Если у вас возникли сложности с курсовой, контрольной, дипломной, рефератом, отчетом по практике, научно-исследовательской и любой другой работой - мы готовы помочь.
Предоплата всего
Подписываем
|
O.B.A field of study that investigates the impact of individuals, groups, & structure on behavior within org-ns; the aim is to apply such knowledge toward improving org-nal effectiveness Behavior refers to what people do in the org-n, how they perform, & what their attitudes are. What is org-nal behaviour? It’s a field of study that focuses on three levels of behavior in org-ns. One level is the individual, such as the Wal-Mart greeter h&ing out smiley balloons. Another level is the group, such as the three employees of Praxair, a distributor of bottled industrial gases, who meet to discuss their work. The third level is structure which is depicted here by employees working in cubicles at Bloomberg, a financial media company. org-n A consciously coordinated social unit, made up of a group of people, that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve common goals. three main traits of best-loved companies: (1) they show appreciation for their employees, (2) they coach employees to help them move up in the org-n, (3) they have good leaders who present the corporate strategy clearly & consistently. org-nal commitment The degree to which an employee identifies with the org-n& wishes to remain with the org-n. affective commitment The strength of an individual’s emotional attachment to, identification with, & involvement in the org-n. empowerment Giving employees responsibility for what they do. In the process, managers are learning how to give up control, & employees are learning how to take responsibility for their work & make appropriate decisions. ethics The study of moral values or principles that guide our behavior & inform us whether actions are right or wrong. When we look at the different levels in the org-n, we recognize that each has challenges that can affect how the levels above &/or below might operate. We consider the challenges at the individual, group, & org-nal levels. At the individual level, managers & employees need to learn how to work with people who may be different from themselves in a variety of dimensions, including personality, perception, values, & attitudes. This point is illustrated by the employee situation at ICR, where employees have a variety of experiences & come from several cultures. Individuals also have different levels of job satisfaction & motivation, & these affect how managers manage employees. Individual Differences People enter groups & org-ns with certain characteristics that influence their behaviour, the more obvious of these being personality characteristics, perception, values, & attitudes. These characteristics are essentially intact when an individual joins an org-n, & for the most part, there is little that those in the org-n can do to alter them. Yet they have a very real impact on behavior Challenges at the Group Level The behaviour of people in groups is more than the sum total of all the individuals acting in their own way. People’s behaviour when they are in a group differs from their behavior when they are alone. Therefore, the next step in developing an underst&ing of OB is the study of group behaviour. Working With Others Much of the success in any job involves developing good interpersonal, or “people,” skills. In fact, The Conference Board of Canada identified the skills that form the foundationfor a high-quality workforce in today’s workplace as communication, thinking, learning, & working with others. Positive attitudes & behaviours & an ability to take responsibility for one’s actions are also key skills, according to the Conference Board.24 Because many people will work in small & medium-sized firms in the future, Human Resources & Skills Development Canada has noted that additional important skills are team building & priority management. Challenges at the Org-nal Level OB becomes more complex when we move to the org-nal level of analysis. Just as groups are not the sum total of individuals, so org-ns are not the sum total of individuals & groups. There are many more interacting factors that place constraints on individual & group behaviour. workforce diversity The mix of people in org-ns in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, & age, & demographic characteristics such as education & socio-economic status. productivity A performance measure including effectiveness & efficiency. effectiveness The achievement of goals. efficiency The ratio of effective work output to the input required to produce the work org-nal citizenship behaviour (OCB) Discretionary behaviour that is not part of an employee’s formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the org-n. Practices of Successful Org-ns According to professor Jeffery Pfeffer of the Stanford Graduate School of Business, the following practices characterize org-ns that benefit from how they manage their employees: ➔Providing employment security so that employees don’t fear loss of jobs ➔Hiring people who have the right skills & abilities ➔Creating self-managed teams that have decision-making power ➔Paying well, & tying pay to org-nal performance ➔Providing extensive training for skills, knowledge, & initiative ➔Reducing status differences so that all employees feel valued ➔Sharing information about org-nal performance Чп2 perception personality & emotion perception The process by which individuals select, organize, & interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. Why is perception important in the study of O.B.? Simply because people’s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. When an individual (“the perceiver”) looks at something (“the target”) & tries to interpret what he or she sees, that interpretation is heavily influenced by the perceiver’s personal characteristics. Have you ever bought a new car & then suddenly noticed a large number of cars like yours on the road? It’s unlikely that everyone else has suddenly bought the same model. Rather, your own purchase has influenced your perception so that you are now more likely to notice the other cars. Factors That Influence Perception 1 Target • Novelty • Motion • Sounds • Size • Background • Proximity A target’s characteristics can affect what is perceived. Loud people are more likely to be noticed in a group than are quiet ones. So, too, are extremely attractive or unattractive individuals. Novelty, motion, sound, size, & other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. Because targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background influences perception. Objects that are close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than separately. Persons, objects, or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together. The greater the similarity, the greater the probability that we will tend to perceive them as a common group. People who are female, black, or members of any other clearly distinguishable group will tend to be perceived as similar not only in physical terms but in other unrelated characteristics as well. 2The Situation • Time • Work setting • Social setting The context in which we see objects or events is important. Elements in the surrounding environment influence our perceptions. For instance, it might be entirely appropriate to wear shorts & T-shirts in a social setting, but not appropriate in a work setting. Therefore, your interpretation of the same clothes will vary with the context. Similarly, you are more likely to notice your employees goofing off if your manager from head office happens to be in town. Your employees may be acting as they always do, but it is the situation that affects your perception. The time at which an object or event is seen can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors. Thus, it is possible to say that truth is often in the eye of the perceiver, rather than some objective fact. It’s difficult to perceive & interpret what others do. As a result, we develop shortcuts to make this task more manageable. These shortcuts are often very helpful—they allow us to make accurate perceptions quickly & provide valid information for making predictions. attribution theory The theory that when we observe what seems to be atypical behaviour by an individual, we attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. Attribution theory explains how we judge people differently, depending on the cause we attribute to a given behaviour. Basically, the theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behaviour, we try to determine whether the individual is responsible for the behaviour (the cause is internal), or whether something outside the individual caused the behaviour (the cause is external). Whether we realize it or not, we use attribution theory whenever we try to come up with explanations for why people behaved the way they did. In trying to underst& another person’s behaviour, then, we consider whether the behaviour was internally or externally caused. Internally caused behaviour is believed to be under the personal control of the individual; that is, the person chooses to engage in the behaviour. Externally caused behaviour is believed to result from outside causes; that is, the person does not have control over his or her actions & is forced into the behaviour by the situation. Rules for Determining Attribution In trying to determine whether behaviour is internally or externally caused, we rely on three rules about the behaviour: 1 distinctiveness A behavioural rule that asks whether an individual acts similarly across a variety of situations. 2consensus A behavioural rule that asks if everyone faced with a similar situation responds in the same way. 3consistency A behavioural rule that asks whether the individual has been acting in the same way over time. fundamental attribution error The tendency to underestimate theinfluence of external factors &overestimate the influence of internalfactors when making judgmentsabout the behaviour of others. self-serving bias The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors. selective perception People’s selective interpretation of what they see based on their interests, background, experience, & attitudes. Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event st& out will increase the probability that we see that characteristic, rather than the whole package of characteristics. This tendency explains why, as we noted earlier, you are more likely to notice cars like your own. How does selectivity work as a shortcut in judging other people? Since we cannot absorb all that we see, we take in bits & pieces. Those bits & pieces are not chosen r&omly, but are selectively chosen according to our interests, background, experience, & attitudes. halo effect Drawing a general impression of an individual on the basis of a single characteristic This often happens when students evaluate their instructor. Students may give more weight to a single trait, such as enthusiasm, & allow their entire evaluation to be affected by how they judge the instructor on that one trait. Thus, an instructor may be quiet, assured, knowledgeable, & highly qualified, but if his or her presentation style lacks enthusiasm, those students would probably give the instructor a low rating. contrast effects The concept that our reaction to one person is often influenced by other people we have recently encountered Consider what happens when a manager interviews job c&idates from a pool of applicants. The evaluation of a c&idate can be affected by his or her place in the interview schedule. The c&idate is likely to receive a better evaluation if interviewed after a mediocre applicant, & a worse evaluation if interviewed after a strong applicant. projection Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people. Or you are honest & trustworthy, so you take it for granted that other people are equally honest & trustworthy. This tendency for people to attribute their own characteristics to other people—which is called projection—can distort perceptions. stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs. Generalization, of course, is not without advantages. It helps us simplify a complex world, & it permits us to maintain consistency. It is easier to deal with a large number of stimuli if we use stereotypes. The problem, clearly, is when we inaccurately stereotype.19 All university athletes are not necessarily ambitious, hard-working, or good at dealing with adversity, just as all accountants are not necessarily quiet & introspective. Moreover, when we stereotype like this, we run the risk of overlooking highly qualified people who do not meet our stereotypes. prejudice An unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group. Prejudice is an unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group. For instance, an individual may dislike people of a particular religion, or state that she does not want to work with someone of a particular ethnicity. Prejudice can lead to negative consequences in the workplace &, in particular, to discrimination. For instance, an individual of a particular ethnic group might be passed over for a management position because of the belief that employees might not see that person as a good manager. In another instance, an individual in his fifties who is looking for work but cannot find a job may be discriminated against because of the belief that younger workers are more appealing than older workers. Prejudice generally starts with stereotypes & then has negative emotional content added. personality The stable patterns of behaviour & consistent internal states that determine how an individual reacts to & interacts with others. Personality Determinants An early argument in personality research centred on whether an individual’s personality was predetermined at birth, or the result of the individual’s interaction with his or her environment. Clearly, there is no simple answer. Personality appears to be a result of both influences. In addition, today we recognize a third factor—the situation. Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition & reflexes, energy level, & biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or largely influenced by your parents’ biological, physiological, & inherent psychological makeup. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is genetic. Environmental Factors Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are raised; our early conditioning; the norms among our family, friends, & social groups; & other influences that we experience. The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities. Situational Conditions A third factor, the situation, influences the effects of heredity & environment on personality. An individual’s personality, although generally stable & consistent, does change in different situations. More specifically, the dem&s of different situations call forth different aspects of an individual’s personality. Personality Traits Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that tapsfour characteristics & classifiespeople into 1 of 16 personalitytypes.\ These classifications are then combined into 16 personality types. Briefly, personality is classified along the following dimensions: • Extraversion/Introversion (E or I). This dimension refers to how people focus themselves: inside (introversion) or outside (extraversion). • Sensing/Intuiting (S or N). This dimension refers to how people gather information: very systematically (sensing) or relying on intuition (intuiting). • Thinking/Feeling (T or F). This dimension refers to how people prefer to makedecisions: objectively & impersonally (thinking) or subjectively & interpersonally (feeling). Judging/Perceiving (J or P). This dimension refers to how people order their daily lives: being decisive & planned (judging) or spontaneous & flexible (perceiving). The Big Five Model The most widely accepted model of personality is the five-factor model of personality extraversion A personality factor that describes the degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, & assertive. agreeableness A personality factor that describes the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, & trusting. conscientiousness A personality factor that describes the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, & achievement- oriented. emotional stability A personality factor that describes the degree to which someone is calm, self-confident, & secure. openness to experience A personality factor that describes the degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, & intellectual. Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB In this section, we will evaluate specific personality attributes that have been found to be powerful predictors of behaviour in org-ns. Locus of Control internals Individuals who believe that they control their destinies.\ externals Individuals who believe that their lives are controlled by outside forces, such as luck or chance. locus of control The degree to which people believe they are in control of their own fates. Machiavellianism machiavellianismThe degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, & believes that ends can justify means. The Effects of Locus of Control on Performance Conditions Performance Information Processing The work requires complex information processing & complex Internals perform better. learning. The work is quite simple & easy to learn. Internals perform no better than externals. Initiative The work requires initiative & independent action . Internals perform better. The work requires compliance & conformity . Externals perform better. Motivation The work requires high motivation & provides valued rewards Internals perform better. in return for greater effort; it offers incentive pay for greater productivity. The work does not require great effort & contingent rewards Externals perform at least as well as internals. are lacking; hourly pay rates are determined by collective bargaining. Self-Esteem self-esteemThe degree to which individuals like or dislike themselves. The most generalizable finding on self-esteem is that low SEs are more easily influenced by external factors than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of. positive evaluations from others. As a result, they are more likely than high SEs to seek approval from others & more prone to conform to the beliefs & behaviours of those they respect. In managerial positions, low SEs tend to be concerned with pleasing others &, therefore, are less likely to take unpopular st&s than are high SEs. Not surprisingly, self-esteem has also been found to be related to job satisfaction. Self-Monitoring self-monitoringA personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable ability to adjust & adapt their behaviour to the situations they are in. They are highly sensitive to external cues & can behave differently in different situations. High self-monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public personae & their private selves. Low self-monitors cannot disguise themselves in the same way. They tend to display their true dispositions & attitudes in every situation; hence, there is high behavioural consistency between who they are & what they do. Br&en’s Six Pillars of Self-Esteem 1. Living consciously: Be aware of everything that affects your values & goals, & act with awareness. 2. Self-acceptance: Accept who you are without criticism & judgment. 3. Personal responsibility: Take responsibility for the decisions you make & the things you do. 4. Self-assertiveness: Honour your wants, needs, & values, & don't be afraid to speak up for things that are important to you. 5. Living purposefully: Develop short- & long-term goals, & make realistic plans to achieve your goals. 6. Personal integrity: Live up to your word & your values. Risk-Taking risk-takingA person’s willingness to take chances or risks Type A & Type B Personalities Type A personality A personality with aggressive involvement in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more & more in less & less time &, if necessary, against the opposing efforts of other things or other people. Type As • Are always moving, walking, & eating rapidly • Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place • Strive to think or do two or more things at once • Cannot cope with leisure time • Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire Type B, who is exactly the opposite. Type Bs are “rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever-decreasing amount of time Type Bs • Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience • Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is dem&ed by the situation • Play for fun & relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost • Can relax without guilt Proactive Personality A person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, & perseveres until meaningful change occurs. For example, proactives are more likely to challenge the status quo or voice their displeasure when situations are not to their liking.70 If an org-n requires people with entrepreneurial initiative, proactives make good c&idates; however, these are people that are also more likely to leave an org-n to start their own business 3 The Perceiver • Attitudes • Motives • Interests • Experience • Expectations EMOTION emotions Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. moods Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions & that lack a contextual stimulus Choosing Emotions: Emotional Labour emotional labourWhen an employee expresses org-nally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions. The concept of emotional labour originally developed in relation to service jobs. Flight attendants, for instance, are expected to be cheerful, funeral counsellors sad, & doctors emotionally neutral. Studies of emotional labour have explored how smiling flight attendants, cheerful grocery clerks, gossipy hairdressers, & nasty bill collectors are expected to control their emotional expression to improve productivity, customer satisfaction, efficiency, & even profitability.84 But today, the concept of emotional labour seems relevant to almost every job Why Should We Care About Emotions in the Workplace? emotional intelligence An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, & competencies that influence a person’s ability to succeed in coping with environmental dem&s & pressures. It’s composed of five dimensions: • Self-awareness. Being aware of what you are feeling. It is exhibited by self-confidence, realistic self-assessment, & a self-deprecating sense of humour. • Self-management. The ability to manage your own emotions & impulses. It is exhibited by trustworthiness & integrity, comfort with ambiguity, & openness to change. • Self-motivation. The ability to persist in the face of setbacks & failures. It is exhibited by a strong drive to achieve, optimism, & high org-nal commitment. • Empathy. The ability to sense how others are feeling. It is exhibited by expertise in building & retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity, & service to clients & customers. • Social skills. The ability to h&le the emotions of others. It is exhibited by persuasiveness, & expertise in building & leading groups & teams. Negative Workplace Emotions employee deviance Voluntary actions that violate established norms & threaten the org-n, its members, or both. CHAPTER 3 Values, Attitudes,& Their Effects in the Workplace values Concepts or beliefs that guide how we make decisions about & evaluations of behaviours & events Rokeach Value Survey terminal values Goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetimes. These are the goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime, such as a comfortable life, or happiness instrumental values Preferable ways of behaving refers to preferable ways of behaving, such as being courageous or helpful. Terminal Values Instrumental Values A comfortable life (a prosperous life) Ambitious (hard-working, aspiring) An exciting life (a stimulating, active life) Broad-minded (open-minded) A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) Capable (competent, effective) A world at peace (free of war & conflict) Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful) A world of beauty (beauty of nature & the arts) Clean (neat, tidy) The Magnificent Seven Principles ➔Dignity of human life. The lives of people are to be respected. ➔Autonomy. All persons are intrinsically valuable & have the right to self-determination. ➔Honesty. The truth should be told to those who have a right to know it. ➔Loyalty. Promises, contracts, & commitments should be honoured. ➔Fairness. People should be treated justly. ➔Humaneness. Our actions ought to accomplish good, & we should avoid doing evil. ➔The common good. Actions should accomplish the greatest good for the greatest number ofpeople. Ethical Values ethics The study of moral values or principles that guide our behavior & inform us whether actions are right or wrong. The GLOBE dimensions are defined as follows: • Assertiveness. The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, confrontational, assertive, & competitive vs. modest & tender. Future orientation. The extent to which a society encourages & rewards future-oriented behaviours such as planning, investing in the future, & delaying gratification. This is essentially equivalent to Hofstede’slongterm/ short-term orientation. • Gender differentiation. The extent to which a society maximizes gender role differences. This is essentially equivalent to Hofstede’s masculinity/femininity dimension. • Uncertainty avoidance. As identified by Hofstede, the GLOBE team defined this term as a society’s reliance on social norms & procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events. • Power distance. As did Hofstede, the GLOBE team defined this as the extent to which members of a society expect power to be shared unequall . • Individualism/collectivism. Again, this term was defined, as was Hofstede’s, as the extent to which individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be integrated into groups within org-ns & society. • In-group collectivism. In contrast to focusing on societal institutions, this dimension encompasses the extent to which members of a society take pride in membership in small groups, such as their families & circles of close friends, & the org-ns in which they are employed. • Performance orientation. The extent to which a society encourages & rewards group members for performance improvement & excellence. • Humane orientation. The extent to which a society encourages & rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, & kind to others. This closely approximates Hofstede’s quality-of-life dimension. Generational Differences The Elders These individuals are characterized as “playing by the rules,” & their core values are belief in order, authority, discipline, the Judeo-Christian moral code, & the Golden Rule (do unto others as you would have others do unto you). About 80 percent of the Elders resemble this description of traditional values, although there are variations within that 80 percent in the strength of fit. Baby Boomers The view of Baby Boomers as a somewhat spoiled, hedonistic, rebellious group belies the four categories of Boomers: autonomous rebels (25 percent), anxious communitarians (20 percent), connected enthusiasts (14 percent), & disengaged Darwinists (41 percent). Generation X Although this group is quite fragmented in its values, research shows that the common values are experienceseeking, adaptability, & concern with personal image among peers. Despite these common values, Generation Xers can be divided into five tribes. Thrill-seeking materialists (25 percent) desire money & material possessions, as well as recognition, respect, & admiration. Aimless dependants (27 percent) seek financial independence, security, & stability. Social hedonists (15 percent) are experience-seeking, committed to their own pleasure, & seek immediate gratification. New Aquarians (13 percent) are experience-seeking, & also egalitarian & ecologically minded. Finally, autonomous post-materialists (20 percent) seek personal autonomy & self-fulfillment, & are concerned about human rights. The Ne(x)t Generation Since Adams’ book appeared, another generation has been identified. Labelled the Net Generation,50 millennials,51 Generation Y, or the Echo Boomers, this generation, born between 1977 & 1997, consists of “creators, not recipients. & they are curious, contrarian, flexible, collaborative & high in self-esteem.”52 This generation is defined by its ease with technology, having grown up with cellphones, text messaging, & Internet access (hence the name “Net”). They are team players & optimists with a desire for order. Attitudes are positive or negative feelings about objects, people, or events. When I say “I like my job,” I am expressing my attitude to work. Attitudes are thus judgment responses to situations The term job satisfaction refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. A person with a high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes toward the job. Job Satisfaction & Individual Productivity The relationship between job satisfaction & productivity is stronger when the employee’s behaviour is not controlled by outside factors. An employee’s productivity on machine-paced jobs, for instance, will be much more influenced by the speed of the machine than by his or her level of satisfaction. The evidence also shows that the satisfaction-productivity correlation is stronger for higher-level employees. Thus, we might expect the relationship to be more relevant for individuals in professional, supervisory, & managerial positions. There is another complication in the satisfaction-productivity link. Some studies have found that productivity leads to satisfaction rather than the other way around.60 In other words, an employee who does a good job feels good about it. Additionally, assuming that the org-n rewards productivity, higher productivity should increase verbal recognition, pay level, & probabilities for promotion. perceived org-nal support The degree to which employees believethat the employer values their contribution to the org-n & cares about employee well-being. org-nal citizenship behaviour (OCB) Discretionarybehaviour that is not part of anemployee’s formal job requirements,but that nevertheless promotesthe effective functioning of theorg-n Job Satisfaction & Org-nal Productivity The link between job satisfaction & productivity is much stronger when we look not at individuals, but at the org-n as a whole.62 When satisfaction & productivity data are gathered for the org-n as a whole, rather than at the individual level, we find that org-ns with more-satisfied employees tend to be more effective than org-ns with less-satisfied employees. Job Satisfaction & Customer Satisfaction In service org-ns, customer retention & defection are highly dependent on how front-line employees deal with customers. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly, upbeat, & responsive—which customers appreciate. Because satisfied employees are less prone to turnover, customers are more likely to encounter familiar faces & receive experienced service. These qualities build customer satisfaction & loyalty. In addition, the relationship seems to apply in reverse: Dissatisfied customers can increase an employee’s job dissatisfaction. Employees who have regular contact with customers report that rude, thoughtless, or unreasonably dem&ing customers adversely affect the employees’ job satisfaction How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction The evidence suggests that employees express dissatisfaction in a number of ways.81 For example, rather than quit, employees can complain, be insubordinate, steal org-nal property, or avoid some of their work responsibilities Exit. Actively attempting to leave the org-n, including looking for a new position as well as resigning. This is a destructive action from the point of view of the org-n. • Voice. Actively & constructively trying to improve conditions, including suggesting improvements, discussing problems with superiors, & some forms of union activity. • Loyalty. Passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including speaking up for the org-n in the face of external criticism & trusting the org-n & its management to do the right thing. • Neglect. Passively allowing conditions to worsen, including chronic absenteeism or lateness, reduced effort, & increased error rate. Org-nal Commitment org-nal commitment A state in which an employee identifieswith a particular org-n& its goals, & wishes to maintain membership in the org-n.\ three types of commitment:85 • Affective commitment. An individual’s relationship to the org-n: his or her emotional attachment to, identification with, & involvement in the org-n. • Normative commitment. The obligation an individual feels to staying with the org-n. • Continuance commitment. An individual’s calculation that it is in his or her best interest to stay with the org-n based on the perceived costs of leaving the org-n. People in highly paid jobs & union members with good benefits may exhibit continuance commitment because of the rewards received from the job, rather than their preference for the job itself How can companies increase org-nal commitment? Research on a number of companies known for employees with high org-nal commitment identified five reasons why employees commit themselves:90 • They are proud of [the company’s] aspirations, accomplishments, & legacy; they share its values. • They know what each person is expected to do, how performance is measured, & why it matters. • They are in control of their own destinies; they savour the high-risk, highreward work environment. • They are recognized mostly for the quality of their individual performance. • They have fun & enjoy the supportive & highly interactive environment. CHAPTER 4 Motivating Self & Others Motivation The internal & external forces that lead an individual to work toward a goal. Theory X The assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt to avoid it, & must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Theory Y The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, & will exercise self-direction & self-control if they are committed to the objectives. intrinsic motivators A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, & personal satisfaction. extrinsic motivators Motivation that comes from outside the person & includes such things as pay, bonuses, & other tangible rewards NEEDS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory He hypothesized that every human being has a hierarchy of five needs: • Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, & other bodily needs. • Safety. Includes security & protection from physical & emotional harm. • Social. Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, & friendship. • Esteem. Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, & achievement; & external esteem factors such as status, recognition, & attention. • Self-actualization. Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, & self-fulfillfulment. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming. ERG theory A revised-need hierarchy theory that emphasizes the core needs of existence, relatedness, & growth Alderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs—existence, relatedness, & growth—hence, the name: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with our basi material existence requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological & safety needs. The relatedness group is concerned with our desire for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. These social & status desires require interaction with others if they are to be satisfied, & they align with Maslow’s social need & the external component of Maslow’s esteem need. Finally, the growth group is concerned with our intrinsic desire for personal development. This group includes the intrinsic component of Maslow’s esteem need & the characteristics included under self-actualization. McClell&’s theory of needs was developed by David McClell& & his associates to help explain motivation.15 The theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, & affiliation. They are defined as follows: • Need for achievement. The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of st&ards, to strive to succeed. • Need for power. The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. • Need for affiliation. The desire for friendly & close interpersonal relationships. Some people have a compelling drive to succeed. They are striving for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success per se. They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before. This drive is the achievement need (nAch). From research into the achievement need, McClell& found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better.16 The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have impact, to be influential, & to control others. Individuals high in nPow enjoy being “in charge,” strive for influence over others, prefer to be placed in competitive & status-oriented situations, & tend to be more concerned with prestige & gaining influence over others than with effective performance. The third need isolated by McClell& is affiliation (nAff). This need has received the least attention from researchers. Individuals with a high affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, & desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual underst&ing Motivation-Hygiene Theory The motivation-hygiene theory was proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg.19 Herzberg investigated the question “What do people want from their jobs?” in an effort to determine what might lead to a person’s success or failure at work. He found that intrinsic factors—such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, & growth—seem to be related to job satisfaction. Herzberg also found that there were characteristics that led to job dissatisfaction. The factors that caused dissatisfaction were extrinsic—such as company policy & administration, supervision, interpersonal relations, & working conditions. Herzberg’s research led him to conclude that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed. Expectancy Theory expectancy theory The theory that individuals are motivated based upon their evaluation of whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome, & whether that outcome is attractive to them. Currently, one of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation is Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory.22 From a practical perspective, expectancy theory says that an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he or she believes the following: • That the effort will lead to good performance • That good performance will lead to org-nal rewards, such as a bonus, a salary increase, or a promotion • That the rewards will satisfy his or her personal goals • The theory, therefore, focuses on the three relationships (expectancy, instrumentality, & valence) illustrated in Exhibit 4-5 on page 115 & described below. This exhibit also provides an example of how you might apply the theory. Effort-Performance Relationship The effort-performance relationship is commonly called expectancy. It refers to the individual’s perception of how probable it is that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to good performance. For example, employees are sometimes asked to perform tasks for which they do not have suitable skills or training. When that is the case, they will be less motivated to try hard, because they already believe that they will not be able to accomplish what they are being asked to do. Expectancy can be expressed as a probability, & ranges from 0 to 1 expectancy The belief that effort is related to performance. In general, an employee’s expectancy is influenced by the following: • Self-esteem • Previous success • Help from supervisors & subordinates • Information • Proper materials & equipment Performance-Rewards Relationship instrumentality The belief that performance is related to rewards. Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship valence The value or importance an individual places on a reward. How Does Expectancy Theory Work My professor offers me $1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morningExpectancy Effort Performance Link E = 0 No matter how much effort I put in, probably not possible to memorize the text in 24 hours. Instrumentality Performance Rewards Link I = 0 My professor does not look like someone who has $1 million. Valence Rewards Personal Goals Link V = 1 There are a lot of wonderful things I could do with $1 million Goal-Setting Theory goal What an individual is trying to accomplish How Does Goal Setting Motivate? According to Locke, goal setting motivates in four ways • Goals direct attention. Goals indicate where individuals should direct their efforts when they are choosing among things to do. For instance, recognizing that an important assignment is due in a few days, goal setting may encourage you to say no when friends invite you to a movie this evening. • Goals regulate effort. Goals suggest how much effort an individual should put into a given task. For instance, if earning a high mark in accounting is more important to you than earning a high mark in O.B.(OB), you will likely put more effort into studying accounting Goals increase persistence. Persistence represents the effort spent on a task over time. When people keep goals in mind, they will work hard on them, even in the face of obstacles. • Goals encourage the development of strategies & action plans. Once goals are set, individuals can develop plans for achieving those goals. For instance, a goal to become more fit may include plans to join a gym, workout with friends, & change eating habits. In order for goals to be effective, they should be “SMART.” SMART st&s for • Specific: Individuals know exactly what is to be achieved. • Measurable: The goals proposed can be tracked & reviewed. • Attainable: The goals, even if difficult, are reasonable & achievable. • Results-oriented: The goals should support the vision of the org-n. • Time-bound: The goals are to be achieved within a stated time. Contingency Factors in Goal Setting self-efficacy An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. So, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether, while those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master the challenge.37 In addition, individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort & motivation, whereas those low in self-efficacy are likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback Equity Theory equity theory Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes with those of others & then respond so as to eliminate any inequities. Equity theory suggests that employees compare their job inputs (i.e., effort, experience, education, competence, creativity) & outcomes (i.e., salary levels, raises, recognition, challenging assignments, working conditions) with those of others. We perceive what we get from a job situation (the outcomes mentioned above) in relation to what we put into it (the inputs mentioned above), & then we compare our outcome-input ratio with the outcome-input ratio of relevant others. When individuals feel that they have been treated inequitably, they generally act to reduce that inequity. Based on equity theory, they can be predicted to make one of six choices, with some of them being more negative to the org-n than others. Change their inputs (for example, Casey Printers could have decided to exert less effort playing quarterback). • Change their outcomes (for example, Printers could have tried to renegotiate his contract to get himself a higher salary). • Adjust perceptions of self (for example, Printers could have thought, “I’ve only been in the Canadian Football League for two years. Maybe I don’t really have the same experience as the other guys”). • Adjust perceptions of others (for example, Printers could have thought, “Anthony Cavillo of the Alouettes has been a quarterback for a lot longer, & maybe he deserves greater pay”). • Choose a different referent (for example, Printers could have considered what other quarterbacks who have been in the league for only two years receive). • Leave the field (for example, Printers could hope that he would be picked up by another team at the end of the season, which in fact is what happened when he decided to leave the BC Lions for the Kansas City Chiefs in 2006). Fair Process & Treatment distributive justice The perceived fairness of the amount & allocation of rewards among individuals. procedural justice The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. interactional justice The quality of the interpersonal treatment received from a manager. cognitive evaluation theory Offering extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) for work effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person’s motivation Increasing Intrinsic Motivation He identifies four key rewards that increase an individual’s intrinsic motivation: • Sense of choice. The opportunity to select what one will do, & perform the way one thinks best. Individuals can use their own judgment to carry out the task. • Sense of competence. The feeling of accomplishment for doing a good job. People are more likely to feel a sense of accomplishment when they carry out challenging tasks. • Sense of meaningfulness. The opportunity to pursue worthwhile tasks. Individuals feel good about what they are doing, & believe that what they are doing matters. • Sense of progress. The feeling of accomplishment that one is making progress on a task, & that it is moving forward. Individuals feel that they are spending their time wisely in doing their jobs. Thomas also identified four sets of behaviours managers can use to create intrinsicrewards for their employees: • Leading for choice. Empowering employees & delegating tasks • Leading for competence. Supporting & coaching employees • Leading for meaningfulness. Inspiring employees & modelling desired behaviours • Leading for progress. Monitoring & rewarding employees Employee Recognition: Showing People That They Matter Employee recognition programs cover a wide spectrum of activities. They range from a spontaneous & private “thank you” on up to widely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behaviour are encouraged & the procedures for attaining recognition are clearly identified. Variable-Pay Programs: Improving Productivity variable-pay programs Reward programs in which a portion of an employee’s pay is based on some individual &/or org-nal measure of performance Individual-Based Incentives piece-rate pay plan An individual-based incentive plan in which employees are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. Bonuses Bonuses are becoming an increasingly popular form of individual incentive in Canada Group-Based Incentives GainsharingThe variable-pay program that has received the most attention in recent years is undoubtedly gainsharing. gainsharingA group-based incentive plan in which improvements in group productivity determine the total amount of money to be shared. Gainsharing focuses on productivity gains rather than profits, & so it rewards specific behaviours that are less influenced by external factors. Employees in a gainsharing plan can receive incentive awards even when the org-n is not profitable. Org-nal-Based Incentives There are two major forms of org-nal-based pay-for-performance programs: profit-sharing & stock option plans, including employee stock ownership plans. profit-sharing plan An org-n- wide plan in which the employer shares profits with employees based on a predetermined formula. Be aware that profit-sharing plans focus on past financial results. They don’t necessarily focus employees on the future, because employees & managers look for ways to cut costs today, without considering longer-term org-nal needs. They also tend to ignore factors such as customer service & employee development, which may not be seen as directly linked to profits. In addition, employees who work in companies in cyclical industries would see inconsistent rewards in such a plan. Stock Options & Employee Stock Ownership Plans employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) A company-establishedbenefit plan in which employeesacquire stock as part of their benefits Stock options give employees the right to buy stocks in the company at a later date for a guaranteed price. Linking Productivity-Related Incentives to Motivation Theories Variable pay is probably most compatible with expectancy theory predictions. Specifically, under these plans, individuals should perceive a strong relationship between their performance & the rewards they receive, & thus be more motivated. They should also be more productive. Motivating Beyond Productivity In recent years, org-ns have been paying for performance on bases other than strict productivity. Compensation experts Patricia Zingheim & Jay Schuster note the following activities that merit additional compensation:103 • Commissions beyond sales. Commissions might be determined by customer satisfaction &/or sales team outcomes, such as meeting revenue or profit targets. • Leadership effectiveness. Rewards can be determined by employee satisfaction or measures of how the manager h&les his or her employees. • New goals. Rewards go to all employees who contribute to specific org-nal goals, such as customer satisfaction, cycle time, or quality measures. • Knowledge workers in teams. Rewards are linked to the performance of knowledge workers &/or professional employees who work on teams. • Competency &/or skills. Rewards are based on employees’ abstract knowledge or competencies—for example, knowledge of technology, the international business context, customer service, or social skills. skill-based pay Pay based on how many skills an employee has or how many jobs he or she can do. Designing Motivating Jobs job characteristics model (JCM) A model that identifies five core jobdimensions & their relationship topersonal & work outcomes. job enrichment The vertical expansion of jobs Core Job Dimensions According to the JCM, any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: • Skill variety. The degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities so the employee can use a number of different skills & talents. • Task identity. The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole & identifiable piece of work. • Task significance. The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. • Autonomy. The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, & discretion to the individual in scheduling the work & determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Feedback. The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual’s obtaining direct & clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. Critical Psychological States Experienced meaningfulness. The model predicts that if an employee’s task is meaningful, the employee will view the job as important, valuable, & worthwhile. (Notice how in Exhibit 4-13 skill variety, task identity, & task significance combine to create meaningful work.) • Experienced responsibility for outcomes. Employees feel a sense of personal responsibility for results when their jobs give them greater autonomy. • Knowledge of the actual results. Feedback helps employees know whether they are performing effectively. The feedback can come from managers, clients, coworkers, or the nature of the task itself. Beware the Signals That Rewards Send Research suggests that there are three major obstacles to ending these follies:113 • Individuals are unable to break out of old ways of thinking about reward & recognition practices. This approach is demonstrated when management emphasizesquantifiable behaviours, to the exclusion of nonquantifiablebehaviours;when management is reluctant to change the existing performance system;& when employees have an entitlement mentality (i.e., they don’t supportchanging the reward system because they are comfortable with the currentbehaviours that are rewarded). • Org-ns often do not look at the big picture of their performance system. Thus, rewards are allocated at subunit levels, with the result that units often compete against each other. • Both management & shareholders often focus on short-term results. They don’t reward employees for longer-range planning. Caveat Emptor: Motivation Theories Are Culture-Bound Why do our motivation theories perform less well when we look at their use in countries beyond Canada & the United States? Most current motivation theories were developed in the United States & so take US cultural norms for granted.115 That may account for why Canada & the United States, which have more individualistic cultures, rely more heavily on extrinsic motivating factors than some other countries Creating a Motivating Work Environment Based on his research & consulting experience, Kohn proposes actions that org-ns can take to create a motivating work environment.123 Abolish Incentive Pay Paying people generously & fairly makes sure they don’t feel exploited, & takes pay off their minds. As a result, employees will be more able to focus on the goals of the org-n rather than have their paycheques as their main goal. Re-evaluate Evaluation Instead of making performance appraisals look & feel like a punitive effort—who gets raises, who gets promoted, who is told he or she is performing poorly—the performance evaluation system might be structured more like a two way conversation to trade ideas & questions, done continuously, not as a competition. The discussion of performance should not be tied to compensation Create the Conditions for Authentic Motivation A noted economist recently summarized the evidence about pay for productivity as follows: “Changing the way workers are treated may boost productivity more than changing the way they are paid.”125 There is some consensus about what the conditions for creating authentic motivation might be: helping employees rather than putting them under surveillance; listening to employee concerns & thinking about problems from their viewpoint; & providing plenty of feedback so they know what they have done right & what they need to improve.126 Support Collaboration People are more likely to perform better in well-functioning groups where they can get feedback & learn from each other.127 Therefore, it is important to provide the necessary supports to create well-functioning teams. Pay Attention to Content People are generally the most motivated when their jobs give them an opportunity to learn new skills, provide variety in the tasks that are performed, & enable them to demonstrate competence. Some of this can be fostered by carefully matching people to their jobs & by giving them the opportunity to try new jobs. It is also possible to increase the meaningfulness of many jobs. Provide Choice “We are most likely to become enthusiastic about what we are doing—& all else being equal, to do it well—when we are free to make decisions about the way we carry out a task.”130 Extrinsic rewards (& punishments too) actually remove choice, because they focus us on rewards, rather than on tasks or goals. Putting It All Together While it is always dangerous to synthesize a large number of complex ideas into a few simple guidelines, the following suggestions summarize the essence of what we know about motivating employees in org-ns: • Recognize individual differences. Employees have different needs & should not be treated alike. Managers should spend the time necessary to underst& what is important to each employee & then align goals, level of involvement, & rewards with individual needs. Use goals & feedback. Employees should have hard, specific goals, as well as feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals. • Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them. Employees can contribute to a number of decisions that affect them: setting work goals, choosing their own benefits packages, solving productivity & quality problems, & the like. This can increase employee productivity, commitment to work goals, motivation, & job satisfaction. • When giving rewards, be sure that they are clearly related to the performance desired. It is important that employees perceive a clear link between rewards& the type of performance expected. How closely rewards are actually correlatedto performance criteria is less important than the perception of thisrelationship. If individuals perceive that there is little relation between theperformance desired & the rewards they receive, the results will be lowperformance, a decrease in job satisfaction, & an increase in turnover &absenteeism. • Check the system for equity. Employees should be able to perceive rewards as matching the inputs they bring to the job. At a simplistic level, this means that experience, skills, abilities, effort, & other obvious inputs should explain differences in performance &, hence, pay, job assignments, & other obvious Ch 5 Working in Teams 1 What are teams & groups? Group- Two or more people with a common relationship. Team - A small number of people who work closely together toward a common objective & are account- able to one another. Groups become teams when they meet the following conditions: • Team members share leadership. • Both individuals & the team as a whole share accountability for the work of the team. • The team develops its own purpose or mission. • The team works on problem solving continuously, rather than just at scheduled meeting times. • The team’s measure of effectiveness is the team’s outcomes & goals, not individual outcomes & goals. 2 Does everyone use teams? Many employees are asked to work in teams in order to accomplish their tasks. In a self-man-aged work team, such as the one from Xerox shown here, members make decisions about how to manage & schedule production, & also monitor the quality of their output. The 5-Stage Model Forming The 1st stage in group development, characterized by much uncertainty. Storming The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict. Norming The 3rd stage in group development, characterized by close relationships & cohesiveness. Performing The 4th stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. Adjourning The final stage, where attention is directed toward wrapping up activities rather than task performance The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to follow the previous model. Studies indicate that temporary groups with deadlines have their own unique sequence of action • The 1st meeting sets the group’s direction. • The 1st phase of group activity is one of inertia. • A transition takes place at the end of the 1st phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. • The transition initiates major changes. • A second phase of inertia follows the transition. • The group’s last meeting is characterized by high levels of productive activity. Characteristics of an Effective Team 1. Clear purpose The vision, mission, goal, or task of the team has been defined & is now accepted by everyone. There is an action plan. 2. Informality The climate tends to be informal, comfortable, & relaxed. There are no obvious tensions or signs of boredom. 3. Participation There is much discussion, & everyone is encouraged to participate. 4. Listening The members use effective listening techniques such as questioning, paraphrasing, & summarizing to get out ideas. 5. Civilized There is disagreement, but the team is comfortable with this & shows no signs of avoiding, disagreement smoothing over, or suppressing conflict. 6. Consensus For important decisions, the goal is substantial but not necessarily unanimous agreement decisions through open discussion of everyone’s ideas, avoidance of formal voting, or easy compromises. 7. Open Team members feel free to express their feelings on the tasks as well as on the group’s operation. communication There are few hidden agendas. Communication takes place outside meetings. 8. Clear rules & There are clear expectations about the roles played by each team member. When action is work assignments taken, clear assignments are made, accepted, & carried out. Work is distributed among team members. 9. Shared leadership While the team has a formal leader, leadership functions shift from time to time depending on the circumstances, the needs of the group, & the skills of the members. The formal leader models the appropriate behaviour& helps establish positive norms. 10. External relations The team spends time developing key outside relationships, mobilizing resources, & building credibility with important players in other parts of the org-n. 11. Style diversity The team has a broad spectrum of team-player types including members who emphasize attention to task, goal setting, focus on process, & questions about how the team is functioning. 12. Self-assessment Periodically, the team stops to examine how well it is functioning & what may be interfering with its effectiveness. Harming Ur Team ➔ Refuse to share issues & concerns. Team members refuse to share information & engage in silence, avoidance, & meetings behind closed doors where not all members are included. ➔ Depend too much on the leader. Members rely too much on the leader & do not carry out their responsibilities. ➔ Fail to follow through on decisions. Teams do not take action after decision making, showing that the needs of the team have low priority, or members are not committed to the decisions that were made. ➔ Hide conflict. Team members do not reveal that they have a difference of opinion & this causes tension. ➔ Fail at conflict resolution. Infighting, put-downs, & attempts to hurt other members damage the team. ➔ Form subgroups. The team breaks up into smaller groups that put their needs ahead of the team as a whole. Adequate Resources All work teams rely on resources outside the team to sustainthem. A scarcity of resources directly reduces the ability of ateam to perform its job effectively. As one set of researchersconcluded, after looking at 13 factors potentially related toteam performance, “perhaps one of the most important characteristics of an effective work group is the support the groupreceives from the org-n.” This includes technology,adequate staffing, administrative assistance, encouragement,& timely information.Teams must receive the necessary support from mngnt& the larger org-n toachieving their goals. Leadership & Structure • Creating a real team rather than a team in name only • Setting a clear & meaningful direction for the team’s work • Making sure that the team structure will support its working effectively • Ensuring that the team operates within a supportive org-nal context • Providing expert coaching Building Trust The following actions, in order of importance, help build one’s trustworthiness. ➔ Integrity—built through honesty & truthfulness. ➔ Competence—demonstrated by technical & interpersonal knowledge & skills. ➔ Consistency—shown by reliability, predictability, & good judgment in h&ling situations. ➔ Loyalty—one’s willingness to protect &st& up for another person. ➔ Openness—one’s willingness to share ideas & information freely. Skills To perform effectively, a team requires three different types of skills: 1. It needs people with technical expertise. 2. It needs people with the problem-solving & decision-making skills to be able to identify problems, generate alternatives, evaluate those alternatives, & make competent choices. 3. It needs people with good listening, feedback, conflict resolution, & other interpersonal skills. Personality - Teams have different needs, & people should be selected for the team on the basis of their personalities & preferences, as well as the team’s needs for diversity & specific roles. individual rolesRoles performed by group members that are not productive for keeping the team on task. role expectations How others believe a person should act in a given situation. role conflict A situation in which an individual finds that complying with one role requirement may make it more difficult to comply with another. role A set of expected behaviours of a person in a given position in a social unit. task-oriented roles Roles performed by group members to ensure that the tasks of the group are carried out. maintenance rolesRoles performed by group members to maintain good relations within the group. group diversity The heterogeneous mix of individuals within a group. Size - Generally speaking, the most effective teams have fewer than 10 members. & experts suggest using the smallest number of people who can do the task. social loafing The tendency o individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. cohesiveness The degree to which team members are attracted to one another & are motivated to stay on the team. Creating a Team Charter When U form a new team, U may want to develop a team charter, so that everyone agrees on the basic norms for group performance. Consider including answers to the following in Ur charter: ➔ What are team members’ names & contact information (phone, email)? ➔ How will communication among team members take place (phone, email)? ➔ What will the team ground rules be (where & when to meet, attendance expectations, workload expectations)? ➔ How will decisions be made (consensus, majority vote, leader rules)? ➔ What potential conflicts may arise within the team? Among team members? ➔ How will conflicts be resolved by the group? Increasing Group Cohesiveness Increasing socio-emotional cohesiveness ➔ Keep the group relatively small. ➔ Strive for a favourable public image to increase the status & prestige of belonging. ➔ Encourage interaction & cooperation. ➔ Emphasize members’ common characteristics & interests. ➔ Point out environmental threats (e.g., competitors’ achievements) to rally the group. Increasing instrumental cohesiveness ➔ Regularly update & clarify the group’s goal(s). ➔ Give every group member a vital “piece of the action.” ➔ Channel each group member’s special talents toward the common goal(s). ➔ Recognize & equitably reinforce every mem- ber’s contributions. ➔ Frequently remind group members they need one another to get the job done. Reducing Team Conflict ➔ Work with more, rather than less, information & debate on the basis of facts. ➔ Develop multiple alternatives to enrich the leve of debate. ➔ Develop commonly agreed-upon goals. ➔ Use humour when making tough decisions. ➔ Maintain a balanced power structure. ➔ Resolve issues without forcing consensus. virtual teamsTeams that seldom interact face-to-face & use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. Managing Virtual Teams - Establishing trust & commitment, encouraging communication, & assessing team members pose tremendous challenges for virtual team managers. Here are a few tips to make the process easier: ➔ Establish regular times for group interaction. ➔ Set up firm rules for communication. ➔ Use visual forms of communication where possible. ➔ Copy the good points of on-site teams. For example, allow time for informal chitchat & socializing, & celebrate achievements. ➔ Give & receive feedback & offer assistance on a regular basis. Be persistent with people who are not communicating with U or each other. ➔ Agree on st&ard technology so all team members can work together easily. ➔ Consider using 360-degree feedback to better underst&& evaluate team members. This typeof feedback comes from the full circle of daily contacts that an employee might have, including supervisors, peers, subordinates, & clients. ➔ Provide a virtual workspace via an intranet, website, or bulletin board. ➔ Note which employees effectively use email to build team rapport. ➔ Smooth the way for the next assignment if membership on the team, or the team itself, is not permanent. ➔ Be available to employees, but don’t wait for them to seek U out. ➔ Encourage informal, off-line conversation b/n team members. Communication, Conflict & Negotiation communication- The transfer & underst&ing of a message between two or more people Communication The transfer of meaning among people Sender Establishes a message, encodes the message, & chooses the channel to send it Receiver Decodes the message & provides feedback to the sender Communication Process Model 1 Chooses a message=>2 Encodes the messege=>3 Chooses the channel=>receiver=>4 Decodes the message=> 5 provides feedback => sender
Choosing Channels: The medium through which a message travels
Information Richness of Communication Channels Assertive Accommodating Avoiding Uncooperative Compromising Cooperativeness Face-to-face conversations Formal reports, bulletins Low channel richness High channel richness Prerecorded speeches Online discussion groups, groupware Live speeches Videoconferences Memos, letters Electronic mail Voice mail Telephone conversations Face-to-face conversation
Communication Barriers Between Men & Women:
Cross-Cultural Communication Difficulties:
Helpful Rules:
Tips For Writing & Sending E-mail
Conflict
cognitive conflict - Conflict that is task-oriented & related to differences in perspectives & judgments. affective conflict- Conflict that is emotional & aimed at a person rather than an issue
Conflict-h&ling Intentions : Competing, Collaborating, Compromising, Avoiding,Accommodating=>Behaviour => Outcomes: Functional increased performance, Dysfunctional decreased group performance. Conflict h&ling intentions.
Dimensions of Conflict-H&ling Intentions Cooperativeness Compromising Uncooperative Avoiding Competing Cooperative Accommodating Collaborating Assertiveness Unassertive Assertive Annihilator conflict Overt efforts to destroy the other party Aggressive physical attacks Threats & ultimatums Assertive verbal attacks Overt questioning or challenging of others Minor disagreements or misunderst&ings No conflict Conflict Outcomes.
Types of Conflict:
Dysfunctional conflict Negotiation - A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services & attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them
For instance, the reason that you might want a six-figure salary is that you are trying to buy a house in Vancouver, & that is your only hope of being able to make mortgage payments
Distributive versus Integrative Bargaining Bargaining Characteristic: Available resources; Primary motivations; Primary interests; Focus of relationships Distributive Bargaining: Fixed amount of resources to be divided; I win, you lose; Opposed to each other; Short term Integrative Bargaining: Variable amount of resources to be divided; I win, you win; Convergent or congruent with each other; Long term
Improving Negotiating Skills:
Summary & Implications: Communication
Power
Leadership
Ch8. Leadership Trait theories of leadership - theories that propose traits—personality, social, physical, or intellectual—differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
Behavioural theories of leadership - Theories that propose that specific behaviours differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
Initiating structure - The extent to which a leader is likely to define & structure his or her role & the roles of employees in order to attain goals. Consideration - The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, & regard for their feelings. employee-oriented leader A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations. production-oriented leader A leader who emphasizes the technical or task aspects of the job. Leadership Grid A two-dimensional grid outlining 81 different leadership styles. situational, or contingency, theoriesTheories that propose that leadership effectiveness depends on the situation.
Fiedler contingency model A theory that proposes that effective group performance depends on the Proper match between the leader’s style & the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational Theory
path-goal theory A theory that says it’s the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals & to provide the necessary direction &/or support to ensure that their individual goals are compatible with the overall goals.
transactional leadersLeaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role & task requirements. Characteristics
transformational leaders Leaders who inspire followers to go beyond their own self-interests for the good of the org-n & have a profound & extraordinary effect on their followers. Characteristics
charismatic leadership Leadership that critically examines the status quo with a view to developing & articulating future strategic goals or vision for the org-n, & then leading org-nal members to achieve these goals through empowering strategies. Personal Characteristics of the Charismatic Leaders
level 5 leadersLeaders who are fiercely ambitious & driven, but their ambition is directed toward their company rather than themselves. mentor A senior employee who sponsors & supports a less-experienced employee. Effective team leaders perform four roles:
Chapter 10 – Org-nal Culture & Change Org-nal culture The pattern of shared values, beliefs, & assumptions considered appropriate for thinking & acting within an org-n. Artifacts Aspects of an org-n’s culture that you see, hear, & feel. Beliefs The underst&ings of how objects & ideas relate to eachother. Values The stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is important Assumptions The taken-for granted notions of how something should be. Dominant culture A system of shared meaning that expresses the core values shared by a majority ofthe org-n’s members. Subcultures Minicultures within an org-n, typically defined by department designations & geographical separation. Core values The primary, or dominant, values that are accepted throughout the org-n socialization The process that adapts new employees to an org-n’s culture. Change agents People who act ascatalysts & assume the responsibility for managing change. unfreezing Change efforts to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance & group conformity moving Efforts to get employees involved in the change process. refreezing Stabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving & restraining forces. driving forces Forces that direct behavior away from the status quo. restraining forces Forces that hinder movement away from the status quo. action research A change process based on the systematic collection of data & then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate. appreciative inquiry An approach to change that seeks to identify the unique qualities & special strengths of an org-n, which can then be built on to improve performance. Characteristics of Org-nal Culture
How org culture is formed 1) Philosophy of org founders 2) Selection Criteria – Identify & Hire people who fit the culture 3) Top management -Senior Executives establish & spread the norms of org 4) Socialization – teaching culture to employees 5) Org Culture Sociability – Solidarity Typology High Sociability High Solidarity – Communal High Sociability low Solidarity - Networked low Sociability High Solidarity - Mercenary low Sociability low Solidarity - Fragmented Culture’s Functions
Conditions for Culture Change
Suggestions for Changing Culture
Lewin’s Three step Change model 1) Unfreezing - getting ready for change (Minimizing Resistance) 2) Moving – making Change (Change people, tasks, structure, technology) 3) Refreezing – Stabilizing the Change (evaluate result, make adjustments) Sources of Individual Resistance to Change
Sources of Org-nal Resistance to Change
Overcoming Resistance to Change
|