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Міністерство освіти і науки України
Чернівецький торговельно-економічний інститут
Київський національний торговельно-економічний університет
ESSENTIAL ENGLISH FOR ECONOMISTS
(Англійська мова для економістів)
Чернівці 2006
Укладач : Бурбак О.Ф., канд.. філол.. наук, доцент
Навчально-методичний посібник розглянуто та схвалено на засіданні кафедри іноземних мов 25 травня 2006 р., протокол № 9
Навчально-методичний посібник розглянуто та схвалено на засіданні Методичної ради ЧТЕІ КНТЕУ 21 червня 2006 р., протокол № 5
Рецензенти: Романова Т.О., кандидат філологічних наук, доцент
Куконіна Н.А., кандидат філологічних наук, доцент
Навчально-методичний посібник “Essential English for Economists” (Англійська мова для економістів)
ПЕРЕДМОВА
Навчальний посібник Essential English for Economists призначається студентам економічних спеціальностей вищих навчальних закладів і спрямований на ґрунтовне засвоєння англійської мови професійного спрямування у сферах економіки та бізнесу.
Метою посібника є забезпечення цілісного послідовного засвоєння граматики, лексики та термінології, та набуття навичок та вмінь роботи з фаховою літературою.
Посібник містить 4 модулі, що тематично об’єднують 11 уроків, та довідник з граматики.
Навчальний матеріал розташований за принципом від простого до складного в послідовності, що забезпечує активне засвоєння лексики та формування тематичного фахового словника.
Матеріал уроків пов’язаний за тематикою і охоплює такі теми як „Що таке економіка”, „Основні поняття економіки”, „Типи економічних систем”, „Що таке бізнес”, „Форми організації бізнесу”, „Організаційна структура підприємства”, „Фінансування бізнесу”, „Бухгалтерський облік”, „Аудит”, „Міжнародний бізнес”, „Міжнародна торгівля”. Після опрацювання кожного модуля пропонується модуль-контроль у вигляді завдань для самостійної роботи, які вміщують лексичні та граматичні вправи, пов’язані з опрацьованим матеріалом, та додаткові тексти, присвячені економічній системі України, Великої Британії та США, з відповідними лексичними завданнями.
Граматичний довідник подано у вигляді таблиць з коментарями, в яких в доступній та наглядній формі викладено основні розділи граматики, що охоплюються в підручнику.
MODULE 1
UNIT 1 WHAT IS ECONOMICS?
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations:
economy – економіка, система господарювання; economic –
економічний;
economics – економіка (наука, навчальна дисципліна);
microeconomics –мікроекономіка, macroeconomics –
макроекономіка;
resource – ресурс; human and material resources – людські та
матеріальні ресурси;
to manage – керувати, управляти;
household – домашнє господарство; сім’я;
to deal (with) – мати справу (з чимось), стосуватись;
rational use – раціональне використання;
scarcity – нестача, брак (чогось); scarce – недостатній, обмежений;
activity – діяльність; human activities – види людської діяльності;
to analyze – аналізувати;
to satisfy – задовольняти;
heading – заголовок, рубрика;
to produce – виробляти; producer – виробник; production –
виробництво;
to consume – споживати; consumer – споживач; consumption –
споживання;
exchange – обмін; to exchange – обмінювати;
goods – товари, вироби; (A.E. a good – goods);
service – послуга; to serve – слугувати, обслуговувати;
supply – пропозиція; постачання; to supply – постачати;
demand – попит;
to refer (to) – посилатися (на); стосуватись;
income – прибуток, доход;
input – затрати;
output – продукція;
economic growth – економічне зростання;
unemployment – безробіття;
inflation - інфляція
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text.
What is economics?
The word economics comes from the Greek word oikonomos which means ‘to manage resources of a household’. As the resources are often limited economics deals with their rational use. All economic questions arise from the fundamental fact of scarcity. Nature does not provide all the things people want. Since human and material resources are scarce, everybody – individuals, business firms, and governments – needs to make choices from among the things needed or wanted. Economics is the social science that describes and analyses choices from among scarce resources to satisfy people’s wants and needs.
Economics studies human activities which can be grouped under three broad headings: production, consumption and exchange. Production creates supply, that is, the ability of producers to provide goods and services to individuals at various prices. Consumption characterizes demand, that is, the desire of individuals to consume goods and services at various prices. The interrelationships between supply and demand are often referred to as exchange.
There are two ways of looking at economics and the economy: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics is the study of individual consumers and the business firm. Microeconomics deals with the decisions made by individuals in determining how to get income and how to spend it. With regard to business firms microeconomics determines, first, how to use inputs in the production of output, and, second, how much output to produce. Macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole. It deals with the problems of economic growth, unemployment and inflation. Each of these factors is an indicator of the overall state of the economy.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What language does the word economics come from?
2. Why does everybody need to make choices?
3. What does economics describe and analyze?
4. What human activities does economics study?
5. What is the connection between production and supply?
6. How are consumption and demand interrelated?
7. How can you define exchange?
8. What is microeconomics?
9. What is macroeconomics?
10. What economic problems does macroeconomics deal with?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Суспільна наука; постачати товари та послуги; виникають питання; окремі особи; оскільки ресурси часто є обмеженими; що стосується/стосовно; взаємозв’язок між попитом і пропозицією; як отримати прибуток; як витрачати прибуток; вивчення економіки в цілому; кожен з цих факторів; показник.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Fundamental fact of scarcity; since; to make choices from; people’s wants and needs; which can be grouped under three broad headings; ability; at various prices; individual consumers; two way of looking at economics and the economy; how much output to produce; overall state of the economy.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: scarce, various, income, heading, want, provide, broad, deal with, consume;
B: supply, concern, wide, different, limited, title, use, earnings, desire.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: scarce, broad, employment, input, income, ability;
B: spending, narrow, plentiful, disability, output, unemployment.
Exercise 8. Choose the proper word to complete the sentence.
1. Economics deals with the (broad/narrow) spectrum of economic problems. 2. Materials that go into the production of goods or services are called (input/output). 3. Nature does not provide people with all they want since the material resources are (plentiful/scarce). 4. Demand characterizes the (ability/ disability) to consume goods and services. 5. When the (income/spending) of a household increases, it can consume more goods and services.
Exercise 9. Read the definitions below, learn the difference in meaning of the following words and translate the sentences.
Economics – science of the production, distribution and using up of goods.
Economy – system of the management and use of economic resources.
Economic – connected with trade, system of production.
Economical – careful in the spending of money, time, etc and in the use of goods.
1. Економіка вивчає економічні проблеми сучасного світу. 2. Ми повинні бути економними у використанні газу, води, електроенергії. 3. Низька інфляція – це показник стабільної економіки.
Exercise 10. Read the verbs and their explanation. Add suffix –er/-or to form a corresponding noun denoting a profession/occupation of a person. Use the model to explain what these people do.
Model: to manage – to control a business. A manager is a person who controls a business.
To produce – to create goods and services.
To provide – to give or supply what is needed or useful.
To consume – to use up (food, energy, materials, etc).
To distribute – to give or send out (goods or services).
Grammar point: The plural of nouns (p.118). Possessive Case (p.119)
Classes of pronouns (p. 120-126)
Degrees of comparison of adjectives (p. 127)
Exercise 11. Supply the corresponding plural form and group the words according to the pronunciation of the ending: [s], [z] or [iz]. Mind special cases!
Ability, business, businessman, businesswoman, choice, individual, good, income, economy, demand, input, supply, price, fact, resource, analysis, family, index, foot, datum.
Exercise 12. Paraphrase the following using the Possessive Case where possible.
Activity of man, production of goods, factor of economy, needs of people, supply of services, ability of producers, demand of consumers, choice of individuals.
Exercise 13. Use the adjective in brackets in the proper degree of comparison to complete the sentence.
1. This is the (good) choice you can make. 2. The (high) the income of a family, the (much) it spends on various goods. 3. To be economical we must use inputs in a (rational) way than before. 4. It is not always true that a (high) price means a (good) product or service. 5. Economic growth, inflation and unemployment are (important) indicators of the state of economy. 6. Energy resources become (expensive) with every year.
Exercise 14. Use the proper form of a pronoun in brackets.
1. (He/him) is our manager. 2. (We/us) always ask (he/him) questions and (he/him) tries to answer (they/them). 3. (I/me) don’t remember (she/her). 4. Where is (your/yours) notebook? 5. Make (your / yours) choice and then I’ll make (my/mine). 6. (This/these) book is more interesting than (that/those) one. 7. All students are here. (You/your) can see (they/them) in the hall. 8. (This/these) are (our/ours) suppliers. 9. (They/them) provide good services to satisfy (their/theirs) customers. 10. There is a great demand for (our/ours) goods in (this/these) regions. 11. Please, show (we/us) the way to the nearest supermarket.
Exercise 15. Insert the proper pronoun.
a) some, any, no, every:
1. … business firm wants to be successful. 2. As there is …sugar in the house we must buy … 3. Do you have … ideas how to deal with this situation?
b) somebody, anybody, nobody, everybody:
1. At elections … must make a choice. 2. … is waiting for you at the office. 3. This question is very difficult. … can answer it. 4. Can we find … to supply these goods?
c) something, anything, nothing, everything:
1. I want to be an expert in economics. That is why I need to know … concerning this subject. 2. Here is your money. You can buy … you want. 3. I am very hungry. Do we have … to eat? 4. There is … for you on your desk. 5. He is so demanding that … can satisfy him.
d) somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere:
1. Their products are so popular that you can buy them… 2. I think this firm is situated … here. 3. He cannot find his notebook … 4. I feel so tired that I want … to go.
Exercise 16. Fill in the proper self-form.
1. She knows the language so well that she translates everything … 2. I can answer this question … 3. It is such a difficult problem that one cannot solve it … 4. The project … is very prospective. 5. Always make your choice …
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about economics and the problems it deals with.
2. Speak about economics and its subdivisions.
UNIT 2 FUNDAMENTAL ECONOMIC NOTIONS
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations:
notion – поняття;
to allocate – розміщувати, розподіляти; allocation – розміщення;
standard of living – рівень життя;
to include – включати;
factor of production – фактор/чинник виробництва;
to own – володіти; owner – власник;
rent – рента, орендна плата, прибуток з нерухомості;
to pay – платити; payment – оплата;
effort – зусилля; physical and mental efforts –фізичні та розумові
зусилля;
labour (A.E. labor) – праця; трудовий;
wages – заробітна платня; syn. salary;
concept – поняття, концепція;
entrepreneur – підприємець; entrepreneurship – підприємництво;
skill – навички, вміння; managerial or organizational skills –
управлінські або організаційні навички;
reward – винагорода;
innovative – новаторський, передовий;
profit – прибуток; to earn/ make profit – заробляти прибуток;
equipment – обладнання; syn. machinery;
interest – відсоток; доходи з капіталу;
thus – отже, таким чином;
to address (a problem) – звертатися (до проблеми).
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text
Fundamental economic notions
Economics studies how various resources are best allocated to produce the highest standard of living and quality of life. The resources that go into creation of goods and services are called the factors of production. They include natural resources, human resources and capital. Each factor of production has a place in the economic system and each has a particular function.
Our country is rich in natural resources that include land, water, mineral resources and climate. The price paid for the use of land is called rent. Rent becomes income to the owner of the land.
Physical and mental efforts that people put into creation of goods and services are called labour or human resources. The price paid for the use of labour is called wages or salary. Closely associated with labour is the concept of entrepreneurship, meaning the managerial or organizational skills used by firms to produce goods and services. The reward to entrepreneurs for the risks, innovative ideas and efforts that they have put into the business are profits. Profit is whatever remains after the owners of land, labour and capital received their payments.
Capital is something created by people to produce goods and services. A factory, tools and equipment are capital resources. The term ‘capital’ is often used by business people to refer to money they can use to buy factories, machinery and other productive resources. Payment for the use of someone else’s money or capital is called interest.
Human wants are unlimited while resources needed to satisfy these wants are scarce or limited. Thus every society has to address the main economic problems: What goods and services to produce? How to produce them? Whom to produce them for? The way in which a society deals with these problems is known as its economic system.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What does economics study?
2. With what aim are resources best allocated?
3. What do we call factors of production?
4. What do we include into natural resources?
5. What is rent?
6. What do we call labour / human resources?
7. What is the meaning of the concept of entrepreneurship?
8. What are profits?
9. In what meaning do businessmen use the term ‘capital’?
10. What is interest ?
11. What economic problems does every society have to address?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Найвищий рівень життя; ресурси, що йдуть на створення товарів та послуг; кожен має певну функцію; тісно пов’язаний (з чимось); ризик; термін; в той час як; кожне суспільство; звертатися до проблеми.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Quality of life; the owner of the land; efforts that people put into something; the concept of entrepreneurship; whatever remains; someone else’s money; to deal with the problem.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: capital, concept, each, equipment, income, particular, wages;
B: profit, salary, machinery, notion, money, definite, every.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: include, innovative, various, profit, physical;
B: loss, mental, exclude, particular, outdated.
Exercise 8. Choose the proper word in brackets to complete the sentences.
1. Managerial skills are (physical/mental) efforts that firms use to produce goods and services. 2. When we calculate (profits/losses) we have to (include/exclude) the payment for land, labour and capital resources. 3. Our firm is successful thanks to (innovative/outdated) ideas proposed by the management. 4. Each factor of production has its (various/particular) function in the economy.
Exercise 9. Compose all possible word combinations with the word resources and translate them. Combine phrases with similar meaning.
Resources – capital, economic, energy, financial, human, labour, land,
limited, mineral, natural, productive, scarce, water.
Exercise 10. Complete the sentences with the proper words from the list below:
allocation, factor of production, the standard of living, income, new equipment, innovative ideas
1. Every … has its particular function in the economy. 2. Entrepreneurship is closely associated with … and risks. 3. We allocated big capital to buy … for our factory. 4. Rational … of resources is the basis of economic growth. 5. Governments do their best to increase … of their citizens. 6. Being the owner of the land he receives his … in the form of rent.
Exercise 11. On the basis of the text define the following terms:
Factors of production, natural resources, rent, labour/human resources, entrepreneurship, production resources, profit, capital, interest, wages/salary.
Grammar Points:* Comparative structures.
Present Indefinite Tense: Active and Passive Forms (p. 131-134).
Types of Questions (p.116-117).
* Sometimes you can use two comparatives together to say that something is changing continuously, e.g. harder and harder, more and more interesting.
Exercise 12. Use comparative structure in the following sentences.
1. Natural resources become …(scarce). 2. In consumer society people buy …(much). 3. Labour resources become …(expensive). 4. Risks associated with new businesses become …(high). 5. As I wait for my interview I get …(nervous). 6.As we learn more, we become …(skilful).
Exercise 13. Use the verb in brackets in the proper form.
1. He (to say) he (to earn) high profits. 2. They often (to buy) products that they (to need) in this supermarket. 3. She (to be) a successful entrepreneur. 4. We often (to receive) letters from our friend who (to live) in Glasgow. 5. Each factor of production (to have) a particular function. 6. She (not to use) computer very often. 7. Where you (to come from)? 8. He (not to understand) the concept of entrepreneurship. 9. What time you (to start) work ?
Exercise 14. Use these sentences to make questions. Begin with the word(s) in brackets.
1. She often visits the nearest supermarket (How often?) 2. Jane teaches economics (Where?) 3. People make mistakes (Why?) 4. She comes from Scotland (Where?) 5. He watches programmes on economy (When?) 6. He gets up in the morning (What time/usually?) 7. I write to my parents (How often?) 8. Entrepreneurs receive rewards for their efforts (Who?)
Exercise 15. Read the text and mark sentences with passive forms. In what cases is the doer of the action mentioned/omitted?
Exercise 16. Make passive transformations according to the model.
Model: Suppliers provide products. - Products are provided by suppliers.
1. The government allocates resources. 2. People create capital. 3. Prices motivate production. 4. The interaction of demand and supply determines prices. 5. Workers receive wages twice a month. 6. They sell product at low price. 7. Business people often use the term ‘capital’. 8. Every society addresses the main economic problems. 9. The owner of the land receives rent. 10. Economics studies demand, supply and interrelations between them.
Exercise 17. Choose the proper form of the verb in brackets.
1. We often (divide/are divided) markets into two groups: goods and services. 2. Goods and services that (buy/are bought) in the market (call/are called) products. 3. Capital (uses/is used) to buy productive resources. 4. Natural resources (include/are included) land, water, mineral resources and climate.
Exercise 18. Make up questions to the words underlined.
1. Change in price is represented graphically. 2. Markets are usually classified into two categories. 3. Entrepreneurs’ risks are not always rewarded.
Discussion of the text.
Speak about the main factors of production and their components.
UNIT 3 ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations:
to distinguish (between) – розрізняти (між);
planned /command economy – планова/командна економіка;
market economy – ринкова економіка;
mixed economy – змішана економіка;
ownership – власність; private ownership – приватна власність;
to involve – залучати, включати;
central planning and direction – централізоване планування та
спрямування;
means of production – засоби виробництва;
to vary – змінювати, варіювати;
enterprise – підприємство;
to manage – керувати; management – керівництво;
to accept the risk – приймати (на себе) ризик;
to succeed – мати успіх; success – успіх;
to fail – потерпати невдачу; failure – невдача;
to make losses – нести збитки;
innovation – новаторство, нововведення;
engine – двигун;
long-term growth –довгострокове зростання;
to compete – конкурувати; competitor – конкурент; competition –
конкуренція; competitive – конкурентний;
to interact – взаємодіяти;
taxation – оподаткування;
to intervene – втручатися;
wide range of goods and services – широкий асортимент товарів та
послуг.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text
Economic systems
An economic system is the way in which a society uses its available scarce resources (natural resources, labour resources and capital resources) to satisfy the demands of its citizens for goods and services. The more goods and services are produced from the country’s limited resources the higher the standard of living of its citizens. Economists distinguish between three main economic systems: planned, market and mixed.
Planned economy is sometimes called ‘command’ economy because the state (government) commands the use of resources that go into the production of goods and services as it owns factories, land and natural resources. Planned economy involves central planning and direction, when the government takes all decisions concerning production and consumption. There is no state which is completely a command economy; the actual system varies from state to state.
Market economy is the system based on private enterprise with private ownership of the means of production and private supplies of capital. The government plays no role in the management of the economy. There exist no examples of pure market economy as it necessarily contains some businesses owned and run by the state. In a market economy it is the consumers who decide what is to be produced. A cornerstone of the market economy is quick response to changing demands. Private entrepreneurs accept the risks of introducing new products and new production processes. If they succeed, they hope to earn large profits, if they fail, they expect to make losses. Thus innovation is the engine of long-term growth of living standards. Since all businesses are privately owned they try to be highly competitive and make largest profits.
In practice most countries have what is called a mixed economic system – a combination of free markets plus government allocation of resources. Mixed economy contains elements of both market and planned economies. In a mixed economy the government and the private sector interact in solving economic problems. The state controls the output through taxation and intervenes to supply essential goods and services such as health, education and defense, while private businesses provide consumers with a wide range of different products and services.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What is defined as an ‘economic system’?
2. What are the three main economic systems?
3. Why is planned economy sometimes called “command”?
4. What is the role of the government in command economies?
5. What is market economy based on?
6. How does the government act in a market economy?
7. Who decides what is to be produced in market economy?
8. What is a cornerstone of market economy?
9. What risks are involved in the introduction of innovations?
10. Who accepts these risks?
11. What is called a mixed economy?
12. How do the government and private businesses interact in a mixed economy?
13. Are there examples of ‘pure’ command/market economies in real life?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Задовольняти попит; чим більше товарів та послуг виробляється, тим вищий рівень життя; система, що базується на приватній власності; не відігравати жодної ролі в управлінні економікою; швидкий відгук; ризики, пов’язані з впровадженням нових товарів; контролювати випуск продукції через оподаткування.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Resources that go into the production; the actual system varies; private supplies of capital; pure market economy; it necessarily contains; it is the consumers who decide; new production processes; the long-term growth; to be highly competitive; both…and; essential goods and services.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: actual, to vary, to run smth, to contain, to control, to hope, to intervene, response, different;
B: to operate, to manage, to expect, to interfere, to differ, real, various, answer, to include.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: private, quick, long-term, different, wide, response, profit, succeed;
B: similar, short-term, narrow, fail, question, slow, state, loss.
Exercise 8. Complete the sentences using the words from ex.7 (the first letter is given).
1. Mixed economy is characterized by p… and s… forms of ownership. 2. He gave no r… to my q… 3. Everybody wants to s…, not to f… 4. The aim of any business is to make p… 5. Risky business involves the possibility of p… or l… 6. Manufacturers supply a w… range of d… goods to the market. 7. Competitors are producers who provide s… products. 8. In command economies the s… develops l…-t… plans for industries.
Exercise 9. Complete the sentences with the proper words from the list below:
in response to, through the system of taxation, innovations, planned economy, owned, varies
1. In … the government usually plans five years ahead. 2. The actual system of economy … from state to state. 3. In mixed economies some resources are controlled by the government while others are used by private businesses … consumers’ demands. 4. The government controls the output … 5. In real life market economies always contain businesses … by the state. 6. Introduction of… can lead to unemployment.
Grammar points:* Emphatic structures. *Comparative structures.
Numeral (p.128-130)
The Past Indefinite Tense: Active and Passive Forms (p.135)
*The structure It is/was… that/who… can be used to emphasize almost any part of the sentence (except for the predicate). Compare:
He proposed an alternative plan at the meeting yesterday.
1. It was he who proposed an alternative plan at the meeting yesterday.
2. It was an alternative plan that he proposed at the meeting yesterday.
3. It was at the meeting yesterday that he proposed an alternative plan.
4. It was yesterday at the meeting that he proposed an alternative plan.
Exercise 10. Emphasize the subject in the following sentences.
1. The government and private businesses interact in a mixed economy. 2. Producers supplied different goods to the market. 3. Consumers made their choice concerning our products.
* The structure The…the…(with two comparatives) is used to say that one thing depends on the other.
Exercise 11.Combine the following sentences into one using the model: The more you have, the more you want.
The more you practice English the better the service.
The more skilful you are the higher the quality of life.
The more goods you produce the higher you reward is.
The better resources are allocated the faster you’ll learn it.
The more expensive the hotel the more profit you’ll make.
Exercise 12. Translate into English.
1.Чим більше ми виробляємо, тим більше ми споживаємо. 2. Чим більші затрати, тим дорожчий продукт. 3. Чим рідкісніші ресурси, тим вищі виробничі затрати. 4. Чим нижчі зарплати, тим менший прибуток сім’ї. 5.Чим вищий рівень життя, тим багатше суспільство.
Exercise 13. Read the following.
Numbers: ½; ⅔; 1 ¼; 0.739; 2.25; 3,247,068; 20%; 6+28=34; 25∙4=100; 33:11=3; 85 – 29 =56; 5ⁿ; dates: 07.01.1999; 20. 12.1765; 09.05.2005; time: 7.30; 12.50; 17.15; 12.00; 23.45.
Exercise 14. Translate into English.
Другий партнер; третій сорт; восьме завдання; дванадцятий поверх; двадцять шоста вулиця; сто перша річниця; п’яте жовтня; одна п’ята; сім восьмих; одна ціла і одна друга; сорок відсотків.
Exercise 15. Read a sentence about Ann’s daily routine and write a corresponding sentence in the past as is shown below:
Usually Ann gets up rather early. – Yesterday Ann got up later than usual.
1. Ann usually gets to her work by bus.-Yesterday…
2. Ann is never late for work. – Yesterday …
3. Ann works from 10 to 19. – Yesterday…
4. Ann has a break for lunch at 14. – Yesterday…
5. In the evening Ann usually meets her friends and goes out with them. -…
Exercise 16. Insert one of the following verbs in the past form in each sentence:
be, buy, cost, make, sell, spend, teach
1. Ann … a lot of money yesterday. She … a dress which …$50. 2. I badly needed some money so I … my car. 3. He … me how to drive when I … 18. 4. Last year the company … a big profit.
Exercise 17. Give two passive variants of the following sentences as in the model: This company sold us some new equipment. - 1. We were sold some new equipment by this company. 2. Some new equipment was sold to us by this company.
1. He told us an interesting episode from his life. 2. She gave them the most complete information. 3. He presented our plan to the management. 4. Businesses provided consumers with a wide range of goods and services. 5. We supplied our customers with high quality products.
Exercise 18. Choose the proper form of the verb to complete the sentence.
1. His decision (based/was based) on a carefully calculated plan. 2. We (expected/were expected) a letter from our friend. 3. Our business (managed/was managed) quite successfully. 4. All risks (accepted/were accepted) by our partners. 5. They (made/were made) their products highly competitive. 6. Their products (made/were made) of high quality components. 7. The company (owned/was owned) a few factories in this part of the country. 8. The company (owned/was owned) by a successful entrepreneur. 9. She (accepted/was accepted) the changes in our plan. 10. The process (controlled/was controlled) at each step.
Exercise 19. Add question-tags to the following statements:
1.They have partners in all European countries, …? 2. You are here for the first time, …? 3. He didn’t earn much for this project, …? 4. Their tools were the best in the world market, …? 5. Private ownership is a cornerstone of a market economy,…? 6. They were elected to the Parliament, …? 7. These products are not imported from Europe,…?
Discussion of the text.
Characterize the three main types of economic system.
MODULE CONTROL ASSIGNMENTS FOR SELF-WORK
Assignment 1. Write the following words in normal English script. The first is done for you. Which of them are defined below? Write a corresponding word after the definition.
1.[΄biznis] –
2.[ri΄so:siz] –
3.[sə΄plai] –
4.[΄skeəs] –
5.[ri΄wo:d] –
6.[ǽlə΄kei∫(ə)n] –
7.[ik΄wipmənt] –
8.[ontrəprə΄nə:] –
9.[΄intrist] –
10.[΄kriei∫n] –
1) compensation which is offered, given or accepted in return for work or service –
2) a person who organizes and manages a commercial project –
3) wealth, supplies of goods, raw materials, etc which a person, country, etc has or can use –
4) money paid for the use of someone else’s money –
Assignment 2. Look at the table comparing three satellite TV channels. Complete the sentences about them using adjectives in brackets in the correct form and writing the corresponding numerals in words.
|
Anchor TV |
Bland TV |
Colt TV |
|
|
Number of viewers per day |
4 mln |
2 mln |
3 mln |
|
Yearly profit |
$ 52 mln |
$54 mln |
$58 mln |
|
Hours of sport per week |
28 |
45 |
32 |
|
Growth of viewers in last year |
10% |
35% |
30% |
|
Number of employees |
150 |
90 |
120 |
|
Quality of programmes |
good |
excellent |
fair |
1. Anchor TV has … number of viewers per day (high). …people watch Anchor TV every day.
2. Colt TV is … than Anchor TV (profitable). It earned … dollars last year.
3. Bland TV is … channel for sports fans (suitable). It shows … hours of sport every week.
4. The number of Colt TV viewers grew … than those of Anchor TV(fast). The number of Colt TV viewers has grown by …
5.Anchor TV has … number of employees(large). …people work for Anchor TV.
6. According to critics, Bland TV shows … programmes (good).
Assignment 3. Supply the correct form of the verb in brackets. Answer the questions following the text in written form.
My friend … (to be) Nicolas Donetti and he… (to be) a manager. He… (to work) for a big firm in Rome, Italy. The firm… (to have) a lot of branches all over the world and Nicolas… (to deal) with the partners in other countries. He… (to need) to discuss many problems with them, so he… (to try) to improve his English and… (to attend) English classes twice a week after work. It… (not to be) easy to find time for English studies but he… (to work) hard to be among the best students in his group.
His job… (to be) very interesting. He generally… (to start) at eight o’clock and often… (not to finish) until six at night. The journey to and from work… (to take) about 45 minutes each way and when he… (to come) home he (to need) some time to relax. He usually… (to have) a nice meal with his family which… (to take) him about an hour. Then he …(to spend) nearly an hour on his English. If there… (not to be) any English class that day he… (to have) free time which he… (to devote) to reading, watching TV or going out with his friends. Nicolas… (to try) to get eight hours’ sleep to be in good form for the next day. It only… (to take) Nicolas half an hour to get ready in the mornings as he… (not to bother) with breakfast.
1. What time does Nicolas get up?
2. What time does Nicolas go to sleep?
3. Why does Nicolas study English?
Assignment 4. Write the verbs in brackets in the past form and learn how Mike Brandt memorized new English words. Answer the questions following the text applying the Passive Voice.
I…( to write) the words and expressions I …(to want) to learn on individual cards and …(to keep) them in a box file. In the section at the front I … (to keep) the new words that I … ( to hope) to memorize. I … (to spend) a couple of minutes every day looking through them. In the middle section of the box …(to be) the words that I half …( to learn). I…(to try) to look at them every week. Then at the back of the box…(to be) the words I…(to think) I…(to know) quite well. I…( not to look) at them very often.
1. What were the words and expressions written on? 2. Where were the cards kept? 3. What words were kept in the front/ in the middle/ in the back section of the box file? 4. How much time was spent every day on learning the new words? 5. How often were the words in the middle/back section looked through?
Assignment 5. Read and translate the following text.
Our Institute
I am a first year student of Chernivtsy Institute of Trade and Economics . It is one of the affiliations of Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics. The university is one of the leading higher educational establishments in Ukraine. A lot of highly-qualified specialists train students for the non-production sphere, that is trade, business (home and international), financial institutions and banks, state administration and authorities, public catering, hotel and tourist complexes, the Customs,etc
Chernivtsy Institute has three faculties (schools): the Economics and Management faculty, the Accounting and Finance faculty, the Entrepreneurship faculty. There is also the faculty of Postgraduate Studies where one can receive a second higher education. Students can study either at the day department as full-time students or at the correspondence department which provides classes for part-time students. The term of studies lasts from 4 to 5 years depending on the subject you major in.
To become a student you must pass entrance examinations or preliminary interview. The tuition at our institute is generally free of charge, but those who study on a contract basis pay for their tuition.
Our institute grants Bachelor, Specialist or Master degree in such fields as international economics, economic cybernetics, marketing, economy of enterprise, accounting and auditing, finance and credit, hotel and tourism management, management of organizations.
Our institute occupies three buildings in the centre of the city. Students have all necessary facilities to study: modern classrooms, laboratories equipped with personal computers. The institute library is well-stocked with text-books, reference literature and periodicals. There is also a reading hall where students can read for their classes. Those who go in for sports can do so in our gymnasium under the guidance of professional coaches. Our students have all opportunities to master foreign languages, carry out research projects and take part in different conferences held at the institute each year. Students that come to our institute from other places have at their disposal a cozy dormitory, where accommodation facilities are provided at reasonable prices.
The teaching staff of the institute do their best to give the students a sound economic education and prepare highly-qualified specialists for the national economy of our country.
Assignment 6. Make a written translation of paragraphs 2, 3 and 4.
Assignment 7. Answer the following questions in written form:
1. What sphere are the students of Chernivtsy Institute of Trade and Economics trained for?
2. How one can become a student of the institute?
3. Do all the students pay for their tuition?
4. What facilities does the institute provide the students with?
Assignment 8. Translate into English.
1. Я – студент Чернівецького торговельно-економічного інституту.
2.Я вчусь на першому курсі денного відділу факультету економіки та менеджменту.
3. Наші заняття проводяться в зручних аудиторіях, обладнаних персональними комп’ютерами.
4. Студенти мають всі можливості одержати грунтовну економічну освіту.
5. Після п’яти років навчання я сподіваюсь отримати диплом спеціаліста з обраної спеціальності.
Assignment 9. Get ready to speak about Chernivtsy Institute of Trade and Economics.
MODULE 2
UNIT 4. WHAT IS BUSINESS?
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and phrases.
exchange – обмін;
related (to) – пов’язаний з; такий, що відноситься до;
to change smth into smth – перетворювати щось на щось;
tangible – видимий, матеріальний; opp. intangible;
insurance – страхування;
health protection – охорона здоров’я;
distribution – розповсюдження, збут; channels of distribution –
система збуту; канали розповсюдження;
directly – прямо, безпосередньо; opp. indirectly – опосередковано;
aid – допомога;
intermediary – посередник;
sale – продаж;
revenues – надходження;
expenses – витрати;
surplus – надлишок;
goal – мета;
responsibility – відповідальність; to bear responsibility – нести
відповідальність;
profit-seeking activity – діяльність, що спрямована на отримання
прибутку;
means – засоби;
to improve – покращувати, вдосконалювати
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text.
What is business?
Business is a word that is commonly used in many different languages. But exactly what does it mean? Traditionally business simply meant exchange or trade for things people wanted or needed. Today this broad term can be applied to different kinds of human activity and many kinds of enterprise.
All activities traditionally related to business can be grouped under three headings: production, distribution and sales. The first group of activities, production, concerns the changing of materials into products or the creation of services. Some businesses produce what is called tangible goods, such as cars, clothes, foodstuffs. Others produce intangible goods or services, which are activities that people perform for other people. Such activities as insurance, banking operations or health protection are referred to as services.
The second group of activities is known as distribution. Distribution is the process of getting goods from the producer to the consumer in the quickest and most efficient way. Distribution is performed through distribution channels that link the producer and the consumer directly or indirectly with the aid of intermediaries.
Third is the sale of goods and services. Sale is the exchange of a good or service for money. Money that a company receives from the sale of its products is called revenues. If the company is a success its revenues not only cover its expenses, that are the money spent on the production of the output, but also contain some surplus. This surplus is commonly defined as profit or the difference between the company’s revenues and expenses. Thus, creating an economic surplus or profit is the primary goal of any business activity.
Just as important as profits are social and ethical responsibilities that companies bear in their dealing with employees, consumers, suppliers, competitors, government and the society. Business, then, can be broadly defined as all profit-seeking activities and enterprises that provide the means through which the society’s standard of living improves.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.
1. What was the traditional meaning of the word ‘business’?
2. What activities are traditionally related to business?
3. What goods are called tangible/intangible? Give some examples.
4. How is distribution performed?
5. What do we call ‘revenues’?
6. Are revenues the same as profit? What distinguishes them?
7. What responsibilities do businesses bear dealing with the society?
8. What is the role of business in the society?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Точно; створення послуг; харчові продукти; діяльність, яку люди виконують для інших людей; найшвидший та найефективніший спосіб; пов’язувати виробника та споживача безпосередньо або опосередковано; якщо компанія успішна; містити деякий надлишок; соціальна та етична відповідальність.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Broad term; tangible/intangible goods; the process of getting goods or services from the producer to the consumer; through distribution channels; with the aid of intermediaries; the exchange of smth for smth; to cover the expenses; primary goal; to bear responsibility; to provide the means.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: aid, intermediary, revenue, responsibility, expense, surplus, goal;
B: income, profit, expenditure, aim, help, middleman, duty.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: direct, tangible, producer, profit, output, revenues, employer;
B: input, loss, consumer, employee, intangible, expenses, indirect.
Exercise 8. Complete the sentences with proper words from ex.7.
1. If a business is successful it earns p… 2. Trade union’s responsibility is to settle the disputes arising between the e… and the e… 3. Profit is the difference between r… and e… 4. T… goods are products that we can see, touch or taste. 5. We improved the technological process to increase the o… 6. Usually p… and c… are linked by i… distribution channels that include intermediaries.
Exercise 9. Add question-tags to the following statements.
1. Last year the company earned good profits, …? 2. Many firms provide after-sale services, …? 3. You are here for the first time, …? 4. He didn’t earn much for this project, …? 5. They have partners in nearly all European countries, …? 6. He will perform this task himself,…? 8. Their tools were the best in the world,…?
Exercise 10. On the basis of the text define the following notions:
Business, distribution, expenses, production, profit, sale, services, revenues.
Grammar point:
The Future Indefinite Tense: Active and Passive forms (p.136)
The use of tenses in Subordinate Clauses of Time and Condition
Exercise 11. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative.
1. A network of supermarkets will be established in this region. 2. He will give his answer tomorrow. 3. These products will be sold everywhere. 4. We shall accomplish our plan in two years. 5. Services will be provided to all customers in this district.
Exercise 12. Use the verb in brackets in the correct form of the Future Indefinite tense.
1. They (to go) on business trip to Kyiv in 2 days. 2. The contract (to be signed) tomorrow. 3. The students (to take part) in the conference next month. 4. The conference (to be held) in February. 5. When he (to return) from Lviv? 6. A new equipment (to be installed) next quarter. 7. They (to improve) the distribution process by employing a new agent. 8. We hope the company (to be) profitable. 9. They (to bear) all responsibility for this project. 10. His new job (to be related) to health protection.
Exercise 13. Make the following sentences passive omitting the doer of the action.
1. They will distribute our products through their service stations. 2. We shall provide our partners with some assistance (2 variants). 3. The firm will deliver office furniture in two weeks. 4. He will serve this customer immediately. 5. They will sell this programme to millions of consumers. 6. We shall buy new computers for our head office. 7. He will calculate his revenues and expenses at the end of the year.
Exercise 14. Make up all possible sentences using the table below.
|
Principle clause |
Conjunction /сполучник/ |
Subordinate clause of time or condition |
|
I’ll ring you up |
if /якщо/ |
I learn something new |
|
He’ll tell you everything |
provided /при умові/ |
you keep it secret |
|
She’ll make her decision |
as soon as /як тільки/ |
the situation clears up |
|
He’ll help us |
unless/якщо не/ |
he is busy |
|
The customer will wait |
till/until /доти, поки/ |
the manager comes |
|
The director will see us |
after /після того, як/ |
she finishes her interview |
|
We’ll call the taxi |
when /коли/ |
everything is ready |
|
They’ll finish their work |
before /до того, як/ |
she returns from her business trip |
Exercise 15. Rewrite the following sentences according to the model. Remember, that after unless the verb is used in the affirmative form.
Model: He will not call if he does not need your help.-
He will not call unless he needs your help.
1. You won’t speak English well if you don’t practice it every day. 2. They won’t earn any profit if they don’t modernize their factory. 3.We shan’t order these goods if they don’t make the price more attractive. 4. This product won’t be introduced if the customers don’t need it. 5. His project won’t be discussed if he doesn’t assume all responsibility for it.
Exercise 16. Use the verb in brackets in the proper tense form. Remember, that objective clauses answer the question what? while adverbial clauses of time and condition answer the questions when? on what condition? All actions refer to the future.
1. He‘ll call you back when he (to return). 2. Tell me when she (to come) to visit you. 3. I want to know if she (to agree) to our plan. 4. They’ll deliver the goods if we (to sign) the contract. 5. I wonder if they (to deliver) goods themselves? 6. Does anybody know when the manager (to be) back? 7. They won’t provide the equipment if we (not to pay) them in advance. 8. They don’t know if they (to supply) their products next year.
Exercise 17. Use the verb in brackets in the correct tense form (all actions refer to the future).
1. If they (to order) these goods we (to deliver) them in time. 2. They (to accept) our proposal if we (to make) the price less expensive. 3. He (to visit) our firm if he (to have) enough time. 4. I (to perform) this calculation if she (to help) me. 5. You (to make) less mistakes provided you (to be) more attentive. 6. He (to wait) until the meeting (to be finished). 7. They (to give) their final answer as soon as they (to receive) our letter.
Exercise 18. Translate into English.
1. Мета нашої організації буде досягнута, якщо ми працюватимемо більш ефективно. 2. Товари будуть доставлені якнайшвидше. 3. Наші товари стануть дешевшими при умові, що ми зменшимо витрати. 4. Ми відвідаємо ваш завод, як тільки ви розпочнете виробництво цих товарів. 5. Якщо ми не модернізуємо виробництво, ми зазнаємо великих втрат в найближчому майбутньому.
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about business and its main goal.
2. Dwell on the activities related to business.
UNIT 5 FORMS OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations.
ownership = proprietorship-власність; owner/proprietor – власник;
private ownership-приватна власність;
public ownership- суспільна/державна власність;
sole proprietorship- одноосібна власність;
to account for – охоплювати, пояснювати;
receipts – надходження; business receipts –надходження від бізнесу;
partner- партнер;
limited partner-партнер з обмеженою юридичною відповідальністю
unlimited partner- партнер з необмеженою відповідальністю;
general partner –загальний партнер;
silent partner- партнер без права голосу;
secret partner- таємний партнер;
partnership –партнерство;
liability- відповідальність, обов’язок;
limited/unlimited liability- обмежена/ необмежена відповідальність;
authority- права, повноваження, влада;
advantage – перевага;
diversified – різноманітний, багатогалузевий, розгалужений;
benefit – привілеї, зиск, вигода; syn. advantage,
tax benefits- податкові привілеї;
terminating business – завершення або обмеження бізнесу;
to incorporate- 1)об’єднуватись, приєднувати; 2)реєструвати;
corporate - об’єднаний, корпоративний, спільний;
corporation- об’єднання, корпорація; акціонерне товариство;
share – частка;
share certificate= stock certificate –акція;
shareholder= stock-holder –акціонер;
to issue shares/stock- випускати акції;
ability – здатність, спроможність;
possibility – можливість;
to invest – інвестувати;
research – наукове дослідження;
accounting records – бухгалтерські записи;
double taxation – подвійне оподаткування.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text.
Forms of Business Organization
A business may be privately owned in three different forms. These forms are: the sole proprietorship, the partnership and the corporation.
The sole proprietorship is the simplest organizational form. There is one owner who makes decisions without consulting anyone. Most private businesses are sole proprietorships. First of all, they are service industries, such as beauty shops, different repair shops, restaurants. But they account for only small part of all business receipts.
A partnership is an association of two or more partners to carry on business for profit. When the owners of the partnership have unlimited liability they are called general partners. If partners have limited liability they are limited partners. There may be a silent partner – a person who is known to the public as a member of the firm but without authority in the management, and a secret partner – a person who takes part in management but who is not known to the public. The advantages of this form are obvious: it can provide a big capital, diversified management, tax benefits from the government. Partnerships have certain disadvantages, too. One is unlimited liability. Other disadvantages are division of profits, disagreements between the partners and difficulty on terminating the business.
A business corporation is an institution established for the purpose of making profit. It is operated by individuals. Their shares of ownership are represented by stock certificates. A person who owns a stock certificate is called a stock-holder. The advantages of this form are the following: 1) the ability to attract financial capital; 2) the possibility to invest the capital in plants, equipment and research, 3) the possibility to offer higher salaries and attract talented managers and specialists.
It is obvious that there are some disadvantages to incorporating. Here are a few of them: 1) initial cost and paperwork as incorporating involves expensive lawyers and detailed accounting records; 2) double taxation as incorporate income is taxed twice, first as corporation’s income and then as shareholders’ income; 3) size as large corporations sometimes cannot respond quickly to market changes.
Except privately owned business corporations there are some other types too. Educational, religious, charitable institutions are also incorporated. There may be governmental corporations. Such corporations do not issue stock and are nonprofit.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What forms of ownership do you know?
2. Why is the sole proprietorship the simplest organization form?
3. What are partnerships organized for?
4. What kinds of partners do you know? State the difference between them.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a partnership?
6. What institution is a business corporation?
7. What are the advantages of a corporation?
8. Can you name any disadvantages of a corporation?
9. What corporations do not issue stock?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Найпростіша організаційна форма; не радячись ні з ким; перш за все; ремонтна майстерня; об’єднання; людина, що відома громадськості; розгалужене керівництво; втрачати зацікавленість; заклад, утворений з метою; окрема особа; здатність залучати капітали/ спеціалістів; наукове дослідження; благодійний заклад; безприбутковий.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Sole proprietorship; to make decision; beauty shop; business receipt; to carry on business; the advantages are obvious; unfortunately; to disagree with each other; a share of ownership; to be represented by a stock certificate; to invest the capital; to offer a higher salary; except; to be nonprofit.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: owner, benefit, shareholder, person, receipt, obvious;
B: advantage, income, clear, proprietor, stock-holder, individual.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: advantage, agree, obvious, private, limited, profit;
B: unlimited, nonprofit, secret, disagree, disadvantage, public.
Exercise 8. Complete the sentences with the proper words from the list below:
fail; proprietor; tax benefit; advantages; limited; general
1. If you establish a partnership you can get … from the government.
2. The possibility to attract big capital is one of the … of a corporation.
3. A sole … can make decisions himself. 4. … partners have unlimited liability for their business. 5. Your business may … if you lose interest in it. 6. The letters Ltd stand for … partnership.
Exercise 9. On the basis of the text define the following terms:
general partner; limited partner; secret partner; silent partner.
Exercise 10. Group the terms given in ex.9 a) on the basis of liability and explain the difference; b) on the basis of authority and explain the difference.
Exercise 11. Characterize the advantages and the disadvantages of each form of ownership.
|
advantages |
disadvantages |
|
|
Sole proprietorship |
||
|
Partnership |
||
|
Corporation |
Exercise 12. Translate into English.
1. Одноосібний власник несе необмежену відповідальність за свій бізнес. 2. Цей ресторан дає велику частку прибутків нашої фірми.
3. У Великій Британії партнерством називають об’єднання від 2 до 20 осіб. 4. Наш таємний партнер може забезпечити фінансовий капітал. 5. Які ваші повноваження у керівництві фірми? 6. Компанія має можливість інвестувати капітал в нове обладнання. 7. В чому перевага партнерства з обмеженою відповідальністю? 8. Корпорації закладів освіти є неприбутковими.
Grammar point:* Passive constructions with modal verbs.
The Present Continuous Tense: Active and Passive forms (p.137-138)
*The structure to be going (to do something).
Exercise 13. Give corresponding passive infinitives as in the model: to invest – to be invested
to attract, to call, to carry, to establish, to incorporate, to know, to lose, to offer, to own, to provide, to represent, to take, to sell.
* In a passive construction after a modal verb we use a passive infinitive (without to)
e.g. We can make a decision.- A decision can be made (by us).
Mind the translation: A decision can be made. - Рішення можна прийняти. A decision must be made. - Рішення треба/потрібно прийняти.
Exercise 14. Make the following sentences passive and translate them.
1. We can call him a silent partner. 2. Stock certificates must represent his share of business. 3. They must attract talented specialists. 4. We must provide additional capital. 5. She can offer this beauty shop for sale. 6. Public must know the owners of this company. 7. To win the market we must establish the corporation. 8. For better control they must diversify management. 9. To attract more capital the corporation can issue stock. 10. This talented manager can direct our company.
Exercise 15. Translate into English.
1. Незабаром можна утворити партнерство. 2. Без прибутку можна втратити зацікавленість у бізнесі. 3. Потрібно запропонувати вищу зарплату. 4. Ці акції можна купити і продати на фондовій біржі. 5. Потрібно залучити найкращих спеціалістів.
Exercise 16. Read the following sentences and compare the use of tenses. Pay attention to adverbial modifiers of time.
1. They always discuss their plans with the partners. – They are discussing their plans with the partners at the moment. 2. Students generally take 3 to 5 courses a year. – This year we are taking 5 courses. 3. They often deal with local customers. – This time they are dealing with Bukovel Co. 4. We usually do research at our practical lessons. – We are doing research on inflation indicators this semester. 5. Our shareholders have meetings once a year. – Our shareholders are having a meeting right now. 6. He never consults anybody about his business. – He is busy now. He is consulting with his lawyer.
Exercise 17. Make the following sentences passive.
1. The secretary is typing a letter to our stockholders. 2. He is signing the document. 3. We are copying the task. 4. They are writing a test paper. 5. We are installing computers in our office. 6. I am analyzing your report. 7. She is defining the problem. 8. They are working out a new plan. 9. The owner is making the order on the phone. 10. The shareholders are discussing the annual report. 11. They are distributing the report among the shareholders.
Exercise 18. Use the verb in brackets in the correct tense form: Indefinite or Continuous.
1. Don’t enter the room. The manager (to hold) a meeting with the staff. 2. What she (to be busy) with at the moment? – She (to call) our customers in Rivne. 3. Can you hear that noise in the next room? – They (to discuss) our tomorrow’s presentation. 4. Why is there so much light? – We (to prepare) for the student party. Our group (to decorate) the walls, while others (to arrange) the scene for the concert. 5. Listen. He (to sing) a very popular song. The song (to sing) in Italian. It (to sound) beautifully. 6. The book (to read) aloud so that everybody (to hear) it. 7. Where Peter (to be)? – He (to work) at the library at the moment. He (to write) a report on multinational corporations for tomorrow’s seminar. 8. Look at Jane and John. They (to dance) so perfectly that I (to think) that the prize (to be) theirs. 9. Who (to stand) in the doorway? – This (to be) Kate. She (to look) for somebody. 10. Why Peter (to be) absent? He (to take) his exam in math this morning. 11. What you (to do) tonight? – I (to be) too tired to go anywhere. 12 What time you (to leave) tomorrow? – The train (to start) at 7, so we (to leave) around 6.30.
* Sometimes we are talking about the present and the future together – present-future. This happens when a) we are making plans or are talking about things already arranged or b) there is something in the present situation that makes us sure what will happen in the future. In such cases we use the structure to be going (to do something). Study the following examples.
a) There is an interesting film on TV tonight. I am going to watch it. - Я збираюсь подивитись його /план на майбутнє/.
b) Look at those clouds – it is going to rain. – Напевно, піде дощ /впевненість, що дія відбудеться/.
Exercise 19. Use the verb in brackets in the correct form and translate the sentences.
1. He (to be) going to sign the contract tomorrow. 2. We (to be) going to meet on Tuesday. 3. She (to be) going to send this information directly to the manager. 4. If Tom doesn’t study hard he (to be) going to fail at the examinations. 5. If you don’t hurry you (to be) going to miss the meeting. 6. These goods are not very popular. We (to be) going to make losses on them. 7. As the problem is very urgent they (to be) going to discuss it with the manager. 8. To save his business he (to be) going to incorporate with this company. 9. It is very difficult to manage such business solely so she (to be) going to form a partnership. 10. Last year the company’s profit was not big and I (not to be) going to receive high dividends on my shares.
Exercise 20. Translate into English.
1. Він збирається розпочати нову справу. 2. Я збираюсь виступити на зборах акціонерів. 3. Вона отримала найвищу оцінку. Здається, вона буде найкращою в групі. 4. Майк втратив інтерес до свого бізнесу і певно він розвалиться. 5. Чи збираєтесь ви інвестувати гроші в цей бізнес? 6. Він, здається, збирається залучити цих спеціалістів до нового проекту.
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about the main forms of business organization.
2. Characterize each form, its essence, its advantages and disadvantages.
UNIT 6 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations.
organization structure – організаційна структура;
line organization structure – організаційна структура з лінійним
підпорядкуванням;
line and staff organization structure –організаційна структура з
основним та допоміжним персоналом;
matrix organization structure – матрична організаційна структура;
position – посада; to hold a position – обіймати посаду;
two-way – двохсторонній;
authority – права, повноваження;
communication – зв’язок, спілкування;
supervisor – керівник;
inflexibility – негнучкість;
chain of command – ланцюг розпоряджень; система менеджменту,
за якою права та обов’язки делегуються від вищих до нижчих
ланок керівництва;
to advise – радити, давати поради; advice – порада;
staff – кадри, працівники, персонал, штат, співробітники;
personnel – штат, персонал;
line personnel - основний персонал;
staff personnel – допоміжний персонал;
line and staff relations - зв’язки між основним та допоміжним
персоналом;
legal advising – юридичні поради/консультаціі;
advisory function – дорадча функція;
to hire – наймати на роботу;
to arrange for – домовлятися (щодо); влаштовувати;
to handle – керувати, регулювати, контролювати;
to respond – відгукуватись, реагувати;
high-tech industry - галузь високих технологій;
to dominate – домінувати, переважати, впливати;
to focus on – зосереджуватись на;
interdepartmental – міжвідомчий, між окремими підрозділами;
teamwork – праця командою;
to cause – викликати, спричиняти;
appearance – поява, виникнення.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text.
Business organization structure
In business organization structure means the relationship between positions and people who hold the positions. It provides an efficient work system as well as a system of communication. The three forms of the organization structure are 1) line organization structure, 2) line-and-staff organization structure, 3) matrix organization structure.
A line organization structure is the one in which there is a direct two-way line of responsibility, authority and communication running from the top to the bottom of the organization. The main idea of such organization structure is to provide direct vertical relationship between the position and tasks of each level, and the positions and tasks above and below each level. A line structure clearly defines responsibilities and authority at each level; it is easy to understand as it provides one supervisor for each person. However, a line organization structure may have some disadvantages like certain inflexibility, too long chain of command and communication, few specialists or experts to advise people along the line.
To minimize the disadvantages of simple line organization structure most businesses today have both line and staff personnel and apply a line-and-staff organization structure. Line personnel perform functions that directly fulfill the main goals of the organization, which are making the product, distributing it, and selling it. Staff personnel perform functions that advise and assist line personnel in performing their tasks. Staff employees conduct marketing research, provide legal advising, hire personnel, and arrange for credit or advertising. Staff people usually serve advisory function, they usually cannot tell line managers or their workers what to do. Different organizations handle line-staff relations in different ways, designing systems that enable line and staff managers to co-operate and respond more quickly to market changes.
Today’s economy is dominated by new kinds of organizations in high-tech industries such as biotechnology, robotics and aerospace. Such businesses focus on developing new products, creativity, special projects, rapid communication and interdepartmental teamwork. All these factors caused the appearance of a new type of organization structure- a matrix organization structure. A matrix structure is the one in which specialists from different parts of the organization are brought together to work on specific projects but still remain part of the line-and-staff structure. In other words, a project manager can borrow people from different departments to help to design and market new product ideas. This organization structure is now widely used in high-tech industries as well as in banking, management consulting firms, accounting firms, advertising agencies.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.
1. What does organization structure mean in business?
2. What does organization structure provide?
3. What forms of organization structure do you know?
4. Can you explain the main idea of a line organization structure?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a line organization structure?
6. What are the functions of line/staff personnel in a line-and staff organization structure?
7. How do different organizations handle line-staff relations?
8. What organization structure is typical for high-tech industries?
9. Why was a matrix organization structure designed?
10. What is the main idea of a matrix organization structure?
11. In what businesses is a matrix organization structure applied?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Забезпечувати ефективну систему зв’язку; посада та завдання кожного рівня організації; двостороння лінія зв’язку; чітко визначені права та обов’язки; певна негнучкість; щоб мінімізувати недоліки; реклама; робота командою із залученням співробітників різних підрозділів; збирати разом; створювати та впроваджувати на ринок.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
An efficient system of work; direct vertical relationship; from the top to the bottom of an organization; however; too long chain of command; to fulfill the main goals; marketing research; legal advising; to serve an advisory function; to handle relations, creativity; to cause the appearance; as well as.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: perform, personnel, help, order, responsibility;
B: command, duty, fulfill, staff, assist.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: above, flexible, specific, rapid, borrow, similar:
B: lend, slow, below, different, inflexible, general.
Exercise 8. The prefix inter- means ‘between, from one to another’. Add the prefix inter- to the following words, explain their meaning and translate them.
National, continental, planetary, dependent, departmental, relation, view.
Exercise 9. Insert words formed in ex.8 to complete the sentences.
1. If the team is created from the staff of different departments it is called … . 2. … trade provides world stability. 3. Many economic problems arise form … between supply and demand. 4. I was asked a lot of questions at the job … . 5. This equipment was designed for … space flights.
Exercise 10.Complete the sentences with the proper words from the list below:
rapid communication, responsibilities and authority, the marketing department, advice and assistance, report, orders
1.Staff people usually give … to line personnel. 2. If you want to distribute this product efficiently you must consult with… . 3. A matrix organization structure provides … between the members of the team. 4. Are your … clearly defined? 5. In a line structure you … to a person above your level and give … to employees below your level.
Exercise 11. Translate into English.
1. Ваш прямий обов’язок – встановити двосторонній зв’язок між керівництвом та всіма відділами. 2. Його доповідь була зосереджена на недоліках нового проекту. 3. Основний персонал фірми створює новий продукт, в той час як допоміжний персонал надає різні послуги. 4. Ця посада має широкі повноваження. 5. Нова система була спланована, щоб швидше реагувати на зміни ринку.
Grammar point: * Infinitive of purpose.
The Past Continuous Tense: Active and Passive forms (p.139)
The Future Continuous Tense (p.140)
* We often use infinitive to talk about the purpose of doing something (why someone is doing something).
E.g. I study English to communicate with people from different countries. – Я вивчаю англійську (для того), щоб спілкуватись з людьми з різних країн.
Exercise 12. Use the prompts in brackets to answer the following questions.
1. Why do most organizations today have both line and staff personnel? (to minimize the disadvantages of simple line organization).
2. Why do organizations employ staff personnel? (to advise and assist line personnel).
3. Why must top managers design efficient systems of line-staff relationships? (to enable line and staff managers to co-operate).
4. Why are interdepartmental teams organized? (to work on specific projects).
5. Why did a project manager borrow people from different departments? (to help design and market a new product).
Exercise 13. Here is a list of things that Mike Bright, a manager of the personnel department, did yesterday and the times when he did them.
9-10 – looked through the application forms and documents;
10-13 – interviewed applicants for a vacant position;
13-14 – had lunch in a nearby restaurant;
14-16 – prepared a report on the results of the interview;
16-18 – presented his report to the head of the personnel department.
Write sentences about what Mike Bright was doing at these times:
At 9.30 Mike was looking through …
At 12 Mike…; at 13.30…; at 15…; at 17.30 …
Exercise 14. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form: past continuous or past indefinite.
1. He (to make) a report when I (to enter) the room. 2. She (to explain) our responsibilities while the secretary (to take) the notes. 3. He (to read) the newspaper when the telephone (to ring). 4. We (to conduct) marketing research while they (to organize) an advertising campaign. 5. They (to discuss) the characteristics of the new model while the engineers (to demonstrate) it. 6. When I (to join) the project she (to work) on the product design.
Exercise 15. Make these sentences passive.
1. They were building a new factory on the outskirts of the city. 2. He was improving the project all day long. 3. The technician was repairing the car while he was waiting. 4. She was designing a new product symbol for nearly a month. 5. The waiter was serving dinner at around 5 o’clock. 6. They were modernizing the plant for nearly a year.
Exercise 16. Make up questions beginning with the words in brackets.
1. All employees were reporting at the meeting. (Who?)
2. He was always borrowing people from our department. (Whom?)
3. The road was being repaired for two weeks. (How long?)
4. All the documents were being checked from 12 to 17. (When?)
5. This system was being used for many years. (What?)
Exercise 17. Write what you will be doing at a given moment in future as in the model. Use the prompts.
Model: This time in August I will be visiting my friends in Odessa.
At 7 o’clock tonight; tomorrow in the morning; this time on Monday; at around 12 o’clock today; this time next month.
To be presenting my report on the business organization structure; to be having my English lesson; to be watching an interesting talk show on TV; to be having my lunch; to be flying home on holidays.
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about the essence, advantages and disadvantages of a line organization structure.
2. Speak about the role of different types of personnel in a line-and-staff organization structure.
3. Speak about the advantages of a matrix organization structure.
MODULE CONTROL ASSIGNMENTS FOR SELF-WORK
Assignment 1. Use the verbs in brackets in the proper tense form: past indefinite or past continuous.
It (to be) a Sunday afternoon. Mike Nole (to sit) at the table in his study room and (to write) a report. He (to describe) the impressions of the trade exhibition that (to be held) in the City Exhibition Hall. While Mike (to think) over his ideas for the report his wife (to watch) TV. Suddenly she (to cry) out,’ Mike, do come and see it’. Mike (to run) into the living room. The news from the Exhibition Hall (to be shown) at the moment.
The reporter (to talk) about the exhibits and (to interview) the visitors. Mike (to recognize) himself among the visitors. The reporter (to come) up to him and (to ask) him several questions. Mike (to feel) proud – it (to be) the first time he (to appear) on TV.
Assignment 2. Use the verbs in brackets in the proper tense form: present indefinite or present continuous.
An extract from Mike Nole’s interview.
Reporter: What do you think of the exhibition?
Mike Nole: I (to be) here with a very definite purpose – to learn about the new trends in the production of non-alcoholic drinks. You know, I (to work) now for one of the local distributing companies. We (to supply) non-alcoholic drinks to many offices and provision stores in the city. As the market for these products ( to grow) continuously we (to be interested) in establishing contacts with producers who ( to provide) different kinds of drinks. We (to think) of setting up a new distribution chain for juices at the moment and (to plan) to increase the number of suppliers. This exhibition (to give) us the possibility to see what the producers (to offer). That’s why this event (to be) of a particular interest to me.
Reporter: Thank you very much. Enjoy your visit.
Assignment 3. Use the verbs in brackets in the proper tense form.
From Mike Nole’s report at the staff meeting.
…The displays of various companies working in the field of non-alcoholic drinks (to impress) me greatly. The general trend (to be) towards modernization of the production processes. Many companies (to introduce) new technological processes and new lines of products. Very soon the range of their products (to be increased) and we ( to see) a variety of new products in the stores. To my mind, it (to be) the right moment to take advantage of the situation. If we (to establish) new contacts with producers, we (to widen) our assortment and (to provide) our services to a greater number of consumers. If we (to have) more customers, we (to need) more personnel. If we (to employ) more staff, we (to cover) a larger share of the market. Our business (to expand) and we (to earn) more profits. I (to hope) that if these ideas (to be realized) our company (to become) a leader.
Assignment 4. On the basis of assignments 1-3 answer the following questions.
1. Where does Mike Nole work?
2. Does his company produce goods or provide services?
3. With what aim did Mike visit the trade exhibition?
4. What did Mike suggest at the staff meeting after his visit to the exhibition?
5. Will these ideas, if realized, improve the company’s position?
Assignment 5. Emphasize the words underlined.
1. Mike Nole gave an interview at the trade exhibition.
2. On the same day he wrote a report on his visit.
3. The company is planning to set up a new distribution chain.
4. The company is going to hire more staff.
Assignment 6. Read and translate the following text.
National Economy of Ukraine
Since the proclamation of independence in 1991 the national economy of Ukraine has passed a long road from planned to a market-based one. In the course of transition our economy faced some problems the main of which were high inflation, unemployment, recession, low living standards of the population. Due to the numerous economic reforms the state income was balanced against expenses, many inefficient plants were closed down and capital was directed into new advanced industries. The programme of privatization stimulated the revival of many strategic enterprises. In 2006 Ukraine received the status of a market economy.
Ukraine possesses considerable potential in such sectors of economy as heavy industries, especially metallurgy, machine engineering, aerospace technologies, telecommunications. Converted military industrial complexes started to produce consumer goods, particularly those involving high technologies. Among the products of machine building we must mention food-processing machinery, medical equipment, transportation vehicles, construction materials and equipment, small farming machines and home appliances.
Our country is famous for its unique black soil. We expect some progress in agricultural production as the agricultural sector is being reoriented towards the market economy. Nowadays agriculture satisfies the needs of the population in the main food products.
Natural and human resources of Ukraine are sufficient for creating a developed home market and becoming a friendly and equal partner in the world market. Ukraine’s enterprises conduct business transactions with partners all over the world. Among our leading partners are Russia, Germany, the USA, China, Turkey, the Czech Republic, Belarus. Ukraine exports metal, coal, electricity, fertilizers, sugar, vegetable oil. The major import items are oil, gas, timber, cars, knitted wear and clothes, top quality foodstuffs.
Due to her size and favourable geographical position, economic potential and qualified workforce Ukraine plays a significant role in the world economic system.
Assignment 7. Make a written translation of paragraph 1.
Assignment 8. Answer the following questions in written form.
1. What kind of economy is Ukraine considered to be: planned, transitional or market-based?
2. What are the results of the numerous economic reforms?
3. What was the result of the military complexes conversion?
4. What factors make Ukraine’s economy prospective?
Assignment 9. Get ready to speak
1) about the national economy of Ukraine, its past and present-day status;
2) about Ukraine’s industrial, agricultural and trade potential.
MODULE 3
UNIT 7 BUSINESS FINANCING.
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations.
finance-фінанси, фінансова справа; прибутки, гроші;
financial statement - фінансовий звіт; financing - фінансування;
funds- фонди, кошти, суми;
internal funds- власні кошти; external funds- залучені кошти;
to raise funds- залучати кошти; syn. to obtain funds;
to monitor funds – контролювати кошти;
to meet one’s expenses – покривати (чиїсь) витрати;
depreciation- амортизація; знецінювання;
assets- активи, майно, капітал, власність, кошти, фонди;
to wear out – зношуватись, спрацьовуватись;
to cover the cost – покривати вартість/ витрати (на щось);
equity funding- акціонерний спосіб утворення грошового фонду
підприємства;
bond- облігація; боргове зобов’язання; syn. note;
debt- борг; debt funding- утворення грошового фонду підприємства
за допомогою позики/кредиту;
negotiable- обіговий; такий, що можна купити і продати;
securities – цінні папери;
security exchange – біржа цінних паперів, фондова біржа;
syn. Stock Exchange;
loan – позика, кредит;
short-term/long-term loan- короткострокова/довгострокова позика;
to make a loan- надати позику;
to be eligible for a loan – мати право на позику;
interest- прибуток з капіталу; процент; відсоток;
to charge interest- нараховувати відсотки;
line of credit- кредитна лінія;
principal- запозичена сума;
to mature- підлягати погашенню/оплаті; наставати (про строк
платежу); syn. to come due;
balance sheet- балансовий звіт;
income statement- звіт про прибуток; syn. profit and loss statement, costs and revenues statement;
liabilities- пасив (балансу); борги, заборгованість;
net worth- власний капітал; різниця між активами і пасивам
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text.
Business financing
An important function of business is financing, that is the way business raises and monitors funds. Most organizations have finance departments or a manager in charge of financial operations.
Most of the money used by business comes from the sale of its products and services. As these funds come from within the firm they are described as internal funds. The rest must come from outside and is described as external funds.
As a firm sells its products or services it receives money, which it uses to meet its expenses. One of these expenses is depreciation, which represents the cost of replacing assets (like tools, machinery, and buildings) that wear out. Typically business uses internal funds to cover the cost of depreciation.
Business can raise external funds in two ways: it can issue shares (stock) in exchange for money or property (equity funding), or by borrowing in exchange for bonds (notes), that is debt funding. Both stocks and bonds are negotiable, that is one can buy and sell them at the security exchange (Stock Exchange).
Banks make loans to corporations, organizations, to small companies and individuals. For this service banks always charge interest. To decide whether a business should receive a loan the bank examines its financial statement. If the company is eligible for a loan, it may choose a long-term loan or a short-term loan.
For short-term loans the principal (the amount borrowed) must be repaid within a year. Long-term loans mature (come due) in more than a year. Short-term loans are used to finance the everyday costs of doing business such as wages and salaries, raw materials, etc. Long-term loans are used to buy equipment, buildings and other expensive items.
The amount of money that company can borrow from a bank is a line of credit. This top amount of customer’s credit is based on the profits and earnings of a business.
Two of the most important pieces of financial information on business are the balance sheet and the income statement. The balance sheet summarizes the firm’s assets (what it owns), the firm’s liabilities (what it owes) and its net worth (the difference between the two sums) at a given time. The income statement summarizes the firm’s revenues, costs and the difference between the two (the profit or loss) over a period of time.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions:
1. What is financing?
2. What personnel are in charge of financial operations?
3. What are internal funds and how are they used?
4. What does depreciation represent?
5. How do businesses raise external funds?
6. How do short-term and long-term loans differ?
7. What documents reflect financial information on business?
8. How do banks take part in business?
9. What do we call credit line?
10. What information is given in the balance sheet?
11. What can we learn from the income statement?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
спосіб, яким бізнес залучає та контролює кошти; решта/залишок; покривати витрати на амортизацію; акції; облігації; фондова біржа; довгострокові кредити підлягають оплаті; сировина; підсумовувати; борги фірми; в певний час; збитки.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
money comes from the sale; within/outside the firm; typically; to raise external funds; securities; negotiable; must be repaid; everyday costs of doing business; expensive items; firm’s assets; firm’s revenues; over a period of time.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: shares, bond, loan, revenues, expenses, funds;
B: credit, profit, stocks, capital, note, costs.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: costs, cheap, liabilities, outside, internal, loss;
B: external, within, expensive, assets, profit, revenues.
Exercise 8. Complete the sentences with the proper words from the list below:
the cost of depreciation, to raise funds, net worth, to meet, raising and monitoring, internal funds, loan
1. Our finance department is in charge of … the company funds. 2. The firm has received a 5-year… to buy new machinery. 3. We have started a new project so we have to work hard … our expenses. 4. Don’t forget to include … into income statement. 5. The balance sheet shows the firm’s … at a given time. 6. The management of the firm decided … by borrowing. 7. As the company started a new line of products their … have increased.
Exercise 9. Translate into English.
1. Фінансування – це спосіб залучення та контролювання коштів.
2. Власні кошти фірми надходять від продажу продукції, тоді як залучені кошти надходять зовні.
3. Ми можемо покрити витрати на амортизацію власними коштами.
4. Чи фірма вже виплатила цю довгострокову позику?
5. В цьому році компанія придбала деяке нове устаткування для заміни старого.
6. Фінансовий відділ вже склав балансовий звіт за перший квартал.
7. Бізнес може залучити зовнішні кошти двома шляхами: або випустити акції, або отримати позику.
8. Акції цієї компанії продаються на фондовій біржі.
9. Звідки надійшли ці кошти?
10. Строк виплати вашої позики настав.
Exercise 10. Make a list of the key terms on the topic. Get ready to define the terms on your list using the information from the text.
Grammar point:
The Present Perfect tense: Active and Passive forms (p.141)
The Present Perfect Continuous tense (p.142)
*The Present Perfect: simple vs. continuous forms (p.142)
Present Perfect vs. Past Indefinite (p.143)
*The use of since and for with Present Perfect
Exercise 11. Use the verb in brackets in the Present Perfect tense to state the ‘present result’ of the past action or event. Translate the sentences.
1. Our company (to issue) stocks. Now they are on sale at Stock Exchange. 2. Their funds are limited. They (to cover) the cost of depreciation with all their internal funds. 3. We are going to have bad times. Our financial manager (to state) the negative balance. 4. Why is there no money on our bank account? - We (to use) it to cover our expenses. 5. Let’s go shopping. I (to receive) my salary. 6. They (to get) a long-term loan and plan to replace the equipment.
Exercise 12. Use the Present Perfect tense instead of the negative form of the Present Continuous tense as in the model:
I am not reading the book. - I have just read the book.
1. He is not calculating his profits. 2. They are not financing this project. 3. We are not exchanging our money. 4. She is not selling her shares. 5. I am not buying these bonds. 6. He is not receiving a loan. 7. They are not making a balance sheet. 8. We are not repaying the principal. 9. They are not using equity funding to raise funds. 10. She is not performing this transaction. 11. We are not discussing his plan. 12. He is not writing a report. 13. I am not answering their letter. 14. They are not ordering these goods. 15. She is not calling her partner.
Exercise 13. We use the Present Perfect tense when we talk about the period of time that continues up to the present, e.g. today, this week, this month, etc. Make questions with the words given as in the model:
You/ repay/ loan/ this month? - Have you repaid loan this month?
1. You/ read/ the newspaper/ today?
2. He/ buy/ any bonds/ this year?
3. She/ prepare/ the income statement/ this week?
4. They /replace/ their equipment / this month?
5. This company/ issue / shares/ this year?
Exercise 14. We often use the Present Perfect tense with “indefinite expressions of time”, such as just, already, recently, ever, never( in middle position after the verb “have”), yet (at the end of questions and negative sentences). Use the verb in brackets in the Present Perfect tense, mind the position of “time expression”:
1. He (already, to buy) this company’s shares. 2. They (never, to use) internal funds to repay the loans. 3. She (yet, not to prepare) the balance sheet? 4. I (just, to see) the manager to discuss the firm’s assets. 5. You (ever, to be) at the Stock Exchange? 6. The loan (already, to mature). 7. I (never, to speak) at the company meetings. 8. We (yet, not to negotiate) the terms of the loan. 9. He (just, to read) their income statement. 10. She (already, to sell) her shares in business.
* Learn the two meanings of since: 1)сполучник часу, що вказує на початок процесу, що безперервно триває з якогось часу в минулому - з; з того часу, як; 2) сполучник причини, що вводить підрядні речення причини—оскільки; так як; через те, що.
Exercise 15. Read and translate the following sentences.
1. You can give them a long-term loan since we have checked their financial statement. 2. We have been partners since 1998. 3. Since the equipment is worn out we have to replace it. 4. He has performed these transactions since the time he was employed by this firm. 5. We do not travel a lot since we are saving money for a new flat. 6. She has written a lot since her first book was published.
* Learn the difference between since and for.
Since is used to give the starting point of actions or situations that continue up to the moment of speaking; it is followed by the reference to the point of time (e.g. since April 24th).
For is used to say how long an action or situation lasts; it is followed by a reference to a period of time (e.g. for three months).
Since: 8 o’clock; he finished school; 2002; last Monday; etc.
For: 2 hours; a week; a long time; ages; etc.
e.g. I have known him since he finished school.
I have known him for a long time.
Exercise 16. Insert since or for in the following sentences:
1. His father has been a managing director …10 years. 2.We have been friends … school years. 3. She has not written to us … two months. 4. They have not heard from him … he went abroad. 5. I have not met him … a week. 6. She has lived here … 2002.
*The Present Perfect Simple is used to say that the action is completed and to talk about its result while the Present Perfect Continuous tense emphasizes the continuation of the action, compare:
I have read your book (= I have finished it).
I have been reading your book (= I have not finished it).
The Present Perfect Simple is used to talk about more permanent situation while the Present Perfect Continuous is especially used for more temporary situations, compare:
I have worked for this firm all my life.
I have been working for this firm since last month.
Both tense-forms have nearly the same meaning, the continuous form stressing the process and the simple form emphasizing the result. Thus, both these sentences are correct:
He has lived in Kyiv since 1987.
He has been living in Kyiv since 1987.
But we tend to use the continuous form if it is possible. Sometimes it is not – with the verbs that are not used in Continuous tenses (see p.136). In such cases we use Perfect Simple forms.
Exercise 17. Use the verb in brackets in either Perfect Simple or Perfect Continuous form.
1. He (not to work) very well recently. 2. He (not to work) for years. 3. I (to learn) irregular verbs all afternoon. 4. I (to learn) irregular verbs – ask me any. 5. I am tired – I (to calculate) our expenses all day. 6. I (to calculate) our expenses – we spend too much on clothes. 7. Sorry about the mess - the workers (to install) new computers in my office. 8. The workers (to install) new computers and we can start working now. 9. They (to monitor) the situation since the elections started. 10. They (to monitor) the situation – here is their report.
* Compare the use of Present Perfect and Past Indefinite:
e.g. We have just seen them (a past action which time is not definite) –Present Perfect.
We saw them last week (a past action, completed at a definite time in the past) –Past Indefinite.
Exercise 18. Use the verbs in brackets in either Present Perfect or Past Indefinite. Pay attention to time expressions.
1. They already (finish) writing their report. 2. They (finish) writing their report two hours ago. 3. Last time we (see) him, he (look) very tired. 4. I (not see) him recently. 5. He (want) to be a star in his childhood. 6. His dream recently (to come) true. 7. Last month they (increase) his salary. 8. They already (increase) his salary to 1200 UAH. 9. At our last meeting we (decide) to sell a part of our assets. 10. Now we can complete our report- they just (provide) us with all necessary information. 11. He (leave) for Kyiv 2 years ago and he (live) there since then. 12. The morning (be) cold and rainy, but since 10 o’clock the weather (change). 13. I (keep) these photos since we first (meet). 14. She (dream) of becoming a well-known economist since she (start) working at our institute. 15. He (have) this computer since this model (appear) in the market.
Exercise 19. Make the following sentences passive.
1. They have already transferred the money. 2. The company has not received the loan yet. 3. We have just sold the last computer. 4. The accountant has already prepared the balance sheet. 5. He has never paid his debts in time. 6. The bank has recently charged the interest on our loan. 7. I have already answered their letter. 8. We have never raised this problem at our meetings. 9. He has already applied for a loan. 10. She has just calculated our revenues for the last quarter.
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about the financial resources of the business and the ways they are used.
2. Speak about the role of banks in business financing.
3. Speak about the main documents concerning the financial information on business.
UNIT 8 ACCOUNTING
Exercise 1.Read and learn the following words and word combinations.
account- рахунок; pl.-звітність; бухгалтерські рахунки;
accounts receivable- рахунки дебіторів;
accountant- кваліфікований бухгалтер;
certified public accountant (CPA - A.E.), chartered accountant (C.A. – B.E.) – дипломований бухгалтер вищої кваліфікації, аудитор
accounting – облік; бухгалтерський облік; офіційна звітність;
bookkeeping- бухгалтерія; бух.облік (від book-бухгалтерська книга);
bookkeeper- рахівник; бухгалтер;
entry- запис (від to enter- вписувати; заносити до запису);
financial entry- фінансовий запис;
double entry- подвійний запис;
ledger- бухгалтерська книга; бухгалтерський реєстр; головна книга;
to post- робити проводку; заносити в бухгалтерську книгу;
розносити рахунки;
assets- активи; opp. liabilities- пасиви;
fixed assets- основний капітал; основні засоби;
current assets – поточні активи;
to owe – бути винним, заборгувати;
owner’s equity – статутний капітал; власний акціонерний капітал;
gross income – валовий прибуток; syn. profit before taxes;
expenses – витрати;
travelling and entertainment expenses-витрати на подорожі та розваги;
at someone’s disposal – у чиємусь розпорядженні;
audit – аудит, перевірка.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the text:
Accounting
Accounting is recording, classifying, summarizing and interpreting financial transactions to provide management and other interested parties with information they need to make correct financial decisions. Accounting process consists of two parts: bookkeeping, that is, mechanical process of recording, classifying and posting financial entries into the ledger, and accounting itself, that is, interpreting of financial data, making financial statements, designing accounting information system within a business and advising management on financial matters. Accounting deals with accounts, that is, financial entries grouped together by common characteristics.
Assets are everything that a business owns. Buildings, equipment, machinery, land are fixed assets; money, cash, accounts receivable are current assets.
Liabilities are obligations, debts of a business, what it owes to creditors, banks, suppliers, investors, customers and so on.
Owner’s equity is the capital which the owner will receive if he sells all assets and pays all his liabilities. Owner’s equity is assets minus liabilities.
Revenues are incoming money or gross income or profit before taxes.
Expenses mean outgoing money including salaries and wages, rent, traveling and entertainment expenses.
The final products of accounting are financial statements: Balance Sheet that shows financial position of a business at a definite point of time, and Income Statement (G.B. - Profit and Loss Account) that shows financial position of a business over a definite period of time: month, quarter, year.
The system of bookkeeping is based on the principle of the double entry, which means that each transaction is entered twice, as a credit in one account and as a debit in another account. If we deposit $ 100 US with a bank, for example, the bank enters a debit for the receiver and a credit for the giver. The former represents an asset to the bank, since it is a sum of money at the bank’s disposal, as well as a liability, since one day it will have to be repaid.
Accounting is done by accountants. Highly qualified accountants (in the USA certified public accountant- CPA, in Great Britain chartered accountant- CA) can perform audit.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.
1. What do we call ‘accounting’?
2. What is the aim of accounting?
3. What are the two parts of accounting process?
4. How does bookkeeping differ from accounting?
5. Into what categories are all accounts grouped?
6. What do the following groups of financial entries like assets,
liabilities, owner’s equity, revenues, expenses characterize?
7. What are the final products of accounting?
8. What is the main difference between the balance sheet and the income statement?
9. How is the principle of double entry applied?
10. What do we call people who perform accounting and audit?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
підведення підсумку; фінансові операції; зацікавлені сторони; механічний процес запису; за спільними ознаками; зобов’язання; включаючи; заробітна платня; фінансовий звіт; у певний момент часу; за певний проміжок часу.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Interpreting; to make correct decisions; financial data; entries grouped together; debs of a business; incoming/outgoing money; the final product; financial position of a business; each transaction is entered twice; the former; at the bank’s disposal.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the pairs of synonyms.
A: obligation, enter, interpret, definite, supplier, gross income
B: particular, explain, provider, post, revenue, debt.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the pairs of opposites.
A: incoming, correct, debit, receiver, assets;
B: credit, liabilities, outgoing, wrong, giver.
Exercise 8. Learn the plural form of the words of Greek and Latin origin. Translate them into Ukrainian:
datum –data; analysis –analyses;
medium – media; basis – bases;
index – indices; phenomenon – phenomena;
Use the correct form of the words given above in the following sentences:
1. This event was widely commented in mass … . 2. Employment is one of the most important … of economic activity. 3. Our group performed a thorough … of the Ukrainian steel market. 4. What financial… will you use in preparing income statement? 5. He has been observing these atmosphere … for several years. 6. Accounting provides the … for making correct decisions.
Exercise 9. Read and translate the following pairs of words:
account-to account; post- to post; rent- to rent; record- to record;
show- to show.
Use the proper form of the word in the following sentences, translate the sentences.
1. He will … you his last article on interpreting statistical data. 2. She … all the expenses of the family. 3. How much does he pay for the … of this house? 4. This exhibition is a real … of the latest computer technology. 5. With what bank will you open your …? 6. I prefer to … a flat as I intend to stay here only for several months. 7. Service industry … for 65 % of the gross national product in the U.K. 8. Who is in charge of receiving … in your office? 9. Which of your bookkeepers … financial data into the ledger? 10. There are too many mistakes in this …. We cannot publish it.
Exercise 10. On the basis of the text define the following terms:
accounting; bookkeeping; balance sheet; income statement; the principle of double entry.
Exercise 11. Complete the following sentences:
Assets is everything … while liabilities is… .
Revenues means … money while expenses … .
Owner’s equity is … .
Exercise 12. Complete the sentences with the proper words from the list below:
interpret; to enter; position; bookkeeping; the double entry; by common characteristics
1. Accounting consists of … and accounting itself. 2. In bookkeeping we apply the principle of … . 3. Financial entries grouped together … are called accounts. 4. How would you … these financial transactions? 5. The financial … of their business is very stable. 6. Haven’t you forgotten … this transaction twice?
Exercise 13. Translate into English.
1. Ми вирішили відкрити рахунок в цьому банку. 2. У них не має поточних активів, щоб виплатити зарплату. 3. Вони вже виплатили всі свої борги. 4. Ми щойно занесли цю операцію в книгу. 5. Вона заборгувала велику суму грошей і вирішила продати акції, щоб виплатити борг. 6. Фінансові звіти є кінцевим продуктом бухгалтерського обліку.
Grammar point:
The Past Perfect tense: Active and Passive forms (p.143).
The Past Perfect Continuous tense (p.144)
* Past Indefinite vs. Past Perfect
* Compare the use of Past Indefinite and Past Perfect.
We use Past Indefinite to say that something happened in the definite moment in the past.
We use Past Perfect to say that something happened before a definite moment in the past.
e.g. When I arrived home (a definite moment in the past) mother had already come from work (action happened before this moment).
Exercise 14. Use the verbs in brackets either in Past Indefinite or Past Perfect:
1. He (study) economics at school before he (enter) the college. 2. The room (be) empty; everybody (go). 3. I (complete) my report by 7 and (send) it with the evening post. 4. When I (ask) her about the essay she (say) she (complete) it long ago. 5. He (correct) the error he (make) the day before. 6. On my way home I (remember) that I (forget) the documents in the office. 7. He (discuss) the problem with a lot of people before he (make) the decision. 8. The auditor (make) his conclusions only after he (examine) all relevant documents.
Exercise 15. I. Read the beginning of these true travellers’ stories and match them to the right endings.
1. Sir Collin Marshall, Chief Executive of British Airways, was having difficulty finding his way in New York. A woman was passing by so he stopped her and asked for directions. The woman pulled down her dark glasses and stared at him angrily.
2. Tom Brown’s Skoda had broken down so he had left it on the motorway and returned home by train. But 73-year-old Tom felt worried. He was sure he had forgotten something. What had he left behind? Half way through tea he remembered.
3. A journalist from The Times newspaper was watching his suitcase vanish into the X-ray machine at Tangier airport when he suddenly remembered he had packed two antique guns inside. Terrified, he rushed to the operator and explained what he had done.
A. He had left Mrs Brown sitting on the back seat.
B. “Don’t worry, sir,” came the reply. “Our machines will never pick them up.”
C. “Do I look like a goddam road map?” she asked.
2. Look at the first story again. Two past tenses are used to tell the story. What tense is used to
a) set the scene and describe the circumstances of the story?
b) describe the main events in the story?
3. Look at the second story again. Two past tenses are used to tell the story too. What tense is used to describe
a) events that happened after Tom returned home?
b) events that happened before he returned home?
4. Look at the third story again. Underline the examples of the past indefinite, past continuous and past perfect tense. Explain why these tenses are used.
Exercise 16. Make the following sentences passive.
1. He had done everything to save the situation. 2. They had calculated gross income by January,15th. 3. We had provided the relevant information before the beginning of the meeting. 4. Distributors had already supplied these goods to our stores. 5. Accountants had prepared the Income Statement by the beginning of the quarter.
Exercise 17. Join two sentences into one using the conjunction before.
1. They examined the accounts. They made a correct decision. 2. We classified all financial transactions. We posted the financial entries into the ledger. 3. He accumulated the data. He interpreted them. 4. I studied accounting. I got this job. 5. The accountants prepared the Balance Sheet. The transaction was completed. 6. She got her first job. She graduated from the institute.
Exercise 18. Read the following sentences and compare the use of Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous.
1. They had discussed this problem in details before they came to an agreement. They had been exchanging their opinions for several hours.
2. I got this job after I had been interviewed twice. I had been looking for a job for the last two months.
3. She was promoted after she had improved the work at this department. She had been working at this project for several months.
Exercise 19. Use the verbs in brackets either in Past Perfect Simple or Past Perfect Continuous. Mind the verbs that are not used in Continuous tenses.
1. The manager (to hold) the staff meeting for two hours when the director entered the room. 2. She remembered that she (to forget) to post the last entry into the ledger. 3. He (to serve) in this house for six years when the incident happened. 4. I was very angry because someone (to ring) all night. 5. She (to see) the news on TV before he told it to her. 6. I was too upset with the result as I (to prepare) this report for so long. 7. She (to be) in her office for nearly three hours when the accountant brought in the information she (to ask) for. 8. He was tired as he (to look) through the documents for the last three hours.
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about accounting and its parts.
2. Characterize the main groups of accounts.
3. Speak about two types of financial statements.
UNIT 9 AUDITING
Exercise1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations.
audit – аудит, перевірка, ревізія; auditor-ревізор, аудитор;
auditing –проведення ревізії.
to involve –стосуватися чогось, залучати щось, спричинювати
(наслідки);
review – розгляд, огляд, перегляд; syn. –revision, inspection –
перевірка, ревізія, інспекція;
evaluation – оцінка; syn. judgment, opinion – оцінка, судження,
думка;
state authorities – державні органи влади;
irregularity – відхилення від норми; opp. regularity- правильність,
закономірність, регулярність;
regular/ irregular – правильний, звичний/неправильний,незвичний;
misappropriation – незаконне привласнення, крадіжка, розтрата;
to maintain-підтримувати, зберігати в хорошому стані;
procedure- 1)порядок; процес; 2)операція; 3)метод, методика;
operating/operational procedure–метод роботи; виробничий процес
fiscal affairs- фінансові/бюджетні справи;
in regard to – стосовно, що стосується;
to complete – завершувати; complete - повний, завершений;
completion –завершення;
completeness- завершеність, повнота.
accuracy- точність, правильність, достовірність;
fairness- достовірність;
a scope paragraph – пункт/параграф, що стосується обсягу
(перевірки);
an opinion paragraph – пункт/параграф, що стосується оцінки
(висновків);
conclusion- висновок;
reliable- надійний; opp. unreliable- ненадійний;
non-existent- неіснуючий; opp. existent- існуючий;
State Treasury- Міністерство фінансів; державна скарбниця;
Control and Revision Administration- контрольно-ревізійне управління;
Exercise 2. Read and translate the following text.
Auditing
Auditing is an accounting function that involves the review and evaluation of financial records and financial position of a company. Audits are performed by highly qualified accountants (auditors) ordered by the management of the company or by some state authorities (revision and control). Not so many years ago audits suggested that a company had financial difficulties or some irregularities in the records. At present audit is a normal and regular part of business practice.
There are two types of auditing: internal and independent.
Internal audit is a system of internal control against errors and misappropriations. Many companies employ their own accountants to maintain an internal audit. They continuously review operating procedures and financial records and report to management on the current state of the company’s fiscal affairs. They check the accounting records in regard to completeness and accuracy, making sure that all irregularities are corrected.
Independent auditing is done by certified accountants who are not employees of the organization whose books they examine. Independent auditors review the business’ operating activities; they examine financial statements, the accounting records and other business papers to determine the accuracy and completeness of the records. It is called fairness in the accounting terminology.
The accountant’s judgment or opinion on the fairness of the records is written in a document sent to the client upon completion of the audit. It consists of a letter addressed to the client that includes a scope paragraph (list of documents that he has examined and the standards that have been used for the audit), and the opinion paragraph (the auditor’s conclusions).
Auditors can help the business to set up a reliable accounting system; they can also discover whether non-existent transactions have been entered into the books. Even in a small business mistakes in the books of accounts can lead to a business failure.
Audit and control is a controlling function of some state authorities (e.g. State Treasury, Control and Revision Administration) that involves the review and evaluation of financial records and financial position of the business, as well as managerial skills of the management and financial health of the organization.
Exercise 3.Answer the following questions:
1. What function is auditing?
2. What operations does auditing involve?
3. Who performs auditing?
4. Who orders audits?
5. Are audits a normal and regular part of business practice today?
6. What types of auditing do you know?
7. Who performs internal auditing and with what aim?
8. Who performs independent auditing?
9. What documents do independent auditors examine?
10. What is called “fairness” in the accounting terminology?
11. What does the final product of auditing include?
12. How can auditor help a business?
13. What state authorities can order audit and control?
14. What is evaluated in the course of such a control?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
фінансовий стан компанії; на замовлення керівництва; нещодавно; нормальна і звичайна практика; постійно; поточний стан; впевнитись; в термінології бух. обліку; достовірність; лист, адресований клієнту; привести до занепаду бізнесу.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
highly qualified accountants; financial difficulties; internal control; business’ operating activities; upon completion of the audit; to set up a reliable system; to enter a non-existent transaction into the book; managerial skills; business’ financial health; opinion on the fairness of the records.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: evaluation, error, accuracy, fiscal, management, revision;
B: financial, auditing, authority, mistake, judgment, fairness.
Exercise 7. Match and learn the opposites.
A: regularity, existent, appropriation, internal, complete, reliable;
B: misappropriation, incomplete, unreliable, irregularity, non-existent, external.
Write out prefixes that form the opposite meaning. Use your dictionary to provide 2 more examples of each case.
Exercise 8. On the basis of the text define the following terms:
audit, internal audit, independent audit, auditor
Exercise 9. Complete the sentences using the proper words from the list below:
in regard to, current state, irregularities, completeness, to perform, standards, reliable, managerial skills
1. Have you mentioned the … used for the audit? 2. He received the highest mark for the … of his answer. 3. Which of your personnel will you employ … the audit? 4. She discovered some … in the accounting records. 5. Failure of this company was due to poor… of its management. 6. We have sent you the documents … the audit completed last month. 7. You can trust him. He is the most … person I have ever met. 8. We have just received the report on the … of our fiscal affairs.
Exercise 10. Translate into English.
1. Аудитор зробить висновки після того, як аудит буде завершеною
2. Фінансова діяльність фірми буде перевірена до кінця березня.
3. Компанія стане прибутковою після того, як буде організована надійна система бух.обліку. 4. Аудитор встановлює, чи було зроблено помилку у записах. 5. Керівництво було задоволено тим, що всі помилки були виправлені.
Grammar point:
The Future Perfect tense: Active and Passive form (p.145)
The Future Perfect Continuous tense (p.146)
* We use Future Perfect Active or Passive to say that an action will have been completed by a definite time in the future.
e.g. The auditor will have completed the audit by the end of May.
The audit will have been completed by the end of May.
Exercise 11. Use the verb in brackets in either Future Perfect Active or Passive:
1. I (do) it by that time. 2. Everything (do) by that time. 3. He (write) a letter by 7 o’clock tomorrow. 4. The book (write) by next month. 5. By tomorrow’s evening the report (complete). 6. He (pass) the exam by this time. 7. The auditors promise they (to finish) examining the documents by next Friday. 8. He hopes the results (to review) by our next meeting.
9. All the books (to check) by his arrival. 10. The equipment (to maintain) by the time you come back.
Exercise 12. Use the verb in brackets in the Future Perfect Continuous form; translate the sentences as it is shown in the model.
Model: I (to work) in this company for three years next April. –
I‘ll have been working in this company for three years next April.
Наступного квітня буде три роки як я працюю в цій компанії.
1. We (to run) our family business for 20 years next spring. 2. She (to review) their financial documents for a month next Monday. 3. I (to teach) economics for 10 years this summer. 4. They (to check) the accounting records for a week this Friday. 5. Our accounting firm (to perform) independent audit for 15 years this autumn.
*Compare the use of Future Simple, Future Continuous and Future Perfect. Note the time expressions:
He will write this report tomorrow.
He will be writing this report at 10 tomorrow.
He will have written this report by 10 tomorrow.
Exercise 13. Translate into English.
1.О п’ятій він буде працювати над фінансовим звітом. 2. Він завершить фінансовий звіт за два дні. 3. Він завершить фінансовий звіт до завтра. 4. Чи складе вона іспит до червня? 5. Чи буде вона складати іспит у червні? 6. Чи складатиме вона іспит завтра о десятій? 7. Вони не приїдуть завтра. 8. Вони не приїдуть до завтра.
Exercise 14. Use different means of expressing future action.
1. This hotel is fully booked. I think I (to ring) the Hilton Hotel and see if they have any rooms. 2. Who (to give) the presentation at tomorrow’s meeting? 3. I’m sorry. I have to go now. I (to call) you back in ten minutes. 4. We (to send) you our conclusions after we (to complete) the examination of your financial records. 5. They (to perform) internal audit to make sure there are no misappropriations. 6. He (to go) to start a new business in two months. 7. She (to graduate) from the college this time next year. 8. Our accountants (to prepare) Income Statement this time tomorrow. 9. Your results (to be) more reliable if you (to follow) this procedure. 10. We (to plan) to borrow some money from the bank as we (to consider) expanding.
Discussion of the text
1. Speak about auditing and its two types.
2. Speak about the process of auditing and the application of its results.
MODULE CONTROL ASSIGNMENTS FOR SELF-WORK
Assignment 1.Use the verbs in brackets in the proper present tense form
Richard Branson (to become) famous as a ‘hippy’ businessman since he set up a record company in the 1960s. He constantly (to break) many of traditional rules of management. Today he (to run) many successful business projects. How he (to achieve) these results?
Richard regularly (to work) an eleven-hour day. He (to spend) a lot of time talking to people on the telephone and never (to send) memos. He rarely (to hold) meetings; he (to prefer) to make decisions on the phone or on the tennis court. He (to employ) people he (to like) personally. This (to be) more important to him than qualifications. He (to have) several business failures lately. He nearly (to go) bankrupt but he (to survive) and now (to be) one of the most successful businessmen in Great Britain. He (to put) his success to good ideas, good people and good luck.
Assignment 2. Use the verbs in brackets in the proper past tense form.
Yesterday we (have) a meeting where all the staff of our accounting department (be) present. The manager (tell) us that the audit (complete) already. He (read) the final document which he (receive) the other day.
In the scope paragraph the auditors (enlist) the documents that they (examine) and the standards that they (use) in their examination. Of course, the most important for us (be) the opinion paragraph in which they (evaluate) our activity. There the auditors (state) that they (discover) several irregularities in our accounting records. They (point) out that these errors (lead) to serious mistakes in the Income Statement for the last quarter. They (propose) to use a more reliable modern accounting system to avoid such mistakes in the future.
Assignment 3. Use the proper means of expressing the future action.
Next week I (to go) to start working on my research project. On Monday as soon as I (to come) home from the Institute I (to go) to the central library. There I (to ask) the librarian to help me with the literature I (to need) for my project. I think I (to study) the materials for a week or so. I am sure I (to have) to use Internet as a source of valuable information. Then I (to plan) to classify the notes that (to make) by that time. I suppose it (to take) me another couple of days. When everything (to be) ready I (to start) writing my report. I hope the report (to finish) by March, 20th. My scientific adviser (to check) it. After he (to look) through my paper I (to have) time to correct mistakes if any. I (to go) to present my project at the annual students’ conference in April.
Assignment 4. Read and translate the following text.
National Economy of Great Britain
Great Britain is a highly industrialized country: for every person working in agriculture, twelve are employed in industry. British economy is based on private enterprise. Manufacturing accounts for 21 per cent of the gross national product, while service industry output accounts for 65 per cent.
North-west of London there is a very important industrial region where a lot of machine tools are produced. The largest coal and iron fields in Britain are located in Midlands. Manchester is one of the main centres of electrical and heavy engineering. A wide range of gods such as computers, electronic equipment, chemicals and pharmaceuticals are produced here. Newcastle is famous for its shipbuilding yards and its export of coal. Due to rich deposits of oil and natural gas in the North Sea Great Britain has become self-sufficient in energy. Over half of domestic oil production is exported.
Although Great Britain is an industrial country, agriculture still remains one of its important industries. Dairying is most common in the west of England, sheep and cattle are reared in northern and south-western England.
Britain is one of the world’s leading financial centres. Financial services are a fast growing part of service sector which now provides over 65 per cent of output and two thirds of employment. The fastest growth sectors of service industry in recent years have been leisure, financial services and distribution.
International trade plays a vital role in British economy. Britain is the fifth largest trading nation in the world. Over 80 per cent of visible exports are manufactured goods. Major British manufacturing exports include electrical, electronic and instrument engineering products, chemicals, motor vehicles and aerospace products, Britain is among the largest exporters of tractors and products of agricultural research such as breeds. The export of services and other invisible items occupies an important place in the economy. Surplus from invisible exports is considered to be the second largest in the world. About half of Britain’s trade is with European Community partners.
Assignment 5. Answer the following questions in written form.
1. Which is more important to British economy: manufacturing, agriculture or services?
2. What share of output and employment does service sector account for?
3. Which is more important to British trade: visible exports or invisible exports. Substantiate your point.
Assignment 6. Supply the synonyms from the text.
To explain, equipment, field, rest, assortment of goods, domestic, income, commerce.
Assignment 7. Supply the opposites from the text.
Unemployment, public, input, exclude, unknown, minor, import, visible.
Assignment 8. Translate into English.
1.Частка промисловості у валовому національному продукті зменшується, тоді як частка індустрії послуг зростає. 2. Промислові товари складають понад 85 відсотків видимого експорту. 3. Фінансові послуги – найбільш розвинутий сектор індустрії послуг. 4. Індустрія послуг забезпечує 65 відсотків валового національного продукту. 5. Прибуток Великої Британії від невидимих статей експорту вважається другим в світі по величині.
Assignment 9. Get ready to speak about the national economy of Great Britain.
MODULE 4
UNIT 10 INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations.
to conduct (a business) – вести (справи), керувати (бізнесом);
syn. to operate, to run (a business);
to acquire – набувати, отримувати;
world-wide scale – світовий масштаб;
to expand – зростати, розширятися, розвиватися;
globalization – глобалізація; global strategy – глобальна стратегія;
to comprise – складатися (з), охоплювати;
consideration – міркування;
motivation – мотивація, спонукання, мотив;
to engage (in) – залучатися (до), долучатися (до);
to diversify – урізноманітнювати, диверсифікувати;
option – 1)вибір, право вибору; 2) предмет вибору, варіант;
visibles(visible exports/imports) – видимі статті (експорту/імпорту);
opp.invisibles – невидимі статті;
investment – інвестиція;
direct investment – пряма інвестиція;
portfolio investment – портфельна інвестиція;
investment pattern – структура інвестицій;
joint venture – спільне підприємство;
subsidiary – філія, дочірня компанія;
barrier – перешкода, бар’єр; trade barrier – перешкоди торгівлі;
to influence – впливати;
balance of payments – платіжний баланс;
monetary exchange rate – курс обміну грошей;
legislation – законодавство;
to encourage – заохочувати;
technology transfer – передача технологій;
unique – унікальний.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the text.
International Business
Business can take many different forms and can be conducted at different levels. Based on the level of business activity business may be defined as either domestic, international or multinational. If business acquires all its resources and sells all its products within a single country it is considered a domestic business. Although international business is also based in a single country it acquires a meaningful share of its resources and revenues from other countries. A multinational business operates on the world-wide scale regardless of national borders.
More and more domestic businesses decide to enter international markets and become international, while international companies expand and become multinational (transnational). This phenomenon is called globalization – the evolution of economy that comprises interrelated markets. The decision to adopt a global or nationally focused strategy depends upon both markets and technological con siderations.
There are three primary motivations for firms to engage in international business: 1) to expand sales; 2) to acquire resources; 3) to diversify sources of sales and supplies. When a business decides to expand internationally , i.e. adopts a global strategy, it may choose among several options, including importing or exporting merchandise (visibles), service exports and imports (invisibles), foreign investment in the form of either direct or portfolio investments, setting up joint ventures or subsidiaries.
Although many mechanisms exist for promoting the growth of international business, there are also many barriers to doing business abroad. The major factors causing changes in world trade and investment patterns are economic conditions, technology and political relations.
The economic factor that influences the decision to engage in business beyond national borders includes the level of economic development in various countries, the presence of adequate infrastructure, a country’s balance of payments and monetary exchange rates. The political element is associated with the degree of political risk concerning a particular country, trade barriers erected by govern ments, legislation encouraging foreign business investments. The technological factor includes various methods of technology transfer.
A considerable amount of international business is conducted by multinational corporations though midsize and even small companies may also engage, especially when they offer a unique product and/or good value.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.
1. How do we differentiate between domestic, international and multinational business?
2. What is the usual way of business expansion?
3. What are the primary motivations for firms to become international?
4. Through what mechanisms can business become international?
5. What factors cause changes in world trade and investment pattern?
6.What economic factors influence the decision to become international?
7. What is the essence of political element that causes changes in world trade and investment pattern?
8. In what cases do midsize and small companies engage in international business?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Рівень бізнесової діяльності; значна частка; незважаючи на ...; приймати глобально/національно спрямовану стратегію; прямі або портфельні інвестиції; сприяти зростанню міжнародного бізнесу; структура світової торгівлі та інвестицій; відповідна інфраструктура; ступінь політичного ризику.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Within a single country; to operate on the world-wide scale; to enter international markets; interrelated markets; primary motivation; to choose among several options; beyond national borders; concerning a particular country; midsize company.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: option, venture, expand, conduct, acquire, merchandise, subsidiary;
B: grow, get, branch, choice, goods, enterprise, operate.
Exercise 7. Substitute the words in italics for their synonyms.
1. Who helps you to operate your business? 2. We’ve decided to set up a branch in this region. 3. Where do you get financial resources from? 4. This merchandise sells well. 5. While planning to set up a new enterprise conduct a thorough marketing research. 6. We were given three choices to consider. 7. When business grows there is a need to hire more specialists.
Exercise 8. Match and learn the opposites.
A: meaningful, expand, encourage, adequate, unique, domestic;
B: foreign, shrink, common, meaningless, discourage, inadequate.
Exercise 9. Substitute the words in italics for their opposites so that the sentences make sense.
1. The production of these high-quality goods needs inadequate technology. 2. As the demand for our products has increased we are going to shrink our business. 3. She is doing her best to discourage her son in his studies. 4. We must not adopt this idea; it seems meaningful. 5. The company was given a common chance to invest in this project. 6. Multinational companies operate in domestic markets.
Exercise 10. Here is a list of words that are used in many languages, the so-called internationalisms. Read them aloud; group them into two groups: general terms, e.g. form, and economic terms, e.g. export. Mark those that belong to both groups.
Adequate, balance, barrier, business, company, corporation, economy, evolution, export, factor, firm, focus, form, globalization, import, infrastructure, international, investment, mechanism, method, motivation, multinational, option, phenomenon, product, resource, risk, strategy, technology.
Exercise 11. Complete the sentences using the proper words from the list below:
Visible exports and imports, direct foreign investment, trade barriers, operate, political risk
1. Domestic businesses … within a single country. 2. To protect domestic businesses from foreign competition the government can erect … 3. When the company considers entering a particular foreign market it has to evaluate the degree of … concerning this country. 4. … is one of the means of expanding internationally. 5. Goods that leave or enter the country are often referred to as … .
Exercise 12. On the basis of the text define the following terms:
domestic business, international business, multinational business, globalization.
Grammar point: Sequence of Tenses (p.147-148)
Exercise 13. Read and translate the following sentences. Explain the use of tenses in subordinate clauses.
1. I was glad that he was going to visit us. 2. He was surprised that they had ordered those goods. 3. We knew that the manager would go on business to Kyiv in a week. 4. He agreed that the problem had been solved successfully. 5. The director decided that his deputy would be sent to the meeting. 6. She explained that this improvement was rather necessary. 7. Everybody knew that invisible exports include services. 8. I realized that he tried to explain why he had adopted such strategy for the company. 9. It was clear that the meeting had already started. 10. She expected that we were checking the documents at that time. 11. He was sure that all mistakes had been already corrected. 12. She thought that they would offer a unique product. 13. I explained why portfolio investments were less risky. 14. They learned that globalization is a continuous process of economic development.
Exercise 14. Make the actions in both principle and subordinate clauses simultaneous.
1. He knew that the problem (to be discussed) in details. 2. They said that the information (to be) rather important. 3. We knew that the shareholders (to be examining) the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement at the moment. 4. She knew that he (to be going) to be present at their meeting. 5. They believed that he (to supply) that product only to their stores. 6. We hoped that we (to own) a unique technology. 7. Suddenly he remembered that they (to sign) a contract at two o’clock. 8. He considered that his company (to be) very small to engage in international business. 9. We knew that he (to run) his business all by himself. 10. I thought that international business (to be) a very prospective area to specialize in.
Exercise 15. Make the action in the subordinate clause prior to the action in the principal clause.
1. They learned that the transaction (to be performed) already. 2. He thought that the investment (to be made). 3. She knew that they (to prepare) all necessary documents. 4. We hoped that they (to adopt) a new legislation in this field. 5. The manager thought that the equipment (to be installed). 6. She believed that they (to finish) checking the financial statement. 7. He learned that we (not to influence) their decision. 8. We knew that our competitors (to decide) to incorporate. 9. He didn’t know that the goods (not to be supplied) yet. 10. She learned that we (to borrow) money from the bank.
Exercise 16. Refer the action in the subordinate clause to the future.
1. They expected that the merchandize (to be delivered) in time. 2. He hoped that a new subsidiary (to be) profitable. 3. We knew that the auditor (to send) his conclusions in a week. 4. The management thought that the revenues (to increase). 5. She supposed that the company (to adopt) a global strategy. 6. I believed that he (to make) a good investment. 7. She knew that he (to be working) at this project for the next three months. 8. She hoped that all preparations (to be arranged) by next year. 9. They expected that a new joint venture (to be set up) soon. 10. They informed that the audit (to be completed) by the end of the month.
Exercise 17. Use the verb in brackets in the proper tense form.
The owner of a large business company (to buy) a number of signs reading ‘Do it Now’. He (to order) the office-boy to hang them around the office. He (to hope) that the signs (to inspire) his people and they (to work) with more energy. One day a friend of his (to ask) him how his strategy (to affect) the staff. “Well, not just the way I (to think) it (to affect)”, (to answer) the proprietor. “First, the cashier (to skip) with 30 thousand dollars, then the head accountant (to run) away with my secretary, three clerks (to demand) an increase of salary and the office-boy (to become) a bandit”.
Exercise 18. Translate the second part of the following sentences.
1. They announced that вони планують імпортувати ці товари з Італії. 2. The newspapers reported that компанія була приватизована у відповідності з законодавством. 3. Our partners knew that наш бізнес розширюється завдяки зарубіжним інвестиціям. 4. They decided that цей регіон потребує сучасної інфраструктури. 5. Everybody knew that вони вже відкрили філіал в багатьох країнах Європи.
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about the three levels of business activity.
2. Speak about the motivations and ways of engaging in international business.
3. Characterize the factors that influence the decision of companies to expand internationally.
UNIT 11 INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Exercise 1. Read and learn the following words and word combinations.
barter – бартер;
intricate mechanism of transactions – складний механізм угод;
item – стаття (імпорту, експорту); виріб;
insurance – страхування;
expenditure – витрати; syn. expenses;
specialize – спеціалізуватись; specialization –спеціалізація;
commercial activity – торгівельна діяльність;
labour force skills – кваліфікація робочої сили;
special conditions – особливі умови;
advantage – перевага; absolute advantage – абсолютна перевага;
comparative advantage – відносна перевага;
balance of trade – торгівельний баланс;
value – вартість, цінність;
balance of payments – платіжний баланс;
capital transfer – переказ капіталу;
favourable – сприятливий; opp. unfavourable - несприятливий;
deficit – нестача, дефіцит;
surplus – надлишок, профіцит;
reverse case – протилежний випадок;
terms of trade – умови торгівлі; співвідношення імпортних та
експортних цін;
on a global scale – у світовому масштабі.
Exercise 2. Read and translate the text.
International trade
The history of trade is largely the history of civilization. First it was what we call barter, a simple exchange of goods. International trade has now developed into an intricate mechanism of transactions. Today trade is not confined to visible exports and imports of goods but also includes invisible items like services, transportation, insurance, expenditure by tourists, etc.
Countries usually specialize in certain products and commercial activities. This specialization depends on such factors as differences in climate, natural resources, labour force skills and technology. These special conditions give one country an advantage over others in producing certain goods or services.
A country has absolute advantage if it produces the goods that no other nation is able to produce. A country has a comparative advantage in a certain product if it is produced more efficiently and at lower cost. Nations usually specialize in those goods and services in which they have the greatest comparative advantage and exchange their surplus for things they need and want but do not produce themselves.
When countries engage in international trade they express their agreement to specialize in order to produce more of certain goods or services. Countries that trade can together produce more goods and services than they could in the absence of trade.
The balance of trade indicates the difference between the total value of a country’s imports and exports of visible items (goods). The balance of trade is an important part of the balance of payments, which also includes invisible items and capital transfers from one country to another. If the total value of the goods imported (visibles) is higher than that of the goods exported, the balance of trade is bad (adverse or unfavourable), that is to say it shows a deficit. If the reverse case is true, the balance of trade is good or favourable and it shows a surplus. Invisible items can cover the deficit of the balance of trade and as a result the country will have a favourable balance of payments.
What a country can achieve in international trade is shown by the terms of trade. The terms of trade are the rate at which a country’s exports are exchanged for its imports. Terms are said to be good or favourable to a country when the prices of its exports are high in relation to the prices of its imports, and a bad or unfavourable when the reverse is the case. On a global scale imports must equal exports, since every good exported by one country must be imported by another.
Exercise 3. Answer the following questions.
10. How are exports and imports balanced on a global scale?
Exercise 4. Translate into English.
Простий обмін товарами; не обмежуватись чимось; переказ капіталу з однієї країни в іншу; несприятливий торгівельний баланс; дефіцитний баланс; профіцитний баланс; співвідношення; кажуть, що умови торгівлі сприятливі/несприятливі; в протилежному випадку; відносна перевага.
Exercise 5. Translate into Ukrainian.
Expenditure by tourists; the total value of a country’s exports and imports; if the reverse case is true; more efficiently and at a lower cost; to express agreement to specialize; to engage in international trade; that is to say; to cover the deficit; in relation to.
Exercise 6. Match and learn the synonyms.
A: trade, demand, value, reverse, indicate, favourable, unfavourable;
B: price, show, commercial, good, need, bad, opposite.
Exercise 7. Substitute the words in italics for their synonyms.
1. We’ve developed a wide commercial network within the western regions of the country. 2. The company needs modernization. In the opposite case it will fail. 3. The value of the goods imported has to be balanced against the value of the goods exported. 4. Last year’s balance of payments showed a considerable surplus. 5. The climate in northern countries is bad for agriculture.
Exercise 8. Match and learn the opposites.
A: rise, surplus, favourable, good, visible, true, absence;
B: false, fall, bad, presence; invisible, unfavourable, deficit.
Exercise 9. Substitute the words in italics for their opposites so that the sentences make sense.
1. If prices rise people are able to buy more goods and services. 2. When a certain industry produces more goods than the population demands it creates a deficit which can be exported. 3. As we cannot see services or insurance they are referred to as visibles. 4. His plan is very efficient. I have the most unfavourable impression of it. 5. The chief accountant is away on business. We cannot decide this problem in his presence.
Exercise 10. Complete the sentences using the proper words from the list below:
transaction, item, comparative advantage, trade, unfavourable, specialization, expenditures
1. We are not confined to … only; we service the merchandise we sell. 2. If we produce these … at a lower cost, we’ll have a … over our competitors. 3. The … we carried out last months was very profitable. 4. Barter operations still exist, but they are very … for the economy. 5. Good climate or rich natural resources determine the … of a country’s economy. 6. If we attract more tourists to this region their… will increase the local budget revenues.
Exercise 11. On the basis of the text define the following terms:
international trade, balance of trade, balance of payments, terms of trade, barter.
Grammar point : Direct and Reported Speech (p.148-150)
* The verbs ‘to speak’ vs. ‘to talk’; ‘to tell’ vs. ‘to say’
* ‘to speak’ vs. ‘to talk’
There is not a completely clear difference between speak and talk. Generally, speak is more formal and usually refers to the use of language by just one person. Talk suggests the idea of a conversational exchange. Compare:
I’ll have to speak to this bookkeeper - he is getting very inattentive. After the presentation the guests began to talk sharing their opinions.
* ‘to tell’ vs. ‘to say’
When we use tell we mention the person to whom we address our speech, to tell somebody (about) something. Say is used without any personal object, to say something. Compare:
She told me that she would be late for the meeting.
She said that she would be late for the meeting.
Exceptions: to tell a story, to tell the truth, to tell a lie.
Exercise 12. Insert one of the following verbs to say, to speak, to talk, to tell in the proper tense form.
1.I’d like to know what they … about? 2. Our manager came from the trade exhibition and … us a lot of interesting things. 3. He made a mistake in the last sentence and the teacher asked him to … it again. 4. He has already … about it, hasn’t he? What did he …? 5. Every time I see my school friends we … about our school days. 6. Our English teacher often … that Sergiy can … the language very well. 7. The secretary … that the man I’d like to … to is coming here tomorrow.
Exercise 13. Express the following statements in reported speech using the reporting verbs in brackets.
1. “Our firm will be the leader in the market in a few months”, he said (boast). 2. “Yes, your terms are better than your competitors’ ”, she said (agree). 3. “They haven’t given me any explanation”, Mike said (claim). 4. She said, “Well, your proposal sounds interesting” (admit). 5. He said angrily, ”They never supply goods in time!” (exclaim). 6. The banker said,”We do not know your credit history” (protest). 7. “The opportunity to expand is very favourable at the moment”, he said to his boss (tell). 8. “Sh-sh-sh… You are speaking too loudly”, she said (whisper). 9. He said, “This project is vital for our business” (stress). 10. He said to himself, “Everybody will come to the presentation tomorrow” (think).
Exercise 14. Express the following questions in reported speech using the reporting verbs in brackets.
1.”Have you ever visited their office?” he asked me. 2. “Where does this money come from? “ she asked (want to know). 3. “When did you write to your partners last?” he asked (request). 4.”What were you doing yesterday at seven?” she asked (inquire). 5. “Haven’t they already completed this transfer?” the manager asked (wonder). 6. “Why did they change their opinion yesterday?” his boss asked (want to know). 7. “Are you going to set up a joint venture?” my friend asked me. 8. “Whom did you apply for the credit?” the chief accountant asked his employee. 9. “Will they have finished this construction by the end of the year?” the director asked (want to know). 10. “Where will they locate their new plant?” my partner asked (inquire).
Exercise 15. Express the following orders, requests and proposals in reported speech using the reporting verbs in brackets.
1. “Please, help me with this work”, she said to me (ask). 2. “Let’s write down our proposals and then discuss them in details”, he said (suggest). 3. “Open the ledger at page 27”, the accountant said to his assistant (tell). 4. “Please, don’t tell her about my failure”, he said to me (ask). 5. “Never mention this name to me again”, he said to his friend (warn). 6.”Let’s go and visit him tomorrow”, she said (propose). 7. “Don’t forget to send them a message”, he said to his secretary (tell). 8. “Please, sit down”, she said (invite). 9. “Better do it now”, he said (advise). 10. “Consider every clause of the agreement carefully”, the director said to his deputy (order).
Exercise 16. Retell the following dialogue in reported speech.
Anna: What is the matter with you, Jack? You don’t look yourself.
Jack: I am afraid I’ve made a serious mistake when summing up our revenues for the last month.
Anna: Stop worrying and go to the chief accountant immediately. I think it isn’t late to correct your report. They haven’t shown the documents to the board of directors yet.
Discussion of the text.
1. Speak about international trade and its components.
2. Explain the essence of the theory of comparative advantage.
3. Speak about the balance of trade and the balance of payments.
4. Speak about the terms of trade and the ways to improve them.
MODULE CONTROL ASSIGNMENTS FOR SELF-WORK
Assignment 1. Use the verb in brackets in the proper tense form.
1. He thought that they (to finish) that export operation. 2. It was clear that we (to lose) much money as our sales (to decrease). 3. He knew that he (to be) right, (to be) right from the very beginning. 4. I saw that he (to try) to explain why he (to refuse) to cooperate with us. 5. The manager announced that the members of the board of directors (to come) to visit our enterprise next week. 6. We knew that he (to be) back from his business trip by Monday. 7. I thought that she (to study) financial management before she (to get) that job. 8. The Buyers stated that the goods (to meet) their requirements. 9. We were sure that our transaction (to be) a success. 10. They expected that the reconstruction of that enterprise (to require) five to six months.
Assignment 2. Write the following dialogue in reported speech.
Uncle: Let us see whether you are smart at mathematics, Charley! I had twenty dollars and borrowed fifty from your aunt and twenty from your dad. What does that make?
Charley: To my mind, that makes debts.
Assignment 3. Rewrite the following passage in direct speech as a dialogue.
Peter met George in the street and after the usual greeting asked him whether he had really decided to get a new job. George said that he had found a job with one of the companies that engaged in international trade. Peter asked whether that was a firm decision. George answered that it was, because he had studied international business at college and he was interested in gaining practical experience in that field.
Assignment 4. Match the definition on the right with the word on the left. Compose 5 sentences of your own with the words defined.
|
Absolute advantage - |
the direct exchange of goods and services for other goods and services. |
|
Balance of trade - |
the things we buy that do not involve the production of physical things, such as legal advice or education. |
|
Barter - |
an institution through which buyers and sellers interact and engage in exchange. |
|
Market - |
the advantage in the production of a product enjoyed by one country over another when it uses fewer resources to produce that product than the other country. |
|
Services - |
a country’s merchandise exports minus its merchandise imports. |
Assignment 5. Read and translate the text.
National economy of the USA
The United States of America is a highly industrialized country. It has a lot of mineral deposits such as coal, gold, silver, iron ore, copper, lead and zink. The south, especially Texas is rich in oil. The coalfields in Pennsylvania are rich in coal. The USA is the world’s leading producer of copper and the world’s second producer of iron ore and coal. Among the most important manufacturing industries are the production of aircraft, cars, computers, armaments, furniture and paper. Together, all sectors of the American economy produce almost $5,000 billion worth of goods and services each year.
Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska constitute the richest farming region known as the Corn Belt. They grow mostly corn and wheat there. California is a fruit raising area. Oranges, grapefruit, lemons, as well as other fruits, wines and vegetables are sent all over the States and exported to other parts of the world. America exports about $ 550,000 million worth of farm products each year. It produces half of the world’s soybeans and corn, and vegetable oil.
American industries have become more service-oriented. Of 16 million new jobs created lately, almost 85% have been in service industries: commerce, stocks and goods speculation, hotel and tourism services, financial and auditor’s advice, medical services and others.
The bulk of American wealth is produced by private industries and businesses, ranging from giants like General Motors or IBM Inc. to thousands of small independent enterprises. The public sector accounts for only one-fifth of American economic activity.
The USA is the world’s largest exporter of different goods and services, investor and creditor; it has a favourable balance of trade. This fact guarantees high living standards to the Americans, most of whom belong to the middle economic class.
The government of the USA plays a particular role in running the economy of the country. It supports the development of the country’s transportation network, checks the quality of foods and medicines, insures bank deposits, and guarantees long-term loans and mortgages to the citizens.
Assignment 6. Make up a list of products created in:
Assignment 7. Make written translation of the following passage.
Recently, unemployment in the USA was calculated at about 7%. To support the unemployed the government provides short-term unemployment compensation to replace wage losses between jobs. In addition, it provides job training to help unemployed Americans to acquire a new profession.
Assignment 8. Complete the sentences with the proper words from the list below:
quality, ranging, worth of, oil deposits, loan
1. Texas is famous for its… 2. This company produces UAH 1.5 million… footwear annually. 3. We are continuously improving the … of our services. 4. They export different machinery … from small farming machines to home appliances. 6. Young families can get a long-term … to buy a flat.
Assignment 9. Get ready to speak about the economy of the USA.
GRAMMAR REFERENCE
WORD ORDER ПОРЯДОК СЛІВ У РОЗПОВІДНОМУ РЕЧЕННІ
Підмет(з означенням)→ присудок → додаток (прямий/непрямий)
(з означенням)→ обставина (способу, місця, часу дії)
Обставина (місця/часу дії)→ підмет(з означенням)→ присудок →
додаток (прямий/непрямий) (з означенням)→ решта обставин
THE TYPES OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
ТИПИ ПИТАЛЬНИХ РЕЧЕНЬ
Загальні питання
Форма:
допоміжне дієслово→ підмет→ основне дієслово→ інші члени речення
Приклад:
My sister studies at Chernivtsy Institute of Trade and Economics.
Does your sister study at Chernivtsy Institute of Trade and Economics?
They are discussing our offer. – Are they discussing our offer?
Спеціальні питання
Форма:
запитальне → допоміжне → підмет → основне → інші члени
слово дієслово дієслово речення
Запитальні слова:
What - що, який Which - який, котрий
Who – хто Why - чому
Where – де How - як
When - коли How much (many) – скільки
Приклад:
Who teaches you English ?
Where do you study at?
When was your best friend born?
Why have you entered the department of economics and management?
How long has she been waiting for a bus?
How many students attend language courses at the institute?
Альтернативні запитання
Форма:
Запитальне→допоміжне→підмет →основне → інші члени речення
слово дієслово дієслово
!!Сполучник or ставиться між однорідними членами речення.
Приклад: Is he a hotel manager or an assistant director?
Do you live in Chernivtsy or Odessa?
Розділове запитання
Форма:
стверджувальне→допоміжне→ заперечна →відповідний займенник
речення дієслово частка not або
заперечне речення→допоміжне дієслово → відповідний займенник
Приклад: He is a good businessman, isn't he?
Pauline doesn't work as a manager, does she?
THE PLURAL OF NOUNS МНОЖИНА ІМЕННИКІВ
|
Закінчення однини |
Закінчення множини |
Приклад |
Вийнятки |
|
-s,-ss,-x,-sh,-ch |
-es |
class - classes dish-dishes box-boxes |
buses / busses |
|
-f(e)→ v(e) |
-es |
half - halves knife - knives leaf - leaves |
briefs, chiefs, sheriffs, roofs, safes, деякі інші |
|
приголосна+y y →i |
-еs |
baby - babies city - cities |
|
|
голосна+у |
-s |
boy - boys day - days |
|
|
приголосна +о |
-es |
hero - heroes potato - potatoes |
pianos, solos, tobaccos, photos |
|
голосна +о |
-s |
radios, rodeos |
|
|
особливі випадки |
man - men woman - women goose - geese foot - feet tooth - teeth mouse - mice child - children ox-oxen |
swine - swine deer - deer fish - fish sheep - sheep series – series форма однини = форма множини |
|
|
основне правило (всі інші випадки) |
-s |
book-books window - windows sea - seas chart - charts |
THE POSSESSIVE CASE ПРИСВІЙНИЙ ВІДМІНОК
Форма:
|
Закінчення іменника |
Закінчення присвійного відмінка |
Приклад |
|
Дзвінкий приголосний та голосний |
- 's [z] |
Nelly's room Manager's office |
|
Глухий приголосний |
- 's [s] |
The student's answer |
|
-s, -ss, -x, -g(e), -sh, -(t)ch |
- 's [iz] |
James’s computer |
|
Іменник у множині із закінченням - s |
- ' |
Clients' cards |
|
Іменник у множині без закінчення - s |
- 's |
Children's rooms |
|
Складні іменники |
- 's |
Mother-in-law’s luggage |
Вживання:
|
Іменник |
Приклад |
|
Назви істот |
my friend's hotel |
|
Час та відстань |
last week's tourist group |
|
Назви країн, міст, слова country, town, city, world, ocean, river |
England's hospitality the town's sights |
|
Назви планет: the sun, the moon, the earth |
the sun's rays, the moon's surface |
|
Збірні іменники типу government, party, army, crew, family, society |
the government's laws the club's members |
THE PRONOUN ЗАЙМЕННИК
Розряди займенників:
1. особові (personal pronouns)
2. присвійні (possessive pronouns)
3. зворотні (reflexive pronouns)
4. взаємні (reciprocal pronouns)
5. вказівні (demonstrative pronouns)
6. питальні (interrogative pronouns)
7. сполучні (conjunctive pronouns)
8. неозначені (indefinite pronouns)
9. заперечні (negative pronouns)
10.означальні (defining pronouns)
11.кількісні (quantitative pronouns)
Personal Pronouns Особові займенники
Форма
|
Називний відмінок (Nominative Case) |
Об’єктний відмінок (Objective Case) |
|
I – я He - він She - вона It - воно We - ми You - ти, ви They - вони |
Me -мене, мені Him -його, йому Her - її, їй It - його, йому, їй, її (неістоти) Us - нас, нам You - тебе, тобі, вас, вам Them – їх |
Вживання
|
відмінок |
правило |
приклад |
|
називний |
Виконує роль підмета |
He studies economics. We shall become economists |
|
об’єктний |
Виконує роль додатка |
He saw me at the lecture. Let’s ask him a question. |
Possessive Pronouns Присвійні займенники
Форма
|
Залежна форма Conjoint form |
Незалежна форма Absolute form |
Переклад |
|
my his her its our your their |
mine his hers its ours yours theirs |
мій, моя, моє, мої його її його, її наш (-а, -е, -і) ваш (-а, -е, -і) їхній, їхня, їхнє, їхні |
Вживання
|
форма |
правило |
Приклад |
|
Залежна |
Виконує роль означення |
What is your name? This is our institute. |
|
Незалежна |
Вживаються замість іменників та виконують функцію підмета або додатка |
Whose bag is it?- Mine. My pen didn’t write and she gave me hers. |
Український займенник свій перекладається присвійним займенником, що узгоджується з відповідним особовим.
Приклад.
He gave his answer only yesterday. – Він дав свою відповідь лише вчора.
We took our things and went home. – Ми взяли свої речі і пішли додому.
Reflexive pronouns Зворотні займенники
Форма
|
особовий |
зворотний |
особовий |
зворотний |
|
I you he she it |
myself yourself himself herself itself |
we you they |
ourselves yourselves themselves |
Вживання
|
правило |
приклад |
|
В ролі додатка (українською мовою перекладається зворотним дієсловом з часткою –ся ) |
You must be careful or you can hurt yourself. She bought herself a dress. |
|
З метою підсилення (українською мовою перекладаються займенником сам/сама/самі) |
The President himself must sign the document. I can see it myself. |
|
Займенник oneself вживається в реченнях з підметом, вираженим неозначеним займенником one |
One should take care of oneself. |
Reciprocal pronouns Взаємні займенники
Форма : each other; one another.
Вживання
|
правило |
Приклад |
|
У значенні один одного (-му) - двоє учасників дій – each other; - більше двох учасників дій – one another |
They always listen to each other. All were looking at one another. |
Demonstrative pronouns Вказівні займенники
Форма
|
однина |
Множина |
|
this – цей, ця, це; that – той, та; те; |
these – ці; those – ті |
|
such – такий; the same – той самий |
Interrogative pronouns Питальні займенники
Форма : who, whom, what, which
Вживання
|
займенник |
правило |
приклад |
|
Who - хто |
З назвами істот |
Who is absent? |
|
Whom – кого, кому |
В ролі додатка |
Whom did you see there? |
|
What – що, який |
1. З назвами неістот, тварин, абстрактних понять. 2. З назвами істот стосовно професії, занять, звання. |
1.What are you talking about? 2. What are you? – I am a student. |
|
Which – який, котрий |
З назвами істот та неістот при наявності вибору. |
Which of these languages would you like to study? |
Conjunctive pronouns Сполучні займенники
Форма: who (whom), whose, what, which, that
Вживання
|
займенник |
правило |
Приклад |
|
who (whom) – хто, кого; whose – чий; якого, якої |
З назвами істот |
He is a person who set up this business. She is the writer whose books are bestsellers. |
|
which – який, яка, яке; які |
З назвами неістот в підрядних означальних реченнях. |
They answered the letter which they received a day before. |
|
that – який, яка, яке; які |
З назвами істот та неістот в підрядних означальних реченнях. |
This is a company that was established by our grandfather. |
Indefinite pronouns Неозначені займенники
Форма
|
Прості |
Складені |
|
some any one |
somebody, something, someone, somewhere, somehow anybody, anything, anyone, anywhere |
Вживання
|
займенник |
правило |
приклад |
|
some - з злічуваним іменником в множині – кілька, деякі, дехто; з незлічуваним іменником -звичайно не перекладається |
1.в стверджувальних реченнях; 2. в питальних реченнях, що починаються словами why, where, when, тощо; 3. в питальних реченнях, що виражають прохання або пропозицію. |
1.He has some interesting ideas for a new project. 2. Where can I find some information on this topic? 3. Can you give me some advice? Will you have some more tea? |
|
somebody-хтось something - щось someone – хтось somewhere - десь somehow - якось |
В стверджувальних реченнях |
Somebody left the book here Something has happened. Someone is working there. I’ve put it somewhere. Somehow I opened the door. |
|
any |
1.в питаннях та заперечних реченнях; 2. в стверджувальних реченнях в значенні будь-який. |
1. Are there any new ideas? He didn’t propose any plan. 2. You can take any book you like. |
|
anybody anything anyone anywhere anyhow |
1. в питаннях та заперечних реченнях; 2. в стверджувальних реченнях в значенні будь-хто, будь-що, будь-де, будь-як |
1. Can you do anything? We didn’t see anyone there. 2. Anybody can do this. Take your seat anywhere you like. We cannot get there anyhow. |
|
one – кожен, всі |
Вживається щодо людей взагалі; виконує роль підмета в неозначено-особових реченнях |
One must keep one’s word. |
Negative pronouns Заперечні займенники
Форма: no; none, no-one, nobody; nothing; nowhere; neither.
Вживання: в заперечних реченнях, де дієслово-присудок вживається у стверджувальній формі.
|
займенник |
правило |
приклад |
|
no |
Вживається перед іменником. |
There is no book there. |
|
none – ніхто; no-one – ніхто; nobody – ніхто; nothing – ніщо; |
Вживається в ролі підмета або додатка. |
Nobody answered him. He met no-one there. Nothing was done. |
|
nowhere – ніде; |
Вживається в ролі обставини. |
We can find him nowhere |
|
neither – жоден (з двох); ні той, ні другий |
Вживається стосовно істот і неістот в ролі 1) підмета; 2) додатка; 3) означення. |
I saw neither of them. Neither answer was correct. |
Defining pronouns Означальні займенники
Форма: all; both; each, every; everybody, everyone; everything; either; another, other
Вживання
|
займенник |
правило |
приклад |
|
All – весь, вся, все; всі |
Виконує роль 1)підмета, 2) означення |
1. All were present. 2. We worked all day. |
|
Both - обидва |
Виконує роль 1)підмета, 2)означення |
1. Both were right. 2. Both boys were right. |
|
Each – кожний (зокрема); |
Виконує роль 1)підмета, 2)означення |
1. Each has a family. 2. He asked each boy. |
|
Every – кожний (всі) |
Виконує роль означення |
We have seminars every week. |
|
Everybody, everyone – кожний, всі Everything -все |
Виконує роль 1)підмета, 2)додатка. |
1. Everybody (everyone) was present. 2. He did everything he could. |
|
Either – один з двох; обидва кожний з двох |
Виконує роль 1)підмета, 2)додатка, 3)означення |
1. There are two variants. Either is good. You can choose either (variant). |
|
Other – інший, інші Another – другий /інший; ще один |
Виконує роль 1)підмета, 2)додатка, 3)означення |
1.Others were absent. 2. Look at the other (boy). 3. Take other magazine. Give me another example |
Quantitative pronoun Кількісні займенники
Форма: many, much, more, most; few, fewer, fewest, a few; little, less, least, a little
Вживання
|
займенник |
правило |
приклад |
|
Many- багато More – більше Most - найбільше |
Із злічуваними іменникам |
She asked many questions. More questions were asked later. He won most prizes. |
|
Few - мало (недостатньо) Fewer – менше Fewest – найменше A few – мало, але достатньо |
She has few friends and feels very lonely. They have fewer problems with this equipment. She has a few friends but she trusts them very much. |
|
|
Much – багато More – більше Most - найбільше |
З незлічуваними іменниками |
I spend much time on English. More time is spent on economics. Mathematics takes most of my time. |
|
Little – мало (недостатньо) Less – менше Least – найменше A little – мало, але достатньо |
We have little sugar. Don’t forget to buy some. They spent less time on this task. This is the least I can do. We can make some coffee – there is a little sugar left. |
Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives
Ступені порівняння прикметників
Форма : проста, що утворюється за допомогою суфіксів –er, -est;
складена, що утворюється за допомогою слів more, most;
|
прикметник |
основний |
вищий |
найвищий |
|
односкладові та двоскладові, що закінчуються на -er, -le, -ow, -y |
cold clever simple narrow happy |
colder cleverer simpler narrower happier |
coldest cleverest simplest narrowest happiest |
|
інші двоскладові та багатоскладові |
famous beautiful |
more famous more beautiful |
most famous most beautiful |
|
особливі випадки |
good bad old far |
better worse older elder farther further |
best worst oldest eldest farthest furthest |
Особливості правопису.
1. У односкладовому прикметнику, що закінчується на приголосний, якому передує короткий голосний, кінцевий приголосний подвоюється: hot – hotter – hottest; big – bigger – biggest.
2. Якщо прикметник закінчується на –y, перед якою стоїть приголосний, то перед суфіксами вищого та найвищого ступенів er, -est літера –y змінюється на –i: dry – drier – driest.
Вживання.
1. При порівнянні предметів з однаковою мірою якості вживається прикметник в основній формі та сполучник as … as:
Macroeconomics is as important as microeconomics.
2. При порівнянні предметів з меншою мірою якості вживається прикметник в основній формі та сполучник not so …as:
Statistics is not so difficult as higher mathematics.
3. При порівнянні предметів, що не належать до однієї групи або взятих окремо, вживається вищий ступінь порівняння та сполучник than: Higher mathematics is more interesting to me than statistics.
4. При порівнянні одного предмету з іншими предметами, що належать до однієї групи, вживається прикметник у найвищому ступені порівняння з артиклем the: He is the cleverest in our class.
THE NUMERAL ЧИСЛІВНИК
Форма
|
Кількісн. |
Порядковий |
Кількісний |
Порядковий |
Кількісний |
Порядковий |
|||
|
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 |
one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty twenty - one twenty-two thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety a (one) hundred one hundred and one two hundred and forty-five four hundred and sixty seven |
first second third fourth fifth sixth seventh eighth ninth tenth the eleventh the twelfth the thirteenth the fourteenth the fifteenth the sixteenth the seventeenth the eighteenth the nineteenth the twentieth the twenty - first the twenty - second the thirtieth the fortieth the fiftieth the sixtieth the seventieth the eightieth the ninetieth the hundredth the one hundred and first the two hundred and forty fifth the four hundred and sixty seventh |
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 |
eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen |
eleventh twelfth thirteenth fourteenth fifteenth sixteenth seventeenth eighteenth nineteenth |
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 |
twenty thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety hundred |
twentieth thirtieth fortieth fiftieth sixtieth seventieth eightieth ninetieth hundredth |
Утворення:
Порядкові числівники утворюються від відповідних кількісних за допомогою суфікса –th.
Кількісні числівники від 13 до 19 включно утворюються за допомогою суфікса –teen, який наголошується.
Кількісні числівники, що позначають десятки починаючи з 20 утворюються за допомогою суфікса –ty, який не наголошується.
Особливості правопису.
Four – fourteen – forty;
Five – fifteen – fifty;
Nine – ninth;
Eight – eighth;
Twelve – twelfth.
Вживання.
Великі числа.
Кома відокремлює групи з трьох цифр. Назви розрядів hundred, thousand, million вимовляються і не мають закінчення множини. Перед десятками в великих числах вимовляється and.
82,437,821 – eighty-two million four hundred and thirty-seven thousand eight hundred and twenty-one;
В британському (BE) та американському (AE) варіантах англійської мови наступні числа читаються по-різному:
1,000,000,000 – a thousand million (BE), a billion (AE);
1,000,000,000,000 – a billion (BE), a trillion (AE).
Слово milliard = a thousand million (BE) = a billion (AE) є європейським терміном і тільки починає використовуватись.
В довгих числах (номери телефонів, банківських рахунків, тощо) кожна цифра читається окремо, перед двома однаковими цифрами вимовляється слово double:
720844 – seven two oh eight double four
Гроші.
Символ назви грошей пишеться перед числом, а вимовляється після числа: $ 4 m – four million dollars; ₤92bn – ninety-two billion pounds;
€742 – seven hundred and forty-two euros
Дати.
Роки вимовляються з двох частин: 1999 – nineteen ninety-nine, проте рік 2000 вимовляється як одне ціле: 2006 – two thousand and six.
Місяці і числа:
25th of April 1987 – the twenty-fifth of April, nineteen eighty-seven
або April, the twenty-fifth, nineteen eighty-seven
В Европі прийнято писати спочатку число, а потім місяць. В США – навпаки, спочатку місяць, а потім число. Таким чином, запис
10.12.2004 читається як the tenth of December, two thousand and four (BE) або як October, (the) twelfth, two thousand and four (AE).
Час.
Зазвичай ми не користуємось 24-годинною шкалою (окрім розкладу літаків, потягів, тощо), а розділяємо час до полудня (AM) та після полудня (PM). Використовуються слова quarter (чверть), half (половина), past (після), to (до).
3.45AM – 1) three forty-five AM; 2) a quarter to four AM;
7.30 PM – 1) seven thirty PM; 2) half past seven PM;
11.45 AM – 1) eleven forty-five AM; 2) a quarter to twelve AM.
12.00 – midday (полудень); 24.00 – midnight (північ).
Якщо мова йде про розклад, ми вимовляємо:
The train leaves at 14.00 – at fourteen hundred hours.
Вимірювання.
62 km – sixty-two kilometers;
14 ½ cm – fourteen and a half centimeters;
6m∙6m – six metres by six metres;
-10˚C – minus four degrees Celsius /centigrade.
Дроби.
Простий дріб. Числівник вимовляється як кількісний, а знаменник – як порядковий числівник. Якщо числівник більший за 1, у знаменнику вимовляється відповідний порядковий числівник з закінченням –s.
½ -one second or a half; ⅔ – two-thirds; ¾ - three fourths or three quarters; 1 5/7 – one and five sevenths.
Десятковий дріб.
У BE та AE для відокремлення цілої частини від дробу використовується крапка(читається point), а не кома як це прийнято в Европі. Число після крапки читається як окремі цифри. Число 0 (нуль) читається по-різному, в залежності від його місця:
oh - після крапки та naught до крапки (BE);
zero – після крапки та не вимовляється взагалі до крапки (AE).
8.07 – eight point oh seven (BE); eight point zero seven (AE);
0.6 – naught point six (BE); point six (AE);
6.9057 – six point nine oh five seven; six point nine zero five seven.
Математичні дії.
Додавання: 15+6=21 fifteen plus/and six equals twenty-one;
Віднімання: 7-3=4 seven minus /take away/less three equals four;
Множення:6∙8=48 six multiplied by eight/times eight equals forty-eight
Ділення: 28:7=4 twenty-eight divided by seven equals four;
Піднесення до степеня: 52 - five squared; 47- four to the power seven;
Добування кореня: √4 the square root of four; 3√81 – the cube root of eighty-one; 4√16 – the fourth root of sixteen.
The Principal Forms of the Verb Основні форми дієслова
|
Infinitive Неозначена форма |
Past indefinite Минулий неозначений |
Past participle Дієприкметник минулий |
Present participle Дієприкметник теперішній |
|
to work |
worked |
worked |
working |
|
to teach |
taught |
taught |
teaching |
|
to know |
knew |
known |
knowing |
THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE Active Voice
Теперішній неозначений час Активний стан
Форма: infinitive без частки to
Ствердження / заперечення
|
I/we/you/they |
work/do not (don’t) work |
at this plan. |
|
He/she/it |
works/does not(doesn’t) work |
Запитання
|
Do |
I/we/you/they |
work |
at this plan? |
|
Does |
he/she/it |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Констатація факту дії, що є істинним завжди |
Roman likes to travel . Water boils at 100° Centigrade. |
|
Регулярна, звична, повторювана дія |
I go to the institute by bus. She cleans the room twice a week. |
|
Дія, що відбувається згідно з розкладом |
The train leaves at 5 p.m. The meeting starts at 5 o'clock. |
!!Прислівники частоти дії, які вживаються з теперішнім неозначеним часом: never, rarely, not often, sometimes, often, usually, always.
В третій особі однини до дієслова додається закінчення –s/es за правилами, що діють при утворенні множини іменників(див. с.115).
THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE Passive Voice
Теперішній неозначений час Пасивний стан
Форма: am/is/are + Past Participle
Ствердження / заперечення
|
I |
am/am not(ain’t) |
prepared |
for this job |
|
He/she/it |
is/ is not (isn’t) |
||
|
We/you/they |
are/are not (aren’t) |
Запитання
|
Am |
I |
prepared |
for this job? |
|
Is |
he/she/it |
||
|
Are |
we/you/they |
Вживання
|
Для описання дії, не вказуючи на її виконавця. Іноді виконавець вказується прийменниковим додатком з прийменниками by(особа, що виконує дію) або with (знаряддя, яким виконують дію). |
Services are often referred to as invisible goods. These data are gathered by our employees. The notes are written with the pen. |
|
Для опису послідовних дій. |
These data are collected, then they are analyzed and finally the results are published. |
!! Прислівники частоти дії вживаються в складі присудка після допоміжного перед смисловим дієсловом : are always written, is often referred to; is sometimes called.
Active Voice or Passive Voice
|
Active voice |
Passive Voice |
|
Підмет є активним виконавцем дії, що виражена присудком в активній формі і спрямована на об’єкт, позначений додатком. Our company→ sells→ this equipment. |
Підмет є пасивним об’єктом дії, вираженої присудком в пасивній формі, що виконується над ним іншою особою або предметом, позначеним додатком. This equipment← is sold← by our company. |
|
Присудок виражений неперехідним дієсловом, тобто таким, що не вимагає додатка. The delegation arrives tonight. |
|
|
Вживається для опису людей або предметів, що виконують дію, при цьому увага зосереджується на тому, що підмет є виконавцем дії. The company develops new products to satisfy the needs of the consumers. |
Вживається у науковому стилі та у випадках, коли увага зосереджується на діях та процесах, на тому, що саме відбувається з об’єктом дії. Land, water, mineral wealth and climate are called natural resources. |
!! Трансформація активних речень в пасивні можлива лише тоді, коли присудок активного речення виражений перехідним дієсловом, тобто дієсловом, після якого вживається додаток.
The students take examinations at the end of each term (take what? examinations).
При перетворенні активного речення на пасивне додаток активного речення стає підметом, присудок вживається у пасивній формі відповідного часу, а підмет активного речення стає додатком, якщо важливо показати ким виконується дія, або пропускається взагалі, якщо згадування про виконавця зайве.
Examinations are taken at the end of each term (by the students).
В даному випадку додаток by the students є зайвим, оскільки мета даного речення – показати, яка саме дія виконується над підметом (екзамени складаються), а не вказати на виконавця дії (студенти).
Якщо виконавець дії має вагоме значення, то додаток використовується з прийменником by або for (для позначення особи виконавця) або з прийменником with для позначення знаряддя дії.
This equipment is produced by our company.
This equipment is produced with high precision instruments.
В активному реченні часто присутні два додатки: прямий, що вказує на предмет /об’єкт дії (what?), та непрямий, що вказує на особу, якій адресована дія (whom?).
The company sends some information (what?) to our customers (whom?).
Якщо непрямий додаток (whom?) виражений особовим займенником, він може стояти
1)перед прямим додатком:The company sends them some information;
2)після прямого додатку і в цьому випадку вживається з прийменником to/for: The company sends some information to/for them.
Якщо обидва додатки виражені особовими займенниками, то прямий додаток (what?) стоїть в реченні першим, а непрямий додаток (whom?) іде за ним і вживається з прийменником.
The company sends it (what?) to/for them (whom?).
Речення з двома додатками може бути трансформоване в два окремих пасивних речення, в кожному з яких підметом буде один з додатків, при цьому інший додаток залишатиметься на своєму вихідному місці.
The company sends some information to our customers.
Some information is sent to our customers.
Our customers are sent some information.
THE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE Active Voice
Минулий неозначений час Активний стан
Форма: Past Indefinite
Ствердження
|
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
finished |
school |
last year. |
Запитання
|
Did |
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
finish |
school |
last year? |
Заперечення
|
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
did not |
finish |
school |
last year. |
The Past Indefinite Tense Passive Voice
Минулий неозначений час Пасивний стан
Форма: was/were+ Past Participle
Ствердження/ заперечення
|
I/he/she |
was/ was not |
asked |
a lot of questions at the interview. |
|
We/you/they |
were/were not |
Запитання
|
Was |
I/he/she |
asked |
a lot of questions at the interview? |
|
Were |
we/you/they |
Вживання:
|
Дія: |
Приклад: |
|
Закінчена дія в минулому (із вказівкою на час дії) |
I went to Kyiv last week. These goods were sold everywhere. |
|
Послідовність дій в минулому (в оповіданнях, розповідках) |
Nick got up in the morning, did physical exercises, took a shower and began to prepare for the exam. |
|
Звична, повторювана дія в минулому |
When I was a student I often helped my parents with their business. |
!!Обставини часу, характерні для Past Indefinite, чітко співвідносять дію з певним часом в минулому: last week, two days ago, in 2006, etc.
THE FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE Active Voice
Майбутній неозначений час Активний стан
Форма: shall/will + Infinitive (дієслово shall вживається з першою особою однини та множини (I,we), використовується рідко, оскільки в розмовній мові вживається скорочена форма ‘ll).
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/we |
shall(‘ll)/shall not |
learn |
French |
next year. |
|
He/she/it/you/they |
will(‘ll)/will not |
Запитання
|
Shall |
I/we |
learn |
French |
next year? |
|
Will |
He/she/it/you/they |
The Future Indefinite Tense Passive Voice
Майбутній неозначений час Пасивний стан
Форма: shall/will be + Past Participle
Ствердження/ заперечення
|
I/he/she/we/you/they |
will be asked |
these questions |
at the exam tomorrow. |
|
will not be asked |
Запитання
|
Will |
I/he/she/we/you/they |
be asked |
these questions |
at the exam tomorrow? |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка відбудеться у майбутньому |
They will finish the reconstruction next week. It will be finished soon. |
!! Приклади обставин часу, які вживаються з майбутнім неозначеним часом: tomorrow, next week, next month, in two days, etc.
THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE Active Voice
Теперішній тривалий час Активний стан
Форма: am/ is/ are + Present Participle
Ствердження / заперечення
|
I |
am(‘m)/am not(‘m not) |
reading |
at the moment |
|
He/she/it |
is(‘s)/ is not (isn’t) |
||
|
We/you/they |
are (‘re)/are not (aren’t) |
Питання
|
Am |
I |
reading |
at the moment? |
|
Is |
he/she/it |
||
|
Are |
we/you/they |
The Present Continuous Tense Passive Voice
Теперішній тривалий час Пасивний стан
Форма: am/is/are + being + Past Participle
Ствердження / заперечення
|
I |
am/am not |
being interviewed |
at the moment. |
|
He/she/it |
is / is not |
||
|
We/you/they |
are /are not |
Запитання
|
Am |
I |
being interviewed |
at the moment? |
|
Is |
he/she/it |
||
|
Are |
we/you/they |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка розгортається в момент мовлення |
Gill is very busy now, she is speaking with the manager. |
|
Дія або ситуація, яка є правдивою в даний період часу, однак не обов’язково розгортається в момент мовлення |
He is writing a play this autumn. Don't take this program. I'm working at it. |
|
Майбутня запланована дія, особливо з дієсловами, що позначають рух:to, to come, to leave, to arrive, to start. |
We are leaving tomorrow. He is coming on Monday. |
|
Тривала дія, що відбувається одночасно з іншою дією, яка відноситься до теперішнього часу. |
What does he do when he is not working on the computer? |
!! В тривалих часах вживаються лише такі дієслова, що виражають дію як процес, тобто дію, що відбувається в певний проміжок часу. Дієслова, що не виражають динамічної дії, не вживаються в часах Continuous. До таких належать:
1)дієслова, що виражають фізичне сприйняття: to see бачити, to hear чути, to measure мати розміри /вимірюватись, to taste мати смак/смакувати, to smell мати запах/пахнути, to sound звучати, to weigh мати вагу/важити;
2)дієслова, що виражають розумову діяльність: to believe вірити, to doubt сумніватись, to know знати, to realize розуміти, to recognize впізнавати, to remember пам’ятати, to suppose припускати, to think вважати, to understand розуміти;
3)дієслова, що виражають бажання, почуття, волевиявлення: to agree погоджуватись, to hate ненавидіти, to like любити, подобатись, to love любити, to object заперечувати, to prefer надавати перевагу, to refuse відмовлятись, to want хотіти, to wish, to desire бажати;
4)дієслова, що виражають відношення між предметами: to be бути, to belong to належати, to concern стосуватись, to consist of складатись, to contain, to hold вміщувати, to depend on залежати, to include вміщувати, складатись з, to involve стосуватись, включати, залучати, to own, to possess володіти, to resemble бути схожим на.
!! Обставини часу, що супроводжують теперішню тривалу дію: now, at the moment, these days. Слова always, continually, constantly вживаються для підкреслення дії, яка відбувається часто і (іноді) неочікувано:
He is constantly giving people assignments which are very difficult.
THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE Active Voice
Минулий тривалий час Активний стан
Форма: was / were + Present Participle
Ствердження /заперечення
|
I/he/she/it |
was/was not |
watching |
the Olympic Games |
the whole day yesterday. |
|
We/you/they |
were/were not |
Запитання
|
Was |
I/he/she/it |
watching |
the Olympic Games |
the whole day yesterday? |
|
Were |
we/you/they |
The Past Continuous Tense Passive Voice
Минулий тривалий час Пасивний стан
Форма: was/were + being + Past Participle
Ствердження/ заперечення
|
I/he/she/it |
was/was not |
being watched |
during the test of the equipment. |
|
We/you/they |
were/were not |
Запитання
|
Was |
I/he/she/it |
being watched |
during the test of the equipment? |
|
Were |
we/you/they |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка розгорталась у певний момент часу в минулому |
I was talking to a client at 5.The equipment was being tested at 7. |
|
Дія, ситуація або стан, які мали місце протягом певного періоду в минулому |
My father was working for this company for twenty years. The audit was being performed during the last week. |
|
Тривала дія, що відбувалась одночасно з іншою дією в минулому(тривалою або ні) |
While we were coming down the stairs the lift was being repaired. |
!! Обставини часу, які вживаються в минулому тривалому часі: at 5 o'clock, at that time, from 6 till 7, the whole day long, etc.
PAST INDEFINITE чи PAST CONTINUOUS
|
Past Indefinite |
Past Continuous |
|
Дія, повторювана, звична в минулому: I went to a sport club twice a week. I used to walk in this park when I was a child. |
Дія, яка тривала в певний момент або період у минулому: I was playing golf at that time yesterday. |
|
Закінчена дія, діяльність в минулому: I watched a film during the flight. |
Незакінчена дія, діяльність в минулому: I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn't finish it) |
|
Дія, яка відбувалась одночасно з іншою, тривалішою дією в минулому: When the telephone rang Dan was reading a newspaper. |
Дія, яка тривала під час іншої одномоментної дії в минулому: When the telephone rang Dan was reading a newspaper |
THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE Active Voice
Майбутній тривалий час Активний стан
Форма: shall be/will be + Present Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/he/she/it/ we/you/they |
will(‘ll) be writing |
a report |
from 6 to 8 tonight. |
|
won’t be writing |
Запитання
|
Will |
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
be writing |
a report |
from 6to8 tonight? |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка триватиме у певний момент в майбутньому |
This time tomorrow I’ll be working on my report . |
!! Форми пасивного стану Future Continuous не вживаються.
Обставини часу, які вживаються в майбутньому тривалому часі: at 5 o'clock, at that time, from 6 till/to 7, the whole day, etc.
THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Active Voice
Теперішній перфект ний/доконаний час Активний стан
Форма: have/ has+ Past Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/we/you/they |
have(‘ve)/have not(haven’t) |
written |
such reports |
before |
|
He/she/it |
has(‘s)/has not(hasn’t) |
Запитання
|
Have |
I/we/you/they |
written |
such reports |
before? |
|
Has |
he/she/it |
The Present Perfect Tense Passive Voice
Теперішній перфект ний час Пасивний стан
Форма: have/has + been + Past Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/we/you/they |
have/have not |
been asked |
such questions |
before. |
|
He/she/it |
has/has not |
Запитання
|
Have |
I/we/you/they |
been asked |
such questions |
before? |
|
Has |
he/she/it |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка відбувалася у невизначений момент часу в минулому, результат якої наявний у теперішньому часі |
I have finished the calculations. You may use them now. I've lost my text-book. Can you borrow me yours? |
|
Дія, що почалася в минулому і тривала до моменту мовлення (up to now, lately, recently, so far, since, not yet) |
My friends have not arrived yet. Only these results have been examined so far. |
|
Дія, яка відбулася в період часу, який ще не закінчився (today, this week, this year). |
He has finished school this year. |
!!Обставини, що вживаються з теперішнім перфектним часом (прислівники неозначеного часу і частотності) already, just, ever, never, before now, since, for, yet, seldom, often.
THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE Active Voice
Теперішній перфектно-тривалий час Активний стан
Форма: have/ has+ been + Present Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/we/you/they |
have/have not |
been working |
all day long. |
|
He/she/it |
has/has not |
Запитання
|
Have |
I/we/you/they |
been working |
all day long? |
|
Has |
he/she/it |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка розгорталася у певний період часу в минулому, нещодавно закінчилась і, часто, спричинила наслідок, наявний в теперішньому часі |
I have been working in the garden all day. I'm tired. Your eyes are red. Have you been crying? |
|
Дія, яка почалася в минулому, тривала певний період часу в минулому і продовжується зараз (з прийменниками for, since) |
I have been waiting for him for two hours and he hasn't come yet. She has been teaching at our school since 1980. |
!!Форма пасивного стану не використовується.
Present Perfect Continuous чи Present Perfect
|
Present Perfect Continuous |
Present Perfect |
|
Дія напротязі певного періоду часу: I've been studying English for two years. |
Дія закінчена: I've baked the cake. |
|
Дія, яка передбачає тривалість (wait, work, play, try, learn, rain): I have been playing tennis for several hours. |
Дія короткочасна (find, start, buy, lose, break, stop): I've bought a new dictionary this week. |
|
Тривала дія при невказаних числі та кількості:I've been reading all day today. |
Закінчена дія при вказанихї числі, кількості: I've read ten chapters. |
!! З певними дієсловами (live, work, teach) можуть вживатися обидва часи, якщо вжиті обставини for і since:
|
She has been working with this corporation for ten years |
She has worked for this corporation for ten years. |
Past Indefinite чи Present Perfect/Perfect Continuous
|
Past Indefinite |
Present Perfect/Perfect Continuous |
|
Дія відбулася у закінчений період часу: We arrived last week. |
Дія відбулась у незакінчений період часу: I have lost my key today. I have been looking for this book all morning today. |
|
Дія закінчилася і продовжуватися не буде: Shakespeare wrote thirty plays. |
Дія закінчена, але можливим є її продовження: My uncle has written several books (and can still write more). I I have been studying English for two years and still need some practice. |
|
Вказаний час дії (минулий): I bought this book last month. |
Час дії невідомий, основне – її результат. I've bought this book and you may take it if you need. |
THE PAST PERFECT TENSE Active Voice
Минулий перфектний час Активний стан
Форма: had + Past Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
had/had not performed |
the audit |
by 6 pm yesterday. |
Запитання
|
Had |
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
performed |
the audit |
by 6 pm yesterday? |
The Past Perfect Tense Passive Voice
Минулий перфектний час Пасивний стан
Форма: had + been + Past Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
had/had not been invited |
to the meeting of the staff. |
Запитання
|
Had |
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
been invited |
to the meeting of the staff? |
Вживання
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка відбулася перед іншою минулою дією |
Sam had left before we got there. All the documents had been examined before the meeting started. |
|
Дія, яка закінчилася до певного моменту в минулому (by two o'clock, by that time) |
I had done my homework by 8 o'clock. My report had been submitted by the deadline. |
THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE Active Voice
Минулий перфектно-тривалий час Активний стан
Форма: had been + Present Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
had/ had not been studying |
English |
for 10 years |
by then. |
Запитання
|
Had |
I/he/she/it/we/you/they |
been studying |
English |
for 10 years |
by then? |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка тривала на протязі певного періоду часу до іншої минулої дії чи періоду часу в минулому |
We had been discussing that problem for two hours before Bill came. |
|
Дія, яка тривала і закінчилась незадовго до певного моменту часу чи дії в минулому |
She looked very tired as she had been finishing the most important negotiations. |
!! Форма пасивного стану не використовується.
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Active Voice
Майбутній перфектний час Активний стан
Форма: shall/will have + Past Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/we |
shall/shall not |
have passed |
all exams |
by July. |
|
He/she/it/you/they |
will/will not |
Запитання
|
Shall |
I/we |
have passed |
all exams |
by July? |
|
Will |
He/she/it/you/they |
The Future Perfect Tense Passive Voice
Майбутній перфектний час Пасивний стан
Форма: shall/will have + been + Past Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/we |
shall/shall not |
have been examined |
by July. |
|
He/she/it/you/they |
will/will not |
Запитання
|
Shall |
I/we |
have been examined |
by July? |
|
Will |
he/she/it/you/they |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка буде закінчена до певного моменту в майбутньому. Цей момент може позначатись 1) обставиною часу з прийменником by, 2) підрядним реченням часу, в якому дієслово-присудок вживається в одному з теперішніх часів. |
1)We’ll have reconstructed the plant by next year. The plant will have been reconstructed by next year. 2) Everything will have been checked by the time they arrive. I shall have checked all the documents by the time he comes back from his business trip. |
THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE Active Voice
Майбутній перфектно-тривалий час Активний стан
Форма: shall/will have been + Present Participle
Ствердження/заперечення
|
I/we |
shall/shall not |
have been checking |
the papers |
for 3 hours by then. |
|
He/she/it/you/they |
will/will not |
Запитання
|
Shall |
I/we |
have been checking |
the papers |
for 3 hours by then? |
|
Will |
He/she/it/you/they |
Вживання:
|
Дія |
Приклад |
|
Дія, яка триватиме певний період часу, часто позначений обставиною з прийменником for, до певного моменту часу чи певної дії в майбутньому |
I shall have been conducting quality test for two weeks before they launch this new product. |
!! Майбутній перфектно-тривалий час вживається дуже рідко.
Форма пасивного стану не використовується.
THE RULE OF SEQUENCE OF TENSES
Правило узгодження часів
Правило узгодження часів застосовується в складнопідрядних реченнях і полягає в наступному:
Якщо присудок головного речення виражений дієсловом в минулому часі (найчастіше в Past Indefinite), то присудок в підрядному реченні вживається в одному з минулих часів відповідно до дії, яку він описує.
Можливі 3 варіанти відношень між часом протікання дії в головному та підрядному реченнях.
I.Дії в головному та підрядному реченнях відбуваються одночасно. Присудки вживаються в Past Indefinite або в Past Continuous. Підрядне речення перекладається на українську мову теперішнім часом. Приклад:
I was sure that he knew the company’s address (Past Indefinite).
Я був впевнений, що він знає адресу компанії.
I thought that she was working for that firm (Past Continuous).
Я вважав, що вона працює в тій фірмі.
II. Дії в головному та підрядному реченнях відбуваються в різні періоди часу в минулому, причому дія в підрядному реченні відбулась раніше, ніж дія в головному. В цьому випадку присудок підрядного речення вживається в Past Perfect (active/passive) або в Past Perfect Continuous (active). Підрядне речення перекладається на українську мову минулим часом. Приклад:
We expected that he had checked all the documents (Past Perfect active). Ми очікували, що він перевірив всі документи.
We expected that all the documents had been checked (Past Perfect passive). Ми очікували, що всі документи були перевірені.
We expected that he had been checking the documents since the morning (Past Perfect Continuous).Ми очікували, що він перевіряв документи від ранку.
III. Дії в головному та підрядному реченнях відбуваються в різні періоди часу, причому дія в підрядному реченні відбуватиметься пізніше, ніж дія в головному, тобто у відносному майбутньому щодо дії в головному реченні. В цьому випадку присудок в підрядному реченні вживається у формі Future-in-the-Past відповідного часу (Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous). Форма Future-in-the-Past утворюється шляхом заміни допоміжних дієслів майбутнього часу shall→should, will→would у відповідному майбутньому часі. Підрядне речення перекладається на українську мову майбутнім часом. Приклад:
We decided that they would order the goods according to the contract (Future-in-the-Past Indefinite active). We decided that the goods would be ordered according to the contract (Future-in-the-Past Indefinite passive). Ми вирішили, що вони замовлять товари згідно контракту. Ми вирішили, що товари будуть замовлені згідно контракту.
We thought that they would be checking the documents for three days (Future-in-the-Past Continuous active). Ми вважали, що вони перевірятимуть документи три дні.
We thought that they would have finished the negotiations by next Friday (Future-in-the-Past Perfect active). We thought that the negotiations would have been finished by next Friday (Future-in-the-Past Perfect passive). Ми вважали, що вони завершать переговори до наступної п’ятниці. Ми вважали, що переговори будуть завершені до наступної п’ятниці.
We believed that they would have been calculating the revenues all day long before they received the final results (Future-in-the-Past Perfect Continuous active). Ми вважали, що вони підраховуватимуть надходження цілий день, перш ніж отримають кінцеві результати.
!! Правило узгодження часів не застосовується в підрядних реченнях, які виражають загальновідомі факти. Приклад:
The children learned that water boils at 100ْ C.
We knew that Adam Smith published his “Wealth of Nations” in 1776.
DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH
Пряма та непряма мова
При перетворенні прямої мови в непряму утворюється складнопідрядне речення , в якому слова автора стають головним реченням, а пряма мова – підрядним додатковим. Якщо в словах автора дієслово вживається в теперішньому або в майбутньому часі, то в підрядному реченні час дієслова-присудка не змінюється. Якщо слова автора містять дієслово в минулому часі, то в підрядному реченні час присудка змінюється згідно правила узгодження часів. Зміна часів при перетворенні виглядає наступним чином:
|
Direct Speech пряма мова |
Reported Speech непряма мова |
|
Present Indefinite Present Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous |
Past Indefinite Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous |
|
Past Indefinite Past Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous |
Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous |
|
Future Indefinite Future Continuous Future Perfect Future Perfect Continuous |
Future-in-the-Past Indefinite Future-in-the-Past Continuous Future-in-the-Past Perfect Future-in-the-Past Perfect Continuous |
Зміна обставин часу і місця та деяких займенників при перетворенні прямої мови в непряму
|
Direct Speech |
Reported speech |
|
now today yesterday tomorrow the day after tomorrow ago tonight last year last month next this these here |
then that day the day before the next day two days later before that night the year before the month before the next/the following that those there |
При перетворенні прямої мови в непряму особові, присвійні та зворотні займенники змінюються відповідно до змісту. Приклад:
He said, “ I shall call on you at your place tonight”.
He told me that he would call on me at my place that night.
Розповідні речення.
При перетворенні розповідних речень з прямої мови в непряму застосовуються правила, описані вище. Приклад:
1. She said,” I want to visit this exhibition next Monday”.
She said that she wanted to visit that exhibition the following Monday.
2. He said, “I didn’t lend Mike any money yesterday”.
He said that he hadn’t lent Mike any money the day before.
З метою урізноманітнення мови вживаються такі дієслова мовлення як to tell, to report, to exclaim, to suggest, to whisper, тощо.
Накази, прохання, поради.
При перетворенні наказових речень з прямої мови в непряму дієслово в наказовому способі замінюється відповідним інфінітивом у стверджувальній або заперечній формі. Приклад:
1. The director said, “Enter this transaction into the ledger”.
The director ordered to enter that transaction into the ledger.
2. He said to me, “Don’t come tomorrow. I shall be very busy”.
He asked me not to come the next day as he would be very busy.
3. “Let’s go to the movies tonight”, he said.
He proposed to go to the movies that night.
З метою урізноманітнення мови вживаються такі дієслова мовлення як to ask, to request, to propose, to suggest, to order, to tell, тощо.
Запитання.
При перетворенні прямих питань у непрямі змінюється порядок слів і питальне речення перетворюється на розповідне з прямим порядком слів, а питальне слово стає сполучником. У випадку загальних питань допоміжне дієслово не вживається, а підрядне речення приєднується за допомогою сполучників if/whether. Приклад:
1. He asked, “ Do you prefer tea or coffee?”
He asked me if/whether I preferred tea or coffee.
2. He asked, “Where did you order these goods?”
He wanted to know where we had ordered those goods.
3. She asked, “What have you bought for yourself?”
She wondered what I had bought for myself.
Для урізноманітнення мовлення вживаються такі дієслова як to ask, to inquire, to wonder, to want to know, тощо.
ЗМІСТ
Module 1
Unit 1. What Is Economics?……………………..……………...............3
Unit 2. Fundamental Economic Notions……..………………………..12
Unit 3. Economic Systems…………………………...............................19
Module Control. Assignments for self-work…………………................ 27
Module 2
Unit 4. What Is Business?.…………………….…………………… …33
Unit 5. Forms of Business Organization…..……………………… ….41
Unit 6. Business Organization Structure……………………………..50 Module Conrol. Assignments for self-work……………………..............58
Module 3
Unit 7. Business Financing……………………………………………..63
Unit 8. Accounting………………….…………………………………..74
Unit 9. Auditing…………………………………………………............84 Module Control. Assignments for self-work..………………...................91
Module 4
Unit 10. International Business…...……………………………………95
Unit 11. International Trade………………………………………….104
Module Control. Assignments for self-work…………………..............112
Grammar reference……………...……………………………………116