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Classifying ideologies
•All Ideologies have been influenced by historical
traditions and overlapping ‘ism’
•Classifying ideologies helps us understand them
•Two common methods:
• Left‐Right continuum
• Political‐Economic Grid
Political Ideology
•What is political ideology?
•One’s basic beliefs about power, political values, and
the role of government
•Grows out of economical, educational, and social
conditions and experiences
Roots of the Left‐Right Continuum
•Evolved from
the French
Revolution
•Based on
seating
arrangement
in the
national
assembly
Criticism of the Left‐Right Continuum
•Less suited to analyzing beliefs and relationships
that exist in the 20th century.
•Ideologies such as Communism and Socialism have
been substantially revised in the face of differing
views held by leaders, evolving economic conditions
and changing conditions.
Political‐Economic Grid
•The following grid is a more appropriate approach to
representing political and economic ideologies in
relation to one another.
•Communism: A political and economic system
based on community or state ownership of wealth,
property, and the means of production, with each
person working for according to ability and
receiving according to need.
•Socialism: An economic and political system in
which society as a whole rather than private
individuals own all property and operate all
businesses.
•Liberalism: A philosophy that supports guarantees
of individual freedom, political change, and social
reform.
•Conservatism: A philosophy that supports the
traditional order and resists political and social
change.
•Fascism: Authoritarian political beliefs,
characterized by extreme nationalism, reliance on
military power to achieve national goals, and a
state‐controlled private enterprise economy
Power defined
• Power is defined as a person’s ability to get personal
goals or organizational objectives accomplished in the
manner they want them done.
• Power is the ability to influence others to do: what
you want, when you want and in a way that suits you.
• It is important to remember that power only really
exists if others acknowledge one’s power.
Formal Authority
Expertise
Coercion
Persuasion
Rewards
Plato and his allegory of the cave
• Humans are intellectually trapped in a cave facing the back wall only able to see shadows; unaware that there is anything else in the world
• People in the cave believe they are free, but they don’t see the reality of their intellectual slavery. All they do is watch shadows cast by a hidden fire in the cave, thinking that the shadows are reality. They are passive and accepting. They never turn around, never ask questions. They remain completely unaware of how blind & shackled they are.
The allegory of the cave, continued
• Enlightenment: someone who stands up and dares
to go outside to seek the truth
• His eyes adjust to the light and see how wonderful
the world is beyond the cave. But instead of
staying, he decides to return to the others in the
cave, to free them as well.
• The prisoners in the cave think he’s mad and
dangerous; if he persists in talking nonsense, he’ll
be killed.
The Noble Lie
• People will be convinced that their prior lives were
just a dream, not reality.
• Further, they must be convinced that they occupy
their positions in society due to the type of metal in
their souls.
• Why noble? Because it ensures popular acceptance
(legitimacy) of the new republic ruled by the
Philosopher King
Aristotle’s criticism
• In order to understand Plato's political theory,
therefore we must note what he had in mind when
he argued that, in the ideal society' the guardians
must be philosophers. Plato's most famous student,
Aristotle, disagreed with his teacher on many
points. In his Politics (the second part of a general
treatise on ethics) Aristotle severely criticizes both
the method and the substance of Plato's political
theory
• The method, complains Aristotle, is too abstract;
and the conception of the ideal state reduces to a
political system in which the authority of the rulers
is really sustained by their ability to command
'heavily armed soldiers'. The study of politics can be
scientific, says Aristotle, but it must be based on
the empirical examination of real systems of
government.
• No detailed description of actual states is
presented in the Politics, but Aristotle's argument is
guided by what he conceives to be the lessons that
have been supplied by political experience. The
chief of these, in his view, is that no system of
government is perfect.
• All systems have essential properties which include
defects as well as virtues, and even the best
system of government is only comparatively better
than others. Moreover, even in comparative terms,
one cannot say that one particular system of
government is best, for, though it may be argued
to be so in the abstract, another system might be
better in the particular circumstances of a specific
society.
• 'It is evident,' says Aristotle 'that the form of
government is best in which every man, whoever
he is can act for the best and live happily,' but,
unlike Plato, he does not undertake to present a
design for a government that will, always and
perfectly, serve these objectives.
Thomas Hobbes‐ Monarchist
Two Laws of Nature
• Hobbes says that in the State of Nature mankind
knows by reason two laws of nature, they are
• 1)"seek peace and follow it" and
• 2), "be willing to lay down his right to all things; and
be contented with so much liberty against other
men, as he would allow against himself."
• “Golden Rule” all people must be willing, Hobbes
reasons, to at least temporarily put the interests of
others on an equal level with their own
Hobbes’ Egoism
• Hobbes is an Ethical Egoist.
• Hobbes is a Psychological Egoist.
• Our egoism leads us to give up our right to
everything and to form a social contract.
Form a Government
• The best way to protect your RIGHT to life.
• All people give up our rights, to the king.
• King determines morality.
• NO IMMORAL LAWS!4/10/2013
Immoral to Revolt!
• Hobbes‐ writing in defense of the King, denies that
one can legitimately revolt against the government.
• Once you leave the state of nature you have a duty
to keep your promise and obey the king.
Al Farabi – the Second Teacher
• Al Farabi reiterates Plato’s concept of philosopher‐
king, embodied by the Prophet
• Also confirms necessity of social stratification like
Plato
• Adds the concept of God – the First Cause
• Virtuous City – wherein people are able to
cooperate to gain happiness
Shokhan Valikhanov
Notes on Judicial Reforms
• Emphasized necessity of reforms of the Kazakh
society in 19th century
• Need for education
• Close relationship between Kazakhstan and Russia
Defining Interest Groups
An organized group of people who share some
goals and try to influence public policy.
Role & Functions of
Interest Groups
• Five main functions of Interest Groups:
• Representation – interest of members
• Political Participation – enable people to participate
• Government and Politics
• Education – members, public, & government officials
• About issues of interest & why IG goals should be supported
• Agenda building‐ push new issues onto public agenda
• Examples: Consumer protection & Veterans issues
• Program Monitoring‐ watch how laws are administered
• Assess Federal or State Government regulation
Increased Demands on
Government
• More demands of public placed on Government:
• Civil Right & Anti‐Vietnam War Legacy
• Improvements & advances in technology
• Rise of new issues almost every day
Diversity of Organized Interests
• Three general categories of Interest Groups:
• Economic Interest Groups
• Citizen Interest Groups
• Government Interest Groups
• Examine each in greater detail=>
Economic Interest Groups (#2)
1. Business
• Trade Associations
2. Organized Labor
3. Agricultural Groups
4. Professional Associations
Coalitions and Divisions
• Groups of similar interests join in coalitions
• The Military Coalition => military & VA benefits
• Environmental & Nature Conservation groups
• Groups might also divide or realign on various
issues
• Politics & strange bedfellows – Customs Union issue
Interest Group Formation and
Maintenance
• Reasons why interest groups form?
• Disturbance Theory =>
• Usually in response to Government policy
• Threat to the status quo – The Cat Mother response
• IGs form mostly in response to some government policy:
• Policies affecting or potentially affecting members’ interests
• Most are directly related to politics => influence gov. policy
• Also some IGs formed for reasons unrelated to politics
• Whose interest is usually represented?
• Rich & powerful ‐ why?
The Collective Goods Dilemma?
A dilemma created when people can
obtain the benefits of interest group
activity without paying any of the costs
associated with it.
(In this situation, the interest group may
not form because everyone has an
incentive to let someone else pay the
costs of group formation.)
Overcoming Obstacles to Interest
Group Formation
• Political entrepreneurs=>
• Local of National
• Government or wealthy sponsor funds IG
• Or – IGs attract & motivate prospective members
• How are new members potentially attracted?
• New members are offered what?
• Selective benefits (vs. collective benefits)
• What are the three types of selective benefits?*
Three Benefits from Interest
Groups
Material
(stuff)
Solidarity
(identity)
Expressiv
Material-The actual goods and servicesthat
come from belonging to an interest
group.
Solidarity-The emotional and psychological
enjoyment that comes from belonging
to an interest group whose members
share common interests and goals
Expressive
The feelings of satisfaction people derive
from working for an interest group cause
they believe is just and right. Also known
as purposive benefits.
Interest Group (IG) Maintenance
• IG Maintenance can be difficult
• How can this difficulty be overcome?
• Retain members by upgrading selective benefits
• Add or modify benefits (bigger & better & more)
• Increase or decrease reliance on patrons
• Redefine group’s mission
Interest Group Bias
• Affluent & better educated over =>
• Poor and less educated‐ Why?
• The higher the socioeconomic status=> the more likely
to be actively involved in politics
• Some exceptions – Cesar Chavez against=>
• Chavez was soon joined by young idealistic activists
• Still raises questions about=>
• Democracy & political influence of few elite over many
non politically involved
Political Culture and Political
Socialization
Each nation has its own political norms that influence how
people think and act about politics.
The way political institutions function at least partially
reflects the public’s attitu
des, norms, and expectations
Definition of Political Culture:
“A particular distribution of
political attitudes, values,
feelings, information, and skills that affects the behaviour
of a nation’s citizens and le
aders throughout the political
system.”
Assumption: what people know or feel about their political
system affects their political behaviour.
Assumption: Like traditional cultures, political cultures vary
across countries and can explai
n variations in modes and
levels of political participation.
All these variations can be
measured through surveys.
Key Aspects of Political
Culture
1. COGNITION:
What people know about politics:
Who are the leaders, what are the government’s policies, how
much do they affect your life?
what percent of populations actu
ally follow or keep aware of
political events and how often they do so.
willingness to have and express political opinions
AFFECT AND EFFICACY:
2. What they think abou
t their political system,
about their own role in the political system,
and their ability to affect the outcomes?
are they proud of their
country? of its leaders?
do they feel that they can affect outcomes?
sense of efficacy and competence should increase the
level of participation
do they feel that people have the responsibility to
participate in political activity
INTENSITY OF FEELINGS:
The depth or intensity with which they hold those values
how willing are they to allow other people to express
dissenting views?
how deep are the cleavages within society?
Are there “cross-cutting clea
vages” that can limit the
level of conflict within the society?
conflictual versus consen
sual political culture
Political Culture as an
Explanation for:
I. Levels and modes of Participation
II. For the type of policies that governments adopt in
response to perceived public opinion and popular values
Mapping the Three Levels of
Political Culture
A nation’s political culture includes its citizens’ orientations
at three levels:
The political system
The political and policymaking process
Policy outputs and outcomes
Mapping the Three Levels of
Political Culture
The
system level
involves how people view the values and
organizations that comprise the political system.
The process level includes expectations of how politics
should function and individuals’ relationship to the
political process.
The policy level deals with the public’s policy expectations
for the government.
The System Level
It is difficult for any political system to endure if it lacks the
support of its citizens.
Feelings of national pride are consid
ered an affective, emotional tie to
a political system.
National pride does not come from affluence
What matters is a sense of history – every generation has its own
readings of it – and its own historical myths
Patriotism is a double-edged sword (“the last refuge of a scoundrel” –
Samuel Johnson)
National identity – a sense of a nation’s (ethnic group’s)
uniqueness, particular qualities, place in the world, role in history
The Process Level
The second level of the political culture involves
what the public expects of the political process.
Broadly speaking, three different patterns
describe the citizens’ role in the political process.
Participants are involved as actual or potential
participants in the political process.
Subjects passively obey government officials and the
law, but they do not vote or actively involve themselves
in politics.
Parochials are hardly aware of government and politics.
Process Level
What people expect of the political process
Participation (equal access vs privileged access)
Transparency
Corruption as an issue
Process Level
Attitudes toward the existing form of government
Representative and direct democracy as competing political
regimes in Venezuela
Rejection of western-style (secular) democracy by fundamentalist
Muslims
How citizens view their political roles
the share of the population holding these different types of
political cultures will affect the type of political system in that
country
Consensual or Conflictual
Political Cultures
When a country is deeply divided in its political
values and these differences persist over time,
distinctive political subcultures may develop.
They have sharply different
points of view on some
critical political matters, such
as the boundaries of the
nation, the nature of the regime, or the correct
ideology.
Sometimes historical or social factors will generate
different cultural trajectories.
Why Culture Matters
Cultural norms typically change slowly and reflect stable
values.
It encapsulates the history, traditions, and values of a society.
Congruence theory
The distribution of cultural patterns is typically related to the type of
political process that citizens expect and support.
Do democracies create a participatory democratic public, or does a
political culture lead to a democratic political system?
It works both ways.
Political culture
can build common political community,
but it can also have the power to divide.
Cultural Congruence
OVER TIME THERE IS A CONGRUENCE BETWEEN POLITICAL
CULTURE AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE
Value placed on responsiveness/openness leads to:
Direct election of senators
Agencies to provide information on previously classified activities
Longer democracy lasts and more successes that it has the more
support there is for democracy
Subcultures
Within national political cultures, there are subcultures,
characterizing political attitudes
of different groups within
society. In conflictual cul
tures, there are deep rifts
between subcultures
The rifts are caused by such factors as:
Class
Ethnicity or race
Religion
Regional differences
Political Socialization
Definition: how individuals form their political attitudes and
collectively, how citizens form their political culture
Political cultures are sustained or changed as people acquire
their attitudes and values.
Political socialization refers to the way in which political values
are formed and political culture is transmitted from one
generation to the next.
Most children acquire their basic political values and behavior patters
at a relatively early age.
Some attitudes will evolve and change throughout life.
in all systems, state institutio
ns socialize people to support
government policy or accept legitimacy of government and its
symbols of legitimacy.
Trends in the Shaping
Contemporary Political Cultures
Democratization?
Marketization?
Greater public acceptance of free markets and private
profit incentives, rather than a government-managed
economy
Globalization
Dynamics of Contemporary
Political Cultures
Political culture is no
t a static phenomenon.
Encompasses how the agents of political socialization
communicate and interpret historic events and traditional values
Important to understand
Influences how citizens act, how the political process functions,
and what policy goals the government pursues