It is not big country Its re is bout 244 820 squre kilometers

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THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND

Population and Geographical position

The full name of Great Britain is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is not a big country. Its area is about 244, 820 square kilometers.

Its population is about 60 million people. The main nationalities are English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish. Great Britain is situated in Western Europe, on the British Isles. It is washed by the North Sea, the Irish Sea and the English Channel.

The English Channel (or La Manche) is 220 km wide in its widest part in the west and in the narrowest, what is called the Strait of Dover.   

The United Kingdom is an island state and composed of some 5, 500 islands, large and small. The two main islands of the British Isles are Great Britain to the east and Ireland to the west. They are separated by the Irish Sea.   

Great Britain consists of 4 parts: England (London) – the southern and the middle part of the island, Scotland (Edinburgh) − the northern part of the island, Wales (Cardiff) – a mountainous peninsula in the west, and Northern Ireland (Belfast).

The British Isles include several other important islands and groups of islands. Among them are: the Hebrides off the north-western coast of Great Britain; the Orkney Islands off the northern coast of Scotland; the Shetland Islands about 70 miles north of the Orkneys; the Isle of Man in the middle of the Irish Sea; Anglesey off the north coast of Wales; the Isle of Wight in the English Channel; the Isle of Scilly off the south-western coast of Great Britain; the Channel Islands to the south-west on the French side of the English Channel.   

There are no high mountains in GB. In the north the Cheviot Hills separate England from Scotland. In the center of England is a range of hills called the Pennines, known as "the backbone of England". The Cambrian Mountains are not high but amazingly beautiful. The highest mountains are in Scotland and Wales: Ben Nevis (1,343 metres) and Snowdon (1,085 metres).

The longest and the deepest rivers in GB are the Severn (390 km), the Shannon (384 km), the Thames (346 km). The Clyde is the longest river in Scotland. The Shannon is the longest river in Ireland. Other comparatively long rivers of Great Britain are the Trent, Tweed, Forth, Dee, Spey, Tay, Tyne, Tees, Humber, Clyde, Eden, Ribble, Mersey, Ouse.

There are many lakes especially in the mountains. The largest fresh water lake in the British Isles is Lough Neagh (381 sq km) in Northern Ireland. The largest lake in Great Britain and the biggest inland loch (lake) in Scotland is Loch Lomond, covering a surface area of 70 sq km. The most famous lake is Loch Ness (56 sq km) in Scotland, which is said to have a water monster. In England the largest lake is Lake Windermere (the Lake District) with a surface area of 15 sq km.

Many people say that Great Britain looks like a large well-kept park. There are beautiful gardens, fields, lakes and woods here. Historically, the most famous forest is Sherwood Forest in the east of England. It was the home of Robin Hood.

Great Britain is rich in mineral resources such as coal, iron, copper, lead, salt, china clay, and granite. British coal is of high quality.

The climate of Great Britain

The climate of Great Britain is mild, moist, wet, temperate and humid because of the influence of the Golf Stream. The weather changes very often. It may be sunshine and showers during the day. The worst thing about the climate in Great Britain is the thick fog, which can last for days and weeks during winter and autumn. Of course it rains throughout the year. They say, "It rains cats and dogs". In the early part of the year high winds are associated with March and the fame of March winds is even perpetuated in nursery rhymes, songs and popular ballads.

Summers are not too hot and winters are not too cold. January and February are usually the coldest months, though winter temperatures below 5 degrees are rare. Average temperatures in England and Wales vary from +4 C in January to 16 C in July and August. In Scotland averages are one or two degrees cooler. During a normal summer the temperature sometimes rises above 25 degrees in the south.

Thanks to the mild climate there are a lot of evergreen plants in Great Britain, and the country is always green. Grass grows all the year round. Some of plants and flowers have become symbols in Great Britain. The poppy is the symbol of peace, the red rose is the national emblem of England, and the thistle is the national emblem of Scotland and the Edinburgh International Festival. The daffodils and the leek are the emblems of Wales; the shamrock is the emblem of Ireland.

The UK was originally a land of vast forests, mainly oak and beech in the Lowlands and pine and birch in the Highlands, with great stretches of marshland and smaller areas of moors. Oak, elm, ash, and beech are the commonest trees in England, while Scotland has much pine and birch. The fauna or animal life of the UK is various. Many mammals such as bear and wolf have been haunted there. Now they are protected by law. There are many foxes, hedgehogs, hares, rabbits, lizards, snakes, frogs, rats and mice. Deer live in some of the forests in the Highlands of Scotland and in England.

Some 230 kinds of birds live in the UK, another 200 are regular visitors, and many are songbirds. The most numerous are blackbird, sparrow and starling. Robin Redbreast (красногрудая малиновка) is the national bird of the UK. The number of ducks, geese and other waterfowl has diminished during recent years. Partridges, pheasants and other rare birds are protected by law.     

Political system of Great Britain

The United Kingdom is a constitutional or parliamentary monarchy. It is known as the land of law and order. The British Constitution is unwritten and is not contained in any single document. It is based on Acts of Parliament (laws). The Queen is the head of the state. The monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who succeeded to the throne in 1952, is officially head of all three branches of power. Everything is done in the queen’s name. It is her government, her law courts, her armed forces and so on. She appoints all the Ministers, including the Prime Minister. But according to the Constitution, power in the country belongs to Parliament, which is responsible for the national policy. Everything is done on the advice of the elected government, and the monarch takes no part in the decision-making process. So it is often said that the Queen reigns (царствует) but doesn't rule.

The remaining powers of the monarch are basically:

▪ to open and close the Parliament;

▪ to approve the appointment of the Prime Minister, government ministers, officers of the armed forces, governors and diplomats;

▪ to appoint bishops and judges;

▪ to give Royal Assent to legislation;

▪ to give honours such as peerages, knighthoods and medals;

▪ to give mercy, remit sentences (смягчать приговоры) passed on convicted criminals.

The system of state power includes 3 branches: Parliament, which makes laws (the legislative branch); the Government, which puts laws into effect (the executive power); and the law courts, which interpret Acts of Parliament (the judicial branch).

The British Parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons, which is the main law-making body.

The House of Commons consists of 659 members known as Members of Parliament (MPs for short). Each of them represents an area in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. MPs are elected by the adult population at a general election every five years. The Head of the Commons is the Speaker.   

The House of Lords consists of more than 1,000 hereditary (наследственный) and life peers, including the law lords appointed to undertake the judicial duties of the House. But only about 250 take an active part in the work of the house, including the Lords Spiritual (26 bishops of the Church of England) and the Lords Temporal (светский), who undertake the judicial duties. The chairman of the House of Lords is Lord Chancellor, who sits on a special seat called The Woolsack (a symbol of British welfare). The monarch’s throne is in the Lords. The Queen sits on it once to make her speech at the opening of a new session of Parliament.  

Parliament and the monarch have different roles and they only meet together on symbolic occasions such as the coronation of a new monarch or the traditional annual opening of the Parliament. Parliament is known as “Westminster”. Since it is housed in the Palace of Westminster, once the home of the monarch. Like the monarchy, Parliament is an ancient institution, dating from 1265. It is the oldest Parliament in the world that’s why Great Britain is known as Mother of Parliaments.

Parliament’s functions today are to raise money for government through taxation; to examine government policy, administration and spending; to discuss important political questions. But the main function is making laws. A bill (a proposal for a new law) may be introduced by any Member of Parliament. But in practice most bills are proposed by the government. When both Houses agree on a text after debating, the bill is sent to the Queen for her Royal Assent (королевская санкция), at which point it becomes an Act of Parliament. A bill which has been passed by the House of Commons is almost certain to become law, and about 50 bills become Acts each year. The Royal Assent is a formality: no monarch has refused a bill since 1707.        

The present British monarch is Queen Elizabeth (since 1952) and the next in line to the throne is her son, Charles, the Prince of Wales and then his son, Prince William. The monarch always acts on the advice of the Prime Minister. At present the Prime Minister of Britain is Tony Blair, the leader of the Labour Party. The Prime Minister has considerable individual power to introduce and control policies, to represent the nation in political matters, to run the government, to appoint Cabinet of Ministers and to change the Cabinet. The Prime Minister also continues to lead the majority party.

Britain is a democracy. Men and women over 18 have the right to vote (голосовать). There are two parties in GB - the Conservative and the Labour Parties. That party which obtains the majority of seats in the House of Commons is called the Government; the leader of this party becomes Prime Minister.

National Symbols of Great Britain

The Union Jack - the flag of Britain - represents the emblems of three countries under one Sovereign (правитель). The emblems on the Union Flag are the crosses (кресты) of three patron saints (святые покровители):

• the red cross of St. George, for England, on a white ground;

• the white diagonal cross of St. Andrew, for Scotland, on a blue ground;

• the red diagonal cross of St. Patrick, for Ireland, on a white ground.

Wales is not represented in the Union Flag because when the first version of the flag appeared, Wales was already united with England.

The national flag of Wales is a red dragon on a white and green field. The flag of Wales, with its dragon, is one of the oldest in the world. It was brought to Britain by the Romans.

St. George’s Day falls on 23 April and is regarded as England’s national day. On this day some patriotic Englishmen wear a rose pinned to their jackets. A red rose is a national emblem of England from the time of the Wars of the Roses (15th c.).

St. Andrew’s Day (30 November) is regarded as Scotland’s national day. On this day some Scotsmen wear a thistle in their buttonhole. As a national emblem of Scotland, thistle was first used in the 15th c. as a symbol of defence. The Order of the Thistle is one of the highest orders of knighthood. It was founded in 1687, and is mainly given to Scottish noblemen (limited to 16 in number).

St. Patrick’s Day (17 March) is a national day in Northern Ireland and an official bank holiday there. The national emblem of Ireland is shamrock. According to the legend, it was the plant chosen by St. Patrick to illustrate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity to the Irish.

St. David (1 March) is the church festival of St. David, 6th c. – monk and bishop, the patron saint of Wales. St. David converted Wales to Christianity and established the Welsh church. This day is the national holiday of Wales, although it is not an official bank holiday. On this day, however, many Welshmen wear either a yellow daffodil or a leek pinned to their jackets, as both plants are traditionally considered to be national emblems of Wales.

The Royal Crest - a lion bearing the Royal crown - denotes articles of personal property (личное имущество) belonging to the Queen. The lion, "the king of beasts" is a symbol of national strength and of the British monarchy for many centuries.

The Royal Coat of Arms represents the four quarters of the shield (щит) which contains two repetitions (the first and the fourth gules (красный цвет) of the arms of England, three golden lions passant (идущий с поднятой правой передней лапой – о геральдическом животном). The second quarter represents the red rampant (стоящий на задних лапах – о геральдическом животном) lion of Scotland on a gold background. This lion is represented by a frame with the inset fleurs-de-lis (ирис, геральдическая лилия) and other decorations. The third quarter represents a silver-stringed gild harp on a bright blue field symbolizing Ireland. Wales is not represented on the shield.

The shield is encircled with the blue Garter, carrying in gold the motto “Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pense” (“Shame on Him Who Thinks Evil of it”) – the words of Edward III (1312 - 1377) said at the ball.

On the top of the whole rests the imperial state crown – gold, red, enriched with precious stones, and with an ermine headband. All this is supported by a rampant crowned lion and a rampant unicorn. The lion has been used as a symbol of national strength and of the British monarchy for many centuries. The unicorn, a mythical animal that looks like a horse with a long straight horn, has appeared on the Scottish and British royal coat of arms for many centuries, and a symbol of purity.

Beneath the coat of arms is a royal motto in gold letters on a white scroll: “Dieu et Mon Droit” (“God and My Right”) – the battle call of Richard I “Coer de Lion” (1157 - 1199) when he led his army in the battle of 1198.  

The British National anthem "God save our gracious Queen..." is a patriotic song first performed in 1745:

God save our gracious Queen!

Long live our noble Queen!

God Save the Queen!

Send her victorious

Happy and glorious,

Long reign over us,

God Save the Queen!

Neither the author nor composer is known.

English and British symbols often overlap at sporting events. “God Save The Queen” is played for the England football team, although Land of Hope and Glory has been used as the English anthem at the Commonwealth Games (where the four nations in the UK face each other independently).

Religion

Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom. Britain is predominantly Christian. British people are members of the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Church (the Church of England), which is the church legally recognized as the official church of the State.

Industry and main cities

Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. Its main industries are textile, shipbuilding, motorcar aviation, metallurgy, chemical and coal mining, electrical engineering, electronics etc.

Coal-mining is an old industry, esp. in Wales, in the South of Scotland and in the Northern part of England. It was Britain’s development of coal production, which determined its economic leadership of the world in the 18th and 19th centuries. But nowadays British coal industry is declining, though it still has considerable reserves.

Textile industry is considered to be one of the oldest in Great Britain. High quality woolen material, called Cheviot tweed is manufactured in England.

Great Britain is well-known for its light industry goods of superior quality (clothing, footwear, leather goods, knitwear, hosiery, pottery, glassware, etc.).

Metal manufacturing is a traditional highly developed industry. Now it is being extensively modernized. It includes production of steel and nonferrous metals. Besides, Britain is a major producer of specialized alloys used by the aerospace, electronic, petrochemical and other industries.   

Today, in a new age of modern technology, Britain has made important advances in such new industries as electronics, aerospace, chemical, biotechnology. Their major exports are electronics and telecommunications equipment, aircraft engines, plastics and synthetic materials, new drugs. The British aerospace industry is now the third largest in the world. Its products include civil and military aircrafts and satellites, which are widely exported. Rolls Royce is one of the world’s three largest aero engine manufacturers. British Aerospace is the largest European producer of communications satellites.

Other major manufacturing industries include food and drink, timber and furniture, printing and publishing, paper and rubber.

As in other developed countries, rising living standards have led to a growth of the role of services. The service industries include banking, finance, insurance, trade, travel, shipping, tourism, health, leisure, and education. Tourism now is one of Britain’s most important industries and source of income and employment (it employs about 1,5 million people).      

There are many big industrial cities in Great Britain such as London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Belfast, Cardiff and others. London is the largest city in Europe. It is home for the headquarters (центр, штаб-квартира) of Government, Parliament and the monarch. It is also business and banking center of Britain. Birmingham is the second largest city in Britain. It is also a big industrial center with many modern factories. It is even called as the Black Country for its factories and mines. Birmingham enterprises produce metal goods, jewellery, plastics, motor vehicles, electrical equipment and machine tools. Birmingham is long famous as an international business center. It is a modern and exciting city whose buildings and shops are second to none (непревзойденные). Birmingham is at the heart of Britain’s motorway system. The superbly designed inner ring road gives easy access to the city center. Shopping facilities in Birmingham are a magnet for thousands; the multilevel Bull Ring Shopping Center includes most kinds of retail shops, open-air covered markets, banks, restaurants and offices. Equally impressive is the air-conditioned New Street Shopping Center. Birmingham has more canals than Venice. Some canals are recreational centers with walks, pubs, restored buildings and boat trips.

Glasgow is the third largest city in Great Britain. It is associated with heavy industry and a strong artistic heritage (наследие). Glasgow became a great port and manufacturing center in the 18th century. Today its leading industries are shipbuilding, iron and steel, machinery and chemicals, textile and clothing, marine and aero engines, road vehicles and machine tools, cotton and woolen carpets production. It is also known for its book-producing and publishing firms.

Edinburgh (the capital of Scotland) is the city of science, law and administration. Together with many historic buildings Edinburgh is called «The Athens of the North». Edinburgh is a great educational center. It has 3 universities now. It boasts of such world famous scientists as Adam Smith, the father of political economy, David Hume, a well-known philosopher and historian, Alexander Bell, the inventor of the telephone, etc. If you ever go to Edinburgh, don’t miss important sights: the Royal Museum of Scotland, the National Gallery of Scotland, the National Portrait Gallery, Holyrood Palace (another official residence of the Queen), the Museum of Childhood with its unique collection of toys and games, the Writers’ Museum (a treasure house of items relating to Robert Burns, Sir Walter Scott, Robert Stevenson), etc.   

Liverpool and Manchester are the main centers of textile industry. Manchester is the commercial capital of the cotton and man-made fibre (волокно) textile industries, a very important financial center and major port. Liverpool is the second port of Britain, a great commercial and insurance center and, after London, the greatest center for processing imported foodstuffs and raw materials (flour milling, soap manufacture, sugar refining (очистка сахара) and rubber products and motorcar manufacture.

 

London is the capital of Great Britain

London, the capital of Great Britain, is a large and ancient city with population of about 9 million. It was founded by the Romans in 43 A.D. It lies on Thames. It is the seat of the Government, a great industrial and cultural center, one of the Britain’s important ports. It is more than 2 thousand years old. London has 4 centers: The City or “Square Mile” is the oldest part of the capital. It is a financial business center of London. Only about 5,000 people live in the city. Numerous banks, brokers, insurers, offices, and firms are situated there, including the Bank of England, the Stock Exchange (фондовая биржа), and the Old Bailey (центральный уголовный суд в Лондоне). The West End is the shopping and entertaining (развлекательный) center. Westminster is the government center. The East End is London's industrial center. It contains London docks, factories and workshops.  

London is also a large educational and scientific center of the country. London University established in 1836 is the largest University in Great Britain. There are also Royal Academies of art, drama, music, scientific institutions etc. London is famous for its Library, which is one of the greatest libraries in the world.

London is a big cultural center: the Royal National Theatre, the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, Royal Opera, Covent Garden and the English National Opera. It is worth visiting the National Gallery, the Tate Gallery that represents paintings by English, French and other famous masters. The British Museum and the National History Museum are the most famous.

There are a great number of historical monuments and places in London. Trafalgar Square was made to commemorate the victory of Admiral Nelson over Napoleon at Trafalgar. Tower of London is an old castle built in 1087, on the bank of the Thames, which houses the Crown jewels and other treasures. The Tower has served as fortress, palace, state prison and royal treasury. Now it is a museum. During the reign of Henry VII part of it became a menagerie (зверинец), and it was one of the citizens’ entertainments to watch a bear being led to the water’s edge to catch salmon.  Piccadilly Circus: the famous Eros Statue on the top of the fountain in center of the circus is really beautiful. Originally the statue was erected as a symbol of charity but now it has become one of the most popular meeting places of young people and punks who make money letting tourists take their pictures. Besides, Piccadilly Circus is a West End shopping center. There are many shops with big advertisements, belonging to different foreign firms there: Harrods, Harvey Nichols, Mex, New Look, Hamleys for children, excellent bookshop Waterstones etc. The Houses of Parliament with famous clock Big Ben constitute the most popular and widely spread image of London, known throughout the world. In this famous palace are also many meeting halls and various parliamentary offices. Westminster Abbey is a very beautiful church built in a fine Gothic style over 900 years ago; it is a place where British kings and queens are crowned and buried. It was used for the coronation of almost every monarch since 1066. The Abbey has not only Kings, Queens and major political and religious figures buried there, but also literary and scientific figures such as Chaucer, Dickens, Newton, Kipling, Darwin and others. Downing Street, No 10 - it is the official residence of the British Prime Minister since 1735. St. Paul's Cathedral was designed by a well-known English architect Chr.Wren (if you climb 263 steps you will get to whispering gallery; you can also go down underneath the cathedral into the crypt where many great men are buried: Newton, Darwin and others).

The Buckingham Palace is the official residence of the queen and the largest “working” royal palace built in the 18th century by the architect John Nash. It stands at the end of a long boulevard called The Mall and it has 600 rooms on three floors; 400 staff that serves the Queen in the palace and mend things in it; 300 clocks, its own post office and cinema, a swimming pool, a nuclear shelter to hide in the case of nuclear war attack, 16 hectares of gardens including a lake with pink flamingos, a picture gallery, etc. The palace was built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 but bought by George III. Then in 1837 Queen Victoria made it the home of her court.

Windsor Castle is the Queen’s favourite home. There the Queen spends almost every weekend and Christmas. The castle was built in the 11 century. Now Windsor is the largest castle in the world. It stands in the largest park called Windsor Great Park. In the castle was badly damaged by a fire. Windsor Castle is not only a royal home. It is also a popular tourist attraction. You can see there the official staterooms called “apartments, the Royal Collection”, St George Chapel and Queen Mary’s Doll’s House (a beautiful toy mansion made for King George V’s wife; it was built in 1924).

Kensington Palace is a place where many relatives of the Queen live: her eldest son Prince Charles with his family, her sister Princess Margaret and some other relatives. Kensington Palace was the birthplace of Queen Victoria (1819-1901) who ruled for 64 years – from 1837 to 1901. At that time Britain was the richest and most powerful country in Europe.

Hyde Park - it is the largest and the most fashionable park with restaurants and bars that once was a royal hunting forest; it includes a boating lake called the Serpentine, whose area of 41 acres is used to swim in and to quietly row on in summer. Another attraction of Hyde Park is the horse-riding lane known as Rotten Row (аллея для верхней езды в Гайд-Парке). The large green expanse (простор) of Kensington Gardens with its many trees and flowers, its gracious Round Pond and the lovely statue of Peter Pan (герой одноименной пьесы Дж.Барри о мальчике, кот. не становился взрослым) also constitutes a most attractive spectacle. Harrods is the famous department store in Knightsbridge, London's luxury shopping area. It is the king of London’s department stores with its 300 departments and staff of about 4,000. Clothes are particularly strong, with the emphasis firmly on very high fashion, with many talented British, European and American names represented.     

Doable-Decker buses - buses with two levels; in London they are red and have become a symbol of the city. There are more than 17,000 bus stops all over London. You can board at two types of bus stops: compulsory where buses will automatically stop, unless they are full and request (to stop a bus you must put your hand clearly so that the driver can stop the bus safely). To stop the bus, press the bell located by the door or near the stairs, just once. The driver or conductor will tell you the fare for your destination.

There are 4 airports in London, Heathrow, London City Airport, Biggin Hill, and Northolt. Of these, Heathrow is the city’s principle airport and is also a major international hub. It is currently the busiest international terminal in the world, and a fifth terminal is being built on the site, with a sixth being planned. In 2003 Heathrow was the busiest airport of Europe in terms of total passenger traffic, handling 53.8m passengers.

Scotland Yard is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police (столичная полиция) in London. It is situated on the Thames close to the Houses of Parliament and the familiar clock Big Ben. One of the most interesting places in Scotland Yard is the Map Room. Here is the General Crime Map, the Deaths by Violence Map, The Accidents Map. An interesting branch of Scotland Yard is the branch of Police Dogs, first used as an experiment in 1938. Now these dogs are an important part of the Force (отделение полиции). One dog can search a warehouse in ten minutes, whereas the same search would take 6 men an hour.

Fleet Street has been the meeting place for newspapermen since the 18th century, when writers met to talk in its coffeehouses. And up to now Fleet Street is the street of news. It is the center of journalists and newspapermen. Fleet Street is the center of Britain’s national newspapers. The Daily Telegraph and the Daily Express have their offices here, and The Times, The Guardian and many others are nearby.  Publishing houses of many big foreign newspapers are also there. Fleet Street is busy day and night. It is packed with vans, cars, motorcycles, newsboys everyday between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. when the latest news is ready to go out all over the world.  

Customs and traditions in Great Britain

The English are people that cannot be rushed, i.e. they don't allow others to impose on their views, ideas or opinions. They are distrustful of extremes and resentful of interference. The English believe in themselves. They have not the inferiority complex. They are indifferent (безразличный) to what other people think of them. They are practical and realistic, steady, easy-going and fond of sports. The English people are the world's greatest tea drinkers. They drink tea at meals and between meals; in the morning and in the evening; when they are happy and they are upset; to get hot and to get cold; to calm down and to cheer up.

It is impossible not to mention pubs when speaking about the British way of life. Pubs are the most popular places where people come in the evening to have a beer and a chat.

"Hobbies" are a great English and American tradition. The most popular are gardening and pets. They keep dogs, cats, rabbits and horses. Every year the British spend over 1 billions on pet food.

The population of Britain takes part regularly in sport. The most popular sporting activities are walk-jogging, snooker/ billiards, swimming, football, golf.

Many young people in Britain today accept most of the beliefs, customs and behaviour of their parents. But at the same time they are different. They listen to different music, wear different clothes, have different ideas about life, use different words and behave differently. They are more independent, active, pragmatic and spiritually restrained. They grow up too fast and they are very independent. They face many problems, much cruelty and many stresses. They want to become adults as quickly as possible. They are less interested in global problems, and more interested in examination results which can assure them of good positions. Smart clothes, money and success are in fashion now. They are eager to get education and well-paid jobs. They want to take a confident stand in life and show their self-realization.

Most young people eventually get married, buy or rent a house or a flat of their own and start a family. However, as in many other European countries, more and more young people are living together without being married. Most of them register their marriage only if a child is on the way. And in general people get married later than they used to: women in late 20s, men in late 30s.

In Britain young people like Youth Clubs, thousands of them, for music, games, dancing, or just talking, for example, outdoor holidays with various clubs. Walking, pony trekking (езда в фургоне, запряженном пони), climbing and sailing are very popular. The Youth Hostels Association// Ассоциация молодежных турбаз provides cheap accommodation // стол и ночлег for young people travelling, often on foot, through Britain and other European countries.

Clothes and fashion of the Youth. Most British girls today take a great deal of interest in clothes and enjoy looking attractive. In fact, they think much more about fashion than their mothers did 20 or more years ago. Fashion shops for young people are opened all over Britain. London is considered to be the world’s most important fashion center for the young.   

Character

Most Britons are reserved by nature and often find it difficult to indulge in small talk with a complete stranger. Indeed, there are situations where idle conversation is actually frowned upon, for example when travelling on the London underground; in these circumstances, a newspaper will act as a defensive tool in public whilst also providing potential material for subsequent social intercourse in private.

On the whole, northerners tend to be more immediately friendly than southerners, although true Scottish Highlanders will hardly say a word until you get to know them better and Welsh farmers can be especially taciturn (неразговорчивый, молчаливый). You should not be offended if people outside the 'Home Counties' of southeast England address you in apparently familiar or overly affectionate terms such as ‘dear’ or ‘love’ (whether you are a man or a woman).

For the most part, the British speak in low, moderate, measured tones without raising the voice or gesticulating wildly for emphasis. They also like to maintain their own personal space and will shy away from those they find invasive.

Although not all Britons are particularly articulate (отчетливо произносить, ясно выражать мысли), you should make an effort to speak in complete sentences; the British generally find the North American habit of trailing off in mid-sentence rather irritating. Nor should you interrupt someone; intonation conveys one has finished speaking and, in British English, the voice normally goes down at the end of an affirmative sentence.

Britons prefer to avoid animated discussions; if an argument does become heated, it is quite likely to have been fuelled by alcohol and it may be time for you to make your excuses and withdraw. For this reason, unless you are desperate for human contact, it is usually best to avoid sitting or standing at a bar. Obviously, this is doubly applicable (применимо) for women. In any case, a newspaper or some work to look at should again afford a degree of protection from bores (зануда) and boors (хамы) alike.

It is always advisable to try to initiate conversation with open questions rather than an assertion of a personal point of view. The British are largely tolerant and open-minded but every nation has its bigots (фанатики) and many Britons derive their opinions from the tabloid press, which typically expresses itself in black-and-white terms (the UK’s sometimes fraught relationship with the EU and continental Europe generally represents a prime example of the way in which opinion can divide into two extremely entrenched camps). This phenomenon is exemplified by the archetypal London taxi driver whose often extreme opinions should be taken with a large pinch of salt. Almost all Britons, however, are proud of their culture and heritage and this should be respected not mocked (высмеивать).

A major difficulty in effective communication can be the British predilection (пристрастие, склонность) for self-deprecation (самоосуждение, самокритика), which manifests itself frequently in the form of irony and litotes. Usage reflects the level of educational attainment but everyone tends to understate (недосказывать) everything, whether good or bad. A pensive (задумчивый) ‘hum’ may convey enthusiasm or hostility - or indifference. This may be disconcerting for foreigners, especially Americans, who are more accustomed to a forthright directness that Britons find embarrassing.

Welcome topics and those to avoid 

Humour is a vital feature of all aspects of British life. In a society that finds it difficult to express genuine personal feelings, humour often acts as a defence mechanism but it is almost never out of place in a culture that is averse to (расположенный к) seriousness in all circumstances. The British are much less politically correct than North Americans who may be offended by some of the natives' banter (подшучивание, подтрунивание) and 'wit.'

The UK (especially, but not just, London) is a thoroughly multiracial and multicultural society. You should not make any assumptions about a person's background, nationality or origins.

Welcome topics: the weather (always a safe starting point), sport (particularly football/soccer), animals (usually safe - though beware vegetarians if you like to eat them), British history, culture, literature, art, and popular music current affairs, your immediate surroundings and positive experiences in the UK, how good the food is (things have changed in recent years!), real ale (i.e. traditional British beer)

Topics to avoid: Northern Ireland, religion (especially if you are in Northern Ireland, Glasgow or Liverpool), the monarchy and the Royal Family, partisan politics, the European Union, ‘Brussels’ and the euro, the Middle East, personal questions about a person’s background, religion, occupation, etc., class and the class system, race and immigration, sex (particularly homosexuality)

Addressing others with respect 

Despite their reputation for stiff formality, the British are in fact quite informal and the immediate use of first names is increasingly prevalent in all walks of British life, especially amongst the young (under 40-45 years of age) and in the newer industries.

Nevertheless, you should always wait to be invited to use first names before doing so yourself. Quite often the invitation will be spontaneous but it may never happen at all. Until then - and not all Britons like the up-front (открытый) American approach – you should be careful to follow strict protocol, especially when dealing with older members of the 'Establishment.' It is best to avoid the American habit of constantly repeating someone’s name in the course of a conversation once on first-name terms.

The same principles apply to writing letters. You should start off formally and continue until your correspondent hints (e.g. by signing off with just his or her first name) that it is appropriate to switch. Some correspondences, however, may continue formally until the writers actually meet. Subordinates may never feel comfortable addressing their superiors by their first name either in writing or orally.

Different conventions apply when it comes to official documents, meetings, conferences etc. where it is common practice to use full titles even if all the participants would ordinarily be on first-name terms. Thus: ‘Mr. Chairman’, ‘the Commander-in-Chief thinks’, ‘the Prime Minister is mistaken’, and so on.

It is usually best to address a woman whose marital status is uncertain as ‘Ms’. By extension, you should also perhaps avoid the suffix ‘-man’, which logically should result in such ugly expressions as ‘Ms Chair’ (in practice, though, this usually translates as ‘Madam Chair’). In general, the older generation remain happy, and may even prefer, to use ‘Mrs’ or ‘Miss’ whereas ‘Ms’ is current amongst those born post-1960.

There is a persistent tradition amongst very close (male) friends, who have usually attended the same (public, i.e. private) school or (ancient) university, of using only their surnames. This practice is not to be emulated. In the absence of any professional title you should always use at least the courtesy titles ‘Mr’, ‘Mrs’, etc. when using someone's surname.

‘Sir’ and ‘Madam’ are used by shop assistants, waiters, receptionists, etc. to address customers.

Knights, however, tend to like being called ‘Sir’ largely because a knighthood usually recognizes real achievement rather than political patronage. When John Smith is knighted, he is known as 'Sir John' but his wife is 'Lady Smith.' The female equivalent of a knight is a ‘dame’ (дама) and the correct mode of address in this instance is ‘Dame’, followed by her first name only. To add to the confusion, the daughter of a duke (герцог), marquess (маркиз) or earl (граф) is a 'Lady' and also addressed by her first name only.

The United States of America

Geographical position

After its 200th birthday the USA (“Land of opportunity”, “Melting Pot”, “God′s Country”) still holds the leading position in the western world. America still has its economic, political and military dominance over other countries.

The first people to live in North America came from Asia between 10,000 and 30,000 years ago. At that time North America and Asia were connected by a land bridge. Eventually North America became populated by many different tribes of people. By the time when in 1492 the New World was discovered by Columbus there were 900 thousand Indians living there.

The USA is situated in North America between 2 oceans: the Atlantic Ocean to the East and the Pacific Ocean to the West. The USA borders on Canada in the north and Mexico in the south. The total area is about 9,363,000 sq. km. which makes it the forth largest state in the world.

The USA consists of 50 states and the District of Columbia where the capital of the country, Washington, is situated. The states are Alabama, Alaska (“The Last Frontier”//последняя граница), Arkansas (“The Land of Opportunity”), California (“The Golden State”), Colorado, Florida (“The Sunshine State”), Hawaii (“The Aloha State”//гостеприимный штат), Indiana (“The Hoosier State” //штат-мужлан), Connecticut (“The Nutmeg State” //штат мускатного ореха), Delaware (“The Diamond State”), Georgia (“The Peach State”), Kentucky (“The Bluegrass State”), Montana (“The Treasure State”), New York (“The Empire State”), South Dakota (“The Coyote State”), Washington (“The Evergreen State”),  etc.

Alaska (1,530,700 sq. km.) is America′s largest state. In 1959 Alaska became the 49th state of the USA. It is called “the land of icebergs and polar bears”.

The population of the USA is 281, 4 million people (2000). The number of original Indians is 850 thousand people. Non-white persons are about 12% of the total. 75% of the population lives in big cities. The most populated cities are New York (8 million people) and Los Angeles (3,7million). The USA is often called “a melting pot” //котел, в котором переплавляются нации where economic and social pressures have forced non-speaking immigrants to drop their native tongue and habits. People of different nationalities live and work there: Frenchmen, Italians, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Swedes, Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Russians, Chinese, Japanese, etc.  

Half the territory of the USA is mountainous with the Appalachian Highland in the east and the Cordilleran Highland (including the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada) in the west. Between them there are vast valleys known as the Great Valley.

America′s largest rivers are the Mississippi (“father of waters”) with its tributary Missouri (6,4000 km), the Rio Grande (a natural boundary between Mexico and the USA), the Ohio, the Columbia and the Colorado (“a river of enormous fury ” – wild, restless and angry).

The USA is famous for its 5 Great Lakes: Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, Lake Superior and the Michigan. The first four lakes are on the border with Canada and are the largest and deepest in the USA. There are also a lot of small lakes. For example, Minnesota is known as the land of 10,000 lakes.

The USA has several climatic regions: from the continental climate in New England to subtropical in Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, and Florida. The weather ranges from the warm, wet conditions of the Appalachian Highland to the desert conditions of the western states.

The USA is rich in mineral resources. It has major deposits of oil and gas in Texas and Alaska, coal in Virginia and Ohio, gold in Alaska and California, silver in Nevada, non-ferrous metals in Arkansas and Colorado.

 

Political System

The USA is a federal presidential democratic republic. The head of the state is the President. He is elected for a term of four years and can only be reelected for one more term. The term of office of the President begins at noon on January 20. The President must be a natural-born citizen of the USA, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the country for at least 14 years. The President of the state is also the head of the executive power, treaty maker, Commander-in-Chief of the army. He conducts foreign affairs, signs treaties //договора in the name of the USA, appoints diplomats, ambassadors, cabinet members, federal judges. The President can forbid (veto) any bill passed by Congress.

The Constitution was adopted after the War of Independence by the Constitutional Convention on September17, 1787 in Philadelphia (was a national capital from 1790 to 1800). It consists of the Preamble and 7 articles. 27 amendments //поправки have been added to its original text. The first 10 amendments are known as the Bill of Rights (1791) the main principles of which are individuals rights and freedoms to all people of the State, including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of worship, freedom of enterprise (свобода предпринимательства) etc.

The “Father of the Constitution” was a rich plantation owner from Virginia, James Madison who proclaimed that “a private property is the backbone of liberty”.      

The legislative branch of the government is the Congress, which has 2 houses: the Senate (that represents the states) and the House of Representatives (that represents the population according to its distribution among states). Powers granted to Congress under the Constitution include the power to levy taxes, borrow money, regulate interstate commerce, declare war, seat members, control the nation′s finances, to hold foreign policy, to change the State Budget, to provide for military forces. The Senate consists of 100 members, two from each of the 50 States, who are elected for a term of six years. The constitution says that a Senator must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the US for nine years and a resident of the state from which he is elected.  The House of Representatives, at present time, has 435 members. A Representative must be at least 25 years of age, a US citizen for 7 years and live in the state from which he is elected. The House of Representatives has a special power of its own. Only a member of the House can introduce a bill to raise money, but it must be praised by the Senate before it can become a law.  

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country and the head of the judicial branch of the US government. The Supreme Court Building is a beautiful building of white marble in Washington, D.C. The figures over the entrance represent the national ideas of law and liberty – “Equal Justice Under Law”. The US Supreme Court includes a Chief Justice (главный судья) and eight Associate Justices. One of the most important duties of the justices is to decide whether laws passed by the Congress agree with the Constitution. Besides the US Court there are various district courts and courts of appeals (апелляционные суды). These courts handle both civil and criminal cases.

Today the USA has 2 major political parties: the Democratic Party (its emblem is the Democratic donkey) and the Republican Party (its emblem is the Republican elephant). There is very little ideological difference between them. Both parties defend the free-enterprise capitalist system as the basis of American society.

The main religion is Christianity. The official language is English. The monitory unit is dollar ($). Dollars became America′s official currency in 1792. American money comes in bills (paper money) and coins. A slang word for a dollar is “buck”. It’s interesting that whatever the domination is all bills are of the same colour and size. The American dollar is an important currency that is used for trade between countries all over the world; the world price for gold is given in dollars. With Americans the most common way of making payment is by credit card, the major ones being Visa, American Express, and Master Card. Other ways of completing business transactions or making a purchase is by means of a check book and a banking card. Credit and banking cards are commonly called “plastic money”, or just plastic.     

 

National Symbols

The National Flag of the USA is red, white and blue. The red stripes proclaim courage, the white – liberty, the field of blue stands for loyalty. The 50 stars represent the 50 states. The 13 red and white stripes represent the first 13 colonies. The Flag symbolizes American people, American land, and American way of life. The first American flag was approved by the Continental Congress in Philadelphia on June 14, 1777. The US flag is known as “Old Glory”, “The Stars and Stripes”, “Star-Spangled Banner” («Звездное знамя»). Americans enjoy their flag. They sometimes use the stars and stripes as popular designs on shirts, shoes, hats, jeans, but there are laws that prohibit using the flag in appropriate ways. The Stars and Stripes are flown on government offices and public schools, they stand by the president’s desk. The flags hang in every classroom in America, and every day children salute it before the school day begins. On the 4th of July, Independence Day, the Stars and Stripes can be seen everywhere – on the streets, on the houses and big parades.   

The official emblem of the USA is the American eagle. It appears on the Presidential flag and on some coins. The coat of arms //герб of the US represents an eagle with wings outspread, holding a bundle of rods// пучок стрел (symbol of administering) in the left claw and an olive twig// оливковая ветвь (the emblem of love and peace) in the right claw. The motto on the coat of arms is “E Pluribus Unum” // Едины в многообразии.

The National Anthem of the USA was written by Francis Scott Key during the war of 1812 between the USA and Great Britain.

The symbol of freedom is the Statue of Liberty. It is a 225-ton steel female figure, 150 ft in height, facing the ocean from Liberty Island in New York Harbor. The right hand holds a torch and the left hand carries a tablet upon which is written: ”July 4, 1776”.  The Statue symbolizes the alliance of France and The USA in the American Revolution and their friendship.

Economy and Industry

The USA has one of the strongest economies in the world, with a national market of about 265 million people. It is the world leader in aeronautics, space technology, electronics, computer hardware and software. One-fifth of the world’s cars are produced there (General Motors, Ford, Chrysler all with headquarters in Detroit – automobile city). Many Americans work in the service sector. They also provide services ranging from banking to transportation and tourism. About a quarter of jobs are in construction and manufacturing industries such as chemicals, clothing and textile, and machinery. Less than 4% of working population are in mining, agriculture, fishing, forestry //лесное хозяйство.

The US economy is based on three-enterprise system: private businesses compete against one another with relatively interference from the government.

The USA is rich in natural resources: oil, natural gas, coal. It is a leading producer of copper, gold, silver, aluminum, iron, and lead. The USA grows wheat, corn, and other crops and raises many cows, pigs, and chickens.

International trade is very important for the USA. Major exports include machinery and high technology equipment, chemicals, cars, aircraft, and grains. Major imports include machinery and telecommunications equipment, oil, cars, metals, and chemicals.

Financial markets are big business for the USA. Over 90 million shares are bought and sold on the New York Stock Exchange every day.

The most important cities in the USA are the following: New York is the largest city and seaport in the USA. It’s a city of skyscrapers and business center of the shipbuilding, machine building, aircraft, electronics, chemical, light and food industries. About 5 hundred transatlantic airplanes come to and leave New York every day.  

Chicago is a center of industry for the middle of the country. Chicago is a Great Central Market of the USA; it is an important center of heavy industry, the rail-road, meat-packing and grain center of the nation.

Chicago is an industrial center of Illinois. Illinois leads all other states in the manufacture of farm machinery, electronic parts, diesel engines, railroad cars and food products. It’s a leading steel producing state and is the fourth in coal production.

World War made the city a center of aircraft manufacturing and shipbuilding. Other important industries today are food processing, chemical products, metal goods, machinery and aerospace production. The Boeing Company is the largest employer in the area. The Boeing heavy bomber airplane became a symbol of Seattle.

Engineering occupies the leading position in the USA economy. Automobile industry with the main center of Detroit, aviation and rocket industries in San Diego, Los Angeles, Dallas, New York, Baltimore, shipbuilding industry in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Los Angeles contribute a great deal to the development of industry of means of transport and communication.

The agricultural regions are the prairies and the Midwest part of the USA where wheat, maize and other crops grown. Cotton is grown in the Mississippi valley. Virginia and Maryland are well known for their tobacco plantations. Rice is grown in the south of the Gulf of Mexico. Cattle-farming is developed in the prairies, sheep-farming is developed in the western region of the country.

The Midwest is often called the Corn Belt. Farming is the Midwest leading industry. Corn is the pioneer American crop. The Indians taught the early settlers how to grow it. As the pioneers began to move westward, corn moved with them. In the Midwest these pioneers found an ideal climate for growing corn.

California is now the country’s most important cotton-producing state. Only Texas grows more cotton.     

Big Cities of the USA

The United States today is a nation of urban dwellers. About 80% of the population lives in cities. There are many big cities and towns in the USA. New York, San Francisco, Washington, Chicago, Los Angeles are the biggest.

The largest and the most famous city is New York (population 7,868,000). It is the gateway to the USA. It is also a window through which the life of the whole nation may be observed. It is also called the Big Apple or the city that never sleeps, because it is never quite and many people either work or go out to enjoy themselves at night. The first view to the city can never be forgotten. It is represented by Liberty Island with the bronze Statue of Liberty (a symbol of American Independence), presented to the USA by France in 1876. The statue is about 50 meters high and stands on a pedestal of almost the same height. Its torch towers about 200 feet (60 meters) above the harbour and can be seen at night for many miles.  New York is a national leader in business, finance, manufacturing, communications, service industries, fashion and arts. “Money-making” is the main law of life in New York.  New York is a city of contrasts. The richest people in the USA work and live there, earning millions of dollars. And at the same time the poorest people inhabit a part of New York called Harlem.

New York consists of 5 boroughs//районы: Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn and Richmond. Brooklyn is the largest in population (3,000,000). It is even called “bedroom of New York”.

The heart of the city is Manhattan, a rocky island. It is the center of American finance, advertising, art, theater, publishing, fashion – and much more. Perhaps nowhere are New York′s extreme contrasts more obvious than in the Times Square area, around 42nd Street and Broadway. Many big plays and musicals open there. Beneath the bright neon signs of Times Square, you will find the most elegant theaters some of its sleaziest “adult” shows and shops.

Chicago is the third-largest city in the USA and one of the busiest airport, country′s leading industrial, commercial, financial and transport centers. It has the world’s  Chicago-O’Hare International Airport. It is also the most important rail and haulage center and a significant port handling both domestic and international trade. The city is first in the nation in manufacturing of machinery and electronic parts. It is often called the “Great Market of the USA”. Chicago is the railroad and grain center of the nation. It is also called “Cross-Roads of the Continent”. It is served by 19 trunk lines and handles 50,000 freight cars daily. More airlines converge//сходятся on Chicago than any other city of the USA.  Lakes freighters and river barges deliver bulk //насыпной или наливной груз commodities such as iron, ore, limestone, coal, chemicals, oil, and grain.

Chicago is a major center of higher education with numerous colleges and universities. It is a leader in nuclear research.

The world’s first skyscraper was constructed in Chicago in 1885. The central part of the city has one of the tallest building – the Sears Tower at 110 storeys high.

Philadelphia (often called “Philly”) is the 4th largest city in the USA (1,5million people). For 10 years Philadelphia was the 1st national capital of the USA (1800). That city was the place of the First and Second Continental Congresses, and the Constitution of the USA was also adopted here on June 4, 1776.

Philadelphia is known as an important industrial and financial center, it is also an important international port on the Delaware River. The leading industries are shipbuilding, printing, publishing, textile, machinery. The city is also famous for its ice-cream, pepper-pot soup and a sausage-like product called scrapples //кушанье из свинины с кукурузной крупой.

Washington, D.C. is one of the few capitals in the world that was specially built to house the American national government. The terms Washington and the District of Columbia are practically synonymous. Washington was named after the first US President – George Washington. It is not the largest city in the USA. Its population is about 900 thousand people, but it is the largest “one-industry” city in the world. That industry is government. The city’s main product is law and government decisions.  The center of the city is the Capitol Building which dominates all Washington. It is the place where the US Congress meets to discuss the nation’s affairs, place where the inaugurations of the President and Vice-President  are held. On the dome of the Capitol there is a bronze Statue of Freedom which symbolizes the main idea of the US Сonstitution that free people may govern themselves. Pennsylvania Avenue joins the Capitol and The White House which is the President′s Residence. It has 107 rooms and 31 bathrooms. All American presidents have lived there except George Washington as the White House was not yet built at that time after damage by fire in 1814.  

Washington is a wonderful city. You can hardly find a park, a square or an open area in it without a monument or memorial. The most impressive are the Washington Monument and the Lincoln Memorial. The Washington Monument looks like a big pencil. Its height is 160 meters and it is hollow inside. A special lift brings visitors to the top in 70 seconds and from it they can enjoy a beautiful view of the whole city. The Lincoln Memorial is built in the style of a Classic Greek Temple. It has 36 columns that show the number of states in the Union in Lincoln′s time. Inside the Memorial there is a large white marble statue of the 16th President of the USA who was loved by supporters and hated by enemies who killed him in 1865.

Washington is a city of museums, art galleries, theatres. It is an important scientific center. There are 5 universities there, National Academy of Science, the famous Library of Congress, one of the largest in the world. George Washington University, Howard University are the most popular.

There are no skyscrapers in Washington, because they would hide the city′s numerous monuments from view. Besides, no building in the city may be no more than 40 meters tall, i.e., It cannot be higher than the White House.

Los Angeles

The city was founded in 1781 by Spanish colonists who came to the west coast of America from Mexico. The village built by them was called “The Town of Our Lady, The Queen of Angeles”. It is a city of many beaches, with surfers, volleyball players, and people getting tan. It is also the center of the movie industry home to many movie stars. LA has money and glamour; the Beverly Hills neighborhood, for example, is famous for its mansions and high-priced shops. LA is a city of fads//прихоть, фантазия and trends. Clubs, restaurants, shops, and styles have been known to appear and disappear overnight. LA is not only a center for entertainment and tourism, but also for manufacturing, business and finance, aerospace, oil, and trade.

LA faces some serious problems. With so much traffic. LA has the dirtiest air in the USA; too often sunshine is hidden by smog. Crime and violence are also major problems. Police say there are at least 500 gangs in LA. Violence among gang members has grown with the spread of drugs and drug money. Experts emphasize that the problems must be solved if LA is to maintain the Southern California lifestyle for which it’s famous.  

Las Vegas

Las Vegas is a center of gambling in America. For this reason, some say the name Las Vegas comes from a mispronunciation of the phrase “lost wages”. In reality, “Las Vegas” is Spanish for “meadows”. Early settlers were impressed by the fact that Las Vegas was an oasis of green grass in the middle of the desert.

Today Las Vegas is still an oasis – not of grass, but of neon lights. Its hotels and gambling casinos, shows use so much neon that Las Vegas has been nicknamed the City of Lights. In fact, all the entertainments of Las Vegas are open 24 hours a day. Las Vegas is like an “adult Disneyland”, a fantasy oasis in the Nevada desert.  

Detroit

Detroit is the world’s car manufacturing center, giving Detroit its nickname the Motor City. It is also one of the nation’s leading industrial centers. Detroit produces steel, metal products, machine tools, chemicals, office machines, and pharmaceuticals. The metropolitan area contains the international headquarters of such major motor-vehicle firms as General Motors Corporation, Ford Motor Company, and Chrysler Corporation. The first motor car factories were founded in Detroit in 1899 and 1903 by Ransom Olds and Henry Ford.

San Francisco

The city is surrounded on three sides by water. It is famous for its bridges, fog, and foghorns. San Francisco has 40 hills. It is famous for its cable cars, which climb these hills, and for its steep and narrow streets. San Francisco is a wonderful city to explore on foot. San Francisco also has a reputation as an intellectual, liberal, and slightly crazy city – a city where new and different ideas can be explored. Don’t leave San Francisco without seeing the symbol of the city – the Golden Gate Bridge – a beautiful orange suspension bridge. The city has the largest Chinese neighborhood – Chinatown, a genuinely ethnic area

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE USA

The first American college was Harvard, which was founded in 1636 by the graduates of Cambridge University. Later, in 1693, the college of William and Mary was founded in Williamsburg, Virginia, with Yale soon following in 1701. By 1776, there were 9 colleges in the colonies, including Princeton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Brown, Rutgers. Today these universities are among the most respectful not only in the USA but all over the world. They are very selective and very expensive. The most outstanding of them are called the Ivy League (группа старейших университетов): Brown, Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Darmouth College, Princeton and Pennsylvania.  

About 40% of high school graduates go to college. Students pay tuition (платить за обучение) to study at public and private universities. Some of them have scholarships (стипендия) to help with the cost of tuition. Even with scholarship, higher education is very expensive; many families take out loans to pay for their children’s college education.

The USA now has about 3, 350 accredited colleges and universities. They offer a great variety of requirements for admission and so many different types of programs that foreign visitors usually have some difficulty identifying American colleges and universities with those of their own countries.

College-bound students generally take college admission tests during their last two years of high school.

The terms “college” and “university” are often used interchangeably, although the former often is a part of the latter.

An American college offers a blend of natural and social sciences and humanistic studies. Students, traditionally from 18 to 22 years old, attend classes for about 4 years to receive, if they successfully complete all requirements, a bachelor’s degree in arts or in sciences. A university is usually composed of an undergraduate college of arts and sciences, plus graduate schools and professional schools and facilities.

A student can accumulate (накопить, сдать) credits at one university, transfer them to a second and ultimately receive a degree from there or a third university.

American universities and colleges are usually built as a separate complex, called “campus”, with teaching blocks, libraries, dormitories (общежития), and many other facilities grouped together on one site, often on the outskirts of the city.

A student starting high school is called a freshman and becomes a sophomore in the second year. Eleven-grade students are called juniors, and twelfth-grade students are seniors. There are eight classes a day, usually from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m.

The academic year (учебный год) begins in late August or early September and ends in May or June, for most colleges and universities. The semester system divides the academic year into two equal terms of approximately 16 weeks each. Usually there is also a fourth “summer quarter” for students who choose summer school and earn units which may help them to complete their degree work in a shorter length of time than normally is required.  

At the end of term students get a grade of A/A- (outstanding/ extremely good work), B+/ B/ B- (very good work/ good work/ a bit better than average), C+/ C/ C- (better than average/ satisfactory/ almost satisfactory), D+/ D (not good/ barely passing), or F (fail) for each subject. As they finish each class, students get a credit. When they have enough of these, they can graduate.

Most colleges and universities in the United States have established “honor codes” «кодекс чести» – statements of certain rules students must follow in their academic year. Ignorance of the rules is not usually accepted as an excuse. You may be expelled from your school.  There is a US idiom that applies here: “It is better to be safe than sorry”.

Cheating (списывание) is a failure of honesty. In the USA cheating means getting unauthorized help on an assignment, quiz or examination. You must not use unauthorized sources for answers during exam. You must not take notes or books to the exam if this is forbidden.

Plagiarism is a failure to do your own original work in written assignments (письменные задания). Plagiarism is using someone else’s words or ideas as though they were own. It is literary “theft”. If you commit any act of dishonesty even for the first time:

▪You will certainly receive an “F” (failing grade) for the assignment;

▪You will probably receive an “F” for the entire course;

▪You may be expelled from the school.    

Methods of instruction:  Lecture is the most common method of instruction at U.S. colleges and universities. Usually lectures are supplemented by an extra “discussion” class, reading assignments and periodic written assignments. Class discussion is regarded as a healthy sign of interest, attention and independent thinking. Seminars where students prepare presentations based on independent reading and research.   Laboratories, esp. for science courses where theory learned in the classroom is applied to practical problems. Term papers are based on researches students have done in the library or the lab. The professor usually assigns a term paper early in the course and near the end of the course. All papers must be typewritten.    

Topics for discussion:

 The history of the USA formation

 Political system

 Large cities

 The economic system

 Science

 Language

 Education

 Mass Media, its power

 American cultural life: music, cinema, theatre, Hollywood etc.

 Holidays and traditions, American way of life  

 Youth: typical teenagers, youth and American values, free time, youth and their families

 Sports: leisure sports, popular sports and games

UKRAINE

Ukraine is a sovereign state whose independence was declared in 1991.

Ukraine is situated in the south-eastern part of Central Europe. It borders on other European countries: Russia, Byelorussia, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Moldova and Romania. The territory of our country is about 600.000 square kilometres. The population of our country is about 47 million people. It is diminishing due to emigration, low birth rate and low life level in Ukraine. Not only Ukrainians live in our country. There are also Russians, Jews, Byelorussians, Moldavians, Rumanians, Chinese, Georgians, Greeks, Tatars, Poles, Hungarians, Armenians, Germans, Gypsies and other nationalities. Because of a diversity of ethnic groups, Ukrainians do not look alike and cannot be stereotyped to one kind of appearance. However, many think that Ukrainian women are very attractive.   

The official language of Ukraine is Ukrainian, but Russian is also widespread. More than 40% of the population of Ukraine speak Russian.

The state symbols of Ukraine are the State Flag, the State Emblem (the trident) and the State Anthem of Ukraine (“Ukraine Hasn’t Perished Yet”). The Ukrainian flag consists of two horizontal stripes: blue and yellow. They express the peaceful blue sky and yellow ripened wheat as a symbol of welfare of our nature.  

The official currency of Ukraine is Hryvnia. It was introduced in September 1996.

The geographical position is very favourable for the development of its relations with European countries. 95% of the Ukrainian area is flat, lowlands occupy a considerable part of the country, and the rest of it is mountainous. The highest mountains in Ukraine are Roman Kosh in the Crimea and Goverla in the Carpathian Mountains. Ukraine is washed by the Black Sea and the Azov Sea.

The main navigable rivers are the Dnieper, the Dniester, the Proot, the Tissa, the South Bug, Seversky Donets, and the Danube. Our country has a lot of lakes. The largest is Yalpug.   

The climate of Ukraine is mild, but in the southern part it is subtropical. Spring and summer are usually sunny, in autumn it often rains, in winter it is not very cold.

Nature of Ukraine is beautiful. You can see different kinds of trees as oak, asp, maple, pine, birch, beech, lime, poplars, bird cherry, snow-ball tree and evergreen trees: palm-tree, cypress, and eucalyptus in the south.

The fauna of Ukraine is various: the red deer, wild boar, fox, squirrel, elk, wolf, lynx, hare. There are about 350 kinds of birds in Ukraine, among them the dove, sea gull, crane, owl, wood pecker, sparrow. Near the sea coasts dolphins, some kinds of sharks can be seen. The lakes and rivers are rich in perches, pikes, carps and sheats. Ukraine has 12 national parks.

Ukraine is an industrialized country whose economic potential is great. Ukraine is relatively rich in natural resources, particularly in mineral deposits: iron, ore, coal, oil, natural gas, salt, manganese, graphite, marble, granite, nickel and other natural resources. There are many curative mineral waters in Ukraine.

The leading industries of the country are metallurgy, aircraft, shipbuilding, machine building, power industry, chemical industry, electronics and electrical engineering, coal-mining, automobile, textile, food industry, agriculture. Ukraine has a major ferrous metal industry, producing cast iron, steel and pipes. As of 2005, Ukraine was the world's eighth largest steel producer. Another important branch is the country's chemical industry which includes the production of coke, mineral fertilizers and sulfuric acid. Manufactured goods include metallurgical equipment, diesel locomotives, tractors, and automobiles. The country possesses a massive high-tech industrial base, including much of the former USSR's electronics, arms industry and space program. However, these fields are state-owned and economically underdeveloped. Ukraine is a major producer of grain, sugar, meat and milk products. It is the largest producer of sunflower oil in the world. Owing to the fact that Ukraine possesses 30% of the world's richest black soil, its agricultural industry has a huge underdeveloped potential. The agricultural industry in Ukraine is already highly profitable, with 40-60% profits. 

The moderate climate and rich soil are favourable for agriculture. Ukraine grows sugar-beet, wheat, rice, maize, soya-bean, vegetables, fruit, sunflower. It is the famous producer of dairy products, meat, and poultry.

There are more than three hundred cities and towns in Ukraine. The biggest are Kharkiv, Donetsk, Lviv, Odessa, Kherson, Dnepropetrovsk and others.

Ukraine has a rich historical and cultural heritage. There are many higher educational establishments, theatres, libraries, museums, art galleries in Ukraine. It’s also famous for many outstanding writers, poets and musicians.

Ukraine is a member of the United Nation Organization and takes part in the work of many international organizations.

The capital of the country is Kiev. Kiev is one of the largest and most beautiful cities in the world. Kiev is over 1,500 years old. According to the legend Kiev was founded by 3 brothers: Kiy, Shchek and Khorif and their sister Lybid.

Nowadays Kiev is not only the capital of Ukraine, it is also a cultural, scientific, administrative and industrial centre. The main street is Kreschatik. Besides government offices and administrative buildings you can see large cinemas, restaurants, shops and cafes. There are a great number of historical monuments: Saint Volodymyr′s Cathedral, Sophia′s Cathedral, Saint Andrew′s Church, Pecherska Lavra, Golden Gate etc. There are many institutes, universities, technical and secondary schools. The Shevchenko University, the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine are also in Kiev. Kiev is proud of the Shevchenko Opera and Ballet Theatre, the Lesia Ukrainka Drama Theatre.

People in Ukraine are proud of their capital. Ukrainians in general are kind, open, generous, easy-going, hospitable, with a good sense of humour. They love good food and drink. They like holidays and merrymaking and have a hearty zest for life. Traditional  They like to spend time with their family, dining, walking, playing and going on holidays together together. Ukrainian dishes include borsch, varenyky and holubtsi. Several years ago there was a competition in Paris for the best national dish, our borsch was awarded the 1st prize.       

Ukrainian Way of Life

Nowadays the world is becoming integrated politically, economically and culturally. Most of the countries and ethnic groups are loosing their identity and are becoming more cosmopolitan. Deep-rooted customs, time honoured traditions (in dress, eating habits, pastime etc.) are dying out. Fortunately, at this point of history we still speak of e.g. Ukrainian and American way of life.

What cross-cultural aspects leap to the eye of a foreigner in Ukraine? Some of these factors are trifling but they are revealing. E.g. Unlike Germans or Britishers we do not observe meals time or breaks, because on the list of values for a Ukrainian leisure ranks third after family and work. On long-distance trains total strangers who share the same compartment immediately fall into talking, have tea together and at the end of the journey they part as good friends. Unlike Englishmen, Ukrainians are rather sociable in queues (lines). One word borrows another (слово по слову) and soon the people are involved into a heated discussion on some political or moral problems or current events. It comes as a surprise to a foreigner that expectant mothers and mothers with babies and small children, do not have to stand in a line (they are sent to the head of the queue). And it baffles foreigners when passengers in overcrowded buses and trams pass their fare to the driver or the conductor (thus entrusting their money to total strangers).

Ukrainian parents and grandparents are more devoted to their children than their counterparts in Great Britain or America. A lot of grandparents do not hesitate to abandon their career to look after their grand-children thus helping their children to continue education or launch some business. So the relations within a Ukrainian family are close-knit.

Most people in Ukraine live in 2 or 3-roomed flats (while Americans or Englishmen prefer to live in detached or semi-detached houses even in cities).

About 1/3 of Ukraine's population live in rural areas, they work on farms or do some handicrafts.

Ukrainians wear generally Western style clothes. But on special occasions they may wear traditional peasant costumes - white blouses and shirts decorated with colourful embroidery. Traditional Ukrainian dishes include borsch, varenyky, and holubtsi. (1. Varenyky - are boiled dumplings filled with potatoes, cottage cheese, plums or cherries.    2. Holubtsi - are stuffed cabbage rolls with rice and meat).

Borsch is made of 12 ingredients. Several years ago there was a competition in Paris for the best national dish, our borsch was awarded the 1st prize. Ukrainians are known for their arts and crafts. E.g. Pysanky - Ukrainian Easter eggs, beautifully coloured are known all over the world.   

One word borrows another – слово по слову; to baffle – ставит в тупик, озадачивать; close-knit – сплоченный; handicrafts – ручная работа, ремесло; embroidery – вышивка; cottage cheese – творог 

British, American and Ukrainian Characters. Overcoming Stereotypes.

In the modem world people of different nationalities often come into contact with each other. To benefit from such contacts both sides should be free from prejudices and stereotypes.

National stereotypes may breed dislike or distrust of a person, group or even the whole people. As national stereotypes are based on ignorance, fear or false information they may be overcome by quality education or through personal observations of people and their manners. Quality education provides people with the knowledge of others that dispels prejudices against individuals. Thanks to quality education, travel and unbiased observations one gets to know generalized characteristics of different people that make their behaviour predictable and understandable. For example, one will do well to know that the English are a people that cannot be rushed, i.e. the English, as a rule, don't allow others to impose on them, their views, ideas or opinions. They are distrustful of extremes and resentful of interference. The English believe in themselves. They have not got the inferiority complex and are indifferent to what other people think of them. That is why they run themselves down, treat themselves with a sense of humour and dislike boasting.

The Americans, on the contrary, take pride in their achievements, and want others to admire them, to approve of them. They are cheerful, easy-going, keep on smiling no matter what challenges they face up to. The American character is optimistic and ambitious. The Americans are fond of great schemes, big sizes, open spaces, high speed, innovations and changes. They are quick on the uptake, pragmatic and efficient. The Americans are apt to change their occupations, and places of residence. They are on the move to avoid getting into the rut.

Unlike the Americans, the Ukrainians are not given to sudden changes in their social, professional and personal lives. They value stability, continuity and predictability. The Ukrainians are inclined to stick to what they have got for fear of losing the little they have. The Ukrainian character is inflexible, and dogmatic, softened by a saving sense of humour and good – natured friendliness. It takes much persuasion to make Ukrainians adopt new notions, ideas, innovative methods and reforms.

So these are some salient national characteristics to be reckoned with while dealing with Britishers, Americans and Ukrainians.

to benefit from – извлекать пользу; to impose on smb. -  давить на кого-л; inferiority complex – комплекс неполноценности; to be quick on the uptake – быстро соображать; to get into the rut – идти по накатанной колеи, поступать привычным способом.

          

British, American and Ukrainian Characters. Overcoming Stereotypes.

In the modem world people of different nationalities often come into contact with each other. To benefit from such contacts both sides should be free from prejudices and stereotypes.

National stereotypes may breed dislike or distrust of a person, group or even the whole people. As national stereotypes are based on ignorance, fear or false information they may be overcome by quality education or through personal observations of people and their manners. Quality education provides people with the knowledge of others that dispels prejudices against individuals. Thanks to quality education, travel and unbiased observations one gets to know generalized characteristics of different people that make their behaviour predictable and understandable. For example, one will do well to know that the English are a people that cannot be rushed, i.e. the English, as a rule, don't allow others to impose on them, their views, ideas or opinions. They are distrustful of extremes and resentful of interference. The English believe in themselves. They have not got the inferiority complex and are indifferent to what other people think of them. That is why they run themselves down, treat themselves with a sense of humour and dislike boasting.

The Americans, on the contrary, take pride in their achievements, and want others to admire them, to approve of them. They are cheerful, easy-going, keep on smiling no matter what challenges they face up to. The American character is optimistic and ambitious. The Americans are fond of great schemes, big sizes, open spaces, high speed, innovations and changes. They are quick on the uptake, pragmatic and efficient. The Americans are apt to change their occupations, and places of residence. They are on the move to avoid getting into the rut.

Unlike the Americans, the Ukrainians are not given to sudden changes in their social, professional and personal lives.

They value stability, continuity and predictability. The Ukrainians are inclined to stick to what they have got for fear of losing the little they have. The Ukrainian character is inflexible, and dogmatic, softened by a saving sense of humour and good – natured friendliness. It takes much persuasion to make Ukrainians adopt new notions, ideas, innovative methods and reforms.

So these are some salient national characteristics to be reckoned with while dealing with Britishers, Americans and Ukrainians.

to benefit from – извлекать пользу; to impose on smb. -  давить на кого-л; inferiority complex – комплекс неполноценности; to be quick on the uptake – быстро соображать; to get into the rut – идти по накатанной колеи, поступать привычным способом;

KYIV

Kyiv is one of the largest and most beautiful cities in the world. Kyiv is over 1,500 years old. According to the legend Kyiv was founded by 3 brothers: Kiy, Shchek and Khorif and their sister Lybid.

Nowadays Kyiv is not only the capital of Ukraine, it is also a cultural, scientific, administrative and industrial center. Kyiv is very cosmopolitan. People of different nationalities live and work there. They are Russians, Poles, Greeks, Germans, Americans and others.

Kyiv is famous for many things. Tourists come from all over the world to visit this beautiful city. The main street is Kreschatik. Like many big cities there are many government offices, administrative buildings, large cinemas, hotels, excellent restaurants, shops and cafés.

Kyiv has a rich history. It is one of the oldest city in the world. There are a great number of historical monuments: Kyiv-Pecherska Lavra (a spiritual and cultural treasury of the Ukrainian people), Saint (St.) Volodimir's Cathedral, Sophia's Cathedral, St. Andrew's Church, Mariynsky Palace (the official residence of the Ukrainian Government), Golden Gate etc. There are many institutes, universities, technical and secondary schools. You can see the Shevchenko University, Kyiv Mohyla Acadamy. Kyiv is proud of the Shevchenko Opera and Ballet Theatre, the Lesia Ukrainka Theatre.

Like many big cities, Kyiv has problems with traffic and pollution. Over 1,000,000 people a day use the Underground, but there are still too many cars on the streets.

People in Ukraine are proud of their capital.

Wedding and Marriage Traditions of Ukrainians.

Every nation, every people, even every social group has its traditions which developed during centuries. The process of formation of wedding and marriage traditions in Ukraine was difficult and diverse. Some lands of Ukraine during long time belonged to different states, each of which had its own social and economic development, political system, religion. Thus, regional types of traditional culture and way of life with its system of custom rules, norms of behavior and moral principles developed, but there always existed the system of values of family throughout Ukraine. Ukrainians considered a man to be an independent person only after marriage; a single man whatever his age was, was called “parubok”. People didn't respect those who hadn't managed to get married in time.

The most typical feature of a Ukrainian family   from the very beginning of its formation and development was cosmic spirituality where the marriage union of a man and a woman was a union of the Sun and The Moon and bright little stars – their children.

The goddess of marriage, love, happiness, and family well-being was Lada, glorified till now. Little girls are given this name, and during wedding people wish to the newly couple: “ладу в сім’ї”.

There are different forms of marriage, which were conditional by the historical lot of Ukraine. These are: marriage through agreement, leaving, stealing and "on trust". The first variant was legal, the rest of them were illegal, as they did not blend with the system of laws and religious canons. The civil marriage among the Ukrainians till the 16th century was based on folk wedding customs (traditions). From the 16-17th centuries marriage was put under control of Church which proclaimed it a    mystery and the ceremony of wedding was introduced.

However, interference of church did not change radically the essence of civil marriage and wedding: people considered a marriage legal if it was made on the basis of agreement and celebrated with the wedding rites. Marriage with wedding in church but without wedding rites was invalid. Marriage “on trust” (without wedding in Church but with wedding rites) was one of the manifestations of resistance to the Churches interference.

But this type of marriage wasn't popular among Ukrainians. Only poor people and those, who did not get the parents’ consent, resorted to it. The same goes about marriages through stealing and leaving. The understanding of the married life with equal rights was reflected in the oath that newly weds took during wedding in Church: that oath underlined equal rights of  both of them and friendly respect.

This made a wife materially independent while her husband was alive and provided material security while she was a widow. Nowadays there is the law about marriage settlements in Ukraine, which also protects material rights of wife and husband.                                                                                                      

Those who did not want to make a family had no respect and underwent certain punishments: they had, for example, the smaller part of hereditary property. But celibacy was not widespread among Ukrainians. 0n the contrary, marriage was gaining a great social prestige, raising the authority of a person. The basis of a marriage in Ukraine in 16th - 19th centuries was formed by an agreement (zgovir, zmovyny, zgoda) between two parties (sides): parents and relatives of the young man and parents and relatives of the young woman. The mediators between them were confidential agents: Father or Mother of the son-in-law.          

First, marriage agreement was made orally and from the 17th century, as the land problem was becoming acute, written agreement became obligatory. According to the custom law during making an agreement the parties settled the amount of bride’s dowry, which consisted of a chest and cattle, contribution of parents and relatives.

One of the important conditions of the marriage agreement was providing the young with land. The young man, as a rule, was always provided with some land, the young woman was provided with it in some regions of Ukraine. But she got her dowry that in the end of 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries contained only a chest (bed - linen, cloth). Now people present furniture, carpets, TV sets, etc. As to the first part of the dowry - cattle, land, and money - it was not included in the marriage agreement which was connected with the depriving peasants of the land.

The great importance was attached to the creating a family. Accordingly, there developed a complex system of wedding rites. It was a kind of theatre action, together with games, music, dancing, singing, that acquired character of a folk holiday.

All the wedding rites were divided into three parts: before - wedding, wedding - itself, after - wedding. In its turn, each part consisted of some rites. Before - wedding rites included  asking  to marry (svatannya), umovyny,, oglyadony, zaruchyny, baking corovay, and divchin - vechir. Wedding included zaprosyny, posad of the young, presenting, unplaiting, dividing the corovay, bringing the dowry, and dressing up (ryadzhennya). After wedding part was dedicated to thanking the parents by the newly weds, drawing the bride to the husband's family.

Wedding began with asking to marry (svatannya) - it was a preliminary agreement about marriage at bride's place with her parents. Usually Ukrainians made such an agreement while they were free from field work (from Easter to Whitsunday). Witty and respected people were chosen to be leaders (svaty, starosty)! The young boy (parubok) went together with them to the girl's place (in some regions of Ukraine his parents, brother or sister joined him). After parents' blessing,  the girl tied the leader with the towels (rushnyky) across their shoulders, and she gave a kerchief on the plate to the betrothed. However, in some cases she did not give her consent to marriage: she returned to the leaders the bread brought by them or presented a pumpkin to the young man.

When she gave her consent, kumovyny (oglyadyny) took place – it was acquaintance with the young man's property. And in a fortnight zaruchyny were held - it was a kind of consolidating a marriage agreement. Parents and relatives of the young man sat at the table at the bride's place, and the young were lead to special place - posad. The chief leader covered the bread with the towels, put the bride's hand on it, the young man's hand on hers, and tied their hands with the towel. After this ritual the bride tied the leaders with the towels and presented kerchiefs, linen or shirts (sorochky). After all these ceremonies the young were considered to be engaged and they had no right to go back on their word. An attempt to refuse was a dishonor, besides, this person had to compensate for the material expenses and to pay for “insult”.                                               

Great importance was attached to the clothes of the young during their wedding. The bride’s wreath, for example, was to protect her from the "evil eve". Ukrainian brides had a wreath with periwinkles (barvinok) – a symbol of long love. Unfortunately, recently Ukrainians brides have a white veil on their heads - it is "fata", wedding head-dress of Russian women.

The procedure of wedding is shortened nowadays, but the main traditional rites are observed, especially in villages. People invite guests, divide "corovay", give presents to the betrothed. And on the second day a real theatrical action takes place, when the disguised (ryadzeni) are walking in the street. Songs, music, dancing. It's impossible to guess who this bright gypsy, or guerrillas with tambourine are. It is impossible to pass without giving something to them - money, candies, dry bread-rings, bottle of horilka. After that the disguised treat the passers-by to what they have. In Chernihiv region people still observe some rites common to Byelorussians and Ukrainians: sprinkling with grain and small coins, dividing of "corovay", tying the young with towel, stealing, redemption. The ritual bread is of great importance. Nearly all the ritual actions are sanctified by it: guests are invited and presented with the bread, the betrothed are met and sent off to marriage with it.

SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION OF UKRAINE

In Ukraine as in other developed countries, higher education is considered to be one of the main human values. Ukraine has developed from the past a well-developed system of higher education. Education system in Ukraine has centuries-old history, national traditions and high prestige in the world.

 The first Ukrainian university – Kyiv- Mohyla Academy was founded in 1632. Other oldest universities are Lviv University (1795), Kharkiv University (1804), Taras Shevchenko National University (1834), Odessa University (1868).

According to the “Law on Education” of Ukraine all the applicants who would like to enter higher educational institution have equal rights irrespective of the sex, race, nationality, social and property status occupation, world outlook, religion and other circumstances.

The structure of the higher education of Ukraine was built up according to the structure of education in the developed countries of the world as determined by UNESCO, UN and other international organizations. The higher education constitutes integral part of the system of education of Ukraine as provided by the Law of Ukraine “On Education”. It ensures the fundamental scientific, professional and practical training by the following educational and qualification degrees: "Junior specialist", "Bachelor", "Specialist, Master".

The higher education is received in high educational institutions of levels of accreditation on the basis of: basic general secondary education, complete general secondary   education and educational-qualification degrees “Junior Specialist” and "Bachelor", as well as "Specialist, Master" as postgraduate education.

Training of specialists, in higher educational institutions may be carried out with the interruption of work (daytime education), without interruption of work (evening correspondence education), by the combination of these two forms, and for certain professions - without attending classes.

Admission of citizens to higher educational institutions is made on the competitive basis according to skills and regardless of the form of ownership of an educational institution and sources of payment for education.

There are four levels of accreditation established according to the status of higher educational institutions:  

•first level - technical schools, vocational schools and other higher educational institutions equated to them;

•second level - college and other higher educational institutions equated to it;

•third and fourth levels (depending on the results of accreditation) - institute, conservatory, academy, and university.

Higher educational institutions train specialists pursuant to the following educational and qualification levels:

•junior specialist - is provided by technical and vocational schools, other higher educational institutions of the first level of accreditation;

•bachelor - is provided by colleges and other higher educational institutions of the second level of accreditation;

•specialist, master - are provided by higher educational institutions of the third and fourth levels of accreditation. Taking into account the structure of higher education, its first phase contemplates the receipt of higher education of the educational - qualification level "Junior Specialist"; the second phase - "Bachelor" (basic higher education); the third phase - "Specialist", “Master” (complete higher education).

The network includes 979 higher educational institutions of I-IV levels of accreditation (vocational schools, technical schools, colleges, institutes, academies, and universities).

The network of higher educational institutions of I-II levels of accreditation includes 664 higher educational institutions, including 593 institutions of the state form of ownership and 71 ones of other forms of ownership with 528 thousand students in total.

The network of higher educational institutions of III-IV levels of accreditation numbers 315 institutions, including 223 institutions of the state form of ownership. Among them there are 106 universities, 59 academies and 150 institutes. 48 universities and academies have the status of the national ones. 1,403 thousand students study at universities, academies, institutes, including 1,086 thousand students of 17-24 years old, who receive higher education, that constitutes 90% of the total number of students.

Specialists having degree of higher education are trained in 70 areas that include more than 500 professions: economics, commerce, business; engineering, education, humanitarian sciences, natural sciences, medicine, law, culture and arts, design, engineering, information technology, the media, science, etc.                                                                                             

Requirements to the contents, scope and level of the educational and professional training in Ukraine are determined by the State Standards of Education. The state standard of education means the aggregate norms that specify requirements to the educational and educational - qualification level.

The state standard of education is developed for each area of training (profession) for various educational-qualification levels.

Management of education

The management of education is performed by government regulatory authorities and local authorities.

The government regulatory authorities in the area of higher education include:

•The Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine;

•Central authorities of the executive power of Ukraine, to which educational institutions are subordinated;

•The Supreme Certification Commission of Ukraine;

•The State Accreditation Commission.

The Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine is the central body of the government executive power performing the management in the area of education.

The Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine:

•participates in the determination of the state policy in the areas of education, science and professional training of specialists;

•develops the program of the development of education, state standards;

•ensures the connection with educational institutions, government authorities of other countries;

•makes accreditation of higher and vocational educational institutions, issues licenses and certificates to them.

•organizes certification of pedagogical and scientific-pedagogical personnel in order to provide them with qualification degrees, pedagogical and scientific ranks.

The Supreme Certification Commission of Ukraine organizes and conducts the certification of scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel, manages the work related to giving scientific ranks, giving academic degree of a senior staff scientist.  

In accordance with the results of the accreditation of higher educational institutions, the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine together with ministers and departments, to which educational institutions are subordinated:

•determine the correspondence of educational services to the state standards of a certain educational – qualification level in particular areas;

•determine the level of accreditation of an educational institution;

•inform the community regarding the quality of educational and scientific activities carried out by higher educational institutions.

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