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34. Neologisms and internationals words
A neologism is the term used to describe a word that has been made-up or invented by a speaker, which appears in a transcript of spontaneous speech dialogue. It can also be described as a word which does not appear in the dictionary of the primary spoken language, but which is also not a foreign word.
For example, that candy has a tutti-fruity taste
The vocabulary of any language does not remain the same but changes constantly. New notions come into being, requiring new words to name them. On the other hand, some notions and things become outdated and the words that denote them drop out of the language. Sometimes a new name is introduced for a thing or notion that continues to exist, the older name ceases to be used.
The term literary colloquial is used to denote the vocabulary used by educated people in the course of ordinary conversation or when writing letters to intimate friends. Low colloquial is a term used for illiterate popular speech. It’s very difficult to find hard and fast rules that help to establish the boundary between low colloquial and dialect because in actual communication the two are often used together.
Te chief peculiarities of low colloquial concern grammar and pronunciation, as to the vocabulary, it is different from familiar colloquial in that it contains more vulgar wotds and sometimes also elements of dialect. Other vocabulary layers below the level of standard of the educated speech are, besides low colloquial, the so-called slang and argot. Unlike slow colloquial they have only lexical peculiarities. Argot should be distinguished from slang: the first term serves to denote a special vocabulary and idiom, used by a particular social or age group, especially by the so-called under world.
Slang.
Slang forms the biggest one. Slang words, used by most speakers in very informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive and as such, lose their originality rather fast and are replaced by newer formations
Slang words are identified and distinguished by contrasting them to standard literary vocabulary. They are expressive, mostly ironical words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequent topics of discourse. For the most part they sound somewhat vulgar.Vivid examples can be furnished by various slang words, for example head – brain-pan, hatpeg, nut, upper storey. General slang includes words that are not specific for anu social or professional group, whereas special slang is special slang is peculiar for some such group: football slang, university slang, public scholl slang, teenager slang. A great deak comes from USA: corny, cute, fusspot, teenager, swell.
Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, unlike slang they are used by limited groups of people, united either professionally (in this case we deal with professional Jargonisms, or professionalisms), or socially (here we deal withjargonisms proper). In distinction from slang, Jargonisms of both typescover a narrow semantic field: in the first case it is that, connected with the technical side of some profession. So, in oil industry, e.g., for the terminological for "pipeliner" (трубопроводчик)- "swabber", "bender", "cat", "old cat", "collar-pecker", "hammer man";for "geologist" - "smeller", "pebble pup", "rock hound", "witcher", etc. Jargonisms proper are characterized by similar linguistic features, but differ in function and sphere of application. They originated from the thieves' jargon (l'argo, cant) and served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated. Their major function thus was to be cryptic, secretive. This is why among them there are cases of conscious deformation of the existing words. The so-called back jargon (or back slang) can serve as an example: in their effort to conceal the machinations of dishonest card-playing, gamblers used numerals in their reversed form: "ano" for "one", "owt" for "two", "erth" for "three".
Professional jargonisms are emotive synonyms to terms. Social jargonisms are to be found within groups characterized by social integrity, they are emotive synonyms to neutral words of the general word-stock.
Vulgarisms are rough, coarse words, swear words (those which through long usage have lost their abusive character and became mere signals of ruffled emotions (a hell of). They lost much of their shocking power.). (Those which preserved their initial characteristics, and serve to insult and humiliate the addressee of the remark or to convey the speaker’s highly negative evaluation of the object in question).
36. Standart English. Its variants and dialects.
Standard English – the official language of great Britain taught at scools and universities, used by the press, the radio and televisin, spoken by educated people may be defined at the form of English which is current and literary, Substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. It’s vocabulary is contrasted to dialect words or dialectisms belonging to various local dialects.
Local dialects are varieties of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. Regionall varieties possessing a literary form are called variants. In G.B there are two variants – Scottish English and Irish English, and 5 main of dialects : Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western, Southern. Every group contains several dialects.
One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney the regional dialect of London. This dialect exists on two levels. As spoken by the educated lower middle classes it is a regional dialect marked by some deviations in pronunciation but few in vocabulary and syntax.
Cockney is lively and witty and it’s vocabulary imaginative and colourful. It’s specific feature not occurring anywhere else is so-called rhyming slang, in which some words are substituted by other words rhyming with them. For example, wife – Trouble and strife. head – loaf and bread.
Dialects are now chiefly preserved in rural communities, in the speech of elderly people. Dialects are said to undergo rapid changes under the pressure of Standard English taught at scools and the speech habits cultivated by radio, television and cinema.