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Modal means of expressing ability, permission /prohibition
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present |
Can/can’t, cannot |
Am, is, are able to |
May/may not |
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past |
Could/couldn’t |
Was/were able to |
Might (only in reported speech) “Was/were allowed to” is used instead |
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Physical or mental ability |
General: I can read fast (I know how to). or in a particular case: I can help you now.
General: I could ride a bike at the age of 5.
General: I couldn’t read fast in the first grade. or in a particular case: I couldn’t fall asleep last night
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He is able to lift a horse
I could swim well and one day I was able to swim across the Volga.
I haven’t been able to sleep for the past couple of nights |
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(asking for) permission |
Can/could I take the plate? You can/could leave your car at the car park. (could is a more polite form) |
May I look at your notes? I wonder if I might ask you something? (might is more tentative) |
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prohibition |
You can’t smoke here |
May I…? - No, you may not. They were not allowed to sit down to eat their lunch. |
Modal means of expressing necessity, obligation/prohibition, advice
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present |
Must/mustn’t |
Have/has to don’t/doesn’t have to |
Should/ought to Shouldn’t/oughtn’t to (=had better do sth) |
(To be to) Am/is/are to do |
Need/needn’t Don’t/doesn’t need to |
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past |
- |
Had to/didn’t have to |
- |
Was/were to do |
Needed/didn’t need to |
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Obligation |
All visitors must leave their coats in the cloak room.
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Objective obligation, imposed from outside One has to obey the rules. He had to be content with a small salary. |
The right thing to do, mild obligation or advice You ought to vote in the coming election. (Ought to has more of a moral flavour than should) |
Obligation resulting from an arrangement or plan: We are to complete this work by tomorrow. If you are to be successful you must…= if you wish to be successful |
Necessity: I need to see the doctor. He needed to change his clothes. |
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Prohibition |
You mustn’t smoke here (=can’t) Past: We weren’t allowed to smoke inside. |
You shouldn’t write in pencil. (mild prohibition) You oughtn’t to watch scary movies (it’s not prudent) |
Strict prohibition. You are not to do that! |
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Absence/lack of obligation or necessity |
You don’t have to wait for me. I’ll stay in the office till late at night. |
You needn't (don’t need to) go to the meeting. |
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Asking for instructions/advice |
Must one always obey the authorities? |
Do I have to collect all the documents till tomorrow? |
Should I follow you? Ought I to wear a coat? |
What am I (supposed) to do? |
Do I need to /Need I attend this class? |