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KAZAKH ABLAI KHAN UNIVERSITY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND WORLD LANGUAGES
Translation department
Project
Discipline: Basics of economic theory
Theme: Economic laws and categories
Prepared by: Nurlanuly Akjol, 202 group
Checked by: Orazayeva.Zh.D
Almaty, 2013
Content
Prerequisite in the study of economic theory is known consistency and the correct order in the phenomena it studies. Science for every kind of phenomena is possible when we can prove that these phenomena are subject to a certain kind of law, i.e. they constantly accompany each other or follow one another in a certain order accessible to observation and study. Everyone obeys his reason, will, in the interests of its economic effect. Based on this surveillance, statesmen have repeatedly tried to change direction economic activity through effects on the human will.
But this was contrary to some observations that differ from the preceding only the fact that economic actions are taken on a wider scale.
The elements of modern economic theory are: the theory optimal functioning of the national economy and its elements; theory of economic efficiency, including the rationalist theory consumption, production, distribution and exchange. It is a science, studying the evolution of the system of good housekeeping, sources and growth factors national wealth and well-being of individual group’s society.
Economic theory examines stable, intrinsic, repetitive communication since it is they should take into account the economic entity units activities. This is the economic laws.
As argued by the famous British economist, A. Marshall, economic laws - an expression of social trends, "generalization, stating that from members of a social group under certain conditions can be expected certain course of action.
In the literature, we find the following definition of economic law:
Economic law - is essential, necessary, sustainable relation to economic phenomena and processes that shape their development.
In accordance with this definition, we can treat economic law as a special objective phenomenon and study its essence, content, structure (shape) and the conditions for action and manifestation.
Essence of economic law is to express an essential communication mode of production, i.e. to specify the essence of the law directly related to the disclosure of the substance of that communication, which is mainly causal, causal relationship, one side which causes the other.
The content of economic law is the dialectical nature.
The elements of the bill appear:
1. of causation;
2. The process of interaction between the parties;
3. forms of interaction between them;
4. Result of this interaction.
The increasing complexity of economic life and the interweaving of economic ties increase of factors lead to the fact that traditional economic laws are modified and neutralized, manifesting as trends of the period or a particular historical epoch.
The society has a system of economic laws. They are interrelated themselves.
Distinguish the following economic laws:
1. Universal laws - operating at all stages of development of human society, in all socio-economic formations: Laws rising needs. The laws of social division of labor. Laws increasing productivity.
2. General economic laws - operate in the presence of common socio-economic conditions (commodity-money relations): The law of value. The laws of supply and demand. The laws of money circulation and. etc.
Next, we consider in some detail some of the economic laws.
Law of value:
law of value implies the formation of each individual individual producer cost of labor and resources and respectively, the formation of individual value and individual prices, but the market does not recognize these individual values and accordingly, price and value and price of public, market-based which are socially necessary labor costs.
Law of value has an objective character; however, this objective cannot be understood in the sense that no external factors are not in a position influence market prices. Specific forms and levels of market prices have the influence of various factors, not just the impact of public necessary labor costs.
Law is the law of value pricing, because the external form of expression value is the price. Cost - is the content of market relations among market participants, price - a form of content. The law of value and intersectional competition from the industry level of market prices. Individual prices may not coincide with the industry price level, so producers of one industry are different values of return on unit of capital. The law of value and intersectional competition form intersectional market prices of production. Commodity producers of various industries are at different values of unit of capital gains, which leads to the flow of capital and the formation of prices of production, which cause receive an equal return on capital equal. Sum of prices of production in society scale equal to the sum of values redistribution of value through the flow of capital account reflects cost of capital, but the general level of prices of production and change in ultimately predetermined level and change in market value level and change of the socially necessary labor costs.
Summarize. The essence of the law of value is that commodity production basis of the proportion of the commodities exchanged determines the market value, the value of which, in turn, makes the public necessary labor.
First function - exercise of public accounting of labor through formation of socially necessary labor costs.
The second function is that the law provides the distribution labor between the various spheres of production. Through the mechanism of oscillation market prices around the value of radical change and the movement of factors production of some sectors of national economy in other governed by the ratio between productions of various products.
Third function - stimulating. The law encourages cost reduction production costs. If labor costs exceed the individual socially necessary, then in order not to ruin, commodity producer is obliged to reduce the magnitude of these costs. Entrepreneurs tend to produce a lower individual cost of labor, that at given prices provides a number of economic advantages - speed sale of goods, more income and profit. And, as you know, profit - objective stimulus for the development of productive forces on the acceleration of scientific technological progress.
Fourth function - distribution when using the price carried out the distribution and redistribution of social product between regions and enterprises.
Fifth function the law of value is that it is based the differentiation of commodity producers. Individual costs labor from producers vary. The sale of goods producers, who are below the socially necessary, will be in disadvantage - will receive additional income. Conversely, those with whom the individual costs above the socially necessary and they are not able to recover its costs of labor are suffering, often prone bankruptcy, and bankrupt.
Thus, the law of value:
1. stimulates those producers whose individual labor costs below the socially necessary.
2. Causes the differentiation of commodity producers, depending on the ratio of their individual labor costs with the socially necessary.
3. Stimulates the reduction of costs.
4. Regulates the distribution of labor in the spheres of production.
5. Manifested as the law of prices - the basis of price is the price. Its functions are carried out both with equal price and value, and when their differences
6. Creates a basis of cost or market mechanism to regulate the proportions of production.
Action the law of value is not absolute, because its role in market economy has been limited. This law convincingly explains the economic motives producer, the seller. However, keeping within the action only this law, it is difficult, and in some cases impossible to explain the economic behavior of other market actors - a buyer, the consumer. Indeed: commodity producer in selling his product would sell it for price, which would be fully repaid all of its costs and brought maximum profit. Consequently, the whole logic of his behavior is predetermined requirements of the law of value. In a different situation are consumer goods: the buyer little or no interest cost to the producer this product, its economic interest in the fact that the price was low, high quality product. But the most important thing is that the buyer values or not appreciates the quality of consumer goods, its utility is needed or uselessness of it for themselves. The behavior of this subject of the market value requirements of the law cannot be explained. Here requires knowledge of another law of the market - the law of supply and demand.
So what is such an important law - the law of demand?
Fact, he sounds so: the prices are higher, the demand is lower and vice versa, the prices are lower, the demand is higher. Thus, the main factor which impact on demand is the price.
On demand is also influenced by non-price factors:
1. Revenues
2. Availability of this product on the market (deficit).
3. Psychology purchases and tastes of consumers.
4. Effects of expectations: an increase or decrease in prices
5. Presence in the market substitutes (substitutes).
6. Presence in the market of complementary goods
(Complimentary).
All non-price factors are considered in the economy is not in the dynamics, but static, i.e. constant. This means that none of these factors may have on the demand for such a decisive influence as the price. Therefore the term "ceteris paribus.
But demand "opposes" such a thing as “proposal”.
“Proposal” - is an umbrella term used to describe the behavior actual and potential sellers of goods.
Volume supply of goods - is the amount of goods that seller swilling to sell for a certain period (e.g. day or year). Volume proposals depend on the price and other factors, primarily on the price used in the production and resources available to seller’s production technologies.
Terms "demand" and "offer" characterized by the theory of demand and proposal. The essence of this theory is as follows - the cost or price commodity is determined not expended in its production labor, and solely by supply and demand. According to this theory, if demand exceeds supply, the price of goods will increase, and when the increase proposal at a constant demand, cost of goods will decrease.
Proponents of the theory of demand and supply were: the French economist JB
, This and English economist GD McLeod. Mathematical expression of the theory supply and demand occurs in L. Walrus. This theory held as representatives of the Austrian School - K. Meiger, E.Bem-Bawerk, and F. Wieser.
English economist A. Marshall tried to connect the theory of demand and proposals to the theory of marginal utility and the theory of costs production. The American economist Paul Samuelson is a compound called optimistic neoclassical synthesis.
Law of money circulation is an objective relationship between the number paper money in circulation, and the price level. The law states that purchasing power of money is strong, if their number corresponds to needs of the market in a certain amount of money. This mass directly proportional to the sum of prices of goods and paid services and back proportional to the velocity of money.
Also there are many other economic laws. For example: the law of the fall of the effectiveness of additional cost factors production, the law of accumulation, and. etc.
Thus, economic laws serve as the dominant trend socio-economic development of society. They appear not in every separate phenomenon or process and in their entirety at a sufficiently long stretches of time. They are not demonic overlords, turns people into obedient servants; they determine the overall logiceconomicdevelopment. People are not powerless in the face of these economic laws are not without their interest and active leadership in their implementation. Laws are not dependent on human will and consciousness, but not from their activities. These are the laws of production and economic activities of people social action, and they occur only in human society.
Having experienced the economic laws and implementing its production business in their line, people achieve high results in its activities, running as much at odds with their work brings difficulties. Consideration of economic laws, a necessary condition for successful economic activity.
Economic category - it is a logical concept, reflecting an abstract form the most important aspects of economic phenomena, processes, mechanisms. Abstraction, reflecting the reality, has their life cycle. They can go from a scientific treatment, may return depending on how they are relevant, i.e. how extensively in a process of reality which they represent.
Since economic phenomena, processes and mechanisms are interrelated in space and time, and the categories they reflect, as interrelated, which are manifested as an interaction, confrontation, complementarities and neutrality. Every branch of science performs typing, classification of the set of studied phenomena
. The result of these generalizations in economic science and reflect the economic category. Economic category - the scientific collective term, abstract, generalized characterizes the essence of many homogeneous similar economic phenomena.
Tool of scientific knowledge production and economic phenomena and processes of abstraction, reflecting the scientific knowledge of the actual economic relations...
Consider some examples:
Property as an economic category.
The property belongs to such concepts around which to centuries cross the best minds of mankind. However struggle in theoretical terms is not limited. Social shocks, from which often shakes the whole world, one of the main their reasons are, ultimately, attempts to change established property relations, to approve a new system of relations. Some cases, these attempts lead. Does success in others have failed. Sometimes, when society was indeed passed on to a new, higher level of its development. But it happened that as a result of breaking of ownership society is left far behind and falling into the quagmire of who did not know how to get out.
In our country during the twentieth century occurred twice breaking property relations. The first began in October 1917 and completed an unprecedented catastrophe, the consequences of which will be evaluated with geometrically opposite positions more than one generation. Second happening today. Its main goal - to return the property relations their true content; put together a rather broad layer of private owners, who would become the social pillar of the current regime. So same is the property?
Easiest way, the property can be defined as the ratio of one man (team) to belong to it (them) things as his.
The property rests on the difference between "my" and "your". Any type and any ownership, however high in a particular case and was level of socialization, or, equivalently, the level of collectivization property can exist only on condition that someone belongs to conditions and products of production as his own, and someone to someone else. Without this there are no properties. From this perspective, any form of property is a private, whatever the ideological tinsel, pursuing quite prosaic purpose, it can cover up.
From the elementary definition of property, which is given, it follows that property - this is man's attitude to things. This, however, content property is not reduced. Because the property is unthinkable without that other persons who are not owners of this thing treated her as a stranger, ownership means the ratio between people about things. At one extreme of this relationship appears owner, which refers to things as in his, on the other - not owners, i.e. all third parties who are obliged to treat it as a stranger. This means that third parties must refrain from any kind any infringement of another's thing, and, consequently, the will owner, which is embodied in this thing. The definition property implies that it has a material substratum in the form.
Property of the inherent and volitional content, since it is sovereign will of the owner determines the existence of belongings.
Property - is a social relation. No relationship of others belonging to the owner of the thing as a stranger would not have much to do with it of the owner as to his. Content property as a public relationship is revealed through the connections and relationships, in which the owner must enter with other people in the process production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods.
Thus, property - this is public relations, which are inherent material substrate and volitional content. Ownership - this property relationship, and in a number of property relations, it is the fore. This, however, to characterize the property enough. Must show in what specific ways can express volition of the owner in relation to its things. Of course, we are not talking about how to rank a list of such acts. This is impossible, because in principle, the owner may make in for all their belongings, which is not prohibited by law or not contrary to social nature of property. The will of the owner in respect belongings is expressed in the possession, use and possession thereof.
To them, ultimately, a set of specific acts of ownership against things.
Possession means economic dominance over owner thing. In possession of property relations is expressed in statistics, consolidated laziness things for individuals and collectives.
Use means the extraction of useful properties of things by its productive and personal consumption.
Order means for the commission of acts of things that determine its fate, until the destruction of things. This alienation of things, and surrender its rent, mortgage and things, and much more. In use and disposal already expressed the dynamics of property relations.
Having said concretize this earlier definition property. Property - is the ratio of a person to belong to him things as his, which is reflected in the possession, use and disposal it, as well as to eliminate interference of third persons in the sphere economic domination, which extends the power of the owner.
In the socio-economic literature, including legal, widespread definition of property as an individual assignment or group of products and production within and through specific social form, or as the most social form through which the assignment takes place. Definition property by category attribution back to the works of Marx, in which categories of property and appropriation actually linked with each another. Strikingly the correlation in the introduction to the Critique Political Economy. This approach to defining property rights in principle possible. It should however be borne in mind that the notion of attribution needs specificity, and therefore can hardly be used for disclosure maintenance of property without defining himself. Besides the concept attribution researchers, including Marx, have invested different content. From this viewpoint, the possession, use and disposal, as more specific economic category, has the undoubted advantages in comparison with an extremely abstract category assignment.
The efficiency of these categories in the definition property is immeasurably higher than the category assignment.
Property is presented as an economic category of human society throughout its history, except, perhaps, those initial stages, when a man is not separated from nature and meets their needs through such a simple way attribution, as the possession and use. Of course, during centuries of human history the property has undergone significant changes, due mainly to the development productive forces, sometimes violent, as, for example, it was place during the industrial revolution, or is now in the era of scientific technological revolution.
Customary to distinguish the primitive, slave, feudal and capitalist types of property. Until recently time, as also highlighted the socialist type property, for which, apparently, were not sufficient grounds. None one of the world, once belonged to the socialist community, Socialism is actually built was not. Direct producers these countries are still exploited, the reunification means of production to production workers do not really happened. The type of property, which is under a totalitarian regime (sometimes overt, but in some cases disguised) in these country has adopted, oddly combined with characteristic features peculiar types of property, as previous eras, so now existing.
Recognition of a special property and at the same time, historically volatile economic category, with all the differences in the approaches to it, is dominant as in the politico-economic, as well as in legal science.
State credit as an economic category.
With the development of commodity-money relations, the State may bring to cover their costs of free financial resources economic structures and means of the population.
Main way of obtaining a government loan. He expresses the relationship between the state and the numerous physical and entities on the formation of additional monetary fund along with the budget in the hands of the state. In the implementation of credit operations within the country the State is usually the borrower, and people, companies and organizations - the creditors. Nevertheless, State may be in the role of the lender. This phenomenon occurs not only in the sphere of interstate relations, but also in the inner financial life through the use of treasury loans.
Feature of the state credit is reimbursable, the urgency and charges for loans of money.
Borrowed funds at the disposal of bodies state power, turning them into additional financial resources.
They are sent, usually to cover budget deficits. Source repayment of government loans and paying interest on them act funds budget. However, by establishing relationships through state loan, the government does not renounce the possibility of rising additional financial and stock in a balanced budget.
This is a justifiable step, because the fund state credit could be financed by additional programs economic and socio-cultural once without waiting for receipts ordinary income.
Evaluating the financial value of public credit, should not be forget that mobilized with the help of state funds are anticipate, that taken forward taxes. The need for redemption public debt requires finding additional resource revenues, but they can be obtained (except for new loans) only with the help of taxes. In addition, repayment of debt and payment of interest on them to divert part of budget revenues productive use reduces the possibility of strengthening industrial and intellectual potential of society...
Economic categories are true, because there are those relationships reflection of where they are. Different economic schools consider categories with different points of view, focusing on individual parties and functions.
Literature