Note process developing in time
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Lecture 6.
The Verb. Finite Forms.
1.1. The Verb: General Characterictics
Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech since it performs the central role in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence (these functions show the connection between the situation/event named in the utterance and reality).
The verb is characterised by a complex structure of grammatical categories and various subclass divisions. Furthermore, it falls into two sets of forms different from each other: the finite set and the non-finite set.
- Semantic features of the verb
The verb possesses the general categorial grammatical meaning of process presented dynamically, i.d. it has the ability to denote a process developing in time. This processual meaning is typical of the semantics of all the verbs (those denoting actions, states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc.).
- Morphological features of the verb.
- Verbs are characterised by specific forms of word-building and certain formal features expressing the corresponding grammatical categories.
The verb stems may be:
- simple (go, take, read, etc),
- sound-replacive (food –to feed; blood –to bleed),
- stress-replacive (import –to import; transport –to transport),
- expanded (the verb-deriving suffixes –ate, -en, -ifу, -ise ize: cultivate, broaden, clarify, normalise; the verb-deriving prefixes be-, en-/em-: belittle, befriend, engulf, embed); other characteristic verbal prefixes re-, under-, over-, sub-, mis-, un-: remake, undergo, overestimate, submerge, misunderstand, undo),
- composite/compound (derived from composite non-verb stems; the compounds of the conversion type (blackmail n. —blackmail v.) and of the reduction type (proof-reader n.—proof-read v.).
- phrasal (occupy the position between analytical forms of the verb and syntactic word combinations. There can be distinguished combinations: a) ahead-verb + a noun, e.g. have a smoke; b) a head-verb + a verbal postposition, e.g stand up, go on, give in).
- The grammatical categories of the verb are:
- the category of finitude according to which there are distinguished finite and non-finite forms. This category is lexico-grammatical;
- the category of person,
- number,
- tense,
- aspect,
- voice,
- mood.
The complete set of these categories is revealed in every word-form of the notional finite verb. The grammatical categories of the English verb find their expression in synthetical and analytical forms. The formative elements expressing these categories are grammatical affixes, inner inflexion and function words.
- Syntactic features.
- The ability to be modified by adverbs.
- The ability of the verb to perform the syntactic function of the predicate (this criterion is not absolute).
- The ability of any verb in the form of the infinitive to combine with a modal verb.
1.2. The Verb: Classifications.
The class of verbs falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features. There are identified:
I) On the basis of functional classification:
- verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs)
This set is derivationally open, it includes the bulk of the verbal lexicon.
- verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional verbs and functional verbs).
This set is derivationally closed, it includes limited subsets of verbs. Semi-notional and functional verbs (predicators) serve as markers of predication in the proper sense. They show the connection between the nominative content of the sentence and reality in a specialised way. Among them there are distinguished:
- auxiliary verbs,
They build up grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb (be, have, do, shall, will, should, would, may, might).
- modal verbs,
Together with the infinitive they serve as predicative markers and express relational meanings of the subject attitude type (ability, obligation, permission, advisability, etc.). They also express relational probability, serving as probability predicators.
The modal verbs can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, used (to), dare are defective in forms, and are suppletively supplemented by stative groups (be able to etc). The verbs be and have in the modal meanings ‘be planned’, ‘be obliged’ and the like are also included in the general modal verb list.
- semi-notional verbid introducer verbs,
These verbs fall into predicators of 1) verbal discriminatory relational semantics (seem, happen, turn out, etc.), 2) subject-action relational semantics (try, fail, manage, etc.), 3) phasal semantics (begin, continue, stop, etc.).
- link-verbs.
Link-verbs introduce the nominal part of the predicate (the predicative) which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective, or a phrase of a similar semantic-grammatical character. Although they perform the function of connecting (linking) the subject and the predicative of the sentence, they are not devoid of meaningful content since they express the semantics of this connection. The linking predicator function in the purest form is effected by the verb be (the ‘pure link-verb’). All the other link-verbs express some specification of this general predicative-linking semantics (‘specifying link-verbs’). They fall into two main groups:
- those that express perceptions (seem, appear, look, feel, taste)
- those that express non-perceptional/factual link-verb connection (become, get, grow, remain, keep).
Besides the link-verbs proper there are some notional verbs (mostly intransitive verbs of motion and position) that can perform the function of link-verbs without losing their lexical nominative value (combining two functions simultaneously):
Fred lay awake all through the night.
Robbie ran in out of breath.
The moon rose red.
The whole predicate formed by it is referred to as a double predicate.
II) On the basis of the subject-process relation notional verbs can be divided into:
- actional
They express the action performed by the subject (present the subject as an active doer): do, act, perform, make, go, read, learn, discover, etc.
- statal.
Statal verbs denote the state of their subject (give the subject the characteristic of the inactive recipient of some outward activity, or express the mode of its existence): be, live, survive, worry, suffer, rejoice, stand, see, know, etc.
3) purely processual (processual-statal and processual-actional) –OPTIONAL SUBCLASS can be treated as reduction of binary oppositions (actional vs statal verbs)
These verbs express neither actions, nor states, but ‘processes’(thaw, ripen, deteriorate, consider, neglect, support, display etc). On closer observation, however, it becomes clear that the units of this subclass can also be divided into actional and statal:
The snow is thawing (the ‘purely processual’ verb thaw referring to an inactive substance should be defined ‘processual-statal’).
The designer is considering another possibility (the ‘processual’ verb consider relating to an active doer should be defined as ‘processual-actional’).
The two subclasses differ in their aspectual behaviour. The actional verbs take the form of the continuous aspect quite freely, while the statal verbs, in the same contextual conditions, are mainly used in the indefinite form.
III) On the basis of the aspective characteristics of the process denoted by the verb there can be:
1) limitive verbs (called ‘terminative’in some grammars)
They present a process as potentially limited (arrive, come, leave, find, start, stop, conclude, aim, drop, catch, etc + phrasal verbs with limitive postpositions: stand up, sit down, get out, be off, etc).
2) unlimitive (non-terminative/durative/cursive).
They present a process as not limited by any border point (move, continue, live, sleep, work, behave, hope, stand, etc).
Some authors recognise also a third subclass: verbs of double aspective nature (of double/mixed lexical character). These can express either a ‘terminative’ or ‘non-terminative’ (‘durative’) meaning depending on the context. However these cases can be interpreted as reductions (mostly neutralisations) of the lexical aspective opposition:
Mary and Robert walked through the park pausing at flower-beds –unlimitive use, basic function
In the scorching heat, the party walked the whole way to the ravine bareheaded –limitive use, neutralisation.
The English lexical aspect differs radically from the Russian aspect:
- the English lexical aspect expresses a potentially limited or unlimited process
- the Russian aspect expresses the actual conclusion (the perfective, or terminative aspect) or non-conclusion (the imperfective, or non-terminative aspect) of the process in question.
Both the English limitive verbs and unlimitive verbs may correspond alternately either to the Russian perfective verbs or imperfective verbs, depending on the contextual uses (The party arrived (прибыла) at the foot of the mountain. In those years trains seldom arrived (приходили) on time).
IV) On the basis of the combining power of the verb in relation to other notional words in the utterance notional verbs are divided into:
- complementive (those having the power to take complements)
- uncomplementive (those not having the power to take complements)
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