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China and the West Final Paper G485 12/18/2009 Stephen Wright |
China is a majestic and powerful beast, of many people strong but not always united. It was once under a Emperor whose reign was long and hard, till the days of influence by the West. Was it the West that influenced and corrupted China’s Dynasty, and made weak and ashamed? Was there any help by Westerners to try and understand the Orientals’ culture? Not much was known about China for myself, only what was read in the News or in Nonfiction books. It wasn’t until recently did we even know they made a good percent of our products we bought. And, then we just thought they were third world like “Mexico”, cheap labor country with nothing else to give. It didn’t help then that their toys kept testing positive for lead and were recalled. But who is China? We must look back at who they were before to see who they have become now.
All paths lead to Canton. Canton Port in S.E. China was where much trade and smuggling went on. There is where the British, from Hong Kong, would bring in opium and try at first but later given to Chinese. It wasn’t only this good that was traded, but it was the only good that Chinese took from the British. The British were spending loads of silver for such items: tea bricks, silk, Sichuan products (spicy foods and spices) and not being able to trade any items in return.
The Chinese were self-sufficient and in so were not importing but exporting only. This irritated the British as they wanted to get all of China’s mined silver teals. They devised a way to smuggle opium in 1729 through foreign trade vessels such as the Neptune. The amount smuggled in was around 200 chests at first, later surmounting to 23,570 in 1832. Each chest contained 130 to 160 pounds of opium. That is 3,064,100 lbs. of opium in 1832 alone1.
Hong Kong was also influenced early by Westerners, mainly Dutch, British, and French traders. It was a island nobody occupied and so was a trade route for pirates and Western mercantilists. But it wouldn’t be until later that British will be able to own Hong Kong as a British Territory. Around this time, 1790, there were 200,000,000 people in rural China and 250,000 in each county (100-250 counties in providence, and 28 providences). There was no limit to family size, so the more kids to help support you later. Many families were having 7 children each. This causes a food shortage, which leads to a revolution. But it is all internal revolutions, and only outside contact is really through their neighbors. Only traders on the outer ports met these foreigners and they were not allowed inside, only to trade and go home. China’s neighbors were Russia to the Northern area (with Manchuria and Mongolia), Japan to their south and Korea as well.
At this point, it is said that Chinese thought they were the center of all that they lived on, and countries like Britain and Japan, were tiny islands. This mind frame also directed at their idea of the planet being flat, and no knowledge of science or math. During the Ming Dynasty, Jesuit missionaries, the only kind of westerners inside China, brought with them sciences and astronomy, and other studies. When the Ming Dynasty fell, the Chinese made sure they ousted the westerners who influenced the Ming emperor, who was all powerful. The people were not happy at the influence of the west, and had a revolution. The west’s culture butted with the traditions and the teachings of Confucius. There was no religion but little contact with Muslims and Christian missionaries. The idea of Middle Kingdom was an idea of being center of all, or middle point; and this was located between the Yellow River and Yangzi River. They thought that westerns who ate with their hands or forks, while the Chinese ate with chop-sticks. Westerners were rude and unmannerly as well in their trade. But on the same coin, the Chinese were thought of as Barbarians as well, the lack of hygiene and no washing their hands with soap. There was a cultural barrier which was causing issues with both sides.
A tradition in China that caught the Westerns by surprise and even Hart and Lay, Inspector General’s of Commissions (Lay replacing Hart). This tradition is of the way that Chinese dealt with corruption and inefficient government officials. Official’s duty is strict and important, politics is life. If you fail the people below you, you are killed. When the government is doing this at the highest level, the people rise up, build army, and storm Peking. Before captured, usually the honor code they live by has them committing suicide. This threw off the Western forces that came in after the Boxer rebellion to squash the Boxers and force China into treaty2.
A major problem that came from westerns was the Opium Trade and accompanying wars. The British had the East India Company trading in India, and through there they followed the Silk Road to China. At first it was through private trade, corporations. This was the first corruption of the west on the east, because the Jesuit priests didn’t corrupt intentionally the Ming Dynasty. The opium was free at first, but was known to be addictive. This was a very huge problem for China3, which was also taking care of much domestic problems with politics unstable. China told British to take their trade elsewhere, as we don’t need your products and especially not the opiate. To deal with the foreigners, cohoug was established. Still, the foreigners were considered barbarians or ‘south sea barbarians’. During this issue with trade and opening ports, a British was killed over trade. This stirred up more hostility with the nations, which was brewing on the side of China. This called for a Commissioner of Foreign Trade and Policy to regulate and keep opium at a low level. They took a strong stance; Lin Zexu forced British Traders to hide in one of their Concession areas, later surrendering. While they were hiding, Zexu burned all the foreign goods and opium fields, anything tainted with vice.
This was an act of war to the British, who went back to England and reported to Parliament. Zexu sent a letter to the Queen of England explaining how being a noble ruler herself, she cares about the people she rules over, and would agree that getting rid of it was priority. He said that we were not allowing this drug to be traded in their ports, and that they were not allowed concession areas, which were causing much uprising in China. Opium War broke out, and through a disastrous naval battle for China, they were forced into more treaties and concessions; along with a huge debt to pay for damage done to the opium and the ships and wasted ammo. The British forced China into another treaty, getting Hong Kong on lease for 100 years (1897-1997), and reopened Canton to opium trade. After the second phase of the war, the British were given settlements along the coasts for trade, and open ports Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai. In Shanghai, there were foreign districts created due to foreigners protected under their own jurisdiction. In 1844, American and French treaties will be signed to gain access to Chinese ports, with open trade policies.
There began a new strategy in China, to use “barbarians to control barbarians”. It was done with having foreign commissioner offices established to help control the trade, built new cities with the technology of the westerners (i.e. railway, or building design), and learning “modern science” to go along side Chinese philosophy. Chiang chih-tung said that the time is now to use foreign technology to improve ourselves and become better than them due to our Chinese moral teaching of Confucius. China starts to use the students going to Europe to learn, to come back and use the technology and craftsmanship to build a strong navy to protect trade and against Japan. During this time, it was called “self-strengthening”, for they had to convince self before you can achieve anything. So, in order to defeat the Japanese, they had to strengthen themselves.
The only real strong relation China had was with the United States, which helped out during a food shortage, as well as with trade negotiations to make sure all is fair.
Chaos was spreading through China, from the issue of Warlords controlling the provinces, or the Late Ch’ing Dynasty’s 100 Day’s Reform period, or defeat by the Japanese in 1895, or Emperor Yuan Shih-Kai versus Sun Yat-Sen’s Republic, or the fall of the Ch’ing Dynasty. Much was going on, and a scramble for ideas of how to direct China to be more prosperous came to a halt at the 1911 Revolution. Here was a battle to get rid of what was left of the Monarchy and head into a government which is of the people, and what the Westerners will respect. A growing sense of nationalism was building amongst those who despised the foreign influence on their Government!
With this nationalism brewing and dislike for the foreigners, it was ripe time for the Boxer Rebellion; which almost got China burned to the ground. The Emperoress Dowager, who took the place of Yuan Shih-Kai who died, used the Boxers from the North to drive off and kill the foreign devil from their lands, along with their opium. This paves the way for nationalism to find a form in the KMT or Kuomintang, which will battle what soon will be the Communist Party of China. But during this time, much was done to send the youth to foreign universities where they can learn and come back to help make China better, stronger, and ready for modern world.
The main ‘Achilles Heel’ for China seems to be Foreign Relations. Jonathan Spence makes note of it in his book4, which is about how foreign advisors changed the way China does international trade and relations. Through 10 chapters, you can see many stories of the perspectives had about China and same for Chinese ‘Orientals’ perceiving Westerner ‘Barbarians’. The story of Lay and Hart, whom both play pivotal roles in the Customs Service in Imperial China. It was China’s way of using barbarians to control barbarians, without letting on to the foreigners that this was their technique. Spence makes the job of the I.G. a very prestigious one, saying he was a backdoor diplomat, whom was alongside the Chinese Foreign Ministry—the Tsungli Yamen5. Robert Hart came up through the British Foreign Services in China, bouncing around until retiring from that to join H.N. Lay at the Imperial Chinese Customs Services.
Spence points out that the foreign inspectors which were to help out with customs services in the Ch’ing Dynasty were at first despised because it was an unwelcomed interference into their civil administration. Yet, soon they came to realize that it was utilitarian of them to have the foreigners control foreigners; because monetarily-speaking the outcome of these inspectors were salutary to their government. Before, Chinese customers collections were riddled with corruption were money is “squeezed” out. In so, it was more efficiently handled by westerners, who were just doing their duty to the Ch’ing Dynasty. They money that reached Peking far exceeded the expectations of the Chinese officials6. Furthermore, the Chinese wanted to appoint their inspector, and chose Lay, because he was supportive of Ch’ing Dynasty. It was pleasing for both parties, Lay and the Chinese7. During Lay’s term, his interests were torn in multiple directions, one with the Ch’ing which came in physical conflict with America and France, who didn’t want to “fit” into their tributary system for favors bestowed upon them by the Chinese. Instead, these Western nations wanted a treaty revision, where they can gain more of a foothold in China economically and through settlements. It seems that the Barbarians used the one good tool the Chinese had against them, through negotiations over this treaty revision. He was rash and deliberate, yet making sure they knew that both sides will gain from this in the end. Through this treaty, Lay became Inspector-General of Customs, branching out of Shanghai to all the treaty ports.8 Lay was always a man who felt he was more a Representative of British interests in China, or a mediator between China and the West9.
Lay mentions that he wanted to use his position of power to bring about fair and sincere relations between Chinese and the Foreigners, in solving the pacific with China on a new footing. He was hoping to break down the barriers that hindered success between China and the West, by proving his influence was used for both parties’ interests. Yet he saw such corruption in the Chinese Government, and finds himself saying that his position was that of a foreigner working with the Chinese Government to perform duties in their interests but not under their control. On the other hand, the Chinese Government was weary of his back and forth nature, from his helping of barbarians in the treaty revision to this new sense of helping out both sides equally10.
Exiting Lay, entering Hart, was a pleasure and sigh of relief for the Chinese, who were continuing to be forced around by the might of Foreigners. Upon arrival11 on the June 5th, he was immediately meeting with Wen-hsiang, and then Prince-Kung. He proved to be the Great I.G., as he had a firm and quick grasp of customs services; but most importantly, he established a firm basis with his Chinese employers by building a cordial interpersonal relationship with the Chinese. He built a strong friendship with Prince-Kung, whom called him “our Hart”, and was impressed with his honesty and frankness. He was urged to stay and help build a strong Customs Service for the Ch’ing Dynasty, in the interests of the Chinese. This sense of empathy for the Chinese helped China against the westerners, finally being able to use barbarians to control barbarians, due not to their technique but to Hart himself. There was more need of people like Hart, Prince-Kung mentions.
Disgusted in the way Lay helped Hart in supplying a navy to defeat the Taiping uprising, Lay makes comments on Lay in a letter12. Saying that anyone who distrusts the Chinese, and believes that the only way to manage, is to drive them…and that his dictatorial attitude in Tientsin and Taoutae…and furthermore to say that nothing can be had of a government which does not at once jump onboard the bandwagon of modernization—i.e. railroads, laying down of electric telegraph wires, negotiations of foreign loans…and such, is to be said without any logic or reason whatsoever13.
Hart was an exception to most foreigners in China, who showed empathy toward a people who were being ravaged by materialist Westerns and greedy Capitalists. He saw a country of beauty and elegance. But how did Westerns view Easterners (and vice versa)? This is what makes or breaks relationships between any countries in international relations. At first, only people interested in China were Westerners looking for profit out of the Orient or missionaries trying to save souls. Much was known to Westerners from the Boxer Rebellion, CCP, and what merchants brought back as stories or journals. J.S. Mills’ comments on the people themselves under the Chinese Monarchy, by asking what kind of human beings can be found under such a despotic regime; as one elite society was trying to understand another14. Another man, a missionary, points out that it is not the nature of the Chinese to imitate reform or to carry it out fully. If they were enlightened to be able to perceive what they need to imitate reform, they do not possess the strength or ‘fixity of purpose’ to follow it through. He shows that Chinese are lazy and undetermined, and that they merely revolt against what they have and return back to their original position with new energy. Furthermore, a Briton by the name of Fryer mentions portrays the Chinese more like children due to their habit of throwing ‘temper tantrums’, and that they have no sense of intellectual curiosity. They rather live their dull and regular lives without any need or contact with politics or the outside world (referring to rural China). More speak of corruption in the government at every turn, that there is no hope for the country under Nationalism, and there isn’t any chance under Communist regime either15.
On the other hand, China saw the West in another perception. Such perceptions of Hollanders were that they were the red-haired barbarians, with sunken eyes, long noses, and unusually big. The word Barbarian was used much to describe the foreigners. White foreigners were labeled ‘barbarians’ whom were fearsome due to their devilish, fierce, ugly physical appearance, which left their character open to many possibilities. They were given the title ‘devil’ or equally derogatory name of fan kow or foreign dogs16. Even more derogatory, they were compared to goats and dogs that never were willingly given up ground, as Chinese explain is due to their rapacious and stubborn demeanor. But it was known also that there were foreigners who came over with a sense of understood propriety and practiced righteousness, and to which they could not be considered barbarians17.
In conclusion, it is seen that through trial and error, the relationship of Chinese and Foreigners was more obtainable when they were able to be empathetic toward the foreigners and able to find an I.G. like Robert Hart whom looked out for the people he worked under, which was the Chinese and the Ch’ing Dynasty. He had many pleasant things to say, and though he was not like most British, he tried to produce a better image of what the West saw of China. Though ravaged for resources and profit, China and the West have grown up through the many years and have learned much from one another, but is seen that China is still using the technique of “controlling barbarians with barbarians” to advance themselves past the West to prove that they aren’t who the West thinks they are, lazy and unable to progress. Much can be said about good relations, and much can be learned from Hart and the Inspector-General of Customs in Imperialist China.
Work Cited
1 Spence, Jonathan. "The Search for Modern China", pp. 129
2 Here Britain got Hong Kong, and many other treaty ports open to Western Nations; as well as making opium legal to trade. Again, there was no support in the negotiations on side of China resulting in them being raped of their integrity and independence.
3 Once addicted, the Chinese were (1) not paying tax, (2) selling livelihood for drug, and (3) losing silver too fast resulting in heavily mining for silver teals, which increased harsh labor. This leads to Nationalism brewing.
4 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China: Western Advisors in China”; pp. 93-128
5 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China…”, p.94
6 Spence, Jonathan, “To change China...”, pp.97-98
7 First, was to ensure that primary loyalties were directed to China not the West; Secondly, to retain the Western expertise which was providing much needed money for their depleted treasury; and third, to control Westerns, through Westerners (Spence, 98).
8 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China…”, pp.102-103
9 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China…”, pp.103
10 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China…”, p.104
11 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China…”, p.106
12 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China…”, p.110
13 Spence, Jonathan, “To Change China…”, p.111
14 Ch’en, Jerome, “China and the West”, pp.40-41
15 Ch’en, Jerome. “China and the West”, p.42
16 Ch’en, Jerome. “China and the West”, p. 59-60
17 Ch’en, Jerome. “China and the West”, p.61