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TFL 313 LESSON 4
RESEARCH PARADIGMES AND PROCESSES: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches
Stages of the research process are as follows:
Research process requires a sequence of steps. The first step is selecting a topic, that is a general area of study or issue (i.e. divorce, crime, education, laws, management, language use, homelessness, etc). The selection of the topic is based on the program of the study, the area of the disciplines, the personal interest, the practical, theoretical contribution, and the institutional contributions).
Selecting research paradigms is the next step. Paradigm helps us understand phenomena: it advances assumptions about social world, how science should be conducted, and what constitutes legitimate problems, solutions, and criteria of “proof” (Firestone, 1978; Gioia & Pitre, 1990; Kuhn, 1970; in Cresswell, 1994: 1). Paradigm encompasses both theories and methods.
Different paradigm determines different ontological, epistemological, axiological, rhetorical and methodological assumption.
Positivism is designed to be consistent with the assumption of QUANTITATIVE STUDY which is termed as:
The quantitative thinkings come from an empiricist tradition established by such philoshopers as Comte, Mill, Durkheim, Newton, and Locke (Creswell, 1994: 4).
This study is defined to explain variables, to test theory or to determine whether a certain predictive theory holds true or not (as done in surveys of which objective is to examine the relationships between two or more variables; or in experiments of which objective is to compare two or more different objects).
Quantitative study is based on testing theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures.
Interpretivism is designed to be consistent with the assumption of QUALITATIVE STUDY which is termed as:
This study is defined to understand a particular social or human problem, situation, events, role, group, or interaction, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting (as done in ethnography, case studies, grounded theory, and phenomenology).
Besides, it is an investigative process where the researcher gradually makes sense of a social phenomenon by:
Focus of the study is the most important part in a scholarly work. It may emerge from an extensive literature review, be suggested by colleagues, researchers, advisors, or practical experiences. A good research begins with straightforward, uncomplicated thoughts, easily read and understood.
Some suggest that the title be saved at the end after the research is proceeded. However, writing a working draft title at the beginning is important to position the central concept before the project starts. Undoubtedly, this working title will be modified as one proceeds the project. Some guidelines for a good title, as suggested by Wilkinson (1991), are as follows:
“ An Approach to ….”,
“ A Study of ….”.
“ An Ethnography: Understanding a Child’s Perception of War”, “An Analysis on …” etc.
4. Eliminate most articles
5. Make sure it includes the focus or topic of the study
6. Use not more than 12 words.
Use the following considerations:
Having considered those factors, a researcher needs to ask others for their reactions and comments to the topic. Seek reactions from:
a. colleagues,
b. noted authorities in the field,
c. academic advisors, and
d. faculty committee and colleagues.
The topic or focus of research is still large, so it must be narrowed down into a specific research problem/question.
Kerlinger (1979: 64) defines theory as “a set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining phenomena”.
The functions of theory in Quantitative and Qualitative Research are different due to the nature of the paradigms. In Quantitative Research, where researchers use accepted and precise meanings, a theory is used deductively and placed at the beginning of the plan of the research. One thus begins the study advancing a theory, collects data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory is confirmed or disconfirmed by the results of the study.
According to Creswell (1994: 88), a theory becomes a framework for the entire study. It can be placed in the introduction section, in the review of related literature, immediately after hypotheses, or research questions, or in a separate section of the study.
Therefore, it is often called a theory base, a theoretical rationale, or a theoretical perspective.
Theories vary in terms of their scope. Merriam (in Creswell, 1994: 83) groups theories into three types:
(1) Grand Theories (attempt to explain large categories of phenomena and are most common in natural sciences, example, Darwin’s theory of evolution),
(2) Middle-Range Theories (fall between minor working hypotheses of everyday life and the all-inclusive grand theories, example, life span development theories),
(3) Substantive Theories (restricted to a particular setting, group, time, population, or problem).
The form of theories might be a series of hypotheses, “if ….then” logic statements, such as “The higher her rank, the greater her influence”.
A theory can be stated as a series of “If ….then statements”, such as “If the frequency of interaction between two or more persons increases, the more they will know each other – both their respect and sentiments”.
In Qualitative Research a theory is treated differently as than in Quantitative approach. In Qualitative Approach, one does not begin with a theory to test or verify. Instead, a theory may emerge during the data collection and analysis phase of the research, or even be used relatively late in the research process as a basis for comparison with other theories.
Using an inductive model of thinking, one will build a new theory by gathering detailed information, forming categories or themes until a theory or pattern emerges.
A COMPARISON OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
|
AXIOMS |
QUANTITATIVE |
QUALITATIVE |
|
Paradigm |
Positivistic |
Interpretivism |
|
The nature of reality |
Reality is objective and singular, apart from the researcher |
Reality is subjective and multiple as seen by participants in a study |
|
The Relationship of the Researcher to the Researched object |
Researcher is independent from the object being researched |
Researcher interacts with the object being researched |
|
The Role of Values in Describing Reality |
Value-free and unbiased |
Value-bound and biased |
|
The Process of Research |
- Deductive process - Cause and effect - Context-free - Static Design : categories isolated before study - Generalizations leading to prediction and explanation - Accurate, and reliable through validity and reliability |
- Inductive process - Mutual simultaneous shaping of factors - Context –bound - Emerging design : categories identified during research process - Patterns- theories developed for understanding - Accurate and reliable through verification |
|
The Language of Research |
Formal - - Based on set definitions - Impersonal voice - Use of accepted quantitative words or terms (such as affect, influence, determine, cause, relate, compare, correlate, and impact) |
Informal - - Evolving decisions - Personal voice - Accepted qualitative words or terms (such as understanding, discovering meaning,) |
|
The Process of Formulating the Problem |
From literature, information to the related object is provided, variables are known, theories are tested |
The problem needs to be explored, as little information exists on the topic, the variables are unknown, the theories are generated |
|
Research Design |
1. Surveys 2. Experiment 3. Ex Post facto research (also called a causal comparative research ) 4. Historical research |
1. Ethnography 2. Grounded Theory 3. Case Study 4. Phenomenology 5. Historical research |
|
Research Criteria to Fulfill |
Validity Reliability Objectivity Generality |
Credibility Dependability Confirmability Transferability |
|
Research Sequence |
|
|
|
The Objective in relation to theory |
To test or verify theory |
To develop, to generate or to construct theory |