this idea is correct, it would mean that there really are more than the familiar number of dimensions. *// is intriguing to think that it might be possible to find some technological means to find and study the usually inaccessible dimensions. Very likely ноте phenomena would be different in a universe with more than four dimensions, even if there were no symmetry between the different dimensions. It would be of great interest to identify such phenomena and to sec if they can be observed.
Theoretical investigations have shown that if the general theory of relativity is set up in a space-time of more than lour dimensions, and if the extents of the extra dimensions are made small and connected like a cylinder, then the resulting theory describes not only gravity, but also elect romagnetism and other fields that have been introduced to describe subatomic particles. The extra dimensions in this case arc associated not with space and time, but with the internal symmetries. Physicists arc actively trying to unite space-time symmetries and internal symmetries in this way.
If other dimensions do exist, we would still want to account for the precise number through some more basic principles. In the type of theory just described, the total number of dimensions would be related through an internal symmetry to the number of quantum fields that exist. But wc should still need to understand why precisely four dimensions have expanded while the others remained small. The question of the dimensionality of space-time is ripe for more serious investigation.
• Divide your English group into two parts. One half of the group reads the text to find the arguments in favour of the three-dimensional space, the other finds all the suppositions in favour of the more number of dimensions of space.
Facts
Suppositions
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Answer the following questions:
How do scientists check the truth of this idea?
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate some sentences paying attention to following and followed.
2. Translate the following sentences into English using the Participle.
UNIT SIX
GRAMMAR: THE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION
1. S + Participle; S + Predicate
так как, когда, если, послетого как...
All preparations having been made, Когда все приготовления были
they started the experiment. сделаны, они начали экспери-
мент.
2. S + Predicate; S + Participle
... причем, а, и
Hydrogen is the simplest substance, Водород является простейшим
atoms of all other elements having веществом, а атомы других
a more complex structure. веществ имеют более сложную
структуру.
Примечание: Иногда незанисимый причастный оборот вводится предлогом
with. Обороты такого типа в начале предложения переводятся придаточным
предложением с союзами: теперь, когда; при условии, когда; так как; а в конце
предложения — самостоятельным предложением с союзами а, и, при этом.
With the experimentsltearrietf out, Когда опыты были завершены, они
they started new investigations. начали новые исследования.
• Sentences to be translated.
45
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
whether conj. — ли (относится к последующему глаголу) whether ... or (not) — независимо от того + ли (относится к глаголу) as to whether — относительно того + л и (относится к глаголу)
Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the conjunction whether which corresponds to the Russian ли. Begin translation with the predicate.
Model: We are not sure whether this hypothesis is true. Мы не уверены, верна ли эта гипотеза.
READING (6A)
There are a few hypotheses concerning the structure and origin of the Universe. One of them will be presented in the passage below. Before reading the passage look at the block-scheme where some of the problems in studying the Universe are presented. Think what you know about each ofthe problems. Then read the passage. Find the ideas that were not known to you before reading.
Origin —> time/composition/evolution
The Universe <^ > Structure —> matter distribution
Matter —> principal constituents
THE UNIVERSE IS A HONEYCOMB
What docs our Universe look like? Docs it conform to the popularly held concept of a black abyss with islands of galaxies dispersed through it with no boundaries or shape? Apparently, it does not. "The Universe has a clear-cut •a met lire," says astronomer D.Sc. Jaan Einasto, who heads the sector of the physics ofgalaxicsat the Institute of Astrophysics and Atmospheric Physics ol'ihe Estonian Academy of Sciences. Imagine a honeycomb! This is not a hypothesis! Einasto says he has the evidence to prove it. What do wc know about the Universe? First, it came into being as a result of the " Big Bang" some 20 billion years ago. This creation was a fantastically quick, but precisely accurate process. In moments, the composition of all matter was formed: electrons, neutrons, protons, barions and other particles. Through subsequent expansion, this matter, which originally was in a state of Miperdcnsc and superhot plasma, cooled and condensed into the galaxies, •aars and planets.... Second, the "Big Bang" process continues. We arc still living in an expanding Universe. This is proved by the galaxies "running" away in different directions.
What was there before the bang, before this "beginning of all beginnings"? Science still has no answer, because all the known laws of physics only became meaningful instants after the bang.
What is in store? Shall wc continue to infinitely expand, or will the Universe, ■ ii some point, begin to contract again? The answer lies hidden in the matter contained in the Universe.
What does the "honeycomb" have to do with the Universe? — The structure of the Universe discovered explains a great deal. At the beginning and in the first stage of expansion, matter was distributed uniformly. Scientists came to understand this in the 60s, when the relic electromagnetic radiation which lemaincd since the blast was discovered. This radiation originally had the same temperature as matter and, therefore, expanded along with it. But now it has cooled off, just as matter itself, and the temperature of this radiation (weak ladiowaves) that pierces space is the same everywhere — something about 3° Kelvin (approximately —270°C). In other words uniformity is a major property ol'thc Universe.
And yet, at the very beginning, there were some processes which led to the formation of stars, galaxies, accumulations, i.e. to the condensation of matter. I hese non-uniformities show that a pattern something like a gigantic honeycomb with a diameter of 100-200 megaparsec (a megaparscc is 30 million light years) has been created. The "walls" of the cells are made of accumulations of galaxies, and where they meet, the accumulations are more numerous and the radiation in the X-range is more intensive. In other words, the comb is a real structure.
How is it that the freely moving galaxies evolved into this particular lormation? Is this chance occurrence? —The "rigidity" of the structure indicates that the "combs" themselves appeared initially and then galaxies. How can this paradox be explained? — Most likely the "combs" came into being when the galaxies were still in theirgascous state. To use an analogy, imagine two gas bubbles expanding towards each other. The more they expand, the greater the compression between them. At a certain moment they collide. This is when a certain flat formation originates between them, which Academician Yakov Zel'dovich called a "pancake" in his hypothesis which led to the idea of the cellular structure ofthe Universe. The joining of a multitude of these "pancakes" represents the walls of the gigantic "combs" in which the galaxies have accumulated.
Ifthere are "combs", one would assume there should be "honey"? Could it be that all the matter of the Universe went into the "walls" and the cells themselves arc empty? — There is no visible matter there. But it is very difficult to conceive of a physical process which would absolutely cleanse these tremendous cavities of everything. So, perhaps, we just don't sec this substance. We have to assume the existence of some invisible mass whose attraction influences the movement of galaxies, thus maintaining the structure ofthe "combs". This mass should be many times greater than the visible matter in the areas of accumulation, i.e. in the "walls". The density of the "invisible" substance should also be far higher.
Do scientists mean the neutrinos? — Yes, they do. Until recently it has been believed that the neutrino has no rest mass and moves with the speed of light, without interacting with anything in its path. But the sensational findings of a group of investigators led by V. Lyubimov (the Institute of Experimental and Theoretical Physics) show that the rest mass ofthe neutrino is larger than zero. This means that the neutrino, which literally floods the Universe is, regardless of its negligible mass, the principal matter of the Universe and hence the principal part of its entire mass. The conventional matter in the Universe comprises but only three percent. It is most likely that the "combs" themselves and the entire cellular structure ofthe Universe is the result of their force of gravity.
The future ofthe Universe is in its structure. We have to know whether it is finite. Within a "finite" Universe, the galaxies, after thousands of millions of years have passed, will inevitably begin a reverse process, and expansion will give way to contraction. Our Universe will again become a "dot" and everything will be repeated. And so on for ever and ever...
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
общепринятое представление; масса покоя; буквально наводняет; сверхплотная плазма; распределялась однородно; гигантские соты; ос новное свойство; со времени взрыва; в мгновение ока; первая стадия расширения; на смену расширению придстежатие; навсегда; во много раз больше; появилась первоначально; невзирая на пренебрежимо малую массу; неизбежно начнет обратный процесс; всего ли:.л> 3%; общепринятая концепция; черпая бездна
• Mutch each word in Л with its synonym in B.
Л. relic, evidence, moment, to reverse, to conform, multitude, to occur, to come into being
H. instant, to correspond, something surviving from the past, a great
number, to turn in an opposite direction, to originate, proof, to happen
• Match each word in Л with its antonym in B.
Л. expansion, meaningful, conventional, relic, rigidity, to contract, to disagree
B. to expand, uncommon, modern, flexibility, meaningless, contraction, to conform
• Complete the sentences with information from the text or any other sources.
I. The passage deals with... .
• Think and find arguments lo prove that:
• What would you say of our current knowledge of
CLASSWORK
RF.ADING (6B)
• Read the passage (4 min.) and answer the questions.
SCENARIO 1. A FINITE SMALL UNIVERSE
The universe can only be finite if there is enough matter inside it to curve space-time so that it closes on itself. We do not know whether there is enough matter to do this. *We do know that the amount of visible matter is at least one-tenth as much as we calculate is necessary for this to happen — and that there may be enough matter that is presently invisible to make up the difference.
Some of this invisible matter may exist in the form of neutrinos, neutral particles that interact only very weakly. Neutrinos exist in the universe in large enough numbers so that if they have a small mass they could provide enough energy density to close the Universe. *The same may be true about other, presently unknown, subatomic particles.
If there is enough matter present to make the universe finite then there is also enough to cause the expansion to eventually stop and be replaced by a contraction. If this is the actual condition in our universe then we would like to know when this changeoverWxW occur. We cannot say this precisely, because of lack of information about the actual amount of matter in the universe, but we can say that it will not happen for a longtime, probably at least as long as the time since the Big Bang — 10 to 15 billion years.
*It is usually assumed that the size of a finite universe would only be a few times larger than the size of that part we are presently aware of, about lO" kilometers in radius. Yet there is no good reason for believing this cither on the basis of observation or of theoretical cosmology. If it were true, then the universe would begin contracting at a time in the future that is not much longerthan it has already lived, so that our universe could be said to be middle-aged.
In this scenario, which I call the finite small universe, the future of the universe does not depend much on the details of particle physics. We know that nothing much can happen to change the properties and distribution of the subatomic particles in the universe over the next few tens of billions of years, until the density of matter becomes very high through the prolonged contraction of space-time. For example, we know that if protons are unstable, their lifetime isat least 10-'"timcsgrcatcrthan the present age ofthe universe, sothat in the scenario under discussion, very few protons would have time to decay before
I he universe contracts back to the Big Crunch. Even the behaviour of much larger constituents of the universe, such as many stars and galaxies, would remain pretty much as they are now during the remaining expansion time for lhe universe.
The study of particle physics as it relates to the future of the finite small universe is interesting only at two points: when the expansion is reversing to a collapse, and when the collapse reaches its final stages.
Long before the collapse reaches its final stages, any of the large material structures such as stars, planets and their inhabitants that exist in the current universe will have been destroyed by the increase in temperature and density I hat will take place duringthe period of contraction. Perhaps the most significant question about any finite universe is whether there is some way that intelligent beings could avoid being caught up in the eventual Crunch. Even optimistic writers, such as the American physicist Freeman Dyson, have asserted that this is probably hopeless. Yet I think that even in this scenario, the ultimate future for intelligence may not be completely bleak (мрачный). The basis for my optimism is the notion that the space-time that we inhabit is not all there is, a view that a number of physicists have considered seriously, both for finite and infinite space-times. *For example, it is intellectually irresistible to think of a finite universe as embedded in some larger universe, with a higher number of dimensions, just as the two-dimensional, finite surface of the earth lies in ilnee-dimensional space. *Indeed, the mathematical description of a finite universe makes use of such an embedding into a five-dimensional space-time. I nis approach to the idea of extra dimensions is different from the one discussed previously, because here the extra dimensions are not tiny in extent. *Conceivably, both types of extra dimensions might exist. If there are large extra dimensions we are free to speculate that other realms lie in this larger universe, and that their evolution need not parallel that of our own.
At present, this is no more than a science-fiction plot. However, if there are more dimensions than those wc know, or four-dimensional space-times in addition to the one we inhabit, then I think it very likely that there are physical phenomena that provide connections between them. *lt seems plausible that if intelligence persists in the universe, it will, in much less time than the many billions of years before the Big Crunch, find out whether there is anything to this speculation, and if so how to take advantage of it.
The passage could be divided into two parts. Where would you divide it? Why? What is each part about?
Try to guess the meaning of the italicized phrases in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Say a few words about lack of knowledge or insufficient knowledge in the field of astrophysics. Use the following phrases to introduce your statements:
I. Until now we don't know whether....
Think and say a few words about:
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
2. Translate into English. Use the conjunction whether.
UNIT SEVEN
GRAMMAR: INVERSION
В бессоюзных условных предложениях, начинающихся с глаголов were, had, could, should, союз опускается.
Перевод таких предложений следует начинать с союзов если бы, при условии, что и т. д.
Например:
Were there any relationship between these events, we would certainly act differently.
Should they show any uncertainty, we would see it.
Примечание: Русское выражение «Если бы не...» переводится следующим образом:
If it were not for Were it not for
Если бы не But for — для любого времени
If it had not been for Had it not been for
для настоящего и будущего времени
But for
If it were not for Were it not for
this fact, the data obtained would be correct.
Если бы не этот факт, то полученные данные были бы точными.
• Sentences to be translated.
1. Had the collisions been considered in this case, the equation could have been obtained.
53
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
Инверсия, как правило, употребляется при эмоциональном выделе нии или подчеркивании членов предложения. Инверсия может иметь место в следующих случаях:
1. В предложениях, начинающихся наречиями. Например:
Here comes (вот идет) our friend. Thus began our friendship. So ended this terrible struggle.
2. Когда предложение начинается с распространенного обстоятель-
ства. Например:
То this branch of physics was added another one.
Гп front of the first screen are placed two other screens, each having a small hole in it.
В предложениях, начинающихся наречиями hardly едва, no sooner как только, never, seldom, often, not only, little и др. Например:
Never have I known such a man! Little did we think of our future then.
• Sentences to be translated.
READING (7A)
■ Read the passage carefully and find facts to prove or disprove the idea that the h-.m-uomb '-tniriip e of the Universe can be explained in terms ofthe chaotic inflation 'npothesis.
CHAOTIC INFLATION
Since 1980, cosmologists have modified considerably their theories ofthe 'licsi stages ofthe evolution of the Universe. This modification is based 111 ><>11 the so-called "inflationary" Universe scenario. The most promising version of this idea — "chaotic inflation" is described below by Andrei Lindc, ти- ofthe architects of the new model.
The essence ofthe inflationary hypothesis is that we live in a single domain hi' the Universe, a region corresponding to one crystal domain, which has
■ \pandcd so much ("inflated") that the domain walls are far beyond the range
. il our telescopes. The few monopolcs present in the original small volume of 11 к-1 .'niverse that has been blown up to the scale of 10-8 cannot play a significant mil- in the evolution of our local bubble of space-time, so that the concept и-moves the monopole problem. But how and why did the Universe as we know inflate in this way?
1'he first version ofthe inflationary Universe was suggested by Allan Guth
i M IT, USA) in July 1980. His scenario was based on the idea of high-
pet attire phase transitions, which provided the energy fora rapid burst of
■ \pausion early in the life ofthe Universe. Like watergiving up its latent heat of fusion as it freezes, those phase transitions, Guth suggested, might give up i-iiergy, which went to make the Universe expand exponentially for a short i ime. But as Guth himself pointed out at the time, this early version of inflation predicted an extremely inhomogencous state for the Universe afterthe phase i i.uisition.
In October 1981, I put forward an improved version of the inflation idea, which, forobvious reasons, became known as the "new inflationary scenario". I his resolved some of the difficulties in Guth's original version. This new inflationary scenario caused a stir among cosmologists and physicists, and was u-гу widely discussed. New inflation resolved many ofthe large discrepancies between the predict ions of field theory and the observations ofthe real Universe, and suggested that we were on the right way towards an understanding ofthe I inverse birth. But even this variation proved impossible to reconcile completely with the most realistic theories of elementary particles developed. In I9S3, however, 1 was able to resolve most of those remaining difficulties with another variation ofthe inflationary scenario, called "chaotic inflation". 1'his abandons the idea that high-temperature phase transitions provided the push behind the inflation in the very early Universe. In my opinion this scenario i: much simpler and more natural than other versions ofthe inflationary I i ''verse.
Order out of Chaos
According to the unified theories of particle physics, the Universe is filled with many types of uniform, homogeneous scalar fields. The nature of each field is determined by the position of a minimum in its potential energy function, the field rolling down to its minimum as the Universe cooled. But at the very early stages of the Universe evolution, when none of the fields had yet had time to roll down into its minimum state, each field could be homogeneous and have a different value in different parts of the Universe. In that split second after the moment of creation, there had not been enough time forthc field to become homogeneous. This is what 1 refer to as a "chaotic" distribution of the field and it has interestingand unexpected consequences.
If the field in one region is initially almost homogeneous and is far from its equilibrium state (that is, it has a large potential energy) then it "rolls down" Hnto the minimum very slowly. But as the Universe expands, the energy density of all the particles in the Universe decreases very rapidly. So, the total energy density of the cooling Universe quickly becomes equal to the slowly changing potential energy of the scalar field.
According to the general theory of relativity, the rate at which the Universe expands depends on the energy density of the matter that fills the Universe. If the energy density is constant (or changes very slowly) then the equations tell us that the Universe must expand with ever increasing speed, exponentially.
This period of inflation is longer if the field started out further away from its minimum value, because it takes longer to roll down to the minimum. The simplest theories of the scalar field suggest that during the exponential expansion the size of the Universe was blown up by a factor of 10"ш"°", and that the largest domain must have grown from the region originally filled with the field that was in a state furthest away from its equilibrium value.
When the field rolls down to its minimum value it oscillates to and fro about the minimum and energy from the oscillating field is converted into elementary particles. By the time the oscillation has damped itself out, the Universe (or a particular domain) has been filled with hot particles and the subsequent evolution of that domain can be described adequately by the standard model of the hot big bang. The only difference is that there was a phase of exponential expansion inflating a tiny seed of the Universe by a factor of I u1000000, before the outburst from the hot big bang itself. But this small difference leads to very important consequences.
Suppose, for example, that the exponentially expanding domain started out very curved. After expanding 10100""0" times, however, the geometry of space inside such a domain scarcely differs from the Euclidean geometry of flat space, just as the surface of a balloon expanded by a similaramount would look very much like the surface of a flat plane. Similarly, any irregularities are smoothed away by the expansion (inflation) so that the domain becomes very homogeneous and isotropic. Imagine how flat and smooth even the Himalayas would seem if the radius of the Earth grew to 101"""""" times its present size.
(to be continued)
• book through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
самые ранние стадии эволюции; сыграть значительную роль; выдви нул улучшенную версию; исходная версия; вызвала сенсацию; разре шил многие из крупных противоречий; вряд ли отличается от; по явной причине; крошечное семя; суть гипотезы; высокотемпературные фазо вые превращения; экспоненциально расширяющаяся область
• Match each word in A with its synonym in B.
A. I. to burst; 2, to blow up; 3. to abandon; 4. to point out; 5. to reconcile;
6. to resolve; 7. to stir; 8. essence; 9. scarcely; 10. discrepancy
B. a) hardly; b) inconsistence (difference); c) to make agree; d) to inflate;
c) to decide firmly; 1) to show direction; g) to give up wholly and finally;
h) the very being or power of a thing; i) to break into pieces; j) to be
emotionally moved
• Answer the following questions.
!. What problem is the article concerned with?
What is the essence of this hypothesis?
Who was the first version of this hypothesis suggested by?
When was it suggested?
What were the inconsistencies of this version?
What was the last version of this hypothesis called?
What main idea was introduced into chaotic hypothesis?
• Think and say a few words about:
CLASS WO к к
READING (7H)
• Before reading the passage below, let us remember be*. ; :io « . iVx - v аГ
Universe.
Condition
CoaseqiiiiKi-
Enough matter to close on itself 1. Our Universe is niid< :-.-ageJ
• Now, read the passage and find all the similarities and diticrciices with i>. >se 14 Scenario 2 (5 minutes are preferable).
SCENARIO2. A IARGE FINITE UNIVERSE
From what we presently know about cosmology, it is possible th. the Universe is finite but immensely larger than we can observe at this time, "'"his possibility would require that the density of energy in the Universe be si;g!,,.iv larger than the amount needed to cause the Universe to close.
If this is the actual situation, the Universe will continue to expand fo- very much longer than it has already existed. Although it will eventually sk.- \v' begin to contract, our current space-time is in its infancy. The long-term fir. г re ofthe Universe would then depend on the behaviour of matter, so that s.-:'i -Universe is of more interest to physicists than that of Scenario I.
In a large finite Universe, very slow processes that could change the char.ictc ofthe matter in the Universe would have time to act during the long period of expansion. *Physicists have identified a numberofsueh hypothetical processes, all of which act over time scales that are much greater than the present age or the Universe, but which could be considered short compared to its ultimate life span. One such process is the decay of protons into lighter particles, which, if it occurs, would require at least 10" years on the average. *Another possih, ity is that quantum mechanical effects will lead relatively small bits of matter to spontaneously collapse into black holes. It is difficult to make precise estimates of how much time such an event would take, but it is likely to take extremely long, much longer even than for protons to decay. Some matter will end up in black holes more quickly, as gravity makes some stars and galaxies collapse.
*Although the ultimate fate of the black holes is unknown, as they slowly evaporate, most of the matter that was caught in them will be transformed into radiation by the process conceived of by 1 Iawking. Therefore, whet her or not isolated protons decay into.lighter particles, ifthe Universe continues to expand lor long enough, much of the matter presently in it will ultimately be changed into photons and any other massless particles that may exist.
There is still another possibility, which is relevant ifthe Universe contains large numbers of neutrinos and antineutrinos, or other weakly interacting particles with small mass. Like electrons and positrons, these neutrinos and antineutrinos can, when they collide, convert into photons, a process known as annihilation. Although the rate at which this happens is low, if the Universe lives long enough, many neutrinos and antineutrinos will annihilate. There is a theory that the energy density of these weakly interacting particles produces the gravity that holds galaxies and clusters of galaxies together. *If this is true, then their annihilation could lead to the instability of galaxies, the most characteristic objects in our present Universe. It seems likely, then, that the most familiar objects in the present Universe, from atoms through galactic clusters, are not eternal. They will disappear in the future, ifthe Universe lives long enough.
This scenario should not surprise us. If the most important constituents of the present Universe are destined to disappear, they will surely be replaced by something new. From what we know of the past evolution of the Universe this has happened several times in the past as the Universe went from one dominated by many distinct particle species to one dominated by photons to one dominated by protons.
Some physicists have tried to describe the Universe that would develop after the protons have decayed or the black holes have swallowed up matter as we know it. These considerations would apply either to the large finite Universe of the present scenario (so long as it is still expanding) or to the next scenario, in which the Universe is finite and expands forever. The analysis is not complete, but it suggests that some forms of matter other than photons would persist (continue to act) in such a future Universe.
The protons that are present in our Universe would decay into positrons. These positrons can annihilate with the electrons already present to yield photons. *However, the extent to which this happens depends on the rate of expansion of the Universe, which by increasing the average distance between particles, decreases the chance of annihilation. The analyses that have been given suggest that many of the positrons will Find themselves too faraway from an electron to annihilate. Consequently, some positrons, and an equal number of electrons, will remain indefinitely. The same appears to be true for neutrinos of finite mass, if there are any such particles. In any event, these particles that remain could form more complex stable structures, bound together by gravity orelectromagnetism. These structures will be immensely largerthanthe familiar atoms, indeed, some maybe larger than the present observable Universe!
How complex these structures can become is an unsolved problem. It is difficult to analyse it in detail, because of the extreme disparity in scale between the structures that are familiar to us and anything that may evolve in the late
Universe. However, this change in scale is not unprecedented in the history of the Universe. *In its earliest moments, the whole region that eventually evolved into the present Universe was much smaller than an atom or even a subatomic particle. *If there could have been an intelligence that functioned in the early instants of the Universe, the familiar structures of our present Universe would seem as grossly extended as the supergalactic atoms of the late Universe would appear to us. *It is not beyond our ability to understand complexity in the late Universe, once we set our minds to it. 1 believe that understanding that complexity, and solving its related problems, will represent a novel branch of science in the future.
*No matter how large, ifthe Universe is finite, eventually the expansion will cease and contraction will take over. The details of what will happen during this contraction would be rather different from those in Scenario 1, because the contents of the Universe would be different in each case. *Yet, the outcome is no less mysterious, so poorly are the phases of turnover and contraction under stood. *If we learn that the Universe is finite, unraveling what will take place during these phases will become one of the important endeavours of future science.
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Look through the text and try to answer the following questions.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
the standard Big Bang theory, where the expansion is influenced only by the presence of subatomic particles.
2. Translate into English.
UNIT EIGHT
GRAMMAR: THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
1.
It is essential desirable doubtful, etc.
2.
The laws of mechanics require suggest
demand propose, etc.
that the distance of each body (should)be related to...
Законы механики требуют, что бы расстояние каждого тела ... находилось в соответствии с ...
If
Provided
Providing
Supposing
the Moon were one halfit would "]
might I be. could J
Если бы Луна составляла половину то она была бы ...
If it were to + Infinitive = если бы (относится к будущему) If I were to do that, what would you say?
• Read the following extract. Pay attention to the grammar forms in bold type. Translate them into Russian.
1. Now it is essential that astronomers (should) determine the mass of large numbers of other objects in the Universe. There is the Moon, for instance,
62
Earth's one satellite, which is 384,00 km from us (1 km is = 5/8 mi) and which circles the Earth once every 27 1/3 days.
More precisely both the Earth and the Moon circle a common center of gravity.
2. The laws of mechanics require that the distance of each body from that center of gravity (should) be related to its mass. In other words, if the Moon were one half as massive as the Earth, it would be two times as far from the center of gravity as the Earth is, if it were one third as massive as the Earth, it would be three times as far; and so on.
After Isaac Asimov. "The Collapsing Universe".
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
Question п. — вопрос, проблема
v. — сомневаться, ставить под вопрос
in question — исследуемый, рассматриваемый
(syn. involved о ко юром идет речь, concerned, in issue, in point)
open to question — сомнительный, спорный
beyond question — вне сомнения
out ofthe question — не может быть и речи
Translate into Russian.
READING (8A)
• Read the passage and answer these two questions:
CHAOTIC INFLATION
Like all inflationary scenarios, chaotic inflation removes the monopole problem. No new monopolcs arc created after the inflation, so any that originaliy existed arc separated from one another by an amount in proportion to the magnitude of the exponential increase in the size of the Universe. The i ntc -tor of each domain looks like a mini-Universe with a typical size greater than the distance we can see. UP cm, and for all practical purposes ourdomain is the Universe. But according to this scenario there arc many such mini-Universes separated from each other by domain walls in which the scalar fields take different values and in which, therefore, different laws ot'ohys'cs operate. We live in a domain in which the interactions just happen to have been broken into the strong and weak forces and elcctromagnetism. This has clearly influenced the development of life as well as the evolution of the Universe as we know it, and life of our type may be impossible in other aomains with different laws of physics.
The division of the Universe into many mini-Universes also makes it possible to suggest an answer to the question of why our space is three-dimensional. The process of compactification (shrinking and rolling up of some of the original dimensions) may occur differently in domains that are far enough apart from one another. And, once again, life, as we know it, may only exist in those domains which are three-dimensional. The physicist Paul 'ihrenfest pointed out, as long ago as 1917, that the threc-dimcnsienality of space is intimately connected with the way matter behaves.
Both gravitational and electromagnetic forces obey inverse square laws in our Universe and by generalizing the equations that describe these interactions and solving them in other dimensions mathematicians have shown that in space with n dimensions the result is always an n— 1 power law. In four dimensions, the laws would both be inverse cubes and, it turns out, there would be no stable orbits for cither planets in solar systems or electrons in atoms. The same is true for all higher dimensions. In a two-dimensional Universe, tilings are no better, because n— 1 is 1, and neither gravity nor elcctromagnetism is affected by distance at all. So atoms and planetary systems may only exist together in a domain with three dimensions of space, like our domain of the Universe. Sothc chaotic inflation scenario provides a simple solution to most of the problems with the standard big bang model.
The inflationary Universe scenario is now only five years old, and is still rapidly changing and developing as new ideas come to the fore. We do not know which part of the scenario will survive even for the next five years. But already it has proved able to solve about ten major cosmological problems in one simple model. Ideas which would have sounded like fantastic science-fiction only a decade ago, such as the creation of all the matter in the observable Universe (I0-" tons) by gravitational forces operating inside a domain which originally contained less than 10s g of matter and was less than 10"" cm across, now seem to be necessary ingredients in any complete theory of the Universe.
And how long did all that activity take? 1 have saved the most startling fact until last. The phase of exponential inflation that is critical to our modern understanding of the Universe probably lasted for less than 10'30 seconds.
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
достаточно далеко отстоять друг от друга; подчиняться закону об ратных квадратов; степенной закон; то же справедливо и для; ситуа ция не лучше и для; по мере выдвижения новых идей; дает простое решение; являются, по-видимому, необходимыми составляющими; по разительный факт; принимают различные значения; для решающего (переломного) понимания
• Match each word in A with its synonym in B.
A. 1. to survive; 2. ingredient; 3. to startle; 4. to shrink; 5. true
B. a) component; b) to astonish; c) to remain alive; d) to contract;
e)exact
• Match each word in A with its antonym in B.
A. 1. to stop; 2. to shrink; 3. far apart from; 4. slow; 5. true; 6. inverse;
7. to survive
B. a) direct; b) to expand; c) rapid; d) next to; c) false; 0 to die; g) to
last
• Answer the following questions using the information from the text or any other sources.
1 Г.. И. Куршпии.-н
65
CLASSWORK
READING (8B)
Before reading the passage below, let us remember Scenarios 1 and 2 of a finite small and large Universes.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Condition
Enough matter for the Universe to close on itself.
The density of energy in the Universe is slightly larger than needed for the Universe to close.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Consequences
• Now, read the passage and give your opinion on the fate of the Universe according to Scenario 3.
SCENARIO3. AN INFINITE UNIVERSE
*If the density of matter were less than a critical amount, corresponding to about 10 29 grams per cubic centimeter — about ten milligrams in a region the size of the Earth — then the Universe is infinite, and will expand for ever. "■Objects in the Universe will, on the average, get farther and farther apart, except for those such as the contents ofthe solar system, which are held together by forces such as gravity. As in Scenario 2, the contents of the Universe will change, and their eventualform will depend on presently unknown properties of subatomic particles and on the end state of black holes. On the whole, the future ofthe Universe in Scenario 3 is about the same as in Scenario 2, except that the expansion never slows to zero and reverses. The Universe of Scenario 3 becomes one in which protons, electrons, neutrinos and their antiparticles are spread ever more thinly through larger and larger regions of space. *Once again, however, we do not know whether gravity and elcctromagnetism would allow these objects to form complex structures able to persist indefinitely.
However, there is a missing piece in our puzzle, one that might apply to the large finite Universe. Most cosmological models have assumed that the Universe is homogeneous — that all parts of it are the same, including those beyond the reach of our telescopes and hence unknown. The assumption of homogeneity has been made in order to simplify the mathematical description that physicists give to the Universe.
*Recently, this assumption has been questioned. We have seen that physicists believe that some features of the present Universe depend on the broken symmetry that occurred in the early Universe. Yet this symmetry breaking need not have occurred uniformly over the whole of spacetime. Just as a lake in winter can be liquid in some regions and solid in others, so might different regions of space be in different phases, which would imply different physical properties for the matter in it. For example, the surplus of what we call matter in our visible Universe might be replaced by equal amounts of matter and ant imatter or a surplus of antimatter in parts of space-time beyond our present horizon. But now let us return to the view that the properties of particles will change slowly as the Universe expands. Some scientists have predicted that rapid phase transitions similar to those that took place in the early Universe will occur in the future. This could happen if the present configuration of quantum fields in our region of space has more energy than another configuration, and is therefore unstable against transformation into the lower energy configuration.
*lf such phase transitions occur, they are expected to begin in one place, perhaps as the result of a random fluctuation, and then spread outward at the speed of light, eventually encompassing every point in space. *As the transition passes through any point, those properties of matter that depend on the background quantum fields present there, would have to change suddenly because of the new conditions. *A sudden change in the properties of subatomic particles would lead to tremendous changes in any structures composed of Ihcm, and it is unlikely that these structures would persist. It has even been suggested that such a phase change has begun in anothersection ofthe Universe, and is now approaching us at the speed of light. But there is no evidence forthis possibility, and we need to analyse it further before adding it to the list of environmental catastrophes that we need to worry about.
If the Universe continues to expand long enough for the matter to change its form drastically, then intelligent creatures may have agreater role to play in the distant future than they would in a Universe that eventually contracts. They would have to grapple with two problems: the disappearance of the protons and bound neutrons that form the material bases for most structures in the present Universe, and the ever smaller amounts of free energy that would be available to preserve order in whatever structures might replace them. *No good solutions to these problems have yet emerged, but since we have been studying them for only a few years, and will not need the answers for 10J0yearsorso, wc need not despair.
Try to guess the meaning of the words given in italics in the text.
Translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Look through the text and try to answer the following questions.
What fatal consequences could the inhomogencity of the Universe lead to?
Why does the author think that human beings need not despair about the future of the Universe?
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
The last of the phase changes is thought to have taken place when the temperature ofthe Universe was about 1011 times as great as today.
After that, all subatomic particles had the same properties that we find them to have now.
According to theoretical analyses, all of these extraordinary changes took place within a very short period of time — perhaps in the very microsecond or so after the expansion ofthe Universe began.
In other words, the main subatomic features of our Universe were determined in a flash of time, and the consequences have been working themselves out ever since.
2. Translate into English. Use such phrases as in question (progress), under consideration (discussion, study).
Part III.
THE WORLD OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
UNIT NINE GRAMMAR'. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
1 как если бы, как будто бы
as though
The object behaves as if it were Тело ведет себя так, как будто бы
given some energy at the start. ему сообщили...
для того чтобы
2. that
so that
in order that
lest чтобы не
Keep the temperature so that the Поддерживайте необходимую substance (should) not be cooled. температуру, чтобы вещество не
остыло.
3. though J хотякакбыни
although J
Though he may (might) be busy he Как бы он ни был занят, он за-will complete the work on time. кончит работу вовремя.
Sentences to be translated.
One cannot speak of particles and waves as though they were two different things.
Make exact calculations lest you should fail with your experiment.
Be careful lest you should make mistakes in calculations.
In determining the orbit of a planet we may neglect accelerations ofthe sun and treat it as if it were at rest.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
|
A + |
-iy = |
Adv |
|
accurate + |
-iy = |
accurately |
• Form adverbs from the following adjectives and translate them into. Russian.
pure, comparative, rapid, equal, ordinary, certain, accidental, radioactive, previous, rare, heavy, presumble
READING (9A)
• Read the passage attentively and be prepared to describe the phenomenon of natural radioactivity.
THE DISCOVERY OF RADIOACTIVITY
As is the case with so many other discoveries, the discovery ofthe phenomenon of radioactivity was purely accidental. It was discovered in 1896 by a French physicist, A.H. Becquerel (1852—1908), who was interested at that time in the phenomenon of fluorescence, i.e. the ability of certain substances to transform the ultraviolet radiation that falls on them into visible light. In one of the drawers of his desk Becquerel kept a collection of various minerals that he was going to use for his studies, but because of other pressing matters, the collection remained untouched fora considerable period of time. It happened that in the drawerthere were also several unopened boxes of photographic plates, and one day Becquerel took one of the boxes in order to photograph something or other. When he developed the plates he was disappointed to find that they were badly fogged, as if previously exposed to light. A check on other boxes showed that they were in the same poor condition, which was difficult to understand since all the boxes were sealed and the plates inside were wrapped in thick black paper. What could be the cause of this mishap? Could it have something to do with one ofthe minerals in the drawer? Being of an inquisitive mind, Becquerel investigated the situation and was able to trace the guilt to a piece of uranium ore labeled "Pitchblende from Bohemia". The reader must take into account, of course, that at that time the name "uranium" was not in vogue as it is today, and that, in fact, only very few people, even among scientists, had ever heard about that comparatively rare and not very useful chemical element. But the ability of a uranium compound to fog photographic plates through a thick cardboard box and a layer of black paper rapidly brought this obscure clement to a prominent position in physics.
The existence of penetrating radiation that could pass through layers of ordinarily opaque materials as if they were made of clear glass was a recognized fact at the time of Becquerel's discovery. In fact, only a year earlier (1895) a German physicist, Wilhclm Roentgen (1845—1923), discovered what arc now known as X-rays, which can penetrate equally well through cardboard, black paper, or the human body.
Although special high voltage equipment is required to produce X-rays, the radiation "discovered by Becqucrel was flowing quite steadily and without any external excitation from the piece of uranium ore resting in his desk. What could be the origin of this unusual radiation? Why was it specifically associated with the clement uranium and, as studies found, with two other heavy elements known as thorium and actinium? The early studies of the newly discovered phenomenon, which was called "radioactivity", showed that the emission of mysterious radiation was completely unaffected by physical or chemical conditions. We can stick a radioactive element into a very hot flame or drop it into liquid air without the slightest effect on the intensity ofthe mysterious radiation it emits. No matter whether we have pure metallic uranium, or its oxide which is contained in pitchblende, the radiation flows out at a rate proportional to the amount of uranium in the sample. These facts ruled out any possibility of ascribing the phenomenon of radioactivity to any kind of chemical properties of this element, and led the early investigators to the conclusion that the phenomenon of radioactivity is the intrinsic property of the atoms of these peculiar elements and that its cause must be deeply rooted in the atomic interior.
• Find equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
как это происходит со многими другими открытиями; чисто слу чайное; интересоваться; видимый свет; из-за других неотложныхдел; в течение значительного периода времени; проявить пластины; были в таком же плохом состоянии; причина этой неудачи; могло ли это быть связано с; быть популярным; проникающая радиация; светоне проницаемые материалы; на излучение совершенно не влияет; без ма лейшего влияния; эти факты исключали возможность; причина, дол жно быть, кроется; внутреннее строение атома.
Re-read the passage and answer the following questions.
Be prepared to say a few words about.
Match each word in Column I with its synonym in Column II.
to be the case, because of, since, to take into account, no matter, to affect, to cause, to be in vogue, to rule out
II
to exclude, regardless of, to influ ence, because, to happen, to be in fashion, on account of, to take into consideration, to bring about
• Fill in the blanks with the proper word using the words in brackets.
(purified, purely, purification)
1. The process of... is rather complicated.
It is a ... theoretical problem.
How is the material... in this case?
The discovery ofthe phenomenon of radioactivity was... accidental. (excited, excitation)
2. The radiation discovered by Becquerel was flowing without any external
... from the piece of uranium ore.
The highly ... atoms arc often called Rydbergatoms, aftcrthe Swedish spectroscopist Yohanncs Rydberg.
Both the ion and target atom undergo electronic... during the collision. (exposed, exposure)
3. The technique is based on the use of long... to record an object's motion.
The plates were badly fogged, as if previously ... to light.
Several ofthe animals which were ... to radiation have died since.
CLASSWORK
READING (9B)
• Skim the passage rapidly (2 min.) and answer the following questions.
In order to study the nature of the discovered radiation, Becquerel arranged the following very simple experiment. He placed a small amount of uranium in a deep hole made in a lead block so that only a thin beam of radiation emerged from the groove. He also placed a magnet over the block in such a way that the magnetic lines of force were running perpendicular to the direction of the emerging beam. Under these conditions one could expect three different results.
If the radiation emitted by uranium were short electromagnetic waves similar to X-rays, no deflection should take place.
If, on the otherhand, the radiation were fast-moving electric particles, like the cathode and anode rays in J J. Thomson's tube, the beam should be deflected to the left in the case of a negative charge and to the right in the ease of a positive one. In Becquerel's experiment all three things happened, and the original beam emerging from the hole split into three parts. The part that consisted of particles carrying a positive charge was named ос-rays and was later proved (by Rutherford) to be a stream of doubly ionized helium atoms, i.e. a stream of helium nuclei. The part consisting of negatively charged particles, which turned out to be ordinary electrons, was named fj-rays, whereas the undeflected beam formed by short-wave electromagnetic radiation similar to X-rays received the name of y-rays.
Re-read the passage and say a few words about the three kinds of radioactive rays. Give a headline to the text.
Give a free translation of the following passage.
До открытия природной радиоактивности в конце XIX в. ядерные процессы оставались неизвестными.
Испускание излучения ураном, открытое в 1896 г. А. Беккерелем, было первым явлением ядерного происхождения, наблюдаемым чело веком. В то время были только что открыты В. Рентгеном Х-лучи, созда ваемые катодными лучами втрубках, в которых наблюдаласьтакже силь ная флуоресценция. А. Пуанкаре выдвинул гипотезу, что испускание X-лучей может быть связано с явлением флуоресценции. А. Беккерель, желая проверить это предположение, использовал в качестве флуорес цирующих веществ соли урана, применявшиеся в работах его отцом. Он обнаружил, что соли действительно испускают излучение, способное производить фотографическое действие через л исток бумаги и ионизи ровать воздух подобно рентгеновским лучам, однако испускание этого излучения наблюдается также хорошо и с нефлуоресцирующими со единениями урана. Мари Кюри предприняла изучение этого нового явления в декабре 1897: она произвела ионизационным методом точ ное измерение интенсивности излучения урана и показала, что анало гичное излучение испускается торием.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
1. It is necessary that the intensity of radiation should be measured very accurately.
2. Translate into English.
UNIT TEN GRAMMAR: GERUND
|
Forms of Gerund |
Active |
Passive |
|
Indefinite |
solving |
being solved |
|
Perfect |
having solved |
having been solved |
FUNCTIONS OF GERUND
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
re- = again + re- + N = N re- + construction = reconstruction
re- + V = V re- + model = remodel
• Translate the following words into Russian:
retake, retrace, reestablish, rearrange, reproduction, redirect, re distribution, recharge, recapture, redefine
READING (10A)
• Read the passage attentively and be prepared to say a few words about "induced" or "artificial" radioactivity.
NUCLEAR FISSION
Following the discovery of neutrons in 1932 due to the English physicist James Chadwick many new types of artificial nuclear transformations have been investigated. Neutrons are the ideal projectiles for nuclear bombardment because they have no electrical charge and thus suffer no repulsion in their approach to atomic nuclei.
In some cases the impact of a neutron may result in the ejection of a proton or an a-particle, as in the reactions:
7NM + 0n1->6C,4 + 1H' 7Nl4 + 0n'->5B"+2H4
In some cases the incident neutron can eject another neutron without being captured itself:
Cl4+ n'-^C" +2 n1
6 О О О
whereas in other cases the incident neutron can be captured by the nucleus with the release of excess energy in the form ofay-quantum. The latter process, known as the radiative capture of neutrons, is of particular importance for heavy nuclear targets, since in this case the ejection of protons and a-particles is strongly hindered by the "outgoing" potential barrier surrounding the nucleus. I fit were not for the radiative capture ofthe neutron no heavier isotope of the bombarded clement would be formed. Sometimes these isotopes are stable so that no further nuclear transformation takes place:
r|6+ п'-^я017 + у
Hon 1
whereas in some other cases the radiative capture of a neutron leads to a (i-emission:
47Ag'w + on'->47Ag"u + Y 47Ag4°->48Cd» + e-
which is necessary to re-establish the proper neutron-to-proton ratio.
In the year 1939, a German radio-chemist, Otto Hahn, with his coworker, Frits Strassman, studied the effect of the neutron bombardment of uranium atoms, expecting to observe the formation of uranium isotopes with atomic weights higher than that of ordinary uranium, i.e., 238. To his great surprise Hahn found that the sample of uranium bombarded by neutrons contained radioactive atoms of a much lighter clement, barium. The mystery of this discovery was soon cleared up by two German physicists, Lisc Meitner and Otto Frisch, who suggested that in Hahn and Strassman's experiments the nuclei of U218 were split by incident neutrons into two nearly equal parts:
П238 + ni_4 Ba144+, ftKr94
32 о 56 36
Since the barium and krypton atoms produced in this process possessed excess neutrons, as compared with ordinary stable atoms of the same atomic weight (60Nd144 and 40Zr94), these so-called fission products emitted negative electrons, makingthem strongly radioactive. Frishand Meitner's interpretation of Hahn and Strassman's experimental finding as the splitting ofthe uranium nucleus into two nearly equal parts opened new vistas in the field of nuclear physics. Instead ofjust "chipping off' small pieces ofthe bombarded nucleus, as was the case in all previous experiments, here was a real breakup ofthe central body of the atom, the fission of a large droplet of the nuclearfluid into two half-size droplets. Instead ofjust the few million electron-volts of energy observed in previous experiments on artificial nucleartransformations, uranium fission liberates 200 MeV per atom.
The detailed theoretical studies ofthe process of nuclear fission were carried out by Niels Bohr and John Wheeler and published in the September 1939 issue of the Physical Review. This was the first and last comprehensive article on the theory of nuclear fission that appeared as "open literature" before the "security curtain" was drawn tight on that subject. According to Bohr and Wheeler, the fission of heavy nuclei resulting from the impact of a neutron is a resolution of a conflict between the opposing tendencies of nuclear (attractive) and Coulomb (repulsive) forces acting in the atomic nucleus.
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
не испытывают никакой отталкивающей силы; на две почти равных части; вслед за открытием; загадка этого открытия была вскоре разре шена; как это происходило во всех предыдущих экспериментах; может привести к; идеальные частицы; радиационный захват; по сравнению с обычными устойчивыми атомами; испусканию протонов и альфа-частиц серьезно мешает; последний процесс особенно важен; эти так называемые продукты деления; никакого дальнейшего ядерного пре вращения не происходит; правильное отношение числа нейтронов к числу протонов; избыточные нейтроны; избыточная энергия; налета ющий нейтрон
• Read the passage again and answer the following questions.
• Be prepared to say a few words about:
• Choose the proper word to fill up the blanks in the sentences below.
(capture, incident, collisions, fission, releases, results in)
• Translate into English making use of according to.
По утверждению автора, эта гипотезадовольно сомнительна.
Твердые тела классифицируются по их электрическим свойствам.
По словам докладчика, эти факты можно объяснить по-разному.
CLASS WORK
READING (10В)
• Skim the passage as fast as you can and choose the answer that suits the following questions best.
1. Why arc the two fragments ineffective in producing further fission
processes?
2. What process is responsible for nuclear energy liberation?
FISSION NEUTRONS
In spite of the fact that each of the two fragments produced in the fission of a uranium nucleus carries about 100 Mev of energy, these fragments are quite ineffective in producing further fission processes; this is due to the fact that the fission fragments carry a very high electric charge and are consequently strongly repelled by the other uranium nuclei with which they may collide. *Thus, the discovery of uranium fission would not contribute anything to the problem of the large-scale liberation of nuclear energy if it were not for a secondary process that was found to accompany nuclear fission.
*It was discovered that apart from the two large fragments of the original nucleus, there are always several extra neutrons emitted in the breakup. In the case of U235 the average number of "fission neutrons" formed is 2.5 per uranium nucleus. *These fission neutrons formed in the breakup of one uranium nucleus may collide with the surrounding uranium nuclei and produce more fission and still more fission neutrons and if the conditions are favourable, the breeding (расширенное воспроизводство) of fission neutrons goes crescendo as does the breeding of pl248. Thus we get a branching chain reaction (разветвленная цепная реакция) and in practically no time all the nuclei of uranium in a given pile of this material break up with the liberation of a tremendous amount of energy.
Read the passage again and translate the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Give a free translation of the following text.
В 1930 году немецкий физик Бете (Boethe) заметил, что бомбар дировка бериллия природными сс-частицами из полония вызывала весьма специфическое излучение. Бете полагал, что это излучение было образовано у-квантами высоких энергий, и только через два года Чадвик (Chadwick) доказал, что это излучение было ни чем иным, как быстро движущимся пучком частиц, которые имеют ту же массу, что и протоны, но не несут электрического заряда. Эти новые части цы получили имя нейтроны. Нейтроны самопроизвольно (spontaneously) распадаются на протоны в течение 12 минут с испус канием электрона. Общее (collective) название для нейтронов и про тонов — нуклон, нейтроны — нейтральные нуклоны, тогда как прото ны — нуклоны, несущие положительный элементарный заряд. Не имея электрического заряда, нейтроны не подвержены (are not subjected to) действию электрических отталкивающих сил при при ближении к ядру и могут легко проникать (penetrate) в заряженные ядра. Благодаря этому нейтроны являются идеальными бомбардиру ющими частицами.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
2. Translate into English.
UNIT ELEVEN
GRAMMAR: GERUND
|
Forms of Gerund |
Active |
Passive |
|
Indefinite |
solving |
being solved |
|
Perfect |
having solved |
having been solved |
His knowing physics well To, что он знает физику хорошо,
did not surprise us. нас не удивило.
Everybody knows of Roentgen's Всем известно, что Рентген onpe-having determined the effect делил действие Х-лучей. of X-rays.
• Sentences to be translated.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
due to, thanks to, because of; on account of; owing to — вследствие,
благодаря, из-за
84
Copper has been used <
due to thanksto because of on account of owing to
> its great conductivity.
V+-ment = N develop + -ment = development
Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into Russian.
move, establish, agree, adjust, improve, excite, appoint
V+ -ive = A act + -ive = active
• Think of verbs corresponding to the following adjectives and translate them into Russian.
creative, refractive, indicative, attractive, explosive, representative, expressive
READING (11 A)
• Read the passage attentively and follow the first steps in the development of nuclear physics. Get ready to talk about the facts, hypotheses and experimental observations in the field.
FROM THE HISTORY OF MESONS AND HYPERONS
In the year 1932, a Japanese physicist, Hidekei Yukawa, suggested that the nuclear forces acting between protons and neutrons should be due to the presence of a new type of particle that serves as a "nuclear glue" holding the atomic nuclei together. According to Yukawa's theoretical consideration, the new particles must have a mass intermediate between that of protons and that of electrons, so they received the name mesons (from the Greek mesons meaning "between").
Five years after the introduction of these purely hypothetical particles for the explanation of nuclear forces, they were actually observed in cosmic rays by an American physicist, Carl Anderson. The so-called "primary cosmic rays" bombarding the atmosphere of our planet are formed by streams of extremely high-energy protons and a few other heavier positively charged nuclei that are probably accelerated by electromagnetic fields in interstellar space. The energies of these primary cosmic particles range from comparatively low values to thousands of billions of electron-volts. Colliding with the nuclei of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen at the outer fringes of the atmosphere, these primary cosmic ray particles produce various kinds of penetrating radiations, including high-energy y-quanta and streams of negative and positive electrons; in fact, positive electrons were first discovered in cosmic rays. Observing the tracks formed by cosmic ray particles in a vertical cloud chamber placed between the poles of a strong magnet, Anderson noticed that the trajectories of some of the particles, both positively and negatively charged, were bent by a magnetic field more than would be expected in the case of fast protons but considerably less than should be the case with electrons. From the observed magnetic deflection, Anderson estimated that this new kind of particle is about 200 times heavier than an electron, in agreement with Yukawa's theoretical prediction. These particles were first called "heavy electrons", but the name was later changed to "mesons".
Later studies have shown that there are actually two kinds of mesons, heavier ones called п-mesons or pions, and lighter ones known as u-mesons. Both pions and muons can carry either a positive or negative electric charge (п+, л-, u.+, u.), and in addition there also exist neutral pions (n°). All of these new particles, as well as the positive and negative cosmic ray electrons (e+, e) are genetically related to each other and form a sequence somewhat similar to the sequence of the radioactive elements. It is now established that the primary high-energy protons entering the outer fringes of the atmosphere give rise to neutral and charged pions. Neutral pions possess a very short lifetime (about 10"" sec) and, in spite of their high velocity, break up into two y-quanta:
n°-* y + y1
before reaching the surface ofthe earth. The charged pions (both positive and negative) live somewhat longer (108 sec) but still most of them break up high in the atmosphere according to the equation:
я*-* u* + neutrino
Accordingly, for the study of pions and their decay into muons photographic equipment attached to large balloons must be sent high into the stratosphere.
The mean lifetime of muons is comparatively long (106 sec), and many of them reach the surface of the earth and permit themselves to be photographed in ordinary cloud chambers. Since cloud chamber equipment is too bulky and heavy to be sent up in balloons, cosmic ray researchers have developed a new method for photographing the tracks of cosmic particles at high altitudes. Instead of using the ionizing properties of fast charged particles passing through humid air, the new method is based on the fact that these particles affect the grains through which they pass when they travel through a fine grained photographic emulsion. When the photographic plate is developed it shows dark streaks that correspond to the trajectories followed by particles. A very rare photograph of this kind showing the formation of a pion resulting from the collision of a primary cosmic ray particle with a composite nucleus and the subsequent decay of this pion into a muon and an electron is shown in the figure below.
Apart from mesons, which have a mass intermediate between those of an electron and a proton recent studies of cosmic rays have discovered particles that are heavier than protons and are known under the collective name hyperons. The study of these particles and of their interrelation with each other was, for a time, the most interesting and most important field of exploration in physics.
• Find equivalents for the following phrases.
ядерные силы, вероятно, обуславливаются наличием; в соответ ствии с теоретическими предположениями; протоны чрезвычайно высоких энергий; межзвездное пространство; энергии колеблются от сравнительно низких величин до; проникающее излучение; и поло жительно и отрицательно заряженные; приблизительно в 100 раз тя желее; в соответствии с теоретическим предположением; либо поло жительный, либо отрицательный электрический заряд; кроме того, существуют нейтральные пионы; а также электроны; ряд, несколько похожий на; несмотря на их высокую скорость; среднее время жизни; слишком громоздкое; набольших высотах; вместо использования; воз действует на зерна; когда фотопластинку проявляют; помимо мезо нов, соответствующих траекториям, по которым следуют частицы; пион, образующийся в результате столкновения
• Re-read the passage and supply answers to the questions.
• Match the synonyms from both columns.
II
mean, altitude, to affect, to estimate, usual, to result in, regardless of,
to range, actually, in addition, similar, to give rise to, in spite of, ordinary, to result from
alike, to arise from, height, besides, in fact, average, to evaluate, to influence, to vary
to cause, to result in, to give rise to, to bring about — привести к ... to be caused, to result from, to be due to, to arise from — являться резуль татом ...
• Translate into Russian paying attention to the words in bold type.
Neutron absorption frequently results in the emission of secondary gamma rays.
The disintegration ofthe radiative elements gives rise to three types of radiation.
Remember!
определительное существительное (какой?) <— (какой?) «- (что?) сущ. + сущ. + сущ.
При переводе такой группы слов следует прежде всего начинать пе ревод с последнего существительного (определяемого). Все остальные существительные, стоящие перед ним, его определяют.
gam ma-ray sensitivity — чувствительность по гамма лучам
energy-charge relation - зависимость заряда от энергии
• Translate the following word combinations.
electron rest-mass, phase shift analysis, electron velocity distribution, pulse series generator
• Translate into English using both ... and, either... or, neither ... nor.
CLASSWORK
READING (1 IB)
• Skim the passage rapidly and explain (he title.
THE MYSTERIOUS NEUTRINO
The early studies of radioactive (3-decay (the emission of an electron by an unstable atomic nucleus) led to the conclusion that there is something wrong with the energy balance involved. While the (x-particles emitted by a given radioactive element always carry a well-defined amount of energy characteristic of that particular clement, (3-particles show a wide energy spread (разброс) ranging from almost zero to rather high energy values. Since the total energy liberation in the transformation of one atomic nucleus into another is expected to be the same for all nuclei of a given kind, it was suspected that there would be another particle coming out ofthe nucleus along with the electron that carries the missing (недостающий) balance of energy. This hypothetical particle, which must be electrically neutral and must have a mass that is much smaller than even the mass of an electron, received the name neutrino which means "little neutral" in Italian.
The absence of electric charge and the extremely small mass allow neutrinos to penetrate thick material layers with the greatest of ease; a thick concrete (бетонная) wall is just as ineffective in stopping a beam of neutrinos as a chicken wire fence (проволочная изгородь) is in stopping a swarm (рой) of mosquitos. The neutrinos that are produced in great quantities near the center of the sun in the process of nuclear energy production pierce its entire body and fly away as if there were nothing there at all. It has been estimated theoretically that in order to stop effectively a beam of neutrinos we would need a shield several light-years thick.
In spite of the almost incredible ability of neutrinos to make their "getaway" (выход) physicists managed in 1955 to stop a few of them, thus finding unquestionable proof of their existence. F. Reines and C. Cowen of the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory used forthis purpose the collision process between neutrinos and the nuclei of hydrogen atoms (protons) in which the neutrino was expected to produce a positron and to transform the proton into a neutron:
я + neutrino^ n + e+
These two scientists built a giant particle counter that registered neutrinos as well as positrons and placed it near one of the nuclear piles. The nuclear reactions taking place in the operating pile produce a tremendous number of neutrinos that stream out through a heavy shielding which holds back all other nuclear radiations. Although the chance of a neutrino hitting a proton and producing the above-mentioned reaction is only 1 out of 103u, some of these reactions do actually take place, resulting in the simultaneous appearance of a neutron and the accompanying positron. Thus, the uncatchable neutrino was finally caught and joined the company of well-established elementary particles.
• Re-read the passage and give answers to the following questions.
• Give a free translation of the following passage.
Интерес к космическим лучам сверхвысоких энергий объединяет представителей двух наук — астрофизики и физики элементарных частиц. Дело втом, что, с одной стороны, источниками этого излучения могут быть такие пока недостаточно познанные астрономические объекты, как пульсары, оболочки сверхновых звезд, черные дыры, активные ядра галактики и квазары, и потому информация, приносимая космическим излучением, очень важна для физики космоса. С другой стороны, это излучение состоит из частиц самых больших из известных нам энергий, в тысячи и миллионы раз превосходящих те, которые достигнуты на созданных человеком ускорителях. Вот почему изучение таких частиц имеет важнейшее значение и для физики высоких энергий. В целом же можно сказать, что исследование космических лучей — это своего рода глубокая разведка (reconnaissance) в «горячих точках» науки.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
You should have used a specially designed computer.
An operator of a computing machine should have an engineering background.
The density of the medium would change with temperature no matter what measures they took.
There were electron tube devices in our laboratories but now they are replaced by semiconductor ones.
It would be desirable that all necessary calculations be made before the experiment starts.
2. Translate into English.
UNIT TWELVE GRAMMAR: GERUND
Adverbial Modifier
|
in |
In measuring the current they used that device. Измеряя (при измерении) силу(ы) тока, они использовали этот прибор. |
|
on, upon, after |
On measuring the current they put down the results. Измерив (после измерения) силу(ы) тока, они записали результаты. |
|
by |
They achieved good results by experimenting. Они получили хорошие результаты путем экспери ментирования (экспериментируя). |
|
without |
Не left the room without saying a word. Он ушел из комнаты, не сказав ни слова. |
• Phrases to be completed.
93
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
• Study the meanings of due, be due to and due to.
due (to) adj. — соответствующий, надлежащий, вызванный,
обусловленный be due to — бытьобусловленным, являться следствием;
быть разработанным, предложенным due to prep. — благодаря, из-за, вследствии
(syn. because of, on account of, owing to, in view of, thanks to, by/in virtue of, consequent on)
• Now translate these sentences.
1,. Due consideration must be given to missile performance requirements.
READING (12A)
• Study the schematic representation of the passage given below, then read the passage and be prepared to summarize the problem using this diagram.
inactive (\Jm) T
critical size ( 10 cm)
I
chai
i
active (U235) i
fission —» neutrons
(carbon/graphite)
fissile —> materials
demonstration of scientific ideas
efficiency production of
heavier isotopes I
FERMI-PILE AND PLUTONIUM
In the Fermi-pile, the fission chain reaction could be maintained in natural uranium, buTThe naturajuranium was so highly diluted by carbon thiaTRigh efficiency in energy production could not be achieved. Owing to the presence of inactive U238, the chain reaction in the pile could not possibly develop into an efficient explosion, nor could it be very useful as a power source.
So what good was the Fermi-pile, except for demonstrating the purely scientific principle of the possibility of a self-maintaining nuclear reaction? Of course, the demonstration of a purely scientific principle is always of very great importance, but the Fermi-pile was built at great expense in the midst of a perilous war when all expenditures were supposed to be judged on the basis of their military usefulness.
The Fermi-pile stood this acid test. Although the energy released in the fission of U235 nuclei could not be utilized and was literally sent down the drain by means of the water-cooling system, a new fissionable element was produced inside the pile during operation. The neutrons that were not used in the maintenance ofthe chain reaction in U235 nuclei were captured by U238 nuclei, producing the heavier isotope:
92U238 + on'->,2U23' + Y
Having an excess of neutrons, the nuclei of92U239 underwent two successive P- transformations, giving rise to elements with atomic numbers 93 and 94. These two elements, which do not exist in nature but have been produced artificially by human genius, were given the names neptunium andplutonium. The reactions following the neutron capture by U238 can be written:
A good tourist is supposed to be able to build a campfire even ifthe wood is soaking wet. This role of a good hiking tourist in the nuclear energy project was played by the Italian-American physicist, Enrico Fermi, who actually made the "wet" uranium logs "burn'VHe was able to do so by utilizing the fact mentioned above, that the effectiveness of fission neutrons in producing the fission of U235 nuclei increases quite considerably wjicjalhcy are slowed down. llsucfTilowing~fTown of fission neutrons could be achieved, the presence of inactive U 238 would not make much difference.tTo slow down the original fission neutrons it was necessary to mix natural uranium with a large amountof carbon in theform of graphite. A large "pile" of graphite bricks with small pieces of natural uranium included in the structure was constructed in great secrecy under the grandstand ofthe University of Chicago Stadium, and on December 2, 1941, Professor A. Compton wired to Dr. Vannevar Bush in Washington, D.C.: "The Italian navigator has landed. The natives are friendly." In the secret language ofthe Manhattan Project this meant: "The Fermi-pile works successfully. Nuclear chain reaction is achieved."
92U»8^0,Np2-w + c-
Being chemically different from uranium, the plutonium produced in the Fermi-pile can be separated and purified with much less effort than it takes to separate a light uranium isotope from the heavy one, and this element turned out to be even more fissionable than U235. In fact, whereas U2'5 gives rise to 2.5 fission neutrons, the corresponding figure for Pu239 is 2.9 fission neutrons.
Critical Size
When a single fission process occurs inside a given sample of pure U235 or Pu239, several fission neutrons are ejected from the point where the nuclear breakup took place. The average distance a fission neutron must travel through the material in order to run into another nucleus is about 10 cm so that if the size ofthe sample in question is less than that, most of the fission neutrons will cross the surface of the sample and fly away before they have a chance to cause another fission and produce more neutrons. Thus, no progressive chain reaction can develop if the sample of fissionable material is too small. Going to larger and larger samples, we find that more fission neutrons produced in the interior have a chance to produce another fission by colliding with a nucleus before they escape through the surface, and for samples of a very large size only a small fraction of the neutrons produced in them has a chance to reach the surface before collidi ng with one of the nuclei. The size ofthe sample of a given fissionable material for which the percentage of neutrons giving rise to subsequent fission processes is high enough to secure a progressive reaction is known as the critical size for that particular material. Since the number of neutrons per fission is larger in the case of plutonium than in the case of uranium-235, the critical size of plutonium samples is smaller than that of uranium-235 samples because the former can afford larger losses of neutrons through its surface.
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
не имело бы большого значения; зажечь костер, даже если дерево насквозь пропиталось водой; самоподдерживающаяся цепная реакция; выдержал суровое испытание; из-за наличия неактивного U23S; за ис ключением демонстрации чисто научного принципа; претерпели пос ледовательные преобразования; приводя к образованию элементов; за ставил гореть ценой огромных расходов; буквально была спущена в дре нажную трубу; ценой гораздо меньших усилий, чем требуется для...; может позволить большие потери
• Read the passage carefully again and supply answers to the following questions.
Give a summary of the passage using the scheme on p. 94.
Choose the correct form to fit into each sentence.
(collisions, collide, colliding)
1. Quite frequently the two types of atom will.... The energy given up by the electron injumpingtoa lower state goes into creating an additional photon with the same characteristics as the ... photon. For samples of a very large size only a small fraction of the neutrons produced in them has a chance to reach the surface before... with one of the nuclei. There are two kinds of... between the electrons and the atoms.
(the question, in question, question)
2. The substance ... contains traces of this element. One might... these results. Ifthe size of the sample ... is less than 10 cm, most ofthe fission neutrons will cross the surface and flyaway.... arises of how accurately these data present the results obtained.
• Translate the following word combinations.
original fission neutrons, nuclear chain reaction, single fission process, vertical cloud chamber, cosmic ray particle, wide energy spread, total energy liberation, thick material layer, critical size level, nuclear power production, ordinary steam turbine
• Translate into Russian, observe the use of "theformer, the latter".
CLASSWORK
READING (12B)
• Skim the passage as fast as possible and find answers to the following questions.
NUCLEAR REACTORS
A sample of fissionable material smaller than the "critical size" is unable to carry on a nuclear chain reaction. If the size of the sample is exactly critical, the number of neutrons produced in each generation is the same as that produced in the previous one, resulting in steady nuclear energy liberation. The original Fermi-pile and its later modifications maintain nuclear reactions at the critical size level. *It must be mentioned in this connection that the conditions of "criticality" are extremely unstable: a small deviation (отклонение) in one direction will result in the rapid extinction (уменьшение количества нейт ронов) of fission neutrons and the cut-off of the nuclear chain reaction, whereas a deviation in another direction will lead to a rapid multiplication ofthe fission neutrons and the melting (плавление) of the entire structure. Thus, the important problem in maintaining a steady chain reaction is that of regulating the rate of neutron production and of keeping the chain reaction from "dying out" or "running away". *This is achieved by using "controlrods" made from neutron-absording materials (such as boron) which arc automatically pushed in or pulled out from narrow channels drilled through the reacting fissionable material as soon as the rate of neutron production drops below or exceeds the desired level.
We have already mentioned that Fermi-piles were unsuitable for purposes of nuclear power production because ofthe high dilution of uranium by carbon; they should be considered rather as "alchemicalplants" in which plutonium is produced. For the purpose of nuclear power production, we use the controlled nuclearehain reactions in pure fissionable materials, such as U235 or Pu234, which can be run at quite high temperatures. In the so-called "swimming pool" reactor (реактор бассейнового типа) in which several cylindrical containers filled with pure fissionable material arc placed at the bottom of a large water tank, the water circulating through the tank carries away the heat produced in the fission process and also protects the observer from the deadly nuclear radiation. The color of the water turns blue as a result of the so-called Cherenkoffs radiation produced in water by high-energy electrons.
Explain how you understand the italicized words and phrases in the text.
Give an adequate translation of the sentences marked with an asterisk.
Give a summary of the passage in English or in Russian.
Give a free translation of the text.
У каждого элемента есть радиоактивные изотопы, которые либо существуют в природе, либо возбуждаются искусственно бомбарди ровкой устойчивых ядер такими частицами, как протоны, альфа-час тицы или нейтроны. Частица, однако, не будет поглощаться ядром мишени, если ее скорость не будет соответствовать (correspond with) одному из энергетических уровней (level) ядра. Тяжелые ядра, имею щие больше энергетических уровней, чем легкие, осуществляют зах ват частицы с большей вероятностью, и этот факт помогает объяснить значение урана, тория и других очень тяжелых атомов в ядерном ис следовании.
Так как нейтрон не заряжен, на него не влияют заряженные элект роны и протоны, и поэтому более вероятно, что он, а не другая части ца, будет захвачен. В случае захвата нейтрона массовое число ядра уве личится и ядро станет неустойчивым и радиоактивным. По мере того как излучение продолжается, уровень радиоактивности уменьшается экспоненциально, и время, которое требуется для того, чтобы он дос тиг половины своей первоначальной (исходной) величины, известно как период полураспада изотопа (half-life).
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
Light was assumed to leave a source as an indefinite number of particles travelling in straight lines.
Collisions between electrons and neutral molecules in solids appear to be frequent.
The new lasers were expected to work in principle at least at a very high efficiency in comparison with other lasers.
An intense beam of light is observed to emerge from the mirror ends of the crystal: the entire process is called light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (hence the acronym "laser").
Solid-state lasers already exist and although they have not had the spectral purity of gas lasers, this situation seems to be changing.
At first the concept of charge density in an atom seems to bear little resemblance to Bohr's picture of an electron orbiting the nucleus, but the two views are closely related.
2. Translate into English.
UNIT THIRTEEN
GRAMMAR: GERUND
• Sentences to be translated.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
according to prep. (syn. in accord with, in accordance with) — согласно, в соот ветствии с
account/?. — описание, отчет; учет, принятие во внимание take into account (syn. take into consideration) — учитывать, принимать во внимание
give account of — объяснять, описать, охарактеризовать
take account of — учитывать
of no account — не имеющий значения
onaccountof — из-за, вследствие, на основании, по случаю
on no account — ни в коем случае
on this account — но этой причине, из-за, ввиду этого
to account for — объяснять, быть причиной, относить за счет
101
READING (13A)
• Read the passage carefully and explain the phenomenon of "phase change". Say why this phenomenon is of interest to physicists.
THE WORLD IS MADE OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
According to contemporary physicists, the world is made of several types of objects, collectively referred to as subatomic particles. (These particles can also be thought of as manifestations of something yet more fundamental, known as quantum fields.) There may be as many as I О89 identical copies of some of these particles in the present universe. The forms of matter familiar to us, both living and nonliving, on the earth and in the heavens, are all composed of various combinations of only three types of subatomic particles — protons, neutrons, and electrons. Dozens of other types of particles can be produced momentarily in the laboratory, however, and arc thought to have existed in large numbers in the early universe.
All subatomic particles are defined by a few qualities that they may possess, such as mass, spin, and electric charge. Two particles arc of the same type, if all of these qualities agree. Otherwise, they arc considered to be different particles. Particles of the same type are, as far as we know, truly identical in these properties of mass, spin, and charge rather than just very similar. If all photons, the particles that make up light, were not identical, lasers would not operate.
The subatomic particles readily convert into one another when they collide. The kinetic energy of motion of light particles can be converted into the energy associated with mass (rest energy) of heavy particles. In many cases, even isolated particles can convert spontaneously into others, if the latter are less massive. In all such transformations, only a few properties, such as the total electric charge, remain unchanged. The subatomic particles do not act like the changeless building blocks imagined by some Greek philosophers. In the last few years, physicists have realized that even those subatomic particles which exist have changed radically over the lifetime ofthe universe. It appears that evolution takes place on all levels of matter, not just on the more complex levels of living things. The driving force behind this evolution is the expansion ofthe universe, which by changing the environment in which particles are found, changes the particles themselves. Only twenty years ago, the idea that the properties of subatomic particles might depend on their environment would have been considered heresy. Nevertheless, there is now considerable theoretical support for this conclusion.
Under the conditions in which physicists usually observe subatomic particles, their defining properties are not perceived to vary, giving these properties an illusion of stability. However, under the immense temperatures and densities that prevailed in the early stages of the universe, the properties, such as mass, of some particles would have been very different from what they are now. This situation is related by nature to the variability of a liquid such as water. Under a fairly wide range of temperatures water remains liquid and its properties do not change much whatever the temperature within this range. But if the water is subjected to much lower temperatures, oris heated to above 100° Celsius, its properties change abruptly. The liquid becomes a solid (ice) ora gas (water vapour). This type of change, in which the properties of a substance change drastically as a result of a small variation in its environmental conditions, is called a "phase change" by physicists.
The presumed change in the properties of subatomic particles at very high temperatures is also considered to be a phase change, one that involves the properties of space, as well as ofthe particles in it. In other words, the particles do not react directly to a temperature change but to some alteration in space, (he medium, in which they find themselves.
It is easy to boil or freeze water, but very difficult to duplicate in the lab the extreme conditions present at the birth ofthe universe. Yet physicists have become convinced of the theory that atomic particles, and space itself, went through momentous phase changes during and after the Big Bang. The rapid cooling that followed that primordial explosion is thought to have generated several phase changes. After an incredibly short time (perhaps a microsecond), the subatomic stuff of the young universe became stabilized, combining into the particles that make up matter today.
• Look through the passage carefully and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
известные под общим названием; действительно (истинно); иден тичные, а не просто схожие; фазовые превращения; энергия покоя; рассматривалась бы как ересь; огромные температуры; невероятно ко роткий период; субатомный материал
• For each word in A find in В its equivalent having roughly the same meaning.
A. 1. abrupt; 2. immense; 3. rapid; 4. incredible; 5. drastic; 6. to prevail;
7. to presume; 8. to perceive
B. a) quick; b) unlimited, immeasurable; c) very powerful; d) improbable,
impossible to believe; e) sudden and surprising; 0 to understand (see or
notice); g) to be most common or general; h) to suppose to be true
without proof
• Fill in the blanks with information taken from the text.
• Read the passage again and find answers to the following questions.
• Think and say a few words about:
CLASS WORK
READING (13B)
• The problem of the passage below is illustrated in a block-scheme. Look at it and say what you know about the problem. Then, read the passage and find the facts to prove or disprove your ideas.
The Universe
quarks/gluons
|
> |
field |
) |
|
< |
proton/neutron
PARTICLES AND FIELDS
The number of the particles of each type in the present universe is the result of a complicated history. Most ofthe particle types that were abundant in the early universe have long ago disappeared. We only observe them when they are produced briefly in laboratories, and then annihilate or decay. Because of this we are uncertain of how many particle types may exist.
In the present universe, quarks and electrons have properties that allow them to form the tightly bound clusters that we call nuclei and atoms. Photons and neutrinos cannot do this, and so exist much more diffusely throughout the universe.
Nevertheless, most of the universe we know is made of quarks and electrons, and the present picture we have of the world is largely an expression of the properties of these particles. Of the two, quarks have a greater tendency to cluster together. Indeed, this tendency is so pronounced that most physicists believe that quarks are never found in isolation, but only in combinations containing either three quarks or one quark and one antiquark. These are the combinations that make up most of the subatomic particles that we observe, such as protons and neutrons, the particles found in the nuclei of atoms.
The reasons why quarks insist on clustering in this way are not completely understood. There is a general theory, known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD) that attempts to describe how quarks behave. QCD involves the interactions of fields associated with quarks and fields associated with another type of particle called gluons (so named because they bind the quarks together). Most physicists believe that when the predictions of this theory are better understood, we will know why quarks cluster as they do.
Ever since the first microsecond after the origin of the universe, quarks have been bound together, in groups of three, into neutrons or protons. All of the other combinations of quarks or the other quark types, which also can bind together, are unstable under present conditions. That is, if they are produced, they change spontaneously into less massive particles, and eventually into some combination of the stable ones. Even neutrons are unstable when they are found in isolation — as when they arc produced in nuclear reactors — and decay into protons in a few minutes. The reason that neutrons exist at all in the present universe is that when given the chance they bind together into more complex and lasting objects. Neutrons can bind with protons into atomic nuclei, and with one another in immense numbers into neutron stars.
Electrons also bind with nuclei and with each other into the com binations that we know as atoms and molecules. This binding occurs through electric and magnetic forces, which are manifestations of the same quantum field whose particle aspect is the photon. The detailed properties of this field arc summarized in a theory known as quantum electrodynamics (QED), the most widely tested theory in quantum physics. No inaccuracies have been found in the theory, down to a level of error of less than one part in a billion.
Most physicists believe, on the basis of theoretical arguments, that even protons and bound neutrons are not really stable, and that over sufficiently long periods of time they decay into electrons or neutrinos. Such decays have not yet been observed, although experimental searches are underway. The time period over which this is thought to occur is 1031 years or more, so that few of the protons and neutrons produced in the early universe would have decayed yet in this way. However, by looking at matter containing thousands of tons of protons, a few proton decays should be seen in a year. According to this theory, ifthe universe continues to expand for another 1031 years or more, matter as we know it will have disappeared. The era in which the universe is dominated by the matter familiar to us will be very long by human and by galactic standards, but it may still be just an instant in the whole history ofthe universe.
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
современная вселенная; во всей вселенной; сложная история; из-за этого; плотно связанные; выражение свойств; тенденция столь ярко выражена; зарождение (возникновение) вселенной; они спонтанно превращаются в...; через достаточно долгий период времени; экспе риментальные исследования ведутся; всеголишь мгновение; стремят ся сгруппироваться
• Fill in the blanks with information from the text or from any other source.
The subatorhic particles existing in the universe diffusely are ... and ... .
• Choose the facts from the list below which you could consider as well-established by science. Give reasons for your choice.
• Think and say a few words about:
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
The Properties of Space
How is it possible for space to change, if space is conceived of as nothing at all? Actually, physicists no longer think of space in that way. Einstein, in his general theory of relativity, following up on the work ofthe nineteenth-century mathematicians Bernhard Riemann and William Clifford, asserted that the properties of any region of space depend considerably on the presence and form of matter nearby. For example, the space near the sun is distorted in its geometrical properties; it "curves" because ofthe star's great mass. A triangle drawn by intersecting light rays near the sun would not obey the rules of Euclidean geometry, its angles would not add up to 180 degrees. It is this distortion of space and a related change in the way time passes that earlier physicists identified as the force of gravity, and which in Einstein's theory leads to the motion of the planets in orbits around the sun.
2. Translate into English. Use the Gerund forms.
Part IV.
MODERN DISCOVERIES, THEORIES AND TECHNOLOGIES
UNIT FOURTEEN
GRAMMAR: МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ ONE
Модальные глаголы must, have, should, ought, may, can, might теряют ciioи оттенки значений и переводятся практически одинаково. Место имение one не переводится.
|
One must i |
One can |
можно |
|
|
One has to |
следует, нужно, |
One may |
|
|
One should |
необходимо |
One might |
можно было бы |
|
One ought |
One could |
• Complete the sentences.
• Translate the following sentences. Pay special attention to: • one as the subject of a sentence.
Model 1: One could expect the value to change.
Можно было бы ожидать, что эта величина изменится.
One often wonders how he could avoid these difficulties.
One should remember, however, that they are unavoidable.
One must think of another approach to solving the problem.
• one as a substitute for a previously mentioned noun.
Model 2: Have you developed any procedures? We need an effective one.
Вы разработали какие-то процедуры? Нам нужна эффек тивная (процедура).
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
gain п. - усиление, коэффициент усиления v. - получать
The loop gain is so much reduced that the high-frequency oscillation is unable to start.
READING (14A)
• Read the passage attentively and be prepared to discuss its plot according to the following outline:
SUPERCONDUCTORS
The Startling Breakthrough That Could Change Our World
That discovery, most scientists believe, could lead to incredible savings in energy: trains that speed across the countryside at hundreds of miles per hour on a cushion of magnetism, practical electric cars, powerful yet smaller computers and particle accelerators, safer reactors operating on nuclear fusion rather than fission and a host of other rewards still undreamed of.
Superconductivity is aptly named. It involves a remarkable transition that occurs in many metals when they arc cooled to temperatures within several degrees of absolute zero, or, as scientists prefer to designate it, 0 Kelvin. Absolute zero equivalent to —460°F or -273°C, represents a total absence of heat; it is the coldest temperature conceivable. As the metals approach this frigid limit, they suddenly lose all their electrical resistance and become superconductors. This enables them to carry currents without the loss of any energy and in some cases to generate immensely powerful magnetic fields. Scientists have recognized for years that the implications of this phenomenon could be enormous, but one stubborn obstacle has stood in their way: reaching and maintaining the temperatures necessary for superconductivity in these metals is difficult and in most instances prohibitively expensive.
From the time that a Dutch physicist Kamerlingh Onnes discovered superconductivity in 1911 until the recent rush of breakthroughs, there was only one way to produce the phenomenon: by bathing the appropriate metals — and later, certain metallic alloys — in liquid helium.
This exotic substance is produced by lowering the temperature of rare and costly helium gas to 4.2K (—452°F), at which point it liquefies. But the process is expensive and requires considerable energy. Furthermore, unless the liquid helium is tightly sealed in a heavily insulated container it quickly warms and vaporises away. Thus, the practical use of superconductors has been limited to a few devices — an experimental Japanese magnetically levitated train, a few giant particle accelerators and medicine's magneticresonancc imaging machines that operate with intense magnetic fields.
But in the last few years physicists have stumbled on unusual cases of ceramic compounds that change everything. They also must be cooled to become superconductors but only to a temperature of 98 К (—283°F) and that suddenly brings superconductivity into the range ofthe practical: liquid helium can be replaced as a coolant by liquid nitrogen, which makes the transition from a gas at the easily produced temperature of 77 К (—320°F). Moreover, liquid nitrogen is cheaper than milk and so longlasting that scientists carry it around in ordinary thermos bottles. Also, the ceramics may be able to generate even more intense magnetic fields than metallic superconductors.
Thus, if these new substances can be turned into practical devices — and most scientists believe they can — technology will be transformed.
• For each word in column 1 find its synonymous phrase or word in column 11.
Model: (in most) instances — in most cases
I
heavily (insulated) tightly (sealed) immensely (powerful fields) prohibitively (expensive) startling (breakthrough) incredible (savings) remarkable (transitions) (the coldest) conceivable
(temperature) frigid (limit) stubborn (obstacle)
II
that can be imagined
not easy to control or deal with
exclusively, forbiddingly
uncommon; of unusual quality
intensely cold
impossible to be believed
surprising
not leaky
severely immeasurably
• Match each word in column I with its antonymous phrase or word in column II.
I II
exotic cheap
rare very common
expensive easy to control or deal with
safe dangerous
stubborn usual or colourless
• Look through the passage and fill in the blanks with the proper information.
• Look through the passage and answer the following questions.
Why has superconductivity not become widely used in practice?
What laterdevelopmcnts have brought superconductivity into the range of practical use?
What properties make liquid nitrogen more attractive as a coolant than liquid helium?
What fields of superconductor application could you name?
CLASS WORK
READING (14B)
• Skim the passage carefully (3 min), define the main idea of the passage and give a headline to it.
In terms of the social impact superconductivity could well be the breakthrough of the 1980s in the sense that the transistor was the break through ofthe 1950s. Indeed, scientists hardly know where to start in describing the bonanza that superconductors could yield.
Take the transmission of electricity, for example. As much as 20% ofthe energy sent through high-tension lines is now lost in the form of heat generated as the current encounters resistance in the copper wire. If the electricity could be sent through superconducting cable, however, not a kilowatt-second of energy would be lost, thus saving the utilities, and presumably consumers, billions of dollars. Furthermore, at least in theory, all of a large city's electrical energy needs could be supplied through a handful of underground cables.
Elimination of heat caused by electrical resistance could have ^profound effect on the design and performance of computers. In their efforts to produce smaller and faster computers, designers try to cram more and more circuits into chips and ever more chips into a tiny space. But they are limited in their scaling down endeavors by heat: even the tiny currents in computer circuits generate enough cumulative heat to damage components if they are too tightly packed. Today's personal computers could not operate without vents or internal fans to dissipate the heat. Now, with practical superconducting circuitry on the horizon, computer designers may soon see the way clear for even more remarkable miniturization.
In still othcrapplications, the intense magnetic fields that might some day be generated by the new superconductors should benefit any device that now uses electromagnctism in its operation — medical diagnostic imaging machines, magnetically levitated trains, fusion-energy generators — and will undoubtedely spawn a host of new machines. Electric motors could increase in power and shrink in size.
Explain how you understand the italicized words in the passage.
Look through the passage again and choose all potential Fields of superconductor applications in practice.
Think and say a few words about the problem as a whole.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
High-temperature Superconductors
The new HTSCs arc mixed oxides that display the mechanical and physical properties of ceramics. A key to the behaviour of the new ..- 'crials appears to be the presence of planes containing copper (Cu) and • gen (O) atoms, chemically bonded to each other. The special nature of the copper-oxygen chemical bonding gives rise to materials that conduct electricity well in some directions in contrast to the majority of ceramics whic'i are electrically insulating.
The first class of high T(.' oxides discovered was based on the chemical alteration ofthe insulating ternary compound La2Cu04 by replacement of a small fraction ofthe element lanthanum (La) with the alkaline earths barium (Ba), strontium (Sr) or calcium (Ca). This substitution led to compounds with Tcs of up to 40 K. In these materials, an intimate relation between superconductivity and magnetic order is presently under intensive study and has inspired one of the many classes of theories that attempt to explain HT Superconductivity.
2. Translate into English.
Tt.s — critical temperatures
UNIT FIFTEEN
GRAMMAR: REVISION
• Provide answers to the following questions. Use the words in brackets. Follow the model.
Model: What problems do they discuss? (A highly important...)
A highly important problem has just been discussed by them.
• Translate into English using the Passive Voice. Follow the model.
Model: Многие насущные (pressing) задачи нашего времени решают ся в этом институте.
Many ofthe pressing problems of our days are solved at this college.
В нашем институте постоянно решаются жизненно важные (vital) проблемы. Выдвигаются интересные гипотезы. Рассматриваются раз личные пути исследования. Конструируются высокочувствительные (highly sensitive) приборы. Развиваются новые методы исследования. Изобретаются жизненно необходимые материалы.
115
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
followv. — следовать за; следовать чему-то, придерживаться чего-то
followed by — за которым следует
as follows — следующим образом
be as follows — заключаться в следующем
it follows that — из этого следует, что; следовательно
in what follows — ниже, в дальнейшем (syn. in the following)
following adj. — следующий
prp. — следуя, вслед за, после; согласно, в соответствии с in the following way — следующим образом (syn. in such a manner, in this fashion, in this way)
• Sentences to be translated.
READING (15A)
• Read the passage carefully and find facts to prove or disprove the idea that scientists are close to comprehensive understanding of the superconductivity mechanism.
STATUS OF THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDING
While scientists know the chemical composition of the new class of superconductors, they are less certain about how they work. True, a theory exists that explains low-temperature superconductivity. It is known as BCS from the initials ofthe authors John Bardeen and his colleagues Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer, who shared the 1972 Nobel Prize for physics for their effort.
In the microscopic theory of Bardccn-Coopcr-Schrieffer, the presence of a net attractive interaction between conduction electrons, which would normally repel each other because of their like electrical charges, is essential to the occurance of superconductivity. 1 n conventional superconductors this attraction originates in the dynamical motion ofthe crystal lattice which leads to unattractive "electron-photon-electron" interaction. But the recent appearance of superconductivity in a class of matcrialsquite different from the conventional superconductors, and with extremely high transition temperatures as well, has led physicists to explore a very wide spectrum of possible new pairing mechanisms involving, for example, spin fluctuations, acoustic plasmons and excitonic processes.
The principle origin ofthe pairing "glue" remains an open and to some extent crucial question. There is a wide range of theoretical possibilities, and the ultimate explanation may involve a combination of mechanisms. Indeed, some theorists have discarded conventional BCS-theory and have suggested that there may not even be the traditional close relationship between energy gaps and basic superconducting properties. It may take a considerable effort to fully unravel the secrets of these compounds. Typical ofthe questions currently underactive consideration are the role played by oxygen, the nature and scope of dynamical mechanisms and resulting electron pairing, whether this coupling is weak or strong, and whether the anisotropic nature of the materials is a truly important feature. The appearance of superconducting coherence lengths one or two orders of magnitude smaller than those previously encountered, the very low carrier concentrations, and the apparent importance of both copper and oxygen will probably require a considerable extension of our current understanding of superconductivity. The fact that the superconducting interaction mechanism in the new materials is likely to be very different certainly enhances the prospect that other high-tempcrature superconducting materials (HTSC) may be discovered.
• Look through the passage again and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
химический состав; менее уверены; суммарное взаимодействие при тяжения; сходные заряды; существенно важнодля возникновения; при тяжение зарождается; механизм образования пар; вопрос остается от крытым и до некоторой степени критическим; окончательное объясне ние; "развенчали" общепринятую теорию; энергетические зоны; пол ностью раскрыть секреты; усиливать перспективу того, что ...; значи тельное расширение нашего современного представления
• Answer the following questions.
Has the understanding of the superconductivity mechanisms become clearer?
What is the mechanism of superconductivity according to the con ventional BCS-theory?
What factors are not clear to scientists in modern class superconductors?
What do they mean by modern-class superconductors?
• Think and say a few words about:
CLASSWORK
READING (15B)
• Skim the passage (4 min), explain the title and answer the questions posed in the text.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY KEEPS SCIENTISTS ON THE BOIL
In 1986, two researchers at IBM in Zurich, Switzerland, made what seemed a momentous discovery. An unusual kind of "pottery" (керамика) made from oxides of lanthanum, strontium and copper could conduct electricity without resistance at 30 degrees above absolute zero. In other words, the ceramic material was superconducting at 30 K. This temperature does not sound very high, but until then, physicists had seen superconductivity at temperatures only below 24 K. In fact, most physicists thought that superconductivity could not exist above 35 K.
So, the two researchers, Georg Bednorz and Alex Miiller, were working in afield in which most people had given up hope of finding anything exciting. They even had to disguise their work from their supervisor in order to be able to do it. After Bednorz and Miiller announced their results, researchers around the world quickly confirmed the discovery. Within a few months, Paul Chu and his associates at the universities of Texas and Alabama found a new class of ceramics, made from oxides of yttrium, barium, copper and oxygen oxides, that became superconducting at an even higher temperature, 93 K. And that is when the excitement really began. It looked as though materials that were superconducting at room temperature were just around the corner, and the door was about to open on a golden era of physics, chemistry and technology.
The programme forthe 1987 meeting of the American Physical Society in New York City had gone to bed in December before the discovery was widely known, so it contained nothing about high-temperature super conductivity. But the organisers ofthe meeting obligingly arranged for a special evening session on the topic just in case anyone had anything to contribute. Four thousand people attended. The session began at seven o'clock in the evening and finally broke up at six o'clock the following morning. The front page story of The New York Times called it the "Woodstock for physicists".
The press heralded the high-temperature superconductors as the greatest discovery since the invention ofthe transistor. Pundits postulated that the materials would have far-reaching applications in power transmission, transport, energy storage and electronics.
The economics of high-temperature superconductivity was set to change society. Why? Because although the lower temperature superconductors were already being used in specialized areas of science, they required liquid helium to keep them cool enough to remain superconducting. Cooling helium gas to below its boiling point of 4 К was expensive. The new superconducting oxides required only liquid nitrogen, which boils at 77 К to keep them working. It is much cheaper.
Researchers also hoped that they would soon discover materials that were superconducting at room temperature. This would change the way we use energy and also speed up communications. A new technology would alter many aspects of our life.
Virtually every major university, electronic and chemical company started research programs to examine the new compounds. Most technologically advanced countries started national initiatives. No country wished to be left behind in the race to exploit these new wonder materials.
So, what has happened in the past years since then? Will these new superconducting materials fulfil their early promise?
Or has the euphoria of an unexpected and remarkable discovery clouded the judgement of scientists, businessmen and politicians alike?
(New Scientist, London, 15 July 1989)
Explain how you understand the italicized words in the passage,
Answer the questions posed in the text.
• Match each word in column I with the one which means the opposite from column II.
II
attract, occurrence, different, enhance,
presence, conduction, extremely, ultimate, initial, the same, repel, unimportant, disappearance, absence, weaken, slightly, insulation
crucial
• Choose the proper word and complete the sentences.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
In 1987, each new report of achieving superconductivity at a higher temperature was received with excitement by the physics community. By summer, claimed records were approaching room temperatures, but en thusiasm was cooling. In December, signs of superconductivity above the boiling point of water (373 K) were reported. However, most observers were sceptical about this claim, reflecting growing doubts that the existence of superconductivity above 100 К has been proved.
During the second half of the year, about 20 research groups reported evidence for superconductivity above 100 K. However, at the Boston meeting, Paul Chu, the researcher from the University of Houston, who made the first superconductor at 90 K, said higher-temperature observations were "unstable superconducting anomalies", rather than convincing results. He stressed that reports of high-temperature superconductivity should meet four criteria:
zero resistance; demonstration of the Mcissner effect (the exclusion of magnetic fields from a superconductor); stability; and reproducibility. Although he said that there was "no clear evidence to exclude" the possibility of superconductivity well above 100 K, Chu believes that the highest reported temperatures for superconductivity which meet all four criteria are in the 90 to 100 К range.
2. Translate into English.
Высокотемпературная сверхпроводимость
Недавнее открытие (1986) сверхпроводимости при температурах до 95 К является одним из наиболее важных научных событий после дующего десятилетия. Вероятно, наиболее примечательной особен ностью этого открытия является то, что оно было совершенно нео жиданным.
Сверхпроводимость была открыта голландским (Dutch) ученым Камерлингом Оннесом (Kamerlingh Onnes) в 1911 году. Он обнару жил, что сопротивление замороженной ртути внезапно исчезало при 4,2 К (—269 градусов Цельсия), т.е. при температуре, которую можно получить (accessible) только погружением (immersion) в жидкий ге лий. В 1913 году Оннес также обнаружил, что слабые магнитные поля разрушали этот эффект, и металл возвращался к своему обычному резистивному состоянию. Впоследствии было найдено, что другие металлы, такие, как олово (tin) и свинец (lead) являются сверхпро водниками при таких же низких температурах. Люди сразу же начали придумывать, как применить сверхпроводники (to invent applications for...), например, для уменьшения потерь на линиях электропередач (electric power systems).
UNIT SIXTEEN
GRAMMAR: THE COMPLEX OBJECT WITH THE INFINITIVE
Subject +
Predicate
believe
expect
consider
assume,
etc.
sec hear observe feel, etc.
|
noun |
pronoun |
|
(me, him. |
|
|
her, it, you, |
|
|
us, them) |
a. Infinitive with/o
b. Infinitive without to
a. We expect the investigation to be completed soon.
Мы ожидаем, что исследование будет скоро закончено.
b. 1 heard them discuss this problem.
Я слышал, что они обсуждали этот вопрос.
noun
make
+
Inf. without to
cause J pronoun Inf. with/o This force makes electrons move
— заставлять
122
causes to move.
Эта сила заставляет электроны двигаться.
2. allow i
permit + + Infinitive - позволять,
enable J Pronoun давать возможность
This method enables more Этот метод дает возможность сделать
accurate calculations более точные вычисления,
to be made.
• Sentences to be translated.
One might expect the structure of the world to be explained with a minimum number of particles and forces.
For-phrase
for + + Infinitive
pronoun
For the data to be received you Для того чтобы получить эту ин-
are to carry out numerous формацию, вы должны провести
experiments. многочисленные опыты.
• Sentences to be completed.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
A + -ty=N conductive + -ty = conductivity
• Think of the adjectives corresponding to the following nouns and translate them into Russian.
mobility, possibility, regularity, activity, continuity, probability, density, majority, resistivity, impurity
READING (16A)
• Study the schematic representation of the passage given below, then read the passage and be prepared to summarize the problem using this scheme.
conductors ► metals ► free electrons
i
Y
semiconductors ► silicon (Si) nonconductive
i /
I (4-valencc)
insulators ^conductive
I
doped with impurities
n-type < arsenic (As) boron (B) ► p-type
(5-valence) (3-valence) |
(acceptor-type)
(donor-type) ► crystal rectifiers < conduction
conduction |
p-n-junction device
SEMICONDUCTORS
Some materials cannot be classified as either insulators orgood conductors as thermal agitation ofthe atoms can knock loos*eonl/y a few electrons and permit tne material Dc slightly conductive. Such materials arc known as semiconductors. A small amount of the proper kind of impurity in the crystalline structure of a semiconductor may, however, make it enormously more conductive. A pure silicon crystal in which each atom of silicon has a chemical
valence 4, is connected with four of its neighbors by four electron bonds. This situation arises when one atom of silicon is replaced by an atom of arsenic (As) which has a valence of 5.
The impurities in the crystalline structure of a semiconductor make the semiconductor very conductive.
The four valence electrons ofthe As atom form connections (bonds) with the four neighboring Si atoms, while the fifth "black sheep" electron is left unemployed and free to travel from place to place. The impurity atoms that give rise to free electrons in this way arc known as donors. A reverse situation! occurs when the Si atom is replaced by a trivalent atom of boron (B). In this case there will be a vacant place, or an electron hole, that breaks up the spotless regularity ofthe silicon crystal rattice. The impurity atoms that give rise to such "holes" arc known as acceptors. A hole formed near a foreign atom present in the lattice may be filled up by an electron originally belonging to one of the neighboring silicon atoms, but in filling this hole the electron will leave a hole at the place where it was originally located.
If this hole is filled by another neighboring electron, a new hole will move one step farther out.
|
m |
ш |
m |
i |
i |
|
Ш |
-4 |
ш |
||
|
Щ |
i |
i |
m |
4 |
|
m |
i |
m |
m |
§ |
Thus, we can visualize the hole of that type as an "object" that is moving through the crystal, carrying a deficiency of negative charge, or, what is the same, a positive electric charge. Semiconductors that contain donor atoms and free electrons are known as n-type semiconductors, while those with acceptor atoms and holes are called p-type semiconductors (n and p stand for a negative and positive charge of electric carriers). The electrical conductivity of n-type semiconductors is determined by the number of free electrons per unit valence and the case with which they move through the crystal lattice, while in the case of p-type semiconductors it depends on the number and mobility of the holes.
Crystal Rectifiers
Suppose now that we put into contact two crystals: an n-type crystal containing free electrons and a p-typc crystal containing electron holes. Some of the electrons from the n-region will diffuse into the p-rcgion while some holes from this region will diffuse into the n-rcgion. Thus the n-type crystal will become slightly positively charged while the p-type crystal will carry an equal negative charge. Between these opposite charges on both sides of the interface (known as an "n-p-junction") there will be an electric force of attraction which will prevent further diffusion, and the situation will be stabilized with a certain number of holes in the n-type crystal and an equal number of electrons in the p-type crystal. It must be remembered, however, that when free electrons and electron holes exist side by side in a given material, they can be mutually "annihilated" by a free electron filling a hole. In order to compensate for the losses due to this annihilation process, a small number of electrons and holes will continue to diffuse in opposite directions through the n-p-junction.
Let us sec what happens now if we apply an electric voitage at the two ends of our crystal pair. If the positive pole of a bauery is connected with the p-type crystal and the negative pole with the n-type crystal, there will be a force driving the holes to the right and the electrons to the left, and an electric current will begin to flow through the system. Since both crystals arc now being invaded by holes and electrons crossing the border, the rate of mutual annihilation on both sides of the n-p-junction will increase considerably, and more holes and electrons will have to be produced on both sides. These new electrons for the n-type crystal will be supplied by electrons pouring through the wire from the negative pole of the battery, while new holes will be produced by electrons leaving the p-typc crystal on their way to the positive pole ofthe battery.
If, on the other hand, we reverse the direction ofthe electric potential the situation will be quite different. Now thcjelectrons and the holes will be pulled in opposite directions, leavinga"no-man's land" at the n-p-junction. It is clear that under these conditions no current can flow through our double crystal. Thus wc see that our device will conduct electric current in one direction but not in the opposite one. This property of one-way electric conductivity of n-p-junctions permits us to use pairs of n-type and p-t^pe crystals for rectifying alternating current instead of the more complicated electronic tubes.
• Find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
тепловое движение атомов; может освободить несколько электро нов; небольшое количество определенной примеси; для простоты; ос тается незанятым; обратное происходит; нарушает безупречную пра вильность; определяется той легкостью, с. которой они перемешаются; привести в соприкосновение; граница раздела; п-рлертход; будет пре пятствовать дальнейшему рассеянию; приложить электрическое поле; оставляя никому не ггринадлежащую территорию; однонаправленная проводимость; кристаллическая решетка
• Read the passage carefully and supply answers for the following questions.
CLASSWORK
READING (I6B)
• Read the passage in two minutes. Choose sentences supporting the ideas.
TRANSISTORS
We can use a combination of n- and p-type crystals to carry out the functions of a triode tube. Such an arrangement is known as a transistor. It consists of a p-type crystal placed between two n-type crystals. If wc apply to the middle and to the right crystal an electric voltage from a battery no current will flow through the system. Things will change, however, if a small electric voltage from the battery is applied to the central and to the left crystal. In this case current will start to flow through the n-p-junction on the left. However, many electrons entering into the p-type crystal will continue across it and enter the n-type crystal on the right, thus permitting a current from the battery to flow through the right n-p-junction. The situation is quite similar to that existing in a triodc tube, and the crystal on the left plays the role ofthe filament, while the middle crystal and the crystal on the right play the role of grid and plate. The principal advantage of transistors over vacuum tubes lies in the fact that the controlled flow of electrons takes place entirely within solid material. Thus it is not necessary to use a large amount of power to keep a filament red-hot to eject electrons into space. This, in addition to thcirsimplicity, reliability and small size, is rapidly causing transistors to take the place of the old-fashioned vacuum tubes in many fields of electronics.
• Give a free translation of the text.
Один из способов классификации твердых тел — это классификация их по их электрическим свойствам. Во-первых, проводники и изолято ры различаются своей электропроводностью. В частности, проводники имеют проводимость от 104 до 10Аом 'см1, в то время как изоляторы характеризуются проводимостмми менее чем 10"6ом"'см"'. Во-вторых, проводимость проводника уменьшается при увеличении температуры, в то время как проводимость изолятора лишь слегка изменяется с уве личением температуры.
Кроме проводников и изоляторов, существует класс твердых тел с промежуточными значениями электропроводимости (106до 103ом" 'см-1), проводимость которых увеличивается (сильнее, чем у изолято ров) с увеличением температуры. Такие твердые тела, которые похожи на изоляторы только при температурах около абсолютного нуля, на зываются полупроводниками. Одно заметное (marked) различие меж ду проводником и полупроводником связано со степенью (degree) чи стоты кристалла. Проводимость хорошего проводника увеличивается при очистке, например при устранении (elimination) примесей из кри сталла, тогда как проводимость полупроводника при очистке обычно уменьшается.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
It is possible, however, for the two electrons to occupy the same region if they are an antiparallel pair.
Light striking one side of the photocathode causes photoelectron to be ejected from the otherside into the vacuum.
Judging by this trend we can expect the laser to play an important role in the communication systems ofthe future.
In solids molecules have fixed lattice sites but their thermal motion causes them to vibrate around these equilibrium positions.
For such forces to be effective, matter must be compressed until it approaches the density of matter within an atomic nucleus.
It is also possible for the annihilation of an electron-positron pair to give rise to hadron.
2. Translate into English. Use the Complex Object and the for + Infinitive phrase.
UNIT SEVENTEEN
GRAMMAR: THE INFINITIVE
• Translate the following sentences into Russian. Pay special attention to the construction the Complex Subject with the Infinitive. Follow the model.
Model: A yawning ozone hole is reported to have been identified over the Antarctic.
Сообщают, что нал Антарктикой обнаружена зияющая озон ная дыра.
• Agree with the speaker's idea. Use the Complex Subject with the Infinitive. Follow the model.
Model: It is known that the ozone layer acts as a filter. Yes, the ozone layer is known to act this way.
130
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
• Pay attention to the prefixes. Guess the meaning of the following words:
trans- = across — transmit, transform, transduce, translate, transfer, transplant
mis- = wrong —misunderstand, miscalculate, mislead, mispronounce, misbehave, misinform
со- = together with — cooperate, coordinate, coincidence, coaxial, coworker
semi- = half — semiconductor, semicircle, semisphere, semifinal, semiofficial
READING (17A)
• Read the passage below and classify the symmetries described in it.
SYMMETRIES
Symmetries and apparent symmetries in the laws of nature have played a part in the construction of physical theories since the time of Galileo and Newton. The most familiar symmetries are spatial or geometric ones. In a snowflake, for example, the presence of a symmetrical pattern can be detected at a glance. The symmetry can be defined as an invariance in the pattern that is observed when some transformation is applied to it. In the case ofthe snowflake the transformation is a rotation by 60 degrees, or one-sixth of a circle. If the initial position is noted and the snowflake is then turned by 60 degrees (or by any integer multiple of 60 degrees), no change will be perceived. The snowflake is invariant with respect to 60-degree rotations. According to the same principle a square is invariant with respect to 90-degrce rotations and a circle is said to have continuous symmetry because rotation by any angle leaves it unchanged.
Although the concept of symmetry had its origin in geometry, it is general enough to embrace invariance with respect to transformations ofother kinds. An example of a nongeometric symmetry is the charge symmetry of electromagnetism. Suppose a number of electrically charged particles have been set out in some definite configuration and all the forces acting between pairs of particles have been measured. If the polarity ofall the charges is then reversed, the forces remain unchanged.
Another symmetry ofthe nongeometric kind concerns isotopic spin, a property of protons and ofthe many related particles called hadrons, which are the only particles responsive to the strong force. The basis of the symmetry lies in the observation that the proton and the neutron are remarkably similar particles. They differ in mass by only about a tenth of a per cent, and except for their electric charge they arc identical in all other properties. It therefore seems that all protons and neutrons could be interchanged and the strong interactions would hardly be altered. If the electromagnetic forces (which depend on electric charge) could somehow be turned off, the isotopic-spin symmetry would be exact; in reality it is only approximate.
Although the proton and the neutron seem to be distinct particles and it is hard to imagine a state of matter intermediate between them, it turns out that symmetry with respect to isotopic spin is a continuous symmetry, like the symmetry of a sphere rather than like that of a snowflake.
All the symmetries wc discussed so far can be characterized as global symmetries; in this context the word global means "happening everywhere at once". In the description of isotopic-spin symmetry this constraint was made explicit: the internal rotation that transforms protons into neutrons and neutrons into protons is to be carried out everywhere in the universe at the same time. In addition to global symmetries, which arc almost always present in a physical theory, it is possible to have a "local" symmetry, in which the convention can be decided independently at every point in space and every moment in time. Although "local" may suggest something of more modest scope than a global symmetry, in fact the requirement of local symmetry places a far more stringent constraint on the construction of a theory. A global symmetry states that some law of physics remains invariant when the same transformation is applied everywhere at once. For a local symmetry to be observed the law of physics must retain its validity even when a different transformation takes place at each point in space and time.
• Re-read the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian terms.
симметрия — явная/пространственная/(не)геометрическая/в миро вом масштабе/локальная/нспрерывная/сп ии-изотопная/зарядная
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
с первого взгляда; удивительно схожие частицы; вряд ли бы измени лись; по-видимому, разные частицы; повсюду; одновременно; можно принять условие; намного более сильное ограничение; сохранить свое значение
• Answer the following questions.
CLASSWORK
READING (17B)
• Read the article by Graham P. Collins from May 2001 and make an appropriate comment on the discovery made. What does the author mean by the title? What dog and what trick docs he mean?
NEW TRICK FROM OLD DOG
A Magnesium Compound Is a Startling Superconductor by Graham P. Collins
You can buy magnesium boride ready-made from chemical suppliers as a black powder. The compound has been known since 1950s and has typically been used as a reagent in chemical reactions. But until this year (2001) no one knew that at 39 degrees above absolute zero it conducts electric current perfectly — it is a superconductor. Although its superconducting temperature is far below that ofthe copper oxide high-temperature superconductors, the compound has set off a flurry of excited activity among researchers. Mag nesium boride overturned theorists' expectations and promises technological applications.
Jun Akimitsu of Tokyo University anounced the surprising discovery at a conference in Japan on January 10, after he and his workers stumbled on magnesium boride's properties while trying to make more complicated materials involving magnesium and boron.
Word ofthe discovery spread around the world by e-mail and in three weeks the first research papers by othergroups were posted on the Internet.
In early March, a special session on magnesium boride was hastily put together in Seattle at the American Physical Society's largest annual con ference: from 8 p.m. until long after midnight, nearly 80 researchers presented ultrabrief summaries on their results.
Until January, standard wisdom ruled out the possibility of a conventional Superconductor operating above about 30 kelvins. Conventional super conductors are understood by the so-called BCS theory, formulated in 1957. The magnesium boride result seemed to imply that either a new superconducting mechanism had been discovered or that the BCS theory needed to be revised.
Almost all the experimental evidence so far supports the idea that magnesium boride is a standard BCS superconductor, unlike the copper oxides. For example, when researchers use the isotope boron 10 in place of boron 11, the material critical temperature rises slightly, as expected, because the lighter isotope alters vibrations ofthe material's lattice of atoms, a key component of BCS theory. How, then, has the magic 30 kelvins been exceeded?
Perhaps, those predictions were premature. Magnesium boride has a combination of low-mass atoms and favourable electron states, that was overlooked as a possibility.
Physicists are trying to push the BCS' limit even further to produce higher critical temperatures by doping the material with carefully selected impurities. Groups have added aluminium or carbon (neighbours of boron in the periodic table), but these both decrease the critical temperature. Calcium is expected to work better, but no one has succeeded in producing calcium-doped magnesium boride.
Even undoped, magnesium boride has several attractive features for applications. First, the higher operating temperature would allow cooling ofthe superconductor by refrigeration instead of by expensive liquid helium, as is needed for the most widely used superconductors.
The high-temperature copper oxide superconductors beat magnesium boride hands-down on that count but they have proved difficult to manufacture into convenient wires. Also, the supcrcurrent does not flow well across the boundaries of microscopic grains in copper oxides.
Magnesium boride, in contrast, has already been fashioned into wires using simple techniques, and the supercurrent flows effortlessly between grains. One drawback, however, is that magnesium boride loses its super conductivity in relatively weak magnetic fields, fields that are inescapable in applications. But with the progress seen already in a scant few months, researchers are confident they can overcome such problems.
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian. Pay special attention to the word one in different meanings.
1. We could offer you a number of challenging problems, but this one seems to be the most attractive.
8. No one has yet presented it in all its complexity.
2. Translate into English.
Зеркальная (mirror/reflection) симметрия является первым случа ем геометрического понятия симметрии, относящейся к таким опера циям, как отражение или вращение. Симметрия является той идеей, посредством которой человек на протяжении веков пытался понять и создать порядок, красоту и совершенство (perfection). Первые (early) ученые считали окружность на плоскости и сферу в пространстве наи более совершенными геометрическими фигурами.
Что можно назвать математической философией левого и правого? Сточки зрения научного мышления, между левым и правым не суще ствует полярной противоположности. Пространство изучается геомет рией. Но пространство также служит средой всех физических явле ний. Структура физического мира проявляется (reveal) во всеобщих законах природы. Во всей физике нет ничего, что указывало бы на внутреннее различие между левым и правым. Левое и правое эквива лентны так же, как все точки и все направления в пространстве.
UNIT EIGHTEEN
GRAMMAR: ГЛАГОЛ WOULD
Would Глагол обозначает волеизъявление, желание, склонность к выполнению действия. Чаще употребляется в отрицательной форме, означая упорное нежелание совершить действие. Относительно неодушевленных предметов или явлений означает неспособность предмета выполнитьдействие,для которого он предназначен, или недостаточность условий для реализации явления.
Would not We did everything to persuade him but he would not change (Никак) не the procedure of his experiment.
Мыделали все, чтобы убедить его, ноон(никак) не хотел изменить процедуру эксперимента.
Would
1) a) Future in the Past
He wrote he would return in a week. Он писал, что вернется через неделю.
b) The Subjunctive Mood
It would be extremely interesting to attend this conference. Было бы очень интересно присутствовать на этой конферен ция.
2) a) We tried to open the door but it wouldn't.
Мы пытались открыть дверь, но она никак не открывалась.
Ь) вежливая просьба
Would you give me your English textbook?
He дадите ли мне ваш учебник по английскому языку?
136
3) would = used to — бывало, обычно, имел обыкновение
Не would work (used to work) in his lab for ten hours.
Он имел обыкновение работать всвоей лаборатории по 10 часов.
Note: В научно-технической литературе would в этом значении на рус ский язык не переводится.
Sometimes the device would fail. Иногда прибор ломался.
• Sentences to be translated.
They tried to raise the temperature but it wouldn't.
The device was tested several times and it would always prove correct.
There would be no progress in science without observations.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
anypron. — любой, всякий (утверд. предложение)
any kind — всякого рода
in any case (event) - в любом случае
any longer - больше не (syn. any more, no longer, no more)
hardly any — почти ничего
if any - если вообще (таковые имеются), если только
• Sentences to be translated.
4. Гп any event one should bear in mind that the information obtained may be misleading as to the course ofthe reaction.
READING (18A)
• Read the passage below and find the answer for the following question:
Which symmetries, global or local, hold the greatest interest for physicists today and why?
GAUGE THEORIES1
An understanding of how the world is put together requires a theory of how the elementary particles of matter interact with one another. Equrvalently. it requires a theory of the basic forces-of nature. Four such forces have been identified, and until recently a different kind of theory was needed for each of them. Two ofthe forces, gravitation and elcctromagnetism, have an unlimited range; largely for this reason they arc familiar to everyone. They can be felt directly as agencies that push or pull. The remaining forces, which are called simply the weak force and the strongforce, cannot be perceived directly because their influence extends only over a short range, no larger than the radius of an atomic nucleus. The strong force binds together the protons and the neutrons in the nucleus, and in another context it binds together the particles called quarks that are thought to be the constituents of protons and neutrons. The weak force is mainly responsible forthe decay of certain particles.
A long-standing ambition of physicists has been to construct a single master theory that would incorporate all the known forces. One imagines that such a theory would reveal some deep connection between the various forces while accounting for their apparent diversity. Such a unification has not yet been attained, but in recent years some progress may have been made. The weak force and elcctromagnetism can now be understood in the context of a single theory. Although the two forces remain distinct, in the theory they become mathematically intertwined. What may ultimately prove more important, all four forces are now described by means of theories that have the same general form. Thus if physicists have yet to find a single key that fits all the known locks, at least all the needed keys can be cut from the same blank. The theories in this single favored class are formally designated non-Abelian gauge theories with local symmetry. What is meant by this forbidding label is the main topic of this article. For now, it will suffice to note that the theories relate the properties ofthe forces to symmetries of nature.
Gauge theories — градиентные полевые теории, или калибровочные теории поля
• Look through the passage and And English equivalents for the following Russian terms and phrases:
как построен мир; до недавнего времени; не больше чем; в основ ном, отвечая зд ...; единым ключ, который подходит ко всем замкам; достаточно заметить; согласно тому же принципу; основные силы при роды; слабые/сильные взаимодействия
• Answer some more questions about the passage.
• Study the block-scheme below and try to discuss or summarize the problem as a whole.
Forces
weak
strong
intertwined
radioactive beta decay
pull/push
proton/neutron binding
CLASS WORK
READING (18B)
• Study the table given below. Read the passage and be prepared to discuss the problem using this table.
|
THE FORCES IN NATURE |
|||
|
TYPE |
INTENSITY OF FORCES (Decreasing order) |
BINDING PARTICLE (Field quantum) |
OCCURS IN |
|
STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE |
~ 1 |
GLUONS (no mass) |
ATOMIC NUCLEUS |
|
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE |
- io-3 |
PHOTON (no mass) |
ATOMIC SHELL APPL1C. OF ELECTRICITY |
|
WEAK NUCLEAR FORCE |
~io-5 |
BOSONS Z°, W\ W(hcavy) |
RADIOACTIVE BETA DECAY |
|
GRAVITATION |
~io-38 |
GRAVITON? |
H EAVEN LY BODIES |
THE EXCHANGE OF PARTICLES IS RESPONSIBLE FORTHE FORCES
THE FOUR FORCES OF NATURE
One of the major achievements of modern physics has been the development over the past 20 years or so of a new class of grand unified theories to describe the forces acting between elementary particles.
There arc four different ways in which the various particles that make up the Universe can interact with one another. Each of these is a particular variety of interaction, or to use a more old-fashioned but more common term, a force (the forces are nuclear, electromagnetic, weak, gravitational). Of the four forces, two — the nuclear force and the weak force — make themselves felt only at incredibly tiny distances of 1013 centimeters or less. This is just about the width of the tiny nucleus that exists at the very center of the atom. It is only within the nucleus, in the immediate neighbourhood of isolated particles, that these forces exist. For this reason the term nuclear force is sometimes given to both, and they are differentiated by their relative strength into the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force. The weak force is responsible for such processes as the beta decay of a radioactive atomic nucleus; the strong nuclear force holds the nucleus together. The electromagnetic force governs the interaction of electrically charged particles; and gravity holds the Universe together.
Until the theories were introduced the four observable forces of nature seemed to be independent of one another. Two of these forces, the elec tromagnetic force and the weak nuclear force, arc already linked by the highly successful electrowcak theory, which treats them as different manifestations of a single underlying force. According to the prevailing view ofthe interactions of elementary particles, the force is transmitted between two particles by the exchange of a third, intermediary particle.
Such a description is the essence of a quantum field theory. In elec tromagnetic and weak interactions the exchanged particle is a member ofthe family called the vector bosons, named after the Indian physicist S.N. Bose. This term refers to a classification of particles according to one of their most basic properties: spin angular momentum. A boson is a particle whose spin, when measured in fundamental units, is an integer such asO, 1 or 2. "Vector" designates a boson whose spin value is equal to 1.
In the case ofelectromagnetism the exchanged vector boson is the photon, the massless and chargeless "wave packet" of electromagnetic energy that functions as the quantum ofthe electromagnetic field. The other two forces — gravity and st rong nuclear force — are thought to be transmitted by intermediary particles, namely the graviton and the eight particles called gluons.
The unified eleotroweak theory is the theory that predicts the existence of the three massive particles called intermediate vector bosons (also known as weakens; "intermediate" simply because of their mediating role between particles). The electroweak theory, which can now be considered the "standard" account of electromagnetic and weak interactions, for the first time made specific and testable predictions about the properties of intermediate vector bosons, including their mass. The goal of attempts to create a grand unified theory is to arrive at a more comprehensive mathematical structure that would incorporate both the electroweak force and the strong nuclear force (omitting only gravity, the fourth known force).
Scientific American, August, 1982
• Find equivalents for the following phrases.
лают о себе знать; различные проявления одной, лежащей в их осно ве силы; в соответствии с общепринятым мнением; целое число; обыч ное объяснение электромагнитных...; слабое взаимодействие; сильное взаимодействие; теория великого объединения; ...в непосредственной бл изости...
• Re-read the passage and answer the questions.
What does the term "nuclear force" imply?
What is the weak force responsible for?
What is the strong force responsible for?
What forces are linked by means of the electroweak theory?
What is the exchange particle in the electroweak force?
How many bosons does the unified electroweak theory predict?
What is the goal of creating a grand unified theory?
• Match each word in column I with its synonym in column II.
I
apparent, to attain, to come about, to designate, familiar, decay, with respect to, ultimately, explicit, to reveal
• Choose the proper word.
II
definite, to name, to show, as regards, finally, evident, to achieve, to happen, disintegration, well-known
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
Pull of Gravity Reveals Unseen Galaxy Cluster
Now astronomers are taking long strides into the realm (область) of dark matter. The scientists of Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey have discovered a whole new cluster of galaxies and calculated its distance without relying on
its emitted light. Instead they inferred the unseen cluster's existence from the way its gravity rerouted light from more distant galaxies beyond. The research team is one ofscveral to show that the technique, known as gravitational lensing, can be used to map matter in deep space.
Astronomers believe that about 90% of mass in the universe is dark. Telescopes can't see it, but its gravitational pull blows its cover. "Gravity doesn't care whether matter is dark or luminous," scientists say. All you need are background sources of light, which arc all over the sky, and, in principle, you can find all the matter between us and the background sources.
Science (17 August 2001)
2. Translate into English.
UNIT NINETEEN
GRAMMAR: THE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION
• Sentences to be translated.
A magnet is broken into two parts, each piece becoming a magnet with its own pair of poles.
The temperature ofthe conductor being raised, the motion of electrons increases too.
The nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom consists of one proton, with one electron moving around it.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
question п. - вопрос, проблема
v. - сомневаться, ставить под вопрос in question — исследуемый, рассматриваемый, о котором идет речь
(syn. involved, concerned, in issue, in point) open to question - сомнительный, спорный beyond question — вне сомнения out of the question — не может быть и речи
• Sentences to be translated.
144
READING (19A)
• Read the passage closely and follow the historical development of elementary particle physics. Interpret the title of the passage.
The Smallest of Objects Can Be Perceived Only with the Largest of Instruments
The large investment now being made in instruments for high-energy-physics research can be justified only because the preccdinggenerations of accelerators • have already proved their worth. Fifty years ago only two kinds of apparently indivisible particles were recognized: the electron and the proton. The remaining constituent of the atom, the neutron, was discovered in 1932. In subsequent years, through experiments with cosmic rays and with early accelerators, several additional particles were identified. One ofthe first was the positron, the antiparticle ofthe electron. Others were the neutrino, a particle without mass or electric charge, and the muon and the pion, which have masses intermediate between those ofthe electron and the proton.
In the 1950's, when more powerful accelerators began operating, there was an unexpected and in some respects alarming proliferation in the number of known particles. Within a few years the list extended to more than 100, most of them classified as hadrons, or nuclear particles. Among the hadrons were several with the new property of mattercalled strangeness. Later, it was necessary to add another class of hadrons, bearing another whimsically (прихотливо) named property, charm. The pace of discovery continued to increase. Particles that apparently signal the existence ofTwo more classes have been observed. These newest classes, which have only begun to be catalogued, are distinguished by properties called truth and beauty or top and bottom.
For a time it seemed that all of these particles might have to be accorded equal status as elementary objects. That possibility was deeply troubling, as it was difficult to reconcile with the conviction that the laws of nature should be reasonably simple. It was subsequently discovered, however, that all the hadrons could be arranged in logical patterns, some of which have a lovely snowflake form. Moreover, the existence of such patterns could be understood if it was assumed that the hadrons are not elementary but arc made up ofthe more fundamental entities, that have been given the name quarks.
In the view that now prevails among physicists there arc just two kinds of elementary particles: leptons and quarks. Among the leptonsthe most familiar particle is the electron. Also included in that class are the muon and two kinds of neutrino, one associated with the electron and one with muon. A few years ago a new lepton was discovered and given the designation tau. Presumably the tau also has an associated neutrino, so that there should be six leptons altogether.
There also appear to be six kinds of quarks, labeled up, down, strange, charmed, top and bottom. (As yet there is no experimental evidence forthe top quark, but because all the other quarks and leptons come in pairs it is assumed that the bottom quark also has a partner.) No one has observed a quark in isolation, but there are substantial reasons for believing in their existence. Every known hadron (and there-arc now a few hundred) can be explained as a combination of quarks or of quarks and antiquarks, formed by explicit rules.
• Look through the passage and find English equivalents for the following Russian phrases.
доказали свою ценность; в последующие годы; в некоторых отноше ниях; темп открытий; различаются по существу; образованных по яв ным правилам
• Answer the following questions:
CLASSWORK
READING (19B)
• Skim the passage rapidly and answer the question given in the title.
ARE THERE FINAL INDIVISIBLE CONSTITUENTS OF MATTER?
Our present-day knowledge of the constituents of matter is summarized in the scheme given below. This scheme in away replaces the periodic table ofthe elements ofthe chemists of the last century. Certainly, it seems to be simpler.
ЛИ the particles shown are fermions, i.e. they have spin 1/2. The implication is that for particles of each kind a conservation law exists, meaning that they cannot be produced as single particles but only in particle-antiparticle pairs. There are two classes of particles: the leptons, which do not feel the nuclear force, and the quarks, which do. *Anothcr major difference is that quarks have 1/3 charge, whereas leptons have integer electrical charges. The particles in the first line of the scheme differ from those in the second line by one unit in electric charge. The two particles in each column form a family as regards weak interactions in the sense that they can be transformed into each other. Thus, in weak processes a "u" quark can be transformed into a "d" quark and vice versa, or an electron into an electron neutrino, etc. The mass ofthe particles increases from left to right. Thus, besides the electron, a heavy electron which is usually called a muon is known, and a couple of years ago a super-heavy electron, the "t" particle, was detected. Each of these electron-like particles has its own neutrino. *Although experimental upper limits on the masses of the neutrinos are known, one ofthe most interesting problems is whether the masses of these neutrinos are exactly zero or not.
Originally, three quarks (u, d and s) were known, but in the seventies the charm quark and the beauty quark were discovered. *Because ofthe supposed symmetry between leptons and quarks most physicists are convinced that a sixth quark, the top quark, must exist. So far we do not understand the rules governing the masses of these particles; hence it is not possible to predict the mass of a top quark. *Fora certain time it was hoped that it could be produced with a powerful accelerator but it seems to be heavier than the available energy would permit us to detect. It could be found with the pp collider. Several theorists have speculated that quarks and leptons might not be the ultimate constituents, but that there might be a deeper layer of matter. They introduced even smaller particles (sometimes called rishons orhaplons) out of which both quarks and leptons can be composed.
The "periodic system" of elementary particles showing the two families, the quarks and the leptons, which are thought to be the fundamental constituents of matter. They are all fermions (spin equal to 1 /2) and their masses increase from left to right in the diagram. The "t" (top or truth) quark has not yet been found.
• Choose the proper word from the list below.
(binding, charge, constituent, state, color, difference, interaction, carriers)
HOMEWORK
(to be done in writing)
1. Translate into Russian.
Having applied a positive pulse of voltage to the control electrode, we made the valve conducting.
With the electrons being removed rapidly by the field, a space charge is left surrounding the anode.
2. Translate into English. Use Participles and participle constructions in your translation.
UNIT TWENTY
GRAMMAR: SHOULD В ПРИДАТОЧНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ
Should you see her, give her my regards.
Should it really be the case, please contact us.
Если вы увидите ее, передайте ей привет.
Если такое действительно случится, свяжитесь, пожалуйста, с нами.
Подобное использование should в начале придаточных предложений условия характерно для стиля научной прозы или деловых писем, ноне для разговорной речи.
WORD AND PHRASE STUDY
provide (for) — давать, обеспечивать (что-то), предусматривать, providewith — снабжать, обеспечивать (чем-то) provided (that), providing (вводит придаточное предлож.) — при условии (что); в случае, если (syn. given that)
• Sentences to be translated.
150
READING (20A)
• Read the passage. Search for the arguments to prove that a worldwide collaboration could minimize the world expenditures for scientific research into the structure of matter.
THE NEXT GENERATION OF PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
For some 60 years the effort to understand the ultimate structure of matter has proceeded almost entirely through a single experimental technique. A particle of matter is brought to high speed and made to strike another particle. From an examination ofthe debris released in the aftermath of the collision, information isgained about the nature of the particles and about the forces that act between them. To carry out a program of such experiments it is necessary to have a source of energetic particles. Cosmic rays provide a natural source, but the flux of particles is diffuse and is beyond the control ofthe experimenter. A more practical source is a particle accelerator, the device for increasing the speed of a particle and hence also its energy.
One of the first particle accelerators, built by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1928, was made of laboratory glassware a few inches in diameter. Most of the accelerators in service today are linear descendants of Lawrence's device, but they have grown enormously in size and complexity, the largest extending over many square kilometers. The particle accelerator is no longer an instrument installed in a laboratory; instead the laboratory is assembled around the accelerator. Building such a machine costs hundreds of millions of dollars; operating it requires a staff of about 1,000 people and dozens of digital computers.
A new generation of particle accelerators is now in prospect. The first few are just coming into operation; several more are under construction; others are still being planned, and their characteristics arc not yet fixed. For both, the physicist and the layman, the principal interest inspired by these new machines is in the results of the experiments they will make possible, but the accelerators themselves also merit notice. In the physics of elementary particles the highest available energy represents a frontier marking one of the boundaries of experimentally verifiable knowledge. Several ofthe new accelerators will be capable of attaining higher energies than any existing machine, and so they will push the frontier into unexplored territory. In order to reach those energies the accelerators will of necessity be larger, more complicated and more expensive than their predecessors.
Largely because ofthe cost, the construction of an accelerator today requires the resolution not only of technical problems but also of political, economic and managerial ones. Money for scientific research is a scarce resource, and it is imperative that it be used as efficiently as possible. Technical innovations have brought a substantial reduction in the cost per unit energy of accelerating a particle. It is encouraging to note that another means for minimizing the total world expenditure is now emerging: through international cooperation the unnecessary duplication of facilities can be avoided, and projects too large for any one nation can be undertaken by regional groups of nations and perhaps eventually through a worldwide collaboration such as * CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, which has its headquarters in Geneva. At present, its Member States arc Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Israel, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United States of America and Turkey.
Re-read the passage carefully and explain how you understand the italicized words.
Look through the passage and supply answers to the following questions.
• Reproduce the passage in English or in Russian.
CLASSWORK
READING (20B)
• Read the passages carefully and say why this discovery is of interest to physicists.
A) THE TROPHIES THAT WILL BE HUNTED WITH THE NEW ACCELERATORS
However much has been learned in the past 50 years, it would be misleading to suggest that the present understanding of elementary particles is even approaching finality or completion. The status ofthe field is tantalizing rather than satisfying1; there is no shortage of questions to be answered. A first order
... is tantalizing rather than satisfying — скорее заставляет испытывать танта ловы муки, чем приносит удовлетворение of business for the new accelerators will be filling in the blanks in the catalogue of hadrons, particularly those that incorporate top and bottom quarks in their structure. It is also important to find out whether the list of quarks and leptons ends with the six of each that are now known or whether more will be found at higher energies. In a sense six quarks and six leptons are already too many; all ofthe ordinary matter in the universe could be constructed out ofjust four elementary particles: the electron, the electron neutrino and the up and down quarks. The existence of the other leptons and quarks, which appear only in high-energy-physics experiments, is a puzzle.
Another puzzle is the failure of all attempts so far to detect a free quark. Various theoretical constructs have been offered, after the fact, to explain why quarks should be permanently confined to hadrons. The possibility remains, however, that a quark can be knocked loose from a hadron if enough energy is supplied. Future experimental programs are therefore certain to include quark searches.
B) NEW STATE OF MATTER CREATED AT CERN
At a special seminar on 10 February, spokespersons from the experiments on CERN's Heavy Ion programme presented compelling evidence for the existence of a new state of matter in which quarks instead of being bound up into more complex particles such as protons and neutrons are liberated to roam freely.
Theory predicts that this state must have existed at about 10 microseconds after the Big Bang, before the formation of matter as we know it today, but until now it had not been confirmed experimentally. Our understanding of how the universe was created, which was previously unverified theory for any point in time before the formation of ordinary atomic nuclei, about three minutes after the Big Bang, has with these results now been experimentally tested back to a point only a few microseconds after the Big Bang.
Professor Luciano Maiani, CERN Director General, said: "Thecombined data com'mgfrom the seven experiments on CERN's Heavy Ion programme have given a clear picture of a new state of matter. This result verifies an important prediction of the present theory offundemental forces between quarks. It is also an important step forward in the understanding of the early evolution of the universe. We now have evidence of a new stale of matter where quarks and gluons are not confined. There is still an entirely new territory to be explored concerning the physical properties of quark-gluon matter. The challenge now passes to the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at the Brookhaven National Laboratory and later to CERN's Large Hadron Collider. "
The aim of CERN's Heavy Ion programme was to collide lead ions so as to create immensely high energy densities which would break down the forces which confined quarks inside more complex particles. A very high energy beam of lead ions (33 TeV) was accelerated in CERN's Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) and crashed into targets inside the seven different experimental detectors. The collisions created temperatures over 100 000 times as hot as the centre of the sun, and energy densities twenty times that of ordinary nuclear matter, densities which have never before been reached in laboratory experiments. The collected data from the experiments gives compelling evidence that a new state of matter has been created. This state of matter found in heavy ion collisions at the SPS features many of the characteristics ofthe theoretically predicted quark-gluon plasma, the primordial soup in which quarks and gluons existed before they clumped together as the universe cooled down.
The project is an excellent example of collaboration in physics research. Scientists from institutes in over twenty countries have participated in the experiments. The programme has also allowed a productive partnership to develop between high energy physicists and nuclear physicists. More importantly, this step forward has been made possible by the collaboration between the individual experiments. The picture of quark-gluon plasma resembles a jigsaw puzzle, with many pieces provided by the different experiments. The data from any one experiment is not enough to give the full picture but the combined results from all experiments agree and fit. Whereas all attempts to explain them using established particle interactions have failed, many of the observations are consistent with the predicted signatures of a quark-gluon plasma.
The results from CERN present strong incentive forthe future planned experiments. While all ofthe pieces ofthe puzzle seem to fit with a quark-gluon plasma explanation, it is essential to study this newly produced matter at higher and lower temperature in order to fully characterize its properties and definitively confirm the quark gluon plasma interpretation.
CERN Press Releases 2000
HOMEWORK
• Translate into Russian.
5. Should the Universe be finite, its expansion would eventually stop and be replaced by a contraction.
2. Translate into English. Begin each sentence with should.
Model: Если бы вы помогли мне, я был бы вам признателен. Should you help me, 1 would be thankful to you.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
TEXT 1
• The paper says that the 21 st century would be impossible without the computer. Do you think the same? What reasons does the author give in favour of his opinion? Read the passage below attentively and find all the facts in favour of the idea.
THE COMPUTER REVOLUTION
Without the computer space programs would be impossible and the 21st century would be impossible. The incredible technology we are building, the complexity and the knowledge we are amassing are all beyond the unaided mind and muscle of man. More than any other single invention, perhaps even more than wheel, the computer offers a promise so dazzling and a threat so awful that it will forever change the direction and meaning of our lives.
Computers today arc running our factories, planning our cities, teaching our children, and forecasting the possible futures we maybe heir to.
In the new age of exploration the computer is solving in milliseconds the problems a generation of mathematicians would need years to solve without its help. The small, fifty-ninc-pound computer, which takes up only one cubic foot of space in the vehicle will do all of the mathematics needed to solve one billion different space-manoeuvring, navigation, and re-entry problems. Moreover, it translates the answer into simple numbers and tells the astronaut the altitude to which he must bring the spacecraft before firing the thrustcrs, and indicates to him exactly how long they must be fired.
TEXT 2
• Read the passage below as fast as you can and say a few words about the computer applications mentioned in the text.
microfiche ['maikroufi(:)Jl n ииформ. микрофиша (карточка
с несколькими кадрами микрофильма) descendant/; потомок thief |Bi:f] п пор
COMPUTERS CONCERN YOU
When Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, invented the first calculating machine in 1812 he could hardly have imagined the situation we find ourselves in today. Nearly everything wc do in the modern world is helped, or even controlled, by computers, the complicated descendants of his simple machine. Computers are being used more and more extensively in the world today, forthe simple reason that they arc far more efficient than human beings. They have much better memories and can store huge amounts of information, and they can do calculations in a fraction of the time taken by a human mathematician. No man alive can do 500,000 sums in one second, but an advanced computer can. In fact, computers can do many of the things wc do, but faster and better. They can pay wages, reserve seats on planes, control machines in factories, work out tomorrow's weather, and even play chess, write poetry, or compose music. Let's look now at some ofthe ways in which computers concern people in their daily lives and work.
Chief inspector Harston talks about ways in which computers can help the police fight crime. Members of the public often think of detective work as fast and exciting when most of it is slow and boring. For example, a detective on a stolen carcase may have to check through long lists of information, and in the time it takes him to do this the thief may well escape. With the new National Police Computer we are now able to find out details of car ownership and driving licences in a fraction of the time it takes by traditional methods. In police work speed is often essential, so computers are ideal for helping us catch criminals.
Many people associate computers with the world of science and maths, but they are also a great help to scholars in other subjects, in history, literature and so on. It's now possible for a scholar to find a book or article he needs very quickly, which, when a million or more new books are published each year, is quite an advantage. There's a system, controlled by computer, of giving books a code number, reducing them in size by putting them on microfiche, and then storing 3,000 or more in a container no biggerthan a washing machine. You tell the computer which subject you're interested in and it produces any microfiche you need in seconds. It's rather like going to an expert who has read all the works on your subject and can remember where to find the correct information, which few human experts can! There are also systems being developed to translate articles from foreign magazines by computer, and to make up the many lists of information that are needed in a modem library. So computers can help us to deal with the knowledge explosion in many ways.
Skim the text and say what it is about.
Find a suitable title to it.
Even before a rocket is launched, it is flown from ten to a hundred times through space-computer-simulated space — on flights constructed of mathematical symbols, on trajectories built of information bits, encountering hazards that are numbers without menace. For one ofthe computer's greatest assets is its ability to simulate one or a million variants of the same theme. "What if?" is the question the computer can answer accurately, swiftly, and over and over again. From this variety of possibilities, a trip from the earth to the moon can be simulated as often as necessary, with every possible trajectory plotted and every mile of the journey through space marked with symbolic signposts that will provide assurance that, mathematically at least, man has travelled this way before.
The computer can do far more than simulate the mechanics of space flight; it can furnish accurate models of life itself. In computer simulation, then, there may come the great breakthrough needed to convert the inexact social sciences — the studies of man as a social being — into exact science. For the sociologist the problem has always been the lack of an adequate yardstick by which to measure and count. The one absolutely essential tool of science is the measuring device. Anything that can be counted, measured, quantified, can be studied with scientific accuracy, Now it becomes possible to perform controlled experiments, in which every factor that goes in is known in advance and the answers that come out are then valid.
With computer simulation you can have a series of problems in which you can figure out all the ramifications, all the permutations and combinations, and do it very quickly and know the different combinations that are at stake. So you can use it really as a means of controlled experiment. You can get a computer model of a city and play out all the different effects, so that if you decide, for example, to relocate traffic in one way you can trace out very quickly, on the model, the effects on industry locations, residential densities, and the like. And more important, when you have alternative plans ofthis kind you can then choose, and that is the fundamental aspect of all such notions of planning. It allows you to have a sense of wider choice, to see therefore the consequences of it and say, I prefer this scheme rather than another.
TEXT 4
• Read the passage carefully. Choose the key word or sentence that best sums up the main idea of each paragraph.
There are two types of computers, the analogue and the digital. Basically, today's analogue computer is a device for measuring such physical quantities as lengths and voltages and, through a mechanical linkage, exhibiting the measurement as a numerical value. However, the analogue computer is limited to special classes of problems and when most people say 'computer' today, they mean the digital computer, which is a marvel of precision and accuracy, for it works with specific units rather than approximations.
The modern electronic digital computer counts with incredible speed using only two numbers - the one and zero of what mathematicians call the binary system. The counting ability of the computer is used to feed it information. But first the information is translated into a code.
The information is then stored in a memory bank made of magnets. The direction in which electrical signals run through the magnets means one or zero, yes or no, off or on. Each magnet contains one piece ofinformation called a bit. A large computer system can store hundreds of millions of such information bits.
But information by itselfis useless. The computer must be told what to do with it — to add, subtract, multiply, ordividc the coded pulses stored in its memory. Parts of that memory contain instructions, prepared by a human brain, that provide the computerwith the road to follow in orderto solve a problem. These instructions are called the program.
What makes the computer different from an adding machine is that the computercan modify its instructions.
If a problem cannot be solved by following one route, the computer can search its memory for another set of instructions until a solution is found. And it docs all this at superhuman speeds. The on-off switching of the computer's logic circuits has been clocked at a billionth ofa second. That is to one second what one second is to thirty years.
But the computer cannot actually think. It performs all ofits functions by route. Once an answer is achieved, another program within the memory tells the computer how to display the solution, to type it out on paper, display it as pictures or words on a television screen, or perhaps even to speak the answer in words a man can hear.
In every field ofhuman endeavourthe body of knowledge is being swollen to the bursting point by a flood of new facts, which by their existence help to generate still more facts until the mass ofinformation threatens to engulf us. But the problem can be controlled and reduced to usable proportions by the computer. AH that is required is a human mind at one end of the system with enough sense to say "Halt! I've learned just about all I want to know about wickets." This will become the touchstone to the computerized library ofthe 21st century, in which requests for information will be answered instantly and as fully as the user wants.
• Translate the passage at sight.
retrieve v отыскивать
justify v подтверждать
schedule v составлять график, таблицу
setting n id. окружение
rule of thumb практическое, эмпирическое правило
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Expert systems are a class of computer programs that can advise, analyse, design, diagnose, explain, explore, forecast, form concepts, identify, interpret, justify, learn, manage, monitor, plan, present, retrieve, schedule, test and tutor. They address problems normally thought to require human specialists for their solution. Some of these programs have achieved expert levels of performance on the problems for which they were designed.
Expert systems are usually developed with the help of human experts who solve specific problems and reveal their thought processes as they proceed. If this process of protocol analysis is successful, the computer program based on this analysis will be able to solve the narrowly defined problems as well as an expert.
Experts typically solve problems that are unstructured and ill-defined, usually in a setting that involves diagnosis or planning. They cope with the lack of structure by employing heuristics, which are the rules of thumb that people use to solve problems when a lack of time or understanding prevents an analysis of all the parameters involved. Likewise, expert systems employ programmed heuristics to solve problems.
Experts engage in several different problem-solving activities: identify the problem, process data, generate questions, collect information, establish hypothesis space, group and differentiate, pursue and test hypotheses, explore and refine, ask general questions, and make decisions.
As researchers of the domain point out, a robust expert system that can explain, justify, acquire new knowledge, adapt, break rules, determine relevance and behave as human experts do, will have to use a multitude of knowledge representations, that lie in a space whose dimensions include deep and surface (representations), qualitative/quantitative, approximate/exact, specific/general and descriptive/prescriptive representations.
Expert systems, like human experts, can have both deep and surface representations of knowledge. Deep representations are causal models, categories abstractions and analogies. In such cases, we try to represent an understanding of structure and function. Surface representations are often empirical associations. With surface representations, all the system knows is
that an empirical association exists; it is unable to explain why, beyond repeating the association. Systems that use knowledge represented in different forms have been termed multilevel systems.
Work isjust beginning in building such multilevel systems, and they will be a major research topic for this decade. Work needs to be done in studying and representing in a general way the different problem-solving activities an expert does. When you build expert systems, you realize that power behind them is that they provide a regimen (управлеи ие) for experts to crystallize and codify their knowledge, and in the knowledge lies the power.
TEXT 6
• Read the passage and answer the question:
How many and what steps were there in the computer technology development?
GREAT STRIDES IN COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY
Still faster means of getting at computer-stored information must be developed. The problems of communicating with the computer are becoming increasingly apparent. Punch cards, typewriter terminals, and paper tapes all demand special codes and computer languages. Such a situation can no longer be accepted, for computers already calculate at a blinding pace, and their speeds are steadily increasing.
The great leap forward in computer technology was attained in 1947 with the development of the transistor. Transistors can perform all ofthe functions of vacuum tubes but are flea-sized by comparison and require only a fraction as much power to operate. The transistor is made of a semiconductor, a crystal that conducts electricity better than glass, though not as well as metal. The manufacture of a transistor starts with a single pure crystal of semiconductor, such as germanium. The addition of very small amounts of a chemical impurity such as arsenic introduces excess electrons into the crystal lattice. These electrons can move easily to carry electricity. Other atomic impurities such as boron soak up electrons from the lattice and thus create deficiencies, or holes, where there are no electrons. The hole, in effect, is a positive charge, the opposite of the negatively charged electron. Both holes and electrons skip through the material with ease.
Arsenic- and boron-doped crystals arc sliced into wafers and then sandwiched together so that alternating layers containing either free electrons or holes face each other. Holes and electrons, carrying opposite electrical charges, are attracted to each otherand a few drift across the junction, creating an electrical field.
ti \:. И. Курншнили
161
By adding electrical contact points to each ofthe layers in the sandwich, a transistor is created.
Current flowing between two of the contact points can be controlled by sending an electrical signal to a third point. The signal can thus be amplified from fifty to forty thousand times. Moreover, the current keeps step with the incoming signal, so that when it is pumped back out again, the signal is a precisely amplified image ofthe original signal.
By 1955, the transistor was replacing the vacuum tube in computers, shrinking their size and increasing their speed. The transition from vacuum tubes to transistors was but the first step, however. Integrated circuits that combine both amplifiers and other electrical components on slivers of material far smaller than even transistors arc shrinking the size of the computer still further. The integrated circuits (1С) conserve space, and they also save time and the effort of linking up individual components. This means that a quarter-inch chip containing five orsix complete circuitscan move information across its route faster than a transistorized circuit because every element within it is closer than are the elements of transistors. On the horizon is yet another shrinkage, which will be made possible by a process, still undeveloped, called large-scale integration, or LSI. An LSI chip will be only a tenth of an inch square and will carry as many as one hundred circuits. The difference between an LSI chip and an 1С chip may seem like hairsplitting, but on such negligible differences are built great strides in computer technology.
The limiting speed on computers is the speed of light. Computer engineers used this fact to create a standard measure — the light-foot — by which to clock computer speeds. It is defined as the distance, about twelve inches, that light travels in a billionth of a second. Miniaturization will narrow the gap between circuits and so reduce the number of light-feet that must be traversed through the logic circuits. But there are still other limitations that must be overcome before computer processing will be rapid enough to satisfy the demands of perfectionists.
TEXT 7
• Read the article carefully and answer the following questions:
EUROPE LEADS RESEARCH IN OPTICAL COMPUTING
Until now, the switches inside computers have been electronic. European scientists are going to demonstrate the world's first optical computer. This demonstration will come 22 years after the theory behind optical computers was first predicted by researchers from the computer company IBM. However, there is still a large gap between what theoretical physicists believe can be done, and what electronic engineers know is possible.
In theory, optical switches leave their electronical counterparts standing. It is like comparing the speed of light with the speed of electricity. Optical switches are so fast and yet so small that an optical device of one square centimetre can resolve I ()7 separate spots of light and each can be switched on and off at a speed of 30 nanoseconds. This means that an optical device one square centimetre in area could, in theory at least, handle 3 x lO14 bits per second. This rate is equivalent to everybody in the world having a telephone conversation at the same time.
The optical switch works on the principle of optical "bistability". Usually, when a beam of light is passed through a transparent material, the relationship between the intensities of light entering and the light leaving is linear. However, under certain circumstances a non-linear relationship occurs. A small increase in the intensity of light entering the material leads to a much greater increase in the intensity of light leaving the material.
In optical switches, the material is placed inside a resonant cavity. In practice, this means that the edges of the material arc highly polished and parallel to each other. With such materials some of the light entering becomes "trapped" inside as it bounces back and forth against each polished surface. In other words, it resonates. This changes the refractive index of the material, with the result that for a given intensity of light entering the switch there are two possible intensities of light leaving it.
In other words, there is the equivalent to an "off" position and an "on" position because there arc two stable states and the material shows optical bistability. Up to now a switching speed of 1013 seconds has been achieved, although the power needed to generate this is in the kilowatt range. A speed of one nanosecond (109) is possible in the milliwatt power range.
TEXT 8
• Read the passage carefully and answer the question:
How many and what means of increasing computer speeds are mentioned in the text?
THE FUTURE OF COMPUTERS
During the past decade development work for extremely powerful and cost-effective computers has concentrated on new architectures. In place of "scalar" processors, the emphasis has moved towards "vector" and "parallel" processors, commonly referred to as "supercomputers". These machines are now in fairly widespread use in many branches of science.
Vectorization of quark field calculations in particle physics has improved performance by factors of ten or twenty compared with the traditional scalar algorithms.
Computers must still be programmed for every action they take, which is a great limitation. How quickly the programmer can tell it what to do becomes a major drag on computer speeds. The time lag can be shortened by linking up different computers and designing more efficient devices to jam information in and pull it out ofthe machine, but the basic limitation of the step-by-step program remains.
A means around this roadblock is called parallel processing. Instead of solving a problem by following step-by-stcp instructions ofthe program the arithmetic and memory units will break the main problem down into a number of smaller problems that will be solved simultaneously. Parallel processing was introduced into the fourth generation computer called 1LLI AC IV named forthe University of Illinois, where it was designed.
The incredibly rapid speeds we arc approaching will be of little value without a corresponding increase in the speed with which we can get at the computer-generated information. One new approach, called graphics, uses the cathode-ray tube — the picture tube of your TV set — to display the information pictorially. A light pen — actually an electronic pointer — can be touched to the screen, and conversation between man and machine can be accomplished. For example, the computer can flash a series of options on its screen. The scientist selects the one he wants by touching it with a light pen. The great advantage of these so-called graphic computers is in solving design problems and in coping with any trial-and-crror situation.
The graphic computer offers the most flexible means of communication between man and machine yet developed. For example, the designer can draw a car roof on the screen with his light pen. The computer will do the mathematics required to straighten out the lines and, in effect, present a draftman's version of the designer's idea. The computer will then offer a variety of options to the designer— "front view", "rear view", "cross section", and so on. All the designer needs to do is to touch his light pen to the appropriate choice, and the computer does the rest. Similarly, the designer can circle any part of the drawing on the screen with his pen and request a blow-up — a large-scale drawing of just that part he has circled.
The end product of this man-machine design team is not a series of drawings on paper but a set of equations that precisely define every point of design. Eventually, these symbols will be fed to the production line machinery, which will translate the symbols into steel and glass forms of automobiles.
• What is your idea of computers-translators? Is the problem feasible today or not? Read the following passage and say whether the author is optimistic or sceptical about it? Find the facts to prove your idea.
COMPUTERS-TRANSLATORS
Foreign-language translation may prove to be just a bit more than computer can handle. From the Tower of Babel (вавилонское столпотворение) on there have been countless examples of man's inability to understand man. What hope is there then for a machine to understand man, or even another machine? Machines translators would be an enormous boon (благо), especially to science and technology. A machine translator would obviously be a great aid.
In the 1980s a machine was developed that can optically scan the written characters and print out the translation. It has a program that translates Chinese into English and English into Chinese. At a press demonstration the programmer asked for a phrase to translate and a reporter said: "Out of sight, out of mind". The phrase was dutifully fed into the computer, which replied by printing out a string of Chinese characters. "There," said the programmer, "that means 'out of sight, out of mind'."
The reporter was sceptical. " I don't know Chinese and I don't know that that means 'out of sight, out of mind'."
"Well," replied the engineer, "it's really quite simple. We'll ask the other program to translate the Chinese into English."
And so once again a string of characters, this time Chinese, was fed into the computer. The translation was typed out almost immediately and it read: "invisible idiot".
In order to make communication between man and machine as painless and easy as possible, the computer is being taught not only to speak but also to listen. The Autonetics Corporation has built a system completed with audio analysers and all of the complex electronics needed to give a computer "ears" that will actually hear the words spoken into its microphone. The vocabulary is still limited.
During a demonstration, the engineer spoke slowly and distinctly a handful ofthe computer's words, and the latter dutifully typed them back. But on one word it failed. While counting "one, two, three," the computer typed back, "one, two, four." Whereupon the demonstrator snapped "idiot," and the computer, in a veritable machine version of British aplomb, calmly replied, "Not in vocabulary."
• Read the passage carefully. Describe the design and operation of a synchrotron (see the figure) on p. 167.
THE NEXT GENERATION OF PARTICLE ACCELERATORS
The limit to the maximum practical energy of a linear accelerator is the cost of the thousands of accelerator cavities and their associated radio-frequency power supplies. The way to avoid that cost is to employ only a few cavities but to make each particle passthrough them many times. Undcrthe influence of a magnetic field an electrically charged particle follows a curved trajectory. By arranging many magnets in a ring the particle can be made to follow a circular orbit, or any other closed curve. A bunch or cluster of particles can circle the ring several million times, passing through the radio-frequency cavities and gaining energy on each revolution. An accelerator built in this way is called a synchrotron.
All the large new accelerators that are now planned or under construction are synchrotrons. It is therefore worthwhile to consider their operation in somewhat greater detail. The magnets that make up the ring are of two kinds. The dipole magnets, which have two poles (one north and one south), generate a uniform magnetic field; they accomplish the bending ofthe particle trajectories. Quadruple magnets, which give rise to a field with two north poles and two south, focus them into a narrower beam, acting much like lenses. Interspersed among the magnets are the radio-frequency cavities, where the actual acceleration takes place. Specialized magnctsand electrodes must also be provided for injecting the particles into the ring and for extracting them from it.
The synchrotron operates in cycles. When a bunch of particles is first injected, the fields of the bending magnets are adjusted so that the particles precisely follow the curvature of the vacuum tube. As the energy of the particles increases on each revolution the field strength in the bending magnets must also be smoothly increased. When the maximum energy is reached, the beam is extracted; then the magnetic field is allowed to fall to its original level in preparation for the next bunch of particles. The accelerator is called a synchrotron because the particles automatically synchronize their motion with the rising magnetic field and the rising frequency of the accelerating voltage.
The highest energies are not attempted with a single machine; instead, several machines arc lined up in series. Each one augments the particle energy by a factor of 10 or even 100, then passes the beam on to the next accelerator in the sequence. In several instances older accelerators serve as injectors or preliminary stages for newer and for more powerful machines.
In a proton accelerator the first stage is most often a device ofthe kind built in 1928 by John D. Cockcroft and Ernest T.S. Walton at the Cavendish Laboratory ofthe University of Cambridge. It is a large transformer and rectifier that generates a potential of about a million volts between an inner electrode and an outer shell. Protons, obtained by ionizing hydrogen atoms, arc released at the inner electrode; when they emerge (through a hole in the shell), they have an energy of about 1 McV.
The next stage is often a linac, which typically raises the energy per proton to 50 or even 200 Mev. From the linac the protons can be injected into a synchrotron, which may be the final link in the chain or may serve merely to boost the energy ofthe protons for injection into a larger synchrotron.
PEP STORAGE RING
SPEAR
NEUTRINO MESON
STORAGE RING
• Read the passage carefully and find arguments to prove that construction of a Tevatron is a very difficult task even with the present day technology.
TEVATRON
Building the Tevatron has turned out to be a challenging task even today. The most obvious problem is that of cooling almost 1,000 magnets, strung out over 4.5 degrees Kelvin, the temperature where the special conductors of the magnet windings lose all resistance to the flow of electricity. In order to maintain that temperature a river of liquid helium is pumped through the ring. Twenty-four small refrigeration plants are spaced around the tunnel, and the central helium liquefler is the largest in the world, with a capacity of 4,000 liters per hour.
The windings in the magnets are formed of a niobium-titanium alloy embedded in a copper mat rix. Almost 19,000 miles of this cable will be required to complete the ring. At maximum field strength the superconductors will carry a current of 4,600 amperes, and when a magnet is "quenched", or loses the superconducting property, the energy stored in the field (about half a million joules per magnet) must be dissipated without destroying the windings.
A particularly taxing problem has been the need to maintain the uniformity ofthe magnetic field to an accuracy of better than one part in 1,000. Because the windings are immersed in their own field they are subjected to a reactive force of about a ton per linear inch. The coils cannot be allowed to move even a thousandth of an inch, however, because the movement would distort the field and might also give rise to too much frictional heat. The windings are immobilized by laminated collars of stainless steel. The alignment of the magnets is also complicated by thermal contraction when the ring is cooled to its operating temperature; a magnet six meters long contracts by about two centimeters.
It is worthwhile pausing to consider just how much energy 1 TeV per proton is. In units more commonly applied to macroscopic objects, a 1 -TeV particle has an energy of 1.6 ergs, which is roughly the kinetic energy of a flying mosquito. At full intensity the Tevatron will accelerate 5xl013 protons at a time, which will give the total beam an energy of eight million joules. That is comparable to the energy of a 100-pound artillery shell. If the beam should evergo out of control, it could melt the walls of the vacuum chamber and destroy the surrounding magnets; obviously such an accident must be avoided.
When the particles in a synchrotron have reached their full energy, they are nudged out of their orbit by a special magnet and deflected into an external beam line. Eventually, they strike a target. Interactions of the protons with
the target can be studied directly, and it is also possible to create beams of secondary particles knocked out of the target. There are separate areas for experiments with protons (the primary particles), with mesons (particles of intermediate mass, such as the pion), with neutrinos and muons, and with photons.
TEXT 12
• Gamma-Ray-Line Astronomy is a young science. Skim the passage rapidly (3 min.) and find facts concerning its origin, age and field of research. Reproduce the passage using the diagram on p. 170.
GAMMA-RAY-LINE ASTRONOMY
The nature ofthe universe has been deduced almost entirely from the photons, or quanta of electromagnetic energy, that arrive in the vicinity of the earth. Until half a century ago astronomers could detect only photons with energies of between 1.5 and 3.5 electron volts: the photons of visible light. Then they began to extend the photon energy range downward into parts of the infrared and radio regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and upward into the near ultraviolet. With the advent of rockets, high-altitude balloons and artificial satellites they were able to extend it much farther upward to the energy range of photons that cannot penetrate the earth's atmosphere: the photons of the far ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
Gamma rays are the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation; the energy of their photons is measured in millions of electron volts (MeV), and in principle it has no upper limit. Gamma-ray photons from space were first detected some two decades ago. The early detectors simply recorded the arrival ofthe photons without being able to analyse their energies, as the photons of light are analysed into spectral lines by a spectrograph. Now, however, instruments have been developed that can detect gamma-ray spectral lines. They are beginning to yield information on the high-energy processes and objects that command the attention of modern astronomers, such as supernovas, neutron stars and phenomena at the center of galaxies.
Whereas the lines in the optical spectrum arise from transitions between the energy levels of electrons in atoms, lines in the gamma-ray spectrum arise from transitions between the energy levels of atomic nuclei.
In the eight years that have passed since those first observations were made several research grciips have been flying gamma-ray telescopes mostly on balloons but sometimes in satellites, in attempts to raise the instruments above nearly all ofthe earth's'atmospherc and detect gamma-ray lines of astrophysical origin. The field is still in its infancy.
TEXT 13
• Read the passage and give a title to each paragraph.
PERSONAL COMPUTERS
There has been talk of a "computer revolution" ever since the electronics industry learned in the late 1950'sto inscribe miniature electronic circuits on a chip of silicon. What has been witnessed so far has been a steady, albeit remarkably speedy, evolution. The evolution of the small personal computer followed, perhaps inevitably, from the advent ofthe microprocessor. It was in 1971 that the Intel Corpo ration succeeded in inscribing all the elements of a central processing unit on a single integrated-circuit chip. That first microprocessor had only a four-bit word size, but within a year Intel produced an eight-bit processor and in 1974 there was an improved version, the Intel 8080. In 1975, a device flexible enough to be considered the first commercially available personal computer was developed by M ITS, Inc. Now, however, with the proliferation of personal computers the way may indeed be open for a true revolution in how business is conducted, in how people organize their personal affairs and perhaps even in how people think.
A computer is essentially a machine that receives, stores, manipulates and communicates information. It does so by breaking a task down into logical operations that can be carried out on binary numbers — strings of 0's and 1 's — and doing hundreds of thousands or millions of such operations per second. At the heart of the computer is the central processing unit, which performs the basic arithmetic and logic functions and supervises the operation of the entire system. In a personal computerthe central processing unit is a microprocessor: a single integrated circuit on a chip of silicon that is typically about a quarter of an inch on a side. Othersilicon chips constitute the computer's primary memory, where both instructions and data can be stored. Still other chips govern the input and output of data and carry out control operations. The chips are mounted on a heavy plastic board; a printed pattern of conductors interconnects the chips and supplies them with power. The board is enclosed in a cabinet; in some instances there are several boards.
Two major determinants of the computational power of a microprocessor arc its word size, which governs the "width" of the computer's data path, and the frequency of its electronic clock, which synchronizes the computer's operations. The trend in microprocessors is toward a larger word size and a higher frequency. As the word size increases, an operation can be completed in fewer machine cycles; as the frequency increases, there arc more cycles per second. In general, a larger word size also brings the ability to access a larger volume of memory. The first generation of true personal computers had eight-bit microprocessors, then 16-bit ones and the most recently introduced systems have 32-bit microprocessor chips. As for the clock frequency, the trend has been from one megahertz (one million cycles pcrsccond) some ten years ago to 10 megahertz or more today.
Information is entered into the computer by means of a keyboard or is transferred into it from secondary storage on magnetic tapes or disks. The computer's output is displayed on a screen, cither the computer's own cathode-ray tube, called a monitor, or an ordinary television screen. The output called a modem (for modulator-demodulator) can be attached to convert the computer's digital signals into signals for transmission over telephone lines.
The chips and other electronic elements and the various peripheral devices constitute the computer's hardware. The hardware can do nothing by itself; it requires the array of programs, or instructions, collectively called software. The core of the software isan "operating system" that controlsthe computer's operations and manages the flow of information. The operating system mediates between the machine and the human operator and between the machine and an "application" program that enables the eomputerto perform a specific task: solving a differential equation, calculating a payroll or editing a letter. Programs are ordinarily stored in secondary-memory media and arc read into the primary memory as they are needed for a particular application.
TEXT 14
• Read the passage and find answers to the following questions:
/. In what units is the memory capacity of a computer measured? 2. How many and what types of memory are discussed in the text? J. What are their advantages and drawbacks?
MEMORY
There are two kinds of primary memory: read-only memory (ROM) and random-access memory (RAM). Read-only memory is for information that is "written in" at the factory and is to be stored permanently. It cannot be altered. For a single-application computer such as a word processor the information in ROM might include the application program. In the case of a versatile personal computer it would include at least the most fundamental of the "system programs", those that get a computer going when it is turned on or interpret a keystroke on the keyboard or cause a file stored in the computer to be printed. As the cost of ROM drops there has been a tendency among manufacturers to include more and more system programs in ROM rather than on secondary-storage media.
Random-access memory is also called read/write memory: new information can be written in and read out as often as it is needed. RAM chips store information that is changed from time to time, including both programs and data. For example, a program for a particular information is read into RAM from a secondary storage disk; once the program is in RAM its instructions are available to the microprocessor. A RAM chip holds information in a repetitive array of microelectronic "cells", each cell storing one bit. The density of commercially available memory chips has increased by a factor of 64 over the past decade and by 1984 the 256-kilobit chip was widely available.
Even though the individual memory chip is an array of bits, information is generally transferred into and out primary memory in the form of bytes, and the memory capacity of the computer is measured in bytes. A typical personal computer comes with a RAM capacity of between 16 and 64 kilobytes, which can be expanded by the addition of extra memory boards, or modules. In general it is a good rule to buy a system that has at least enough memory to accomodate the largest application program one expects to execute. Most off-the-shelf program packages carry an indication of the memory required.
The standard medium for secondary storage is the floppy disk: a flexible disk of Mylar plastic now either 5 1/4 or eight inches in diameter, coated on one side or both sides with a magnetic material. Information is stored in concentric tracks of minute magnetized regions; changes in the direction of magnetization represent binary O's or 1 's. The information is written onto the disk and retrieved from it by a recording head that is moved radially across the spinning disk to a particulartrack. The track in turn is divided into a numberof sectors, and as a rule information is written or read one sectorat a time. Depending on the particular format there arc between eight and 26 sectors per track and each sector holds from 128 to 512 bytes of data. The total storage capacity of a floppy disk varies according to the density of the data stored along a track (as high as 7,000 bits per inch), the density of the concentric tracks (as high as 150 tracks per radial inch) and the number of segments into which each track is divided. Most floppy disks now have a capacity of from 125 to 500 kilobytes; disks of higher density arc beginning to be available.
A more expensive alternative to the floppy disk is the Winchester disk. A personal-computer Winchester disk unit can have a capacity of from five to 50 megabytes (millions of bytes) and it can transfer data faster than a floppy disk. On the other hand, the Winchester disk is permanently sealed in the drive unit, whereas a floppy disk can be removed from the drive and replaced by a fresh disk.
A simpler, less expensive secondary-memory medium is the audio magnetic-tape cassette. One cassette can store about as much information as a relatively low-capacity floppy disk. The access time to a particular address, or storage location, is much longerfortapc than it is fordisk because the speed ofthe tape is much lower than that of a disk and because the information is a single linear sequence.
TEXT 15
• Read the passage carefully and say what software means arc described in it.
SOFTWARE
Although the hardware of a computer ultimately determines its capacity for storing and processing information, the user seldom has occasion to deal with the hardware directly. A hierarchy of programs, which together constitute the software of the computer, intervenes between the user and the hardware.
The part of the software that is most closely associated with the hardware is the operating system. To understand the kind of tasks done by the operating system, consider the sequence of steps that must be taken to transfer a file of data from the primary memory to disk storage. It is first necessary to make certain there is enough space available on the disk to hold the entire file. Other files might have to be deleted in order to assemble enough contiguous blank sectors. For the transfer itself sequential portions ofthe file must be called up from the primary memory and combined with "housekeeping" information to form a block of data that will exactly fill a sector. Each block must be assigned a sector address and transmitted to the disk. Numbers called checksums that allow errors in storage or transmission to be detected and sometimes corrected must be calculated. Finally, some record must be kept of where the file of information has been stored.
If all these tasks had to be done under the direct supervision of the user, the storage ofinformation in a computer would not be worth the trouble. Actually, the entire procedure can be handled by the operating system; the user merely issues a single command, such as "Save file". When the information in the file is needed again, an analogous command (perhaps "Load file") begins a sequence of events in which the operating system recovers the file from the disk and restores it to the primary memory.
In most instances an application program is written to be executed in conjunction with a particular operating system. On the other hand, there may be versions of an operating system for several different computers. Ideally, then, the same application program could be run on various computers, provided they all had the same operating system; in practice some modification is often necessary. The microprocessor recognizes a limited repertory of instructions, each of which must be presented as a pattern of binary digits. For example, one pattern might tell the processor to load a value from the primary memory into the internal register called an accumulator and another pattern might tell the machine to add two numbers already present in the accumulator. It is possible to write a program in this "machine language", but the process is tedious and likely to result in many errors.
The next-higher level of abstraction is an "assembly" language, in which symbols and words that are more easily remembered replace the patterns of binary digits. The instruction to load the accumulator might be represented LOADA and the instruction to add the contents of the accumulator might be simply ADD. A program called an assembler recognizes each such mnemonic instruction and translates it into the corresponding binary pattern. In some assembly languages an entire sequence of instructions can be defined and called up by name. A program written in assembly language, however, must still specify individually each operation to be carried out by the processor; furthermore, the programmer may also have to keep track of where in the machine each instruction and each item of data is stored.
A high-level language relieves the programmer of having to adapt a procedure to the instruction set of the processor and to take into account the detailed configuration of the hardware. Two quantities to be added can simply be given names, such as X and Y. Instead of telling the processor where in primary memory to find the values to be added, the programmer specifies the operation itself, perhaps in the form X+Y. The program, having kept a record of the location ofthe two named variables, generates a sequence of instructions in machine language that causes the values to be loaded into the accumulator and added.
TEXT 16
• Skim the passage and answer the questions:
/. What high-level languages are mentioned in the text? 2. What is the choice of a language based on?
There are two broad classes of programs, called interpreters and compilers, that translate into machine code a program written in a higher language. A program written in an interpreted language is stored as a sequence of high-level commands. When the program is run, a second program (the interpreter itself) translates each command in turn into the appropriate sequence of machine-language instructions, which arc executed immediately. With a compiler the entire translation is completed before execution begins. An interpreter has the advantage that the result of each operation can be seen individually. A compiled program, on the other hand, generally runs much faster since the translation into machine language has already been done.
Fortran was one of the earliest high-level languages and is now available in several versions (or dialects). Fortran programs are compiled; their main applications are in the sciences and mathematics. The most widely employed high-level language for personal computers is Basic, which was developed in the 1960's by workers at Dartmouth College. Basic was originally intended as an introductory language for students of computer programming, but it is now employed for applications of all kinds. Most versions of Basic are interpreted. There are dozens of other high-level languages that can be executed by a minicomputer. The choice of a language fora particular program is often based on the nature of the problem being addressed; the language called Lisp, for example, is favoured by many investigators of artificial intelligence. Considerations of personal programming style also have an influence; the language Pascal has been gaining popularity in recent years because it is said to encourage the writing of programs whose underlying structure is clear and can be readily understood.
TEXT 17
• Examine the output media presented in the scheme below, then read the passage and say which of them are mentioned in the text.
output
manual
> printed
voice (speech)
monitors
TV screen
■> dot-matrix
thermal
typewriter —► daisy-wheel
OUTPUT
The primary output medium for a personal computer is a visual display, usually on a cathode-ray tube: either a monitor or the purchaser's own television screen. Flat-panel displays that exploit liquid-crystal or gas-discharge technology are beginning to be competitive, particularly for small, portable systems. The character images needed for the display of text arc stored as patterns of dots in a special ROM called a character generator. The clarity of the text depends on the number of dots employed in forming each character. A typical monitor can display 24 lines of text, each line of which has a maximum of 80 characters.
The display of graphic images, whether they are engineering drawings, graphs or moving targets in a video game, calls for complex software and for large amounts of memory. A detailed drawing or a smooth curve on a graph requires a high-resolution image. Resolution is determined by the number of pixels (picture elements) that can be addressed by the computer. A 280-by-192-pixel image in black and white fills more than 50 kilobits of RAM capacity, whereas a 128-by-48 image needs only about six kilobits. Many personal computers can generate images in colour, which can raise the memory requirement by a factor of four or more. A high-resolution image, particularly one in colour, can be displayed on a monitor.
For many purposes a printed copy of the computers output is desirable. There arc a number of different kinds of printer, which vary widely in price, speed and the quality ofthe text they turn out. Thermal printers, which cost less than $ 500, burn an image into a special paper at a rate of some 50 characters per second. Dot-matrix printers cost between $ 400 and $ 1,500 and can be very fast: as many as 200 characters per second. An array of from five to 18 tiny wires is swept across the paper. Signals from the computer drive the wires against the inked ribbon, leaving a pattern of dots on the paper. The quality ofthe characters thus formed depends largely on the size of the dot matrix available for each character; the array of dots is commonly either five by seven or seven by nine. With suitable control programs and enough memory capacity the dot-matrix printer can generate images in black and white or in colour.
Most thermal and dot-matrix printers generate text that is readable but hardly elegant. "Letterquality" printing calls for more expensive devices more closely related to a typewriter. One such device is the daisy-wheel printer, which costs at least $ 750 and can print up to 55 characters per second. The printing head is a rotating hub with 96 radial arms or more, each arm carrying a letter or other character. As the daisy wheel moves across the paper, signals from the computer spin the wheel and actuate a hammer that drives the proper arm against the inking ribbon.
• Skim the passage and answer the following questions:
/. Where is the machine applied?
A MACHINE WITH AN INSTINCT FOR SURVIVAL
A scientist from Boston, Massachusetts, claims to have built the first commercial machine endowed with instincts, or common sense, of an animal. Such a machine is the ultimate goal of scientists working to give computers artificial intelligence. It is also a key development if such systems arc to be applied usefully.
Regardless of how clever a computer is at guiding an airoplane, for example, it could still crash the plane if somebody feeds it incorrect information. This is because the airoplane's software does not contain the "knowledge" that crashing is undesirable.
Ed Fredkin, a former director of the Laboratory for Computer Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, aims to produce computers whose design is governed by this basic, but overriding concept of self-preservation. He describes this as giving the computer "machine instinct".
TEXT 19
• Read the text and give your opinion on the problem.
oddity n странность, чудаковатость gauge [geidsJ v измерять, проверять размер fluke lflu:k] n счастливая случайность sift v просеивать
ironclad а жесткий, твердый, нерушимый
ARE THERE FINAL INDIVISIBLE CONSTITUENTS OF MATTER?
Physicists are excited, once again, about a potential conflict with the Stan dard Model of Particle Physics. Measurements ofthe behaviour of neutrinos, made by a team at the Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois, suggest that the Standard Model may misgauge the strength of one ofthe fundamental forces of nature. Although not conclusive, the results might signify an undiscovered particle or an experimental fluke.
The Fermilab experiment measured '9w ("theta-sub-w"), a quantity called the weak mixing angle. Although not an angle in the ordinary sense, 8w smells like one to a mathematician. Roughly speaking, it measures the relation between electromagnetic and weak forces: Different values of 0w yield different pictures about the relative strengths of the forces at different energies.
Unlike a similar-sounding quantity called the neutrino mixing angle, which determines the properties of neutrinos {Science, 2 November, p. 987) Ow measures a fundamental force of nature, something that is fully accounted for in the Standard Model.
So, when the Fermilab researchers measured 0w using neutrinos produced by the Tevatron accelerator, they didn't expect to see anything unusual. The Tevatron produced powerful protons, then slammed them into a beryllium-oxide target, producing kaons and pions with various charges. Using magnets, the scientists sifted these particles, picking out varieties that would decay and produce either neutrinos or antineutrinos. They then compared how the resulting neutrinos and antineutrinos interacted with a 700-ton steel detector. The neutrinos and antineutrinos have different spin states and thus arc affected differently by the weak force-and 6w. By comparing the neutrinos behavior with that ofthe antineutrinos, the team figured out the size of 0w.
The result surprised them. The measured value of 0w disagreed with what the Standard Model predicts by three standard deviations — "three sigma". "A three-sigma result is interesting; it gets people's attention," says Kevin McFarland, a physicist at the University of Rochester in New York state and member of the Fermilab team.
In particle physics, such a result is usually considered provocative but not ironclad. But McFarland is sanguine. "I spent the last 8 years of my career making one measurement," he says, and after thorough checking and recheckingthe conflict with the Standard Model remained.
If real, the anomaly might be caused by an undiscovered particle such as a hypothetical new carrier of the weak force called Z'("Z- prime"), says Jens Erler, a physicist at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. "The [Fermilabl experiment is not explained by Z', but helped," he says. When combined with another recent intriguing but not inconclusive result in atomic physics, says Erler, it is "almost crying forZ'."
But doubts will remain until new experiments can shed more light on the situation. "Three sigma can easily be a fluke," says Erler. "But we take it seriously enough to have a really close look."
Science, 16 November 2001
VOCABULARY
СОКРАЩЕНИЯ
n — noun — существительное v — verb — глагол a — adjective — прилагательное adv — adverb — наречие
pron — pronoun — местоимение cj — conjunction — союз пит — numeral — числительное prep — preposition — предлог
UNIT 1
abundant lo'bAiidantl а имеющийся
в изобилии afford [a'foid j v (быть в состоянии)
позволить себе annihilate [o'naialcitj v уничтожать article ['a;tiki] n предмет (торговли) assault |a'so:lt| n нападение, атака,
штурм
augment [o:g'mentJ v увеличивать(ся);
усиливать(ся) avalanche I'aevolanf] n лавина bind I'bamd] v связывать blanket ['blterjkit| v покрывать
(одеилом) blessing I'blcsirjJ n благословение blueprint I'blutpnnt] n наметка; проект,
план
caution ('ko:jh[ n осторожность
challenge |'tjas1ind3] n сложная задача, проблема; вызов; v бросать вызов
clothe [kloudj уодевать
community |k3'mju:niti] я 1. община; 2. thee, общество
conceive Iksn'srv] v постигать, понимать; представлять себе
concern [кэп'вэт] п забота, беспокой ство
constellation [.knnsta'leijn] п созвездие
curse [ko:s] п проклятие
dazzle I'daezl] vослеплять блеском,
великолепием destiny ['destini] п судьба elaborate [i'la;b3nt| «тщательно
разработанный; сложный eliminate fI'hmmeit| уустранять,
исключать (from); ликвидировать endeavour |in'dcvo] п попытка;
старание
enterprise ['entapraiz] п I. предприя тие; 2. предприимчивость, инициатива
exaggeration |ig,zaed33'rerjh] п преуве личение
fate [feit] п судьба
feed ffi:d] упитать(ся), кормить(ся)
foresee [fb:'si:] v (foresaw, foreseen) предвидеть
harm [hu:m] n 1. вред, ущерб; 2. зло, обида
heap [hi:p| n груда, куча; v нагромож дать; накапливать
goal [goul) n цель; задача
grasp [grasp) v охватить; понять
impact ['impasktl n толчок, импульс
inconceivable [.inkan'siivabl] а непости жимый, невообразимый
incredible [in'kredibl] а неправдоподоб ный, невероятный
innovation l.ina'veijhl n нововведение, новшество; новаторство
installation |,inst3'leijh| n установка; pi сооружение
mere [гшэ| а простой; merely adv только; просто
opinion [э'р1шэп1 я мнение; public о. общественное мнение
outcome fautkAm) п результат, исход
pay [per] v платить
plumb [pUm] v вскрывать; проникать
вглубь (тайны) poll Ipoul] п голосование price [praisj п цена prior ['ргаю] to prep до pursue [pa'sju:] v преследовать,
гнаться
root [ru:t] n корень; v пускать корни, укореняться
rush |глП vбросаться; мчаться, нестись
shake Lfcikj v (shook, shaken) трясти,
встряхивать slide [slid] v (slid) скользить target ['tcugit] n цель, мишень threaten |'0retn| v грозить, угрожать tool |tu:l| n 1. рабочий инструмент;
2. орудие trend [trend] n общее направление, тенденция; v отклоняться, скло няться в каком-л. направлении truth [tru:G] п правда, истина virtually I'vartjugli] adv фактически,
в сущности vital [Vaitl] а жизненный; насущный,
существенный voyage ['vDiid3] п плавание, морское путешествие; v плавать, путеше ствовать (по морю)
UNIT 2
ardour ['cuds] п жар, рвение, пыл avail [a'vcill п польза, выгода; v быть
полезным, выгодным; помогать conviction [kan'vikjhl п убеждение decay |di'kei] п разложение, распад;
упадок; v гнить, разлагаться;
приходить в упадок, распадаться decline [di'klain] п падение, упадок;
v приходить в упадок, ухудшаться;
уменьшаться, идти на убыль;
спадать
diminish ]di'miniTJ уумепьшать(ся); убавлять; ослаблять
drain [drein| v 1. дренировать, осушать; 2. спекать; опоражнивать
enforce [in'fas] v 1. оказывать давле ние, принуждать; 2. усиливать
expense [iks'pens] п трата, расход; цена; at the expense of за счет чего-л., ценой чего-л.
haughty ['horti] а надменный, высоко мерный
hostile |'hDstail| a (to) враждебный justice |'d3AStis] п справедливость misery I'mizori] п I. невзгода,
несчастье; страдание; 2. нищета,
бедность
missile I'misail | п ракета, реактивный снаряд
peevish |*p>i:viJ~J а сварливый, раздра жительный
plague Ipleig] п 1. бедствие; бич; 2. неприятность; досада; 3. чума; v 1. насылать бедствие, мучить; 2. досаждать, беспокоить
prejudice |'pred3udis] п 1. предрассу док; предубеждение; 2. ушерб
prevail [pn'veil] v I. преобладать, господствовать, превалировать;
2. превозмогать, одолевать;
3. быть распространенным
prevent [pn'vent] v 1. предотвращать,
предохранять, предупреждать; 2. мешать, препятствовать
pride |praid] п гордость
purify I'pjuanfai] v (of, from) очишать(ся) от чего-л.
resent fri'zcnt| v негодовать, возму щаться; обижаться
reverse [ri'v3:s] а обратный, противо положный; v перевертывать
slur [sla:] п пятно (парепутации)
snuff [sn\f] v нюхать
sweep [swi:p] узд. мести, подметать; чистить, прочищать
viable I'vaiabl] а жизнеспособный
waste |wcist| п отбросы, отходы; а лишний, ненужный; отработан ный
weapon ['wepan] п оружие wisdom I'wizdam] п мудрость
UNIT 3
acid I'aesid] п кислота; nucleic а.
нуклеиновая кислота alarm [a'lcr.m] п сигнал тревоги; a. bell
набат, набатный колокол cancer I'kasnsa] п мед. рак carbon ]'ka:bon | п углерод cell |sel I « клетка compound I'kompaund] n смесь,
состав; соединение hole [houl] n дыра, дырка intensify [ln'tensifai] уусиливать(ся) intercept [,into'sept| v 1. перехватить; 2.
прервать, отрезать; преградить путь
melanoma [,те1э'поитэ| n опухоль
protein ['prouti:n| n белок
release |n'li:sj v I. (from) освобождать, избавлять; 2. отпускать; сбрасывать
repair [n'pto] учинить, ремонтиро вать, исправлять
severe [si'vio] а строгий, суровый; жестокий; тяжелый
skin [skin] п кожа
spread [spred] v I. развертывать(ся), простирать(ся); 2. распростра няться), разносить(ся)
UNIT 4
accompany [э'клтрлш] v сопровож дать, сопугствовать aggregate ['tcgngitj п совокупность assume |a'sju:m] v предполагать,
допускать;syn. presume [pn'zju:m] assumption la'sAmpJn] n предположение clarify ['klaenfaij v вносить ясность coalesce [,kouo'les| vсрастаться,
объединяться coalescence [.kouo'lcsnsl n объедине ние, смешение compose [кэт'рои/.| ^составлять confirm [кэпТэлп] v подтверждать,
утверждать confirmation l.konfo'meijon] n утвер ждение, подтверждение conjecture | ksn'dsektjbj n догадка, предположение; v предполагать, гадать
contain Ikan'tein] v содержать в себе,
вмещать dimension |di'menJon] n измерение,
размеры, величина disperse [dis'pa:s| v распространять,
разбрасывать, рассеивать distribute |dis'tribju:t] v распределять,
разбрасывать distribution n распространение emerge [i'ni3:d,3| v появляться emergence Ii'mo:d3onsI n появление enormous |i'nsmos] а громадный,
огромный establish |is'tteblij] v основывать,
создавать, заложить
even а одинаковый, ровный,
на одном уровне evenly I'i.vonlij adv ровно, равномерно evidently ['evidontli] adv очевидно,
ясно
explode [iks'ploudj евзрывать(ся) explosion |iks'plou3an] n взрыв fraction I'fraekfon] n часть, доля multiple ['rriAltipl ] а многочисленный,
составной; мат. кратный origin ['Drid3in] n источник, начало original |3'rid3innlJ а первоначальный originate [s'rid^incitl v давать начало,
порождать, возникать (from, in) preoccupy |pri;'Dkjupai] v занять; syn.
occupy |'okjupai| reveal [n'vi:l] v открывать, показы вать, обнаруживать select [si'lekt] v выбирать, отбирать
UNIT 5
attitude f'ajtitju:dj n позиция; отношение bind [baind| v (bound) связывать;
привязывать cluster I'kUstsJ n I. группа; 2. скопле ние, сгусток; 3. концентрация compact Ikam'psekt] а компактный,
плотный; vсжимать, уплотнять deviate |'di:vieit] уотклоняться,
уклоняться diverge [dai'vsid^l v расходиться;
отклоняться, уклоняться flat |flaetj а плоский, ровный glue |glu:| п клей homogeneity (,h3moud33'ni:itij п
однородность insist [in'sist| v (on) 1. настаивать
на чём-л., настойчиво угверждать;
2. настойчиво требовать instant ['instant] п мгновение, момент;
а настоятельный; немедленный,
безотлагательный manifestation ^macnifes'teijn] п 1. про явление; 2. манифестация obtain [sb'tem | v существовать; иметь
силу, быть действенным pronounced [pro'naunst| а резко
выраженный;ясный
shrink Lfnnk] v (shrank, shrunk) сокра щаться; садиться (о материи)
smooth [smu.dj a 1. гладкий, ровный; 2. плавный, спокойный; v сглаживать
tight [tait] а плотный, компактный; сжатый
UNIT 6
abyss laTJis] п бездна, пучина
accumulate [a'kjuimjuleit] v накапли ваться), аккумулировать(ся)
advantage |3d'va:ntid3] п преимуще ство; выгода, польза
apparently [a'paerantli] adv очевидно, по-видимому
assert [a'sat] v 1. утверждать, заяв лять; 2. отстаивать, защищать; доказывать
aware [a'wea] a predic сознающий; знающий, осведомленный; to be а. of знать, сознавать, отдавать себе полный отчет в чем-л.
blast [blast] п зд. взрыв
bubble [тмЫ] п 1. пузырь; 2. пузырек воздуха или газа (в жидкости)
catch [kaetf] v (caught) ловить, пой мать, схватить; (up) 1. поднять, подхватить; 2. догнать; 3. прервать
cell [sel] п 1. ячейка; 2. клетка
cellular ['seljuta] а клеточный; ячеис тый, сотообразный; пористый
collapse [ka'laeps] п 1. разрушение; 2. осадка, оседание; 3. заклепыва ние (пузырьков жидкости); астро-физ. коллапс; v коллапсировать
comb [koum] п соты
compression [kam'prejh] п сжатие; уплотнение
conform [кэпТэ:т| усообразовать(ся); согласоваться); соответствовать
constituent [kan'stitjuant] п 1. состав ляющий часть целого; 2. составная часть
conventional [ksn'venjsnal] а условно принятый, условный; общеприня тый, обычный, обычного типа
destroy [di'stroi] v уничтожать, истреблять; разрушать
discrepancy [dis'krepansi] п 1. разногла сие, противоречие; расхождение; 2. различие, несходство
dot [dDtj п 1. точка; 2. крошечная вещь
embed [im'bed] v встраивать, встав лять, вводить, внедрять; погружать
entire [in'taiaj а 1. полный, совершен ный; 2. целый, цельный, сплош ной
ever ['evs] adv всегда; for е. навсегда; вечно
evolve [iVolv] v 1. развивать(ся), эволюционировать; 2. разрабаты вать (теорию); 3. выделять (газы)
extent [ik'stent] п \. протяжение, размер; 2. степень, мера
flood [fUdj п поток; прилив; v затоп лять, наводнять; хлынуть потоком, устремиться
honey ['Наш] п мел; h. comb соты
inevitable [in'evitsbl] а неизбежный, неминуемый
negligible |'neglid33bl] а незначитель ный; пренебрежимо малый
persist [ps'sist] v упорствовать, настойчиво продолжать
pierce [pias] v 1. (through, into) пронзать, проникать; 2. прорываться, прохо дить сквозь (что-л.); 3. разгадывать (тайну)
prolong [prs'brjj v продлить, продол жить
universe ['jir.nivsisl п мир, вселенная; космос
UNIT 7
cease [sirs] v переставать, прекра щаться); приостанавливать; without с. непрестанно
contraction [ksn'trsekfn] п сжатие, сужение; уплотнение, стягивание; уменьшение; упрочение; сокра щение
damp [daemp| v демпфировать;
заглушать; амортизировать essence ['esns] п сущность, существо;
in е. по существу
evaporate [iVeepareil] v I. выпаривать, сгущать; 2. испарять(ся)
chaos I'keiDs] n хаос
inflate [in'fleit] v нааувать(ся); нака чивать; вздувать(ся)
outburst ['autbast] n I. взрыв; 2. вспыш ка, всплеск
reconcile I'reksnsail) ^примирять(ся); улаживать
relevant ['relivant] а уместный, относящийся к делу
resolution [,гегэ'1и:Гп] n 1. решение;
2. разрешение (проблемы); 3. разло-
жение на составные части, анализ
resolve [n'zolv) п решение; v 1. решать, принимать решение; 2. побуждать;
3. разрешать (сомнения и т.п.)
scarcely j'skessli] adv 1. едва, как толь-
ко; только что; 2. едва (не); едва ли,
вряд л и
seed [si:d] п I. семя, зерно; 2. зародыш, начало (чего-л.)
span [spaen] п I. (короткий) промежу ток времени, период времени; 2. короткое расстояние
swallow ['swdIou] v глотать, проглаты вать; s. up поглощать
transition [traen'zifan] п переход, перемещение
turnover ['torn.ouva] п I. оборот; 2. точка перехода
unravel [\n'raev3l| v 1. распутывать; 2. разгадывать; объяснять
UNIT 8
creature ['krr.tfa] п 1. создание, творение; 2. живое существо
despair [di'speo] п отчаяние, безна дежность
encompass [in'kAmpssJ v окружать, заключать
eternal [i'ta:nl] а I. вечный; неизмен ный; 2. беспрерывный, постоян ный
outward ['auiwod] а I. внешний, наруж ный, поверхностный; 2. направлен ный наружу; 3. видимый
power I'pauo] п мат. степень; p. law степенной закон
startling ['sta:tlir)l а потрясающий,
поразительный surplus |'s3:pl3s] п излишек, остаток;
а излишний, избыточный
UNIT 9
ability [a'biliti] п способность
accident ['teksidant] п случай, авария
accidental [.seksi'dentl] о случайный
affect [o'fekt] v действовать, воздей ствовать, влиять (на)
amount [a'mauntl п количество; v со-ста&тять, достигать, доходить до (to)
case п 1. случай; 2. дело
complete [k3m'pli:t| v заканчивать, за вершать; а полный, законченный
completely [ksm'pliitliJ adv совершен но, полностью
compound ['kompaund] n соединение; а составной, сложный
considerable [kan'sidorobll а значитель ный, важный
develop [di'velsp] v (id.) проявлять
discover Idis'kAva] v узнавать, обнару живать, открывать
discovery n открытие
effect [i'fektj n влияние (на), следствие, результат; in е. в действительности, в сущности
excitement [ik'saitrmnt] п возбуждение
external [ek'sO:nl| а наружный, вне шний; syn. exterior [ek'stianol; ant. intrinsic [in'tnnsik] а внутренний; n внутренняя сторона, внутренность
invisible [in'vizsblj а невидимый, неза метный; ant. visible видимый, явный
mysterious |mis'tioriDs] о таинствен ный, непостижимый
mystery ['mistan] n тайна
opaque |ou'peik] а непрозрачный, • светонепроницаемый, темный
oxidation |,oksi'deiJon| n окисление
oxide ['oksaid] n окись, окисел
penetrate I'penitreit] v проникать внутрь; проходить, пронизывать
pitchblende ['pitjblend| яураний, урановая руда
property ('ргарэп] п свойство, количе ство
pure [pjua| а чистый, беспримесный
rate n скорость, интенсивность; at a r. of... со скоростью, равной...
rest v находиться, оставаться
rule out v исключать
take into account учитывать, прини мать во внимание
transform [transform] v преобразовы вать, превращать
transformation превращение, преобразование
because of prep из-за, вследствие; syn. due to, owing to
UNIT 10
according (to)prep в соответствии с,
согласно, по accordingly adv соответственно;
в соответствии approach [a'proutf] п подход, метод;
v подходить, приближаться к artificial [.ati'fijsl] а искусственный attract [s'traekt] v притягивать capture п захват, улавливание;
v захватывать, улавливать chip off v отщеплять comprehensive [,kDmpn'hensiv]
а обширный, исчерпывающий eject [I'd^ekt] v испускать, выбрасывать ejection п испускание, выброс emission [I'mijbn] п эмиссия,
испускание, излучение emit [I'mit] v испускать, излучать excess [ik'ses] п избыток; а избыточ ный, добавочный excessive [ik'sesiv] а избыточный fission [Tifn] п деление, расщепление;
у делиться, расщепляться fluid |'flu:rd] п текучая среда, жидкость, газ; а текучий, жидкий, газообразный hinder ['hinds] v мешать, препятство вать
impact ['impsekt] п 1. удар, толчок, столкновение; 2. влияние, воздей ствие
incidence ['insidons| п падение, наклон incident ['insidant] а зд. падающий
interpret [in't3:pnt| v объяснять, толковать
interpretation [inTsipn'teifonl п объяс нение, толкование
issue I'isju:, tJu:| п (зд.) выпуск, издание
liberate I'libareitl у освобождать, выделять
liberation [.hba'reijn] п выделение, отдача, потеря, выход
oppose [э'роиг] у противопоставлять
opposing й противоположный
ordinary ['ardinri] а обычный, обыкно венный, простой
particular [ps'tikjuls] а особый, определенный; in р. = particularly adv в частности, в особенности
possess [ps'zes] у обладать
previous I'prirvjas] а предыдущий, предшествующий
previously adv ранее, предварительно
projectile [pr3'd3ektail| n зд. налетаю щая, бомбардирующая частица
ratio ['reijiou] пмат. отношение, пропорция
release [n'Ii;s] п освобождение, высвобождение; v выпускать
repulse [n'pAlsl vотталкивать; п отражение
repulsion [п'рл1/эп] п отталкивание; am. attraction [s'traekjbnj п притяжение
resolution [.rezo'lofnl п решение, разрешение
sample ['sampl] п образец, проба, выборка
split v расщеплять, раскалывать, разрушать
UNIT 11
accelerate [ak'selireit] уускорять(ся) agree [s'gri:] усогласовывать(ся);
совпадать agreement [s'griimsnt] n совпадение,
согласие
apart from кроме, помимо, не считая;
syn. in addition to attach [s'taetf] v присоединять,
закреплять bend v (bent) изгибать(ся) bulky ['b\lki] а большой, громоздкий
cloud chamber камера Вильсона
collide [ko'laid) v ст&чкиваться
collision [кэ'|1зэп| n столкновение
composite |'kDmpozit| а сложный, составной
consideration [ksn.sido'reijh] n сообра жение, рассмотрение, обсужде ние; to take into с. принимать во внимание
correspond [.kon'spDnd] v соответство вать (with, to)
corresponding а соответственный
decay [di'kei] n распад, превращение; v распадаться
develop [di'vebp] v разрабатывать, конструировать
development [di'velapmant] n разработ ка (теории)
establish [is'toeblij] vосновывать, создавать, устанавливать
exclude [ik'sklir.d] v исключать, не допускать; ant. include включать
exploration [ekspb'rerfsn] n исследо вание
fine-grained а мелкозернистый;
высокодисперсный fringe [frmd3| n край, граница grain n зерно
humid |'hjii:mid| а влажный
instead [m'sted] adv вместо, взамен (of)
intermediate [,int3'mi:djot] а промежу точный, средний
interrelation [intsri'leifon] n взаимоот ношение, соотношение
interstellar [.inta'stels| space межзвезд ное пространство
introduce [.intra'djirs] i> вводить, вставлять (into)
introduction [^ntrs'dAkJbnl n введение
outer ['auts] а внешний
predict [pn'dikt] v предсказывать
prediction n предсказание
presence I'prezns] присутствие, н&чичие
reach v достигать
sequence ['srkwsns] n последователь ность, ряд, чередование; in s. порядок следования, ряд
similarй похожий, подобный, сходный
streak [stri:k| п полоска, прожилка stream п поток
subsequent ['sAbsikwantj а последующий surface ['sa:fis| п поверхность
due to из-за, вследствие; syn. owing to,
because of due а надлежащий: to be d. to быть
обу сл о вл е п п ы м, обу сл о вл и ва i ьс я
UNIT 12 achieve |o'tjlivj v достигать achievement п достижен ие afford la'fad] v позволять себе,
давать, предоставлять average ['sevand3] о средний cause [ky.z\ v вызывать, служить
причиной chain п цепь, цепочка; а цепной;
ch. reaction цепная реакция dilute |dai'lu:t] v разбавлять, разводить;
а разведенный, разбавленный,
слабый
except [ik'sept[prep за исключением,
кроме (for) former, the первый (из двух названных);
ant. latter, the второй, последний graphite I'grtefait] п графит include [in'klu:d] vвключать lose v (lost) терять loss n потеря
maintain [mein'tein] v поддерживать, сохранять, содержать в исправно сти, обслуживать, эксплуатиро вать; self-maintaining а самоподдер-живаюшийся
maintainance ['meintinsnsl п обслужи вание, уход, содержание в исправ ности, эксплуатация
mean v (meant) значить, означать
occur [э'кэ:] v случаться, происхо дить; syn. take place
pile n 1. куча, груда, множество, масса; 2. ядерный реактор (atomic, nuclear p.)
purify ['pjusnfai] v очищать от чего-л. (of, from)
source [sd:s] n источник
succession [ssk'sejon] n последователь ность, непрерывный ряд
successive |s3k'sesiv| а последующий, последовател ы i ы й
utilize ['julilaiz] v использовать
give rise to = to result in приводить к чему-л., давать что-то в результате
in question (лицо, вопрос) о котором идет речь;.у«. involved, concerned
UNIT 13
abrupt [s'brApt] а скачкообразный;
резкий; внезапный bang [Ьшп| n взрыв; big b. большой
взрыв
collide [ka'laidl v сталкиваться contemporary [kon'tempsreril a
1. современный; 2. одновременный
convince Ikon'vmsj vубеждать
dozen I'dAznl n 1. дюжина;
2. множество
drastic L'draestik] а решительный;
крутой (о мерах); d. changes
коренные изменения duplicate I'djir.plikeit] v 1. снимать
копию; 2. удваивать fairly [TmIi] adv довольно; сносно;
весьма
freeze [fri:z| v (froze, frozen) замерзать; морозить, замораживать
heaven ['hevn] n небо, небеса
identical [ai'dentikol] а тот же самый; одинаковый
immense [I'mens] о безмерный, необъятный; огромный
isolate ['aisaleit] v изолировать, отделять, обособлять
presume [pn'zjir.m] v 1. предполагать; считать доказанным; 2. upon (on) слишком полагаться на что-л.
primordial [prai'madisl] а изначаль ный, исконный
rather |'га;5э] adv скорее, предпочти тельнее, лучше; г. than а не
spontaneous [spon'teinjasl а самопро извольный
stuff [sUf] п материал, вещество
yield [ji:ld] v производить; приносить, давать (плоды, урожай и т.д.)
UNIT 14
appropriate [a'proupnit] а соответству ющий, подходящий, уместный
aptly ['aeptli] adv 1 ■ соответствующим, надлежащим образом; кстати; 2. быстро, легко, умело
breakthrough I'breikOru:] я достиже ние, победа, эпохальное событие
ceramics [si'rEemiks] п керамика
conceivable [kan'siivobl] а постижимый, понятный, мыслимый, возможный
coolant ['ku:lont] п 1. охлаждающая среда, охлаждающая жидкость; 2. охладитель
costly I'kDstli] а 1. дорогой; 2. ценный
cushion |'ки:/(э)п] п полушка, упругое основание, прокладка
designate ['dezigneit] v 1. определять, устанавливать; 2. обозначать, называть
expensive [ik'spensiv] а дорогой, дорогостоящий
fission |'м/(э)п] п расщепление, распад
frigid [Tnd3id] а холодный
fusion ['0и:,з(э)п] п I. плавление, сплавление; 2. синтез, слияние
host [houst| п множество
immensely [I'mensli] adv безмерно, необъятно
implication [,impli'keij(3)n] п 1. вовлече ние; 2. скрытый смысл, значение
incredible [m'kredibl] а 1. неправдопо добный; 2. удивительный, неслы ханный, потрясающий
involve [in'vDlv] v 1. включать в себя,
содержать; 2. влечь за собой,
вызывать '
liquefy f'likwifai] v превращаться) в жидкость
maintain [mein'tein] v 1. поддержи вать, сохранять; 2. обслуживать
obstacle ['obstokl] п препятствие, помеха
occur [э'кэ:| v происходить, случать ся, иметь место; встречаться; наблюдаться, присутствовать
гаге [геэ] а редкий, разреженный; редкостный, исключительный
reward [n'wadj n награда, вознаграж дение, премия
stubborn l'sUbon| а упрямый, непо датливый, упорный
stumble I'sumbll v I. спотыкаться; 2. запинаться; 3. случайно наты каться
transition [traen'zij"(3)n, traen'sij(3)n] я процесс перехода из одного состояния в другое
vaporize [Veiparaiz] v I, выпаривать, испарять; 2. испарять(ся)
UNIT 15
apparent [a'paaront] a I. видимый, различимый; 2. явный, очевидный
coherence | ko(u)'hi3r(o)ns] я I. коге рентность; 2. связность, последо вательность
conventional [kon'venjanl] а обычный, привычный, общепринятый, традиционный, стандартный; удовлетворяющий техническим условиям
crucial l'kru:Jol] а 1. решающий; 2. критический
currently ['клг.-mtli] adv в данное время, в текущий момент
discard Jdis'kaid| v 1. отбрасывать, отвергать, отказываться; 2. брако вать, списывать
encounter | in'kauntaj v 1. неожиданно встретить; 2. наталкиваться (на трудности и т.п.)
enhance |m'ha:ns| v 1. увеличивать, усиливать; 2. повышать
extension [ik'stenf(3)nl п I. растяжение, расширение, удлинение; 2. распро странение, развертывание; 3. про тяженность; 4. продолжение, доба вочная часть, надставка
feature (ТгЛ|э| п I. особенность, черта; характерное свойство, признак; 2. микрообъект
gap я зазор, просвет, промежуток; щель, интервал; energy g. запре щенная зона, энергетическая щель, ширина запрещенной зоны
glue [glu:] я клей
originate [3'nd3ineit] v I. давать начало, порождать, создавать; 2. брать на чало, происходить
pair v спаривать
plasmon я плазмон (квант плазменных колебаний)
scope [skoup] п 1. пределы, рамки, границы; 2. масштаб, размах
share |/еэ] v разделять; делить; принимать участие, распределять
unravel |лп'гэеу(э)1] v 1. распуты ваться); 2. разгадывать, объяснять
UNIT 16
alter ['эзЪ] v изменять(ся), менять(ся), переделывать
alternating ['Diltaneitirj] p.p. перемен ный; а. current переменный ток
annihilate [a'naialeit] v уничтожать, отменять
annihilation |3,nai3'lei.fn] я аннигиля ция, отмена
bond я связь; диффузионный слой
bonding я связь, соединение
complicate v усложнять
complicated ['kamplikeitid] а запутан ный, сложный
conduct [кэпУлИ] v проводить
conductive [kan'dAktivj а проводящий
conductivity [,kondAk'tiviti] я удельная (электро)проводимость, электро проводность
conductor я проводник; ant. insulator ['insjuleita] я изолятор
deficiency [di'fijansi] п недостаток, отсутствие; syn. lack [laek] п (of) отсутствие, недостаток
deficient а недостаточный, недостаю щий, неполный
hole п дырка, отверстие; а дырочный
impurity [im'pjuariti] я примесь, загрязнение, включение
insulate v изолировать
interface ['intafeis] я граница раздела; а граничный, межфазный
junction fdjMikJsn] п соединение, стык, узел, переход (в полупровод нике)
lattice ['laetis] я решетка
mobile |'moubaiI| а подвижный, движущийся
mobility [mou'bilm | n подвижность, мобильность; holem. дырочная подвижность
mutual I'mjirtjusl] а взаимный, общий, совместный
neighbour ['neibo] n сосед, соседний объект, соседняя часть
neighbouring а соседний
occupied а занятый; ant. vacant I'veiksntI свободный, вакантный
occupy I'DkjupaiJ v занимать, заполнять
prevent [pn'vent] v мешать, подавлять, препятствовать
proper ['ргэрэ] а I. собственный, в собственном смысле; 2. надлежа щий, должный, соответствуюищй, подходя ший
rectification |,rektifi'keijn] п выпрямле ние
rectifier/? выпрямитель rectify I'rektifai] v выпрямлять replace [n'pleis] v заменять replacement n замещение, замена reverse |nV3:s] v изменять на обратное,
реверсировать semiconductor l.semiksn'dAkts] n
полупроводник supply [so'plai ] v питать, подавать, доставлять, подводить; я питание, подача, снабжение thermal ['9э:тэ1] а термический, теп ловой; th. agitation тепловое пере мешивание, тепловое движение wire ['waio] п провод, проволока; v проводить
UNIT 17
alter ['э:Иэ] v 1. изменять, переделы вать, менять; 2. видоизменять, вносить изменения
approximate [a'proksimit] (/приблизи тельный, приблизительно точный
constraint [kon'streint] п 1. принужде ние; 2. реакция связи
distinct [dis'tirjkt| а 1. ясный, явствен ный, отчетливый; 2. определен ный, явный
embrace | im'brcisj v включать, заклю чать в себе, охватывать
exact |ig'zaaktj а I.точный; 2. строгий
except for [ ik'sept] prep за исключени ем, кроме, если бы не
explicit | ik'splisit] о ясный, точный, определенный
familiar Ifs'miljal я близкий, хорошо знакомый
glance п: at a glance [ylu:ns| с первого взгляда
hadron ['haedron] яадрон, сильно взаи модействующая (элементарная) ча стица
integer I'mtidp] п целое число
intermediate [,into'mi:dJ3t| а промежу точный, переходный; v замещать, переставлять, чередовать, обмени ваться)
modest I'mDdist] а умеренный, небольшой, ограниченный
multiple [Wltipl] п кратное, кратное число, кратная величина
pattern |'paet(3)nj п фшура, картина, система полос; узор; образец, модель, форма; характеристика, диаграмма
perceive |p3'si:v| v понимать, осозна вать, постигать; различать, оигушать, чувствовать
rather ['га:дэ| than скорее чем; а не
remarkably |n'ma:kobli] adv замеча тельно, удивительно, необыкно венно, в высшей степени
respect п: with respect to что касается, в отношении
responsible [ris'ponsobl] а ответствен ный; надежный; достойный; важный
retain | n'tein | v сохранять, удерживать reverse |n'v3:s) v менять (на противо положный), обращать, переворачи вать
rotation [ro(u)'tci/(3)n] п вращение,
вращательное движение; поворот snowflake ['snoufleik | л снежинка spatial |'spei/(3)l| а пространственный stringent I'stnndpnt] а строгий, обязательный, точный
validity |va'hditi| n справедливость, правильность, действительность, применимость
UNIT 18
blank n техн. заготовка, болванка
designate I'dezigneitJ vопределять, обозначать, указывать
distinct jdis'tir>kt | а отдельный, отличный
diversity |dai'vo:siti| n разнообразие, многообразие, разнородность
embrace [im'brcis| v 1. обнимать; 2. охватывать
fit v 1. соответствовать, годиться, совпадать; 2. подгонять
gauge [geid3J п 1. мера, масштаб, размер, калибр; 2. измерительный прибор; зд. g. theory калибровоч ные теории поля или градиентные полевые теории
incorporate [т'кл:рэгсК| v соеди няться), объсдинять(ся)
intertwine |,intri'twain 1 v сплетать(ся), переплетаться)
invariant |in'veonnnt| п инвариант
lock [bk] п замок
perceive [pa'si:v| v воспринимать, понимать, осознавать, постигать
quark [kwa.k, kwD:k] п кварк
reveal [n'vi:l] v I. открывать; 2. показывать, обнаруживать
suffice |ss'fais] убыть достаточным, хватать
ultimately [Altimitli] adv в конечном счете, в конце концов
UNIT 19
accord [o'ko:d| п согласие, единство,
гармония alarming [o'lcumin | а тревожный,
волнующий apparently [o'pairontli) adv ятко,
очевидно, несомненно; видимо,
по-видимому arrange [3'remd3| v приводить
в порядок, располагать; размещать bear |Ьсэ| v (bore, borne) нести;
иметь, обладать
charm п очарование, шарм
constituent Iksn'stitjuont] п составная часть, элемент
conviction [kon'vikT(3)n] п убеждение, убежденность, взгляды
distinguish |dis'tirjgwif| v отличать, различать; отделять, разделять
entity |'entiti| п реальность; нечто объективно, реально существую щее; объект, единица структуры
evidence ['evid(o)ns] п основание, данные, свидетельства, доказа тельство; очевидность, явность
extend [iks'tend | у простираться, тянуться; расширять, удлинять, распространять
generation [^зепэ'ге1/(э)п| л поколение
indivisible [.mdi'vizabl] а неделимый, бесконечно малый
investment [m'vestmontJ п капиталов ложение
justify ['d3AStifai] v оправдывать, находить оправдание, подтверж дать
list п список
расе [peis] п скорость, темп, шаг preceding |pn'si:dirj] а предшествующий presumably [pn'zjirmabli] adv возможно,
вероятно prevail |pri'vei 1J v преобладать, быть
распространенным proliferation |ргэ,1гПэ'ге||"(э)п] п количе ственный рост, распространение recognize ['rekagnaizj v 1. узнавать, опознавать; 2. осознавать;
reconcile ['rekDnsail| v мирить, улажи вать, приводить в соответствие, согласовывать
status I'steitosj п существующее положение, состояние
strangeness |'strcm(d)3nis| п странность
subsequent I'sAbsikwant | а 1. последую щий, более поздний; 2. являющий ся результатом чего-л.
subsequently ['sAbsikwontli] adv впос ледствии, затем, потом
substantial [ssb'staDnfOlJ а существен ный, важный, значительный
trouble [тглЫ] v I. тревожить, волно вать; расстраивать; 2. беспокоить, мучить
worth [ws:G] п ценность, значение, достоинство
UNIT 20
accomplish [э'кэтр!]/] v выполнять, завершать
adjust [s'chy\st] v I. приводить в поря док; 2. приспосабливать, подгонять; 3. регулировать, пробовать
attempt |3'tem(p)t] v пытаться, пробовать
augment [э-.g'mentj v увеличипать(ся), прибавлять(ся)
avoid [a'vDid] v избегать, сторониться, уклоняться
bend v (bent) гнуть(ся), изгибать(ся), наклонять, поворачивать
boost v подталкивать, стимулировать
bunch п связка, пучок, группа, сгусток
cavity ['kteviti] п 1. (замкнутая) полость; 2. (объемный) резонатор
chain [tjein] п цепь, цепочка; после довательность; связь, ход
cluster ['kUstal п сгусток (частиц)', скопление, группа; пучок
curvature ['kaivatfsl п кривизна, изгиб
curve [ka:v| п кривая, характеристи ческая кривая, график
emerge [I'morcfc] v появляться; выхо дить (на поверхность); всплывать
employ [im'pbil v употреблять, использовать, применять
extract [ik'straekt] v I. извлекать, экстрагировать; 2. откачивать (газ)
gain п 1. усиление, коэффициент усиления; 2. выигрыш; приобре тенное количество, приращение
inject [in'd3ekt| v инжектировать; вводить (частицы); впускать; впрыскивать, инъецировать; вдувать
inner [тпэ] а внутренний
intersperse l.ints'spsis] v разбрасывать, рассыпать, помещать, вкладывать что-л. в промежугки
linac |'1шэк] «линейный ускоритель
line up v строить, выстраивать в линию, в ряд; становиться, строиться, выстраиваться
link п звено, связующее звено, связь
make up v 1. образовывать; 2. завер шать, оканчивать
merely ['miali ] adv только, просто, единственно
outer ['auta] а внешний, наружный
precisely Ipn'saisli] аауточно, опреде ленно
preliminary [pn'lim(i)n3n | а предвари тельный
raise [reizj v 1. поднимать; 2. повы шать, увеличивать
rectifier ['rektifaial п выпрямитель; детектор
release [ri'li:s] v освобождать, выделять (энергию)
revolution |,rev3'lu:J(3)n] п вращение, обращение, оборот
sequence ['si:kwons] п последователь ность, ряд; последствие, результат
shell п 1. оболочка; 2. снаряд
smoothly ['smu:61i| adv 1. гладко, ровно, плавно; 2. хорошо; благопо лучно
strength [stregG] п I. сила; 2. напря женность (поля); 3. прочность
supply [ss'plai] v питать, подавать, доставлять, снабжать
synchronize |'sinkronaiz| vсинхронизи ровать
trajectory ['traed3ikt(3)n ] и траектория
CONTENTS
Part i. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGICAL
progress and society 4
Introductory unit 4
unit one 8
GRAMMAR: TH e passive voice
unittwo 15
GRAMMAR: модал ы1ы e глагол ы cperfectinfinitive
unitthree 25
сл4мшл: thecomplexsubject with the infinitive
Part ii. THE universe PUZZLE .. 31
unit four 31
GRAMMAR: functions ofthe infinitive
unit five 38
GRAMMAR: participle (formsand functions)
un it six 45
GRAMMAR: th e absolute participial construction
un IT seven 53
GRAMMAR: inversion
unit eight 6 2
GRAMMAR: Tl ie subjunctive mood
Part iii. THE world of
subatomic particles 70
unitnine 70
GRAMMAR:the subjunctive mood
u nit ten 77
GRAM MAR: GERUND
unit eleven 84
GRAMMAR: gerund
u nit twelve 93
GRAMMAR: gerund
unitthirteen 101
<7ft/1/w/w/l/f:gerund
Part IV. MODERN DISCOVERIES, THEORIES
AND TECHNOLOGIES 109
unit fourteen 109
GRAMMAR: местом мен и e ONE
unit fifteen 115
GRAMMAR: revision
un it sixteen 122
GRAMMAR: ti ie com plex obj ест with the infinitive
unit seventeen 130
GRAMMAR:7HE infinitive
unit eighteen 136
GRAMMAR: глагол WOULD
un1tnineteen 144
GRAMMAR:the absolute participial construction
umttwf.niy 150
GRAMMAR:.WOULD
в придаточных 11редложениях
SUPPLEMENTARY READING 156
text 1 156
text 2 156
text3 158
text 4 158
text 5 160
text 6 161
text 7 162
text 8 163
text 9 165
text 10 166
text 11 168
text 12 169
text 13 170
text 14 171
text 15 173
text 16 174
text 17 175
text 18 177
text 19 177
VOCABULARY 179