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1
1. In the beginning we have the speaker of the SL(source language) (исходный язык) who creates a SLT(Spoken Language Translation) (язык перевода). And in the end we have a TLT(target language text). So we have to take into consideration that these people who speak the SL don’t know the target language. The translator or the interpreter reads or listens to the ST and analyzes it.
Analysis – to divide the text into meaningful parts.
The translator divides the text into meaningful parts he finds out how these meaningful parts can be expressed. He looks for equivalents in the TL and tries to translate every meaningful part. If he can’t find equivalents he finds adequate structures that can compensate for the absence of equivalents. He has to explain some things, because there are cultural and language peculiarities. And to make the text he has to restructure the text and then he assembles (собирать) a new text- the TLT. The TLT is transferred for recipient.
Translation is a kind of process that is used by an intermediary to transfer the information written in the SL to the recipient who is given a new text – TLT.
All of them are used when we try to render (воспроизводить) the same meaning factual and emotional in another language. If we can’t find equivalents we produce an adequate text, which fulfils (выполнять) the same function.
All these notions belong to the same level of preserving both form and content. Precision (точный перевод) we shall mean accuracy – that is the fact that the translation disregards the TL and conforms to the laws of the SL.
Adequacy means observing the laws of the TL. Equivalence belongs more to the Lang. Adequacy – to content. Adequate substitutions mean that you have to choose words or phrases that relate the same notions, but you have either to generalize or to specify the notion that exists in the SL. (ex. Father-in-law – свекор; Sibling – брат). (ex. “He is a public figure” – общественный деятель; “At the reception there were some very important public figures” – государственный деятель).
Equivalents don’t depend upon the context (ex. The League of Nations – лига Наций; ill - больной). Sometimes the complete eq-nt can be found in a meaning, but the form can be a challenge (ex. Can any of you do it? I can!– but in Rus.: Кто-то может это сделать? Я!). But the modality is preserved, though “can” is omitted.
2
Literal translation (Дословный перевод) is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning and similar form in the SL and in the TL.
There are 2 ways of performing literal translation: transcription and transliteration.
Transcription is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.
New-Castle – Нью-Касл, impeachment – импичмент, leader – лидер, London – Лондон (but not Ландан), Dublin – Дублин, bank – банк, club - клуб
Literal translation renders the meaning of the following words: 1) proper names (Іванов – Ivanov), 2) geographical names (Дніпро –Dnipro), 3)international words (football – футбол), 4)units of specific national lexicon (вареники – varenyky), 5)neologisms (metrosexual – метросексуал).
The translator’s false friends are those words that have similar form but different meaning in the SL and in the TL.
magazine – журнал (but not магазин)
lunatic – божевільний, шалений (but not лунатик)
artist – художник, митець (but not артист)
Verbal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning but different lingual form in the SL and in the TL.
Verbal translation permits the choice of variants, which is practically impossible in literal translating:
minister – міністр (literal), посланник, священик (verbal)
bank – банк (literal), берег (річки), край, мілина, вал/насип (verbal)
Word-for-word translation/ consecutive verbal translation (дослівний послідовний) is used at the level of word-combinations and sentences, which have the same structure, word order, and the same lexical meanings of the constituents(составляющая) in the SL and the TL.
Who took my book? – Хто взяв мою книжку?
Word-for-word translation is often used at the initial stage of translation. It does not always work with phraseological units (as cold as cucumber прохладный как огурец - спокойный, невозмутимый (перед лицом опасности или трудности).
Interlinear translation is used for a faithful (верный) rendering of the meaning (but not structure). It is used at the higher level of translator’s activity. It is performed with transformations when there is no identical form in the TL.
Interlinear translation offers more variants than word-for-word translation.
Who took my book? – Де моя книжка?/ У кого моя книжка?
She said she would come. – Вона сказала, що прийде.
Interlinear translation is widely practiced at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language. But it doesn’t convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original (e.g. translation of a stanza or passage)
Literary translation represents the highest level of a translator’s activity. It can be either literary artistic or literary proper depending on the type of the matter under translation.
Literary translations are always performed with many transformations because of stylistic differences between the SL and the TL. Transformations are necessary to convey the meaning of the original, and to achieve ease and beauty of the original composition.
Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philological or historical inquiry.
Ex. «Слово о Полку Ігоревім» - “A word about Ihor’s Regiment” (in a word-for-word translation, which doesn’t correspond to the real meaning)
“The Tale/ lay of the Host of Ihor”, “The Song of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prince Igor’s Raid against the Polovtsi” (which corresponds to the real meaning of the title – повість, пісня про Ігореве військо, дружину)
«Тихий Дон» (М.Шолохов) – “And Quiet Flows the Don” or “The Don Flows home to the Sea” (a word-for word translation “The Quiet Don” or “The Still Don” would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title)
These variants could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel’s content, into its main idea and into the whole system of images of these works.
The problem of relations between language, culture and speaker is one of the fundamental problems in modern linguistics. This problem is defined by many researchers as “anthropological”. Language is a reflexion of an ethnic group’s culture, a means of transmitting cultural values through generations and the major tool of cognition. As language sets the parameters of human perception of the world and stereotypes of daily behavior, any linguistic research in the field of language semantics deals with the interrelations of the concepts of language, culture, and personality.
Along with that, the globalization of cultures actualizes the concept of intercultural communication. In many areas, such as linguistics, literary criticism, culture studies, sociology, psychology, new researches are devoted to the problem of intercultural communication. The political and social situation in the modern world generates the problem of adequate communication, but speaking about adequacy is possible only under condition of full mutual understanding of the representatives of different cultures speaking in different languages. In S. Ter-minasova’s opinion, communication is a dialogue act, connection between two and more individuals which is, first of al, based on mutual understanding.
M. Bergelson gives the following definition of intercultural communication: “intercultural communication is a dialogue carried out in conditions of cultural difference in the communicative competence of the participants which is so considerable that it has essential influence on the success or failure of the communicative event”. Intercultural communication is characterized by the use of special language variants and discourse strategies of direct contact participants which are different from those they use in communication within one culture.
Е. Vereschagin and V. Kostomarov in their work “Language and culture” suggest the following definition: “intercultural communication is adequate mutual understanding of two participants of a communicative act belonging to different national cultures”.
One of the basic points of consideration in the definition of translation is understanding that communication is interaction of individuals in which communicants appear as subjects of culture and representatives of a lingvosociocultural community, and translation as a type of mediation is a means not only of interlingual but also of intercultural communication.
3
Translation is kind of communication. It’s a special kind of communication because people who try to communicate do not know languages and culture of each other. And still they have to communicate. For that they invite a translator. And the translator tries to work as an intermediary. It’s a very special kind of communication. It’s not natural but it’s necessary. But translation is not only a communication it’s a process as well.
The translator has to analyze the speech of the source (speaker, text), he should analyze it, divide it into meaningful parts, find equivalents in the target language or describe some notions that do not exist in the TL. Here he deals with concepts.
E.g. “snow-white” – белоснежка. How can it be translated for Swahili people? We have to render the concept of whiteness- as white as a favor of a white heron. This is how they express “snow-white”.
The idea is- when you don’t know a word you come down to a concept. And think how this concept may be expressed in the TL and T-culture.
After it the translator comes to the TL , restructure it and send it to the recipient. This translation is viewed from the perspective process.
Translation should not be done in a word-for-word manner. Translation is an information, which goes beyond the sentence. It’s not enough to treat translation as words and sentences, we treat translation as a text which is beyond a sentence.
Translators and interpreters work with languages, but in very different ways: the key difference is that translators work with written words and interpreters work with spoken words.
In addition, most translators work in only one “direction”: for example from English into Japanese or from Japanese into English. If you search for a translator, you’ll see that you can choose the “from” and “into” languages that you need. In the industry, these are often referred to as the source (from) and target (into) languages. So, a client who needs a document translated from French into English and then a response document translated from English into French generally needs two different translators. Most translators work into their native language only since it’s faster and easier to write in one’s native language.
Simultaneous interpretation is used more frequently. The interpreters sit in a booth with a clear view of the meeting room, listen to the speaker through headphones and interpret the speech as it unfolds, i.e. simultaneously, into the other conference languages.
This requires high levels of concentration and interpreters will therefore need to alternate every 20 to 30 minutes. Simultaneous interpretation is ideal for multilingual meetings, events with a large number of participants and for the broadcasting media.
Consecutive interpretation: the interpreter sits at the table with the delegates or on the platform next to the speaker and interprets the speech into the required language once the speaker has finished speaking. The interpreter takes notes to give an accurate rendering of the speech which may be delivered in sections, up to approximately 15 minutes.
Consecutive interpretation is suitable for meetings with fewer languages or for formal occasions such as dinners, or when it is not possible to install technical equipment.
Whispering: When only one or two delegates require assistance, the interpreter can sit next to them and whisper into the required language. This technique is strenuous and tiring for listeners and it is only appropriate for short meetings involving a very small number of languages.
4
Language is an expression of culture and individuality of its speakers. It influences the way the speakers perceive the world. This principle has a far-reaching implication fro translation. If language influences thought and culture, it means that ultimate translation is impossible. The opposite point of view, however, gives another perspective. Humboldt’s "inner" and "outer" forms in language and Chomsky’s "deep" and "surface" structures imply that ultimate translation is anyhow possible.
Sugeng HariyantoIn practice, however, the possibility depends on the purpose and how deep the source text is embedded in the culture. The more source-text-oriented a translation is, the more difficult it is to do. Similarly, the deeper a text is embedded in its culture, the more difficult it is to work on.
Related to translation, culture manifests in two ways. First, the concept or reference of the vocabulary items is somehow specific for the given culture. Second, the concept or reference is actually general but expressed in a way specific to the source language culture. In practice, however, it is suggested that a translator should take into account the purpose of the translation in translating the culturally-bound words or expressions. The translation procedures discussed should also be considered.
Simultaneous interpretation is used more frequently. The interpreters sit in a booth with a clear view of the meeting room, listen to the speaker through headphones and interpret the speech as it unfolds, i.e. simultaneously, into the other conference languages.
This requires high levels of concentration and interpreters will therefore need to alternate every 20 to 30 minutes. Simultaneous interpretation is ideal for multilingual meetings, events with a large number of participants and for the broadcasting media.
Consecutive interpretation: the interpreter sits at the table with the delegates or on the platform next to the speaker and interprets the speech into the required language once the speaker has finished speaking. The interpreter takes notes to give an accurate rendering of the speech which may be delivered in sections, up to approximately 15 minutes.
Consecutive interpretation is suitable for meetings with fewer languages or for formal occasions such as dinners, or when it is not possible to install technical equipment.
Whispering: When only one or two delegates require assistance, the interpreter can sit next to them and whisper into the required language. This technique is strenuous and tiring for listeners and it is only appropriate for short meetings involving a very small number of languages.
5
The translator should possess thorough knowledge of both cultures. A foreign culture is a matter of likes & dislikes. Lng is a living phenomenon. It doesn’t exist apart from the culture. To be fully familiar with lng one should be fully familiar with culture, people using it, manners, beliefs etc. Every translator should keep up with the growth & change of the lng to be up-to-date with all its nuances, neologisms etc. Lng is in a constant state of flexibility: words, structures change from year to year. An interpreter should tell the clients, what is appropriate & what is not. Every translator should make a distinction between the lng one translates from & the lng one translates into. Generally speaking many translators prefer to translate from a foreign lng into their own, bcos they are familiar with it. But even years of study and experience do not necessarily enable one to be completely at ease with an acquire lng. Not so many people are good writers at their own lng. The education people get has much to be desired. Every translator should be an experienced writer in both lngs. Every translator has to be able to translate in more than one area of knowledge. In-house translator is on the staff & translates for only one firm. Free-lancing translator is invited from time to time. He has to translate in variety of areas (at least 15). The only thing that has to be disregarded is that one should be a specialist. It’s nonsense. Every translator should be a writer & an orator. Every translator should develop a good speed of translation. The professional translator should be prepared to persuade the client that a translation would take time. He should value his time & reputation. Every translator is paid for a word. The more words you translate per hour the more income you have (250 words per hour-- the lowest rate). Many translators divide lngs into groups. To the 1st group belong lngs that are in high demand (Japanese, Chinese, Russian, Arabic etc.). To the 2nd belong lngs having the potential for a development (Ukrainian, Pharcy etc.).
The problem of translation equivalence is closely connected with the stylistic aspect of translation one cannot reach the required level of equivalence if the stylistic peculiarities of the source text are neglected. Full translation adequacy includes as an obligatory component the adequacy of style, i.e. the right choice of stylistic means and devices of the target language to substitute for those observed in the source text. This means that in translation one is to find proper stylistic variations of the original meaning rather than only the meaning itself.
You do not have to be an expert in linguistics to make good translations. If you know your target language well, you can usually hear in your head whether the sentence sounds correct in your translation.
Your translation should not try to duplicate the word order or grammatical construction used in the source language unless it is also correct in your target language. For example, some languages put the verb (the "doing word") at the beginning of a sentence, some in the middle and some at the very end.
You do not have to use all the words from your source material for translation if your target language can cope without them. For example, we may say in English "The ship sank lower in the water", whereas in another language the words "in the water" may be unnecessary because the words for "sink" in relation to "ship" already includes the idea of "water".
Also, do not be afraid of using more words in your translation than in the original. Although in journalism you should aim to keep your sentences short and crisp, this must not be allowed to interfere with the clarity of the ideas you are trying to communicate.
6
When we come to non-equivalents we should determine what we really mean by non-equivalents. In fact these are the words of the SL which either have no equivalents in the TL or no equivalent denotator in the TL culture.
There are 2 groups:
1. Realia-words / culture-bound words (denote objects, features of national life, customs, habits, etc) E.g.: cricket, drive-in, валенки
2. Words that have no equivalents in the TL for some linguistic reason. (“Conservationist – специалист по охране окружающей среды, readership – круг читателей, glimpse – беглое знакомство”)
There are 3 ways of rendering their meanings.
1. Direct borrowing (transliteration or transcription) “mayor – мэр, know how – ноу хау, impeachment - импичмент”. Some of them are used in official documents which means the word has entered the vocabulary stuff. But we shouldn’t use such borrowings very often. It’s often better to resort to some kind of definition. (teach-in – собрание студентов и преподов универа для выражения критич мнений по соц и политич вопросам) Besides some of them may not be understood by a general reader (трайболизм – племенной строй)
2. Translation loan. (e.g.: back bencher = заднескамеечник, Houses of Common – Палата Общин, brain-drain – утечка мозгов). Often such occasional formations are adopted by the members of the TC and get the status of regular equivalents.
3. Descriptive or interpreting translation. using explanations. Free-word combinations. They are used to translate all sorts of realia, by explaining their meanings. They serve to explain the cultural peculiarities in which the realia is used. (баба-Яга – an old witch from Russian fairy-tales, landslide – победа на выборах с огромным перевесом, wishful thinking – принимание желаемого за действительное)
Very simple ideas may cause very complex grammatical structures. Sometimes a translator is puzzled, because the choice that s/he has to make is rather unpredictable and s/he can rely on he context only, linguistic or extra linguistic.
*All I want is all there is.
Many problems are caused by structures that have no analogs, e.g. absolute constructions. The translation is in danger to be clumsy. Absolute constructions may be translated in different ways: by a clause, an independent sentence, a participle or participial construction, деепричастным оборотом, or by a prepositional phrase.
*Her momentary weakness past, the child again summoned the resolution which until now sustained her. – когда прошла эта минутная слабость…
*The duty done, we refilled our glasses. – выполнив эту обязанность, мы вновь наполнили стаканы.
One should be very careful translating Russian деепричастные обороты. There are cases when this structure sounds ambiguous:
*Согласитесь, что, имея право выбирать оружие, его жизнь была в моих руках.”
In modern Russian there no such structures. They were common for 19th century sentences and were named “dangling modifier”.
7
Prose deminites metaphors indirectness things are not so simple.
Prose doesn’t lack rhythm, either but we have different operations: some prose becomes poetic, just as some poetry becomes prosaic verse though.
A translator should remember that prose comes closer to poetry. When prose gives up its syntax based linearity (When you read Hemingway for the 1 time, you are baffled, gr structures are ruined, a lot of replacements certain rhythm that creates a deliberate monotony) this is prose which deals with poetic voice of Hemingway. Joyce’s prose-the 1 attitude is “Is the man crazy?” or the case is extreme that relies on melody 90%
So when you in such things, it all becomes very complex.
In era E prose has had more than enough time to involve distinctly dif. Conventions that characterize it as opposed to poetry, but these conventions are not so numerous and they can be learned and followed. They all should be learned, or if you want to tr. ancient poetry say “Beowulf” or Chaucer, you should understand its poetry; you should march for melody & the voice of the poet. This is where the problem authorship comes. F.E. Beowulf is aunymous-we derive the features from the text itself.
Practically, there are some kinds of translation that have their own characteristics and forms. Some kinds of translation are found because of the differences and similarities of the source structures, different kinds of text that are going to be translated and different purpose of translation. Newmark states that translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language.
Roman Jakobson in Hatim and Munday makes a very important distinction between three types of written translation:1)Intralingual translation,translation within the same language, which can involve rewording or paraphrase, 2) Interlingual translation,translation from one language to another,3)Intersemiotic translation,translation of the verbal sign by non verbal sign for example music or image.
Nababan differentiates kinds of translation, such as word for word translation, free translation, literal translation, dynamic translation, pragmatic translation, aesthetic-poetic translation, ethnographic translation, linguistic translation communicative translation and semantic translation
8
Semiotics (the science investigating the general properties of sign systems) distinguishes the following types of relations-
• semantic (sign to object),
• syntactic (sign to sign),
• pragmatic (sign to man).
One of the most essential requirements, imposed on translation is that the 2 texts (the original and its translation) should be semantically equivalent. In other words they should be characterized by equivalent sets of relationships between the linguistic signs and their referents. The goal of translation is to produce a text bearing the same relation to the extra linguistic situation and the original. Semantic equivalence of messages does not necessarily imply the semantic identity of each linguistic sign. Semantically equivalent utterances include not only those, made up of the semantically identical signs. As distinct form semantic relations, syntactic relations are important only at the stage of analysis since relations between linguistics signs are essential for their semantic interpretations (Bill hit Shone and Shone hit Bill). But although they may be occasionally preserved in translation, the translator does not set himself this goal. Very often syntactically non-equivalent utterances prove to be semantically equivalent: He was considered invincible-его считали непобедимым.
Pragmatic relations are superimposed on semantic relations and play an equally portent role in analyzing the original text and in producing an equivalent text in the TL. Semantically equivalent messages do not necessarily pragmatically equivalent. The phrases “he made a fifteen-yard end run” & “он сделал пятнадцатиярдовый рывок по краю” are semantically equivalent for they denote the same situation but the American reader familiar with American football extract rar more information from it than his russian counterpart who would neither understand the aim of the maneuver nor appreciate the football-player’s performance. The pragmatic problems involved in translations arise from 3 types of pragmatic relations. The relation of the source language render to the original message, the relation of the target lang receptor to the TL message & the relation of the translator to both messages.
All of them are used when we try to render (воспроизводить) the same meaning factual and emotional in another language. If we can’t find equivalents we produce an adequate text, which fulfils (выполнять) the same function.
All these notions belong to the same level of preserving both form and content. Precision (точный перевод) we shall mean accuracy – that is the fact that the translation disregards the TL and conforms to the laws of the SL.
Adequacy means observing the laws of the TL. Equivalence belongs more to the Lang. Adequacy – to content. Adequate substitutions mean that you have to choose words or phrases that relate the same notions, but you have either to generalize or to specify the notion that exists in the SL. (ex. Father-in-law – свекор; Sibling – брат). (ex. “He is a public figure” – общественный деятель; “At the reception there were some very important public figures” – государственный деятель).
Equivalents don’t depend upon the context (ex. The League of Nations – лига Наций; ill - больной). Sometimes the complete eq-nt can be found in a meaning, but the form can be a challenge (ex. Can any of you do it? I can!– but in Rus.: Кто-то может это сделать? Я!). But the modality is preserved, though “can” is omitted.
9
Texts are usually written in 2 modes of speech- 1-exposition (explanation)
2-argumentation. These modes of speech are the most complex one. The purpose of these 2 modes of speech are different, because in the first case they bring home to the reader the essence of a new motion. In the case of argumentation it’s a purpose of the writer to ruin the readers holds, to give a new point of view, proving its validity.
The other distinguishes between expressive, informative and imperative function of the text. He ends that the reader will often be totally reliant on the context how to determine a particular speakers experience include their inner world, a world of his conciseness. The classification of the text classification falls into major contextual types: argumentative, expository, instructional, description and narration. The purpose is to produce an impression upon the reader or listener. We have to see what his point of view is. It gives us the choice of wording.
Textual types narrative, persuasive, technical, and expository are the text types • describe the animal's habitat in your report Descriptive writing is usually used to help a reader and writer develop an aspect of their work, eg. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc.
Features Description is a style of writing which can be useful for a variety of purposes: • to engage a reader's attention • to create characters • to set a mood or create an atmosphere • to bring writing to life.
Types of Narrative There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience and of course, fantasy stories. Features • Characters with defined personalities/identities. • Dialogue often included - tense may change to the present or the future. • Descriptive language to create images in the reader's mind and enhance the story.
Since language units often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular equivalents in the TL. A number of SL units have no regular equivalents in the TL. The absence of regular equivalents makes the translator resort to occasional equivalents.
Equivalent-lacking words may be translated in one of the following ways:
1. by imitating the form of a SL word/word group through transcription, transliteration or loan translation. In the course of time such occasional formations may get the status of regular equivalents:
Ex. impeachment – імпічмент ( transcription), inauguration – інавгурація (transliteration), brain wash – промивка мізків (loan translation)
2. by using approximate substitutes, i.e. TL words with similar meaning which is extended to convey some additional information
Ex. drug store – аптека (drug store sells medicine as well as other goods, so the choice of the variant depends on the context)
3. using lexical transformations (ex. The word “exposure” is equivalent-lacking in the meaning of “the medical condition caused when smb has been exposed to severe weather conditions”, so its meaning is modulated in the process of translation. Accordingly the sentence “He died of exposure” may be translated as “Він помер від переохолодження/сонячного удару”)
4. by using an explanation (landslide – переконлива перемога на виборах, перемога зі значним відривом)
Equivalent-lacking phraseological units are translated in one of the following ways:
1. by word-for word translation (ex. people who live in glass shouldn’t throw stones – людям, які живуть у склі краще не кидати каміння)
2. by explaining their figurative meaning (ex. to dine with duke Humphrey – залишитись без обіду, white elephant – подарунок, який замість задоволення приносить багато клопоту)
Equivalent-lacking grammatical units are translated in one of the following ways:
1. by using zero translations – the meaning of an equivalent-lacking unit is not rendered because it is practically identical to the meaning of some other SL units
Ex. By that time he had already left – До того часу він вже поїхав (Here the Past Perf. Tense is equivalent-lacking, the meaning of the Past Perf.
Tense (priority - попередність) is not conveyed by the verb left, because it is identical to the word “already” and “by that time”).
2. by using approximate translations – TL units with similar meaning
Ex. I heard him playing the piano – Я чув як він грав на піаніно (Here a complex object clause – him playing corresponds to a subordinate object clause – як він грав (Objective Participial Construction)
3. by using grammatical transformations
Ex. Your presence is not obligatory. Nor is it desirable – Ваша присутність є необов’язковою та навіть небажаною (it represents integration)
10
Speech is time – bound, dynamic, and transient. Речь время - грань, динамичный, и преходящими. It’s a part of interaction, in which both participants are usually present. A speaker has a particular addressee. Your translation will depend upon the addressee. You should know whom you rely upon. You should be ready to paraphrase what you had said.
Writing is space – bound, static, and permanent. It’s the result of situation in which the writer is usually distant from the reader & often doesn’t know who the reader is going to be. The reader is your client & you do not know exactly what your client really needs. If your client is a specialist, then before creating a clean copy, discuss it with the client. Cooperate with your client.
2-The spontaneity & speed of most speech exchanges make it difficult to engage in complex advanced planning. The pressure to think while talking promotes looser construction, repetition, rephrasing, & comment clauses. Intonation & pause divide long utterances into manageable chunks, but sentence boundaries are often unclear. -Writing allows repeated reading & use of analysis & promotes the development of careful organization, compact expression with often-intricate structures. You should read the whole text, get the general idea, the idea of every paragraph, compare the ideas of the paragraph with the whole text, decide which role each paragraph plays for the whole text. Then translate the paragraph sentence by sentence
3.- Bcos participants are usually in face-to-face interaction, they can rely on such extra linguistic clause as facial expression or gestures to add meaning or to get feed back. Writing - Lack of visual contact means can’t rely on the extra linguistic context to make the meaning clear. You can chose between many options. The rule is: THE RIGHT WORD IN THE RIGHT PLACE. The fact that the translator doesn’t have any immediate feedback nay be regarded as disadvantage; in this case the translator should use imagination in order to have a clear vision of his addressee. The level of lng is proficiency. That’s why he should avoid parenthetical words, which cause misunderstanding & ambiguity. They will distract attention from the main topic. You should think of many recipients & chose a word, which many of them will understand. It’s easy to translate technical text bcos their characteristic feature is precision. When you start translating essays & popular articles you should be aware of lots of difficulties created by different settings. If you translate from Russian into English, you should be aware of “political correctness”.
Unique features of speech include most of the prosody. The main nuances of intonation, as well as contrasts of loudness, tempo, rhythm & other tones of voice. Every translator should to some degree possess the qualities of actor. He should be able to discover what tone is meant. Sometimes such things as gestures can help.
-Unique features of writing include pages, lines capitalization, spatial organization & several aspects of punctuality. Only a few graphic conversions relate to prosody, such as questions, marks & underlining for emphasis. Writing possesses much more opportunities for the translator. There are several types such as italics, bold type, and spacing. They show the importance of this or that word & attract attention. Every translator should know the punctuation rules
Units of specific national lexicon – are words and phrases standing for specific national phenomena, namely notions of material and spiritual life. They are: customs and traditions (Thanksgiving Day, Ivana Kupala), administrative and political systems (Verkhovna Rada, Congress, primaries), public bodies (назви партій), monetary systems (hryvnia, dollar), clothes (vyshyvanka), food (varenyky), drinks (Horilka), systems of weights and measures (English mile, Ukrainian verstva, pud), proper names (Klychko, Sergii) etc.
In the course of time such words may get the status of internationalisms, if they are important for communication (Coca-Cola, jeans, vodka, champagne, whisky, pizza).
Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of units of specific national lexicon, several ways of conveying their meaning can be distinguished:
1. transcription/ transliteration (if the meaning of these units of specific national lexicon is already familiar to the translation receptor and does not require any additional explanation): Lord – лорд, Гривня – Hryvnia
2. transcription/ transliteration and description (when the unit of specific national lexicon is introduced in the TL for the 1st time or it is not yet known to the general public; the explanation may be given either in the TT or in a footnote):
Tower of London – Лондонська фортеця Тауер
Хрещатик – Khreshchatyk (the main street of Kyiv)
вареники – varenyky (dumplings/ a traditional Ukrainian dish)
3. description only (when transcription/ transliteration is not helpful or could bring about unnecessary ambiguity (двозначність, неясність):
The Union Jack – державний прапор Великобританії
стати на рушник – to get married
4. word-for-word translation (when constituents have transparent lexical meaning):
стінгазета – wall newspaper
орден Ярослава Мудрого – Yaroslav the Wise Order
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In the course of translation in order to achieve translation equivalence we have to resort to different grammatical and lexical changes, which are called transformations. They can be of 4 types: 1. Transposition 2. Replacement 3. Addition 4. Omission
They are usually combined with one another.
1) Transposition - it’s a change in the order of linguistic elements, which are words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Most often it is connected with the notions of theme and rheme: *A boy came in – Вошел мальчик, He trembled as he looked up. – Взглянув наверх, он задрожал.*В комнате установилась тишина.” – “The room turned silent.”
2) Replacement - This is a very important transformation, and I can affect any kind of linguistic units: word forms, parts of speech, sentence elements, types of syntactic relations, sentence types etc.
*It’s our hope that… – мы надеемся, что…
*The abandonment by Irene of all the glittering things he had given her – Ирэн оставила
The same is true for nouns derived from verbs with the help of the suffix –er. The situation is complex, because in Russian the corresponding word may not exist at all or such words may denote people of permanent occupations.
*He is an early riser.
*I am a very rapid packer.
*John is a sound sleeper. – крепко спит
*The writer of this note. – написавший эту записку
*She is a very good dancer.” – хорошо танцует
Very often English adjectives are replaced by Russian nouns.
*Australian prosperity – процветание Австралии
*Youthful joblessness – безработица среди молодежи
Addition & omission
*pay claim – требование о повышении З./платы
*gun license – разрешение на ношение оружия
*oil talk – переговоры о ценах на нефть
Sometimes addition is required to compensate the lack of grammatical forms.
*This form of national defense investment is capable of protecting the country against attack. = Investment in national defense.
*The story of Robin Hood – told by or about?
Sometimes it is enough to introduce a preposition to make things go right.
*State-financed” = financed by state
*US-made” = made in US
(also called idiom), a word group with a fixed lexical composition and grammatical structure; its meaning, which is familiar to native speakers of the given language, is generally figurative and cannot be derived from the meanings of the phraseological unit’s component parts. The meanings of phraseological units are the result of the given language’s historical development. A phraseological unit is a complex linguistic phenomenon. Understanding the phraseological units’ artistic role in poetry, their identification and transfer to another language is not an easy task. The transfer of meaning and the artistic function of the phraseological units of great poets such as Byron, Pushkin and Abai to other languages require from a skilled translator deep knowledge and poetic talent. There ares everal objectives for the translator: knowledge of the basic issues of the phraseology theory; the same deep knowledge of the phraseological units’ values of two languages; and an adequate transfer of their meanings, semantics, expressive and stylistic features in the translation. The practical implementation of these objectives depends on the level of pre-translation analysis and interpretation of a phraseological unit by a translator. Even at early stages of the phraseological units’ pre-translation analysis, the translator starts facing many difficulties. The main ones are the following: definition of the phraseological units’ structure; understanding their textual, contextual and hidden meaning, content, idea; determining their artistic and aesthetic functions; finding the phraseological units’ full and appropriate alternatives in the target language; finding the closest alternative of the phraseological units in the language of translation; descriptive transfer of the phraseological units’ values in translation, etc. Each of these tasks corresponds to a certain stage of phraseology translation.
а воз и ныне там - things aren't moving
белая ворона - black swan
братья наши меньшие - pets
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Simultaneous interpretation is used more frequently. The interpreters sit in a booth with a clear view of the meeting room, listen to the speaker through headphones and interpret the speech as it unfolds, i.e. simultaneously, into the other conference languages.
This requires high levels of concentration and interpreters will therefore need to alternate every 20 to 30 minutes. Simultaneous interpretation is ideal for multilingual meetings, events with a large number of participants and for the broadcasting media.
Consecutive interpretation: the interpreter sits at the table with the delegates or on the platform next to the speaker and interprets the speech into the required language once the speaker has finished speaking. The interpreter takes notes to give an accurate rendering of the speech which may be delivered in sections, up to approximately 15 minutes.
Consecutive interpretation is suitable for meetings with fewer languages or for formal occasions such as dinners, or when it is not possible to install technical equipment.
Whispering: When only one or two delegates require assistance, the interpreter can sit next to them and whisper into the required language. This technique is strenuous and tiring for listeners and it is only appropriate for short meetings involving a very small number of languages.
Every text should be placed within a particular situation which has to be correctly identified by the tr-or => tr-n text should not only match its ST in function but employ equivalent situational dimensional means to achieve that function. Concept of overt & covert tr-ns: 1. overt tr-n- TT audience is not directly addressed 2. covert tr-n- production of text which in functionally equivalent to the ST. House theory is more flexible than Catford’s=>she gives more authentic examples, uses complete texts. This functional theory is of great importance. Mona Baker - eq-ce : gram-l, textual, pragmatic & several others. The notion of eq-ce in relation to tr-n process putting together linguistic & communicative approach=> distinguishes between eq-ce that can appear on word-level & above word-level. Eq-ce at word-level - 1-st element to be taken into consideration: word can be assigned different meanings in l-ges & might be regarded as more complex unit or morpheme => pay attention to: number, gender & tense. Gram-l eq-ce when - tr shd add\omit info in the TT because of the lack of gram-l devices in TL: number, tense, aspect, voice, person, gender. Textual eq-ce - helps to produce a cohesive text for the TC audience in a specific context. Pragmatic eq-ce – tr-r shd recreate the author’s intension in author’s culture so that the TC reader could understand it clearly.
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Report. It is a way of exchanging information. The basic symbolic fact is the report of what we have seen or felt. It’s the most usual form of communication.*It’s raining. (Report) Most frequently we rely on reports of reports, like “the newspapers say…” The translator should remember that reports adhere to the following groups. First & foremost all reports are verifiable, we can analyze it & say whether it is a fact or not. Report is based on mere facts. A translator should remember that for the most part people trust each other reports. Everyday life is full of reports & precision is one of the most trust worthy characteristics of reports. All reports should avoid misunderstanding. There are lots of texts, which are reports. First & foremost these are the texts full of factual matter, about science, mathematics, automotive engineering, travel, geography etc. The information in them should be reliable. The lng of reports is so to say “map” lng, bcos it gives reasonably accurate representation of the sphere. It enables you to get the work done. This lng may be dull & uninteresting, but reports are not meant for entertainment. We should state the things in such a way that everybody will agree with our formulation. A report is what to do & how to do. Most reports exclude inferences, judgments and loaded-words. Inference. It is an expression of opinion as a kind of comment on what is going said. In science we rely not only on reports but also on inferences & it’s important to distinguish between them two. An inference is a statement about the unknown based on the known. Report is a statement. Inference is a conclusion. Report is the foundation of utterances in some areas of thought. And inferences form the main body of science. E.g. a physician making a diagnosis infers it from the symptoms that a patient is talking about. Inference depends upon facts & we should always mention first facts & then inferences. Judgment. They are usually regarded as a barrier to clear thinking. They express the speaker’s approval or disapproval. (It’s a wonderful car.) Judgments look like facts but they are not facts. When a translator deals with legal documents he should do his job in such a way that the division between reports, inferences & judgments is obvious. Sometimes judgments lead people to extremes. If a person expresses disapproval he uses words having negative connotation, approval – positive (always exaggerated). Every translator should be able to disregard extremes, trying to make information neutral to avoid misunderstanding. No judgment is directly stated. It’s implied. Slanting is a case when people characteristic features & facts in such a way that the attitude of the writer is vividly seen, though sometimes he keeps the facts only & for the choice of facts the arrangement show the bias. This is done on purpose. The translator should avoid bias & keep the balance. He should be very sensitive if he feels it. Then he should discover bias, divide facts into important & not, establish a certain hierarchy of facts, find out whether the writer or his editors gave the story a misleading emphasis, discover whether they did it deliberately or sue to the lack of competence. If deliberately he should not chose a word. If not intentionally the translator should edit the message.
The usage of affective connotations produces a certain effect (pig, sugar, honey etc.) the idea of effective connotation is so important that every translator should know the means to express them. If the translator translates from Russian into English the minimative suffixes are reduced. The choice of words is very important. The difference between forms of address shows your attitude.
* Gentleman – individual – person – gent – guy – fellow – herd
* I have the honor to inform you sir – I should like to tell you sir – I’m telling you nester – Listen punk
Some words also possess connotation: informative and affective. (e.g.: pig – animal (inf), offence (aff))
Informative includes both definition and its denotation
Colloquial words: 1)slang – highly emotive and expressive words which are used by most speakers in very informal communication; 2) jargon – with professional terminology; 3)euphemisms – indirect meaning: - abbreviations (SOB – son of a bitch) – litotes (not exactly thin = fat) – abstractions (it, do it) – indirections (sleep together)
Reasons: taboo topics, political correctness, feminism
In the beginning we have the speaker of the SL who creates a SLT. And in the end we have a TLT. So we have to take into consideration that these people who speak the SL don’t know the target language. The translator or the interpreter reads or listens to the ST and analyzes it.
Analysis – to divide the text into meaningful parts.
The translator divides the text into meaningful parts he finds out how these meaningful parts can be expressed. He looks for equivalents in the TL and tries to translate every meaningful part. If he can’t find equivalents he finds adequate structures that can compensate for the absence of equivalents. Then he finds that he assemble the text according to the pattern that he’s given in the SLT, because the parts that he translated came to look different. And he has to explain some things, because there are cultural and language peculiarities. And to make the text he has to restructure the text and then he assembles a new text- the TLT. The TLT is transferred for recipient.
Translation is a kind of process that is used by an intermediary to transfer the information written in the SL to the recipient who is given a new text – TLT. If we speak about translation as creating new concepts or transferring we may represent it in the following way:
Concept is a mental structure.
To transfer concepts (to create new concepts) we should take care of:
1) Lexis- it should be different
2) Collect the vocabulary according to the levels of grammar:
• Understand that the syntax (structure) is different
• Stylistics which takes care of expressive means, means not only a number of expressive means but it is also a personal way of writing.
• Cultures are different.
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The sense of a language unit (the content of a whole matter) can be conveyed in the TL either in writing or in viva voce (orally). Depending on the form of conveying the sense/content, the following kinds of translating/ interpreting (oral translating) are to be distinguished:
1. The written translation/-ing from a written matter/source – is a faithful conveying of a matter translating in writing from one language into another. It represents a literary or any other faithful sense-to-sense translation from or into a foreign language. It may also be a free interpreting performed in writing. The matter under translation may be different, ex. a belles-lettres passage (prose or poetry work), a scientific or technical, newspaper passage, article or even separate words (in a list) etc.
2. The oral translation/-ing from an oral matter/source – is a faithful conveying of a speech or recording (жива мова або запис).
It can proceed/ be performed in 2 ways:
• in succession - after the whole matter or a part of it was heard. Then it is consecutive translation (послідовний). There is a possibility to interrupt or stop the speaker or recording in order to clarify some obscure places. As a result, consecutive interpreting can take more or a little less time then the SL speech or recording lasts.
• simultaneously (with its sounding) – the process of translation takes quite the same amount of time as the SL matter lasts and the interpreter faithfully conveys the meaning/content (синхронний). It is usually performed with some special equipment, technical devices (microphone, headphones)
3. The oral translation/-ing from a written matter/source – is interpreting at sight. It can also proceed either simultaneously with the process of getting acquainted with the content of the written matter, or in succession (after each part of the matter is first read through and comprehended (обміркований, осягнутий). The former way of interpreting, if carried out faithfully and exactly on time with the consecutive conveying of the matter, may be considered simultaneous too. Usually it is a regular prepared beforehand kind of interpreting.
4. The written translation/-ing from an orally presented matter/source is a rare occurrence, because a natural speech flow is too fast for putting it down in the TL (except for a shorthand presentation, which would be then a regular translation i.e. (that is to say) interpretation from a written matter). Translating from an oral speech/recording is now and than resorted to for training practices. When the matter to be rendered is produced at a slower speed than the written translation, this matter/speech can naturally be performed and put down in the TL.
Machine translation is a procedure in which a computer program analyzes a SLT and produces a TLT without further human intervention.
Human interference into machine translation is represented with pre-editing, proof-reading and post-editing practice.
Machine translating has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains restricted because machine translation can be performed only on the basis of programs elaborated by linguistically trained operators.
Machine translation may be successful at the level of separate words, sometimes word-combinations and simple sentences and quite seldom at the level of text.
Advantages of machine translation are: its speed and rich lexicon of its dictionaries, which can be useful for translation at the level of words.
Disadvantages: preparing programs for any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time, when the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level – at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the TL.
ex. London – is the capital of GB. – Лондон – капітал Великобританії
Greater difficulties are connected with morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes) and syntactic units (word combinations, sentences) with various means of connection between their parts. There are frequent violations of syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in the machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and sentences in the TL.
As a result, any machine translation needs a thorough proof-reading and editing, which can take even more time than the hand-made translation.
Translation is written - it involves taking a written text (such as a book or an article) and translating it in writing into the target language.
Interpretation is oral - it refers to listening to something spoken (a speech or phone conversation) and interpreting it orally into the target language. (Incidentally, those who facilitate communicate between hearing persons and deaf/hard-of-hearing persons are also known as interpreters - learn more.)
So you can see that the main difference is in how the information is presented - orally in interpretation and written in translation. This might seem like a subtle distinction, but if you consider your own language skills, the odds are that your ability to read/write and listen/speak are not identical - you are probably more skilled at one pair or the other. So translators are excellent writers, while interpreters have superior oral communication skills. In addition, spoken language is quite different from written, which adds a further dimension to the distinction. Then there's the fact that translators work alone to produce a translation, while interpreters work with two or more people/groups to provide an interpretation on the spot during negotiations, seminars, phone conversations, etc.
Translation and Interpretation Terms
Source language
The language of the original message.
Target language
The language of the resulting translation or interpretation.
A language - Native language
Most people have one A language, although someone who was raised bilingual may have two A languages or an A and a B, depending on whether they are truly bilingual or just very fluent in the second language.
B language - Fluent language
Fluent here means near-native ability - understanding virtually all vocabulary, structure, dialects, cultural influence, etc. A certified translator or interpreter has at least one B language, unless he or she is bilingual with two A languages.
C language - Working language
Translators and interpreters may have one or more C languages - those which they understand well enough to translate or interpret from but not to. For example, here are my language skills:
A - English
B - French
C - Spanish
So in theory, I can translate French to English, English to French, and Spanish to English, but not English to Spanish. In reality, I only work from French and Spanish to English. I don't work into French, because I recognize that my translations into French leave something to be desired. Translators and interpreters should only work into the languages that they write/speak like a native or very close to it. Incidentally, another thing to watch out for is a translator who claims to have several target languages (in other words, to be able to work in both directions between, say, English, Japanese, and Russian). It is very rare for anyone to have more than two target languages, although having several source languages is fairly
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lexical translation techniques.
concretization- исследовать – (explore, test, analyze) generalization- часы (watch, clock)modulation- he remembered some Shakespeare’s lines- Он помнил несколько шекспировских сонет transliteration- Есенин – Esenin transcription- Есенин- Yessenin loan translation- miniskirt – миниюбка explication – conservationist- сторонник охраны окружающей среды implication- to sing a song- петь commentary metaphorization- on the opposite bank an emerald ribbon of fields and fields and foliage boarded the river- противоположный берег реки окаймляла изумрудная зелень полей и деревьев. demetaphorization- he was pitchforked to the post = его неожиданно назначили на пост emphatization (old lady = старушка, старуха, старушенция). neutralization (старушенция = old lady, old girl).
GRAMMATICAL TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
expansion- He is a poor speller – Он делает много орфографических ошибок
compression- Германия занимает одно из ведущих мест по экспорту оптических приборов – Germany is a key exporter of optical instruments
omission -Он чувствовал себя прекрасно – He felt fine; She had a book in her hand – В руках она держала книгу
addition- He lived in Kent – Он жил в графстве Кент).
• sentence breaking,
There are some structures that require this transformation:
1. complex objects: I hate his behaving in this way;
2. infinitive structure with the preposition “for”: I am anxious for her to pass the exam;
3. infinitive structures indicating a subsequent action: She woke up to find her mother making breakfast;
4. nominative with the infinitive constructions: The number of hospital beds is expected to increase twofold;
5. infinitive of purpose constructions: He ran faster to finish first, etc.
• sentence joining
• replacement
substitution of word forms (сани – sledge, часы – watch), substitution of parts of speech (to shrug a careless shoulder – небрежно пожать плечами),substitution of sentence parts (The book made him feel sorry for the characters – Ему было жаль героев книги),substitution of sentence types (While I was eating my eggs, these two nuns with suitcases came in - Я ел яичницу, когда вошли эти две мо¬нахини с чемоданами).
• antonymic translation- She is not unworthy of your attention – Она вполне заслуживает вашего внимания
• transposition
Oral interpretation demands the following “shall”: - Exceptional articulation - High comfort speaking level in front of the audience - Public speaking experience - The ability to retain one or two points while listening to new information & then reproduce entire message - The ability to summarize the main points of smth being said - Experience in one or more technical areas - Complete ease in both lngs Interpreting can take place in the following environments: Conference. It’s a case when many people discuss a topic & sometimes they do it simultaneously. People interrupt each other & the translator should keep track of the main ideas & disregard repetitions. At the same time he should look for periods of time when he can sum up the previous information to precede the further. A translator is a kind of master of ceremony. Meeting. They are usually held in a more orderly manner. The translator may resort to simultaneous translation; bcos people will keep special pauses. You’re going to discuss conditions not issues. Precision is necessary & you can discuss your clients’ intentions beforehand. Telecom. It doesn’t give you the atmosphere of the conference you don’t feel it. Such meetings aren’t full of undercurrents, which are very important for the translator. You should listen through the lines. OPI interpretation. Americans use it very often (24 hours a day service). The service enables the speakers to communicate by phone in a 3-way conference call, including the interpreter. This service is used mainly for business. This kind of interpretation is rather difficult. The interpreter doesn’t see the speakers & isn’t able to learn anything about topic of conversation beforehand. Speakers can switch over to any related theme & they may be illogical. The translator should use compressed lng bcos the speakers pay for a minute.
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All of them are used when we try to render the same meaning factual and emotional in another language. If we can’t find equivalents we produce an adequate text, which fulfils the same function. Eq-ce can be said to exist only between factors equally present in SL and TL texts. Those TL factors requested that are not contained in the SL text can hardly be said to be equivalent, because there’s no textual basis of comparison. Here adequacy is the better term. Eq-ce in meaning can’t be taken as a satisfactory criterion for a correct translation. We can’t even accept that equivalence in meaning is provided by synonymy, since it is commonly accepted that there are no complete synonyms in a language. “Father=/= daddy=/= papa” Eq-ce on the different levels is different. What is being carried onto the TL text is the united semantic-pragmatic function of the S text. It means that the original text is being reconstructed in a new semantic-pragmatic entity, redesigned within the textual universe of the TL community. Precision depends upon the type of the text. For example, scientific texts require more precision.
E. Nida Argued there’s 2 diff. types of equivalence:
1) Formal = formal correspondence - focuses attention on the message itself in both form and content. Consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of the SL word or phrase. There is no always FE b/w lang pairs. But FE may be used wherever possible if the tr-n aims at achieving formal rather than dynamic eq-ce. As FE distorts the gram-l and stylistic patterns of TL and distorts the message so the recipient of the message shd try hard to understand what is said or written -> the 3-rd l-ge is invented.
2) Dynamic- tr-n principle according to which a tr-or seeks to tr-te the meaning of the original and he does in such a way that the wording will trigger the same impact on the Target culture audience as the original wording did on SC audience. Thus often the form of the original text is changed. Nida says dynamic eq-ce is > important than mere correct communication of info. N. tr-ted the Bible- sh have the same impact as the original text. E.g. ‘vanity of vanities’=’суета сует’.
Jakobson “Eq-ce in difference” invented a theory concerning conceptual differences between langs, introduced the notion of equivalence in difference. Jakobson’s approach – a semiotic one (the tr-or has to recode the ST first & only then he has to transmit the text into an equivalent message for the Tculture) . He suggests 3 kinds of tr-n: 1. intralingual (within one lang, i.e. rewording or paraphrase) - cases of ambiguity, a difference in experience that doesn’t allow a person to understand the message. To explain rephrase the message, say the same in other words; 2. interlingual (between 2 langs) - the transfer of info b\w 2 lang-s. the tr-or makes use of synonyms in order to get the ST message across =>in an interlingual tr-n there’s no full equivalence between code units (tr-n involves 2 equivalent messages in 2 different codes); 3. intersemiotic (between sign systems) - sign-lang-ge (сурдо-перевод) as a means of translating ideas for deaf & numb people. From a gram-l p of v lang-s can differ from one another to a greater or lesser extent, but this doesn’t mean that the tr-n may face the problem of not finding the necessary equivalent. So in this case the tr-or resorts to loan tr-ns (borrow), neologisms, semantic shifts (gives new shades of meaning to the word already known, depends on the context), “circumlocution” - Рассуждение, пояснение. => Similarity between Vinay
linguistic tr-n is not possible or linguistic approach is not possible, tr-or can rely on other procedures, such as loan tr-ns, neologisms & the like. Both theories recognize the limitation of linguistic approach. Both theories argue that a tr-n can never be impossible since there’re several methods that a tr-or can choose.
John Catford - the introduction of types & shifts of tr-n. 3 criteria of tr-n: 1. the extent of tr-n: full tr-n vs partial tr-n 2. the gram-l rank at which the tr-n eq-ce is established => rank-bound tr-n vs unbounded tr-n. 3. Levels of l-ge involved in tr-n => Total tr-n vs restricted tr-n. 2-nd criterion deals with formal correspondence & textual eq-ce. Formal correspondence- rank-bounded tr-n- the tr-or looks for an eq-t in the TL for each word in the SL; even each morpheme. In unbound tr-n we can find additional eq-ces at s-ce, clause and other levels. Textual eq-ce - TL text or some part of it is observed on a particular occasion to be eq-ce of a given SL text or its portion. To estimate the validity of tr-n -> the instrument of commutation => he asks competent bi-lingual informant. Tr-n-shifts- departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from SL to TL. (if formal correspondence is impossible!) 2 types of tr-n shifts: 1. level shifts- the SL item at 1 linguistic level has a TL eq-t at different level. “I’ve done it” (the rank is Grammar) – я уже сделал это (lexics). 2. category shifts- divided into 4 types: 1. structure-shifts- involve a gram-l change b\w the structure of the ST & that of TT. 2.Class-shifts- SL item is translated with TL item which belongs to different gram-l class (I’m hungry = я хочу есть) 3.Unit-shifts- involve changes in rank (a sent-ce may be tr-ted as a phrase; structure as as single word) 4.Intra-system shifts - SL an TL have corresponding items, but when tr-n selects a non-corresponding item in the TL system (1001 nights = 1001 ночь). Catford was criticized: his theory is simplification, we shd also take into consideration other factors: textual, cultural & situational aspects. Juliane House - semantic & pragmatic eq-ce ; ST & T text shd match 1 another in function=>possible to characterize the function of text by determining the situational dimensions=>every text should be placed within a particular situation which has to be correctly identified by the tr-or => tr-n text should not only match its ST in function but employ equivalent situational dimensional means to achieve that function. Concept of overt & covert tr-ns: 1. overt tr-n- TT audience is not directly addressed 2. covert tr-n- production of text which in functionally equivalent to the ST. House theory is more flexible than Catford’s=>she gives more authentic examples, uses complete texts. This functional theory is of great importance. Mona Baker - eq-ce : gram-l, textual, pragmatic & several others. The notion of eq-ce in relation to tr-n process putting together linguistic & communicative approach=> distinguishes between eq-ce that can appear on word-level & above word-level. Eq-ce at word-level - 1-st element to be taken into consideration: word can be assigned different meanings in l-ges & might be regarded as more complex unit or morpheme => pay attention to: number, gender & tense. Gram-l eq-ce when - tr shd add\omit info in the TT because of the lack of gram-l devices in TL: number, tense, aspect, voice, person, gender. Textual eq-ce - helps to produce a cohesive text for the TC audience in a specific context. Pragmatic eq-ce – tr-r shd recreate the author’s intension in author’s culture so that the TC reader could understand it clearly.
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A concept is distinguished by the word which is conveyed as a recognizable unit of meaning. It may be cut into meaning components (=сема). In a given language a concept is represented by a word, or a morpheme, a phrase or idiom, by tone or by word order. Concepts are identified in a language on the principles of contrast and comparison with the system of the same language. Languages have different concepts, these concepts can be similar or completely different. They may develop or be absent in a language. In any case we can’t speak of complete equivalence.
There are the same categories in some languages, but the ways they are conveyed and expressed may be entirely different.
Sometimes the language can lack some concepts. E.g.: “projector” = ‘a thing that shows pictures on the wall” – it lacks in Vietnamese, they use definition. Sometimes there are concepts which partially overlap. E.g.: “to undo” = «сделать опять всё как было»
The concept of plurality does exist in English and Russian but it’s packaged differently. To denote plurality we use suffixes, add them to nouns and verbs. Very often the idea of plurality is is expressed differently.
Plurality vs. Singularity
Похороны = funeral
Часы = watch
лук = onions
To look into the eye = смотреть в глаза
To keep oneself in hand = держать себя в руках
The same meaning component may occur in the surface structure of the lexical items.
Sheep – sheep
Lamb – ягненок
Ram – овен
In some languages the concept isn’t broken into subconcepts.
Wolf = волк и волчица
Generic and specific concepts can be found in any language. One and the same word can be used at different levels.
Human-being – man – husband
Человек – мужчина – муж
Ученый муж – scholar
There are generic notions that are different in different languages.
Зерно – corn, rice
Сутки – the 24’s, day
2:00 – two in the morning
In some languages the concept of “evil” is equal to the concept of “bad”, but evil isn’t always translated as bad.
The atmosphere was evil – враждебная
A tall building – высокое здание
There are pairs in language that are different by one component of meaning.
Он жил в 20 веке – He lived in the 20 century
Он жил здесь 2 года – He had stayed with us for 2 years
When we speak about semantic differences between languages we can say that there’s difference in meaning as well as phonology etc. The systems of concepts never cover each other. the relationships between these systems are very complex.
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As all lngs English is not a homogeneous system. It consists of many multitude subsystems & they represent territorial & social dialects. Standard English is not a homogeneous system ever. It comprises several varieties: 1. American English 2. Canadian English 3. Australian English 4. British English These are the major variations of English, but nowadays scholars speak of an awful lot of “Englishes”. These are accepted variations. The existence of all those subsystems poses a number of challenges for the translator. *Bonnet (Br.) = hood (Am.)=капот Territorial dialects cannot be accepted as purely regional varieties of English. We may call them social-regional varieties. They are determined not only in lng terms, but also in geographic & social terms. They are certain facts that influence translation in many respects. In rendering dialect characteristics the translator does not only convey regional features, but the social markers as well, looking for the equivalents in the TL that have the same regional & social characteristics. *They did the old woman in (Pygmalion). – они укокошили старушку At the same time compensation is widely used. Sometimes the marker is purely phonetic. So we can use lexical compensation for phonetic dialect. The 2 major varieties of Standard English (American & British) have very much prominent distinctive features & they influence the process of translating. This influence is different when you translate into English or into Russian. When you translate into Russian the problem is of understanding & proper interpretation. It should be voted that seemingly identical lexical items might take different denotational meanings in British & in American. *Oxford faculty – факультет
*Harvard faculty - профессорско-преподавательский состав To diagnose the meaning properly the translator should find out the origin of the text. Sometimes differences of 2 variations influence not only denotational meaning but just one of its components. These partial semantic divergences are also important for translation. *To ship materials (cargo). Both in British & in American variations “to ship” denotes transportation. But in British it means doing transportation by sea & in American any means of transportation is suitable. Semantic differences between British & American English may affect not only words, but also phrases. *Public school – (US) school for primary & secondary grades that is maintained at public expense; (Br) – only exclusive schools sometimes boarding, most often for boys, which prepare students for universities: Some of them prepare people for public service. Translating articles or books, the translator should make sure what the country is. Essential semantic differences affect the system of numbers. *Billion – (US) 1000000000 (Br) 1000000 Equally important are the differences between measures of weight. Some of the units in British & in American do not coincide. Lexical differences in lngs affect not only denotational but also connotational meaning as well. *Politician – (US) acquires some negative connotation. (Br) neutral meaning *Aggressive – (US) energetic, persistent (Br) negative connotation There is a lot of confusion. But the most difficult is when the translator has to produce texts, oriented at any English speaking person, regardless of his/her nationality. So the choice of wording should be based on very different principles. Preference should be given to linguistic forms, which possess no local coloring. Unfortunately it’s not always possible to find a neutral word for a term. The translator should explain what he really means, but the publishers in most cases prefer British variant.
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People usually use different approaches to classify words & the most important is classification from the point of view of translation challenges.
1.Words that cannot be found in the recent English-Russian dictionaries.
Even if you find them, it’ll be difficult to choose the right meaning. (E.g.: configure конфигурировать,придавать форму. overpredict – предсказать, second source – выпущенный по лицензии, из второго источника.) For the most part they are neologisms and are built according to the normal word-building (normal affixes) e.g.: specifically – в частности, например, характерно
A semantic field of a word may be rather great.
2.False friends of the translator.
These words are always misleading. These are pairs of words which in 2 languages look or sound similar but differ in meaning. If you don’t know the translation for sure it’s better to check in the dictionary. Real international words are “electronics, algebra, etc”. Completely pseudo-international words: “complexion (не комплекция а цвет лица), commutator (не коммутатор а переключатель), etc”. Partially pseudo-international words: “elevator (элеватор – лифт)” These words are known as false friends of the translator. E.g.: original- исходный, figure- цифра, object – целью.
3.Words with a broad semantic range.
E.g.: meaningful – значимый, выразительный, многозначительный, поддающийся интерпретации; имеющий ясную цель и т.д.
4.Words with a very narrow semantic range & low frequently of occurrence.
They name very specific things and can often be not registered in the dictionary. E.g.: chore – работа по дому, ежедневные обязанности (техн:задача,функция)
5.Words that are stylistically colored & have affective connotations.
Even in technical texts authors express their emotions e.g.:excellent,extremely
When we come to non-equivalents we should determine what we really mean by non-equivalents. In fact these are the words of the SL which either have no equivalents in the TL or no equivalent denotator in the TL culture. There are 2 groups:
1. Realia-words (denote objects, features of national life, customs, habits, etc)
2. Words that have no equivalents in the TL for some linguistic reason. (“Conservationist, readership, glimpse”)
There are 3 ways of rendering their meanings.
1. Direct borrowing (transliteration or transcription) “mayor, know how”. But we shouldn’t use such borrowings very often.
2. Free-word combinations. They are used to translate all sots of realia, by explaining their meanings. They serve to explain the cultural peculiarities in which the realia is used.
*баба-Яга – an old witch from Russian fairy-tales
3. Neologisms. They may be old words, which acquire new meaning, or new words: coined or loan words. Neologisms are not registered in dictionaries. We analyze the structure and the context to understand the meaning of the word.
*Peacenik – one who fights for peace. The suffix shows that the word is coined. “-nik” is popular since 1960-s (sputnik)
*To cross the house – to betray the interests of the party you belong to
The cumulative sentence allows us to go to linguistic units larger than a sentence, e.g. a paragraph. The structure of a paragraph is like that of a cumulative sentence. It follows the same two principles of addition and direction of modification. But instead of the main clause there’s the topic sentence and the same types of relationships among sentences that we observe in the cumulative sentence. They are: coordination (the same level) and subordination (different levels). The cumulative sentence may serve as a model for writing an effective paragraph.
An example of coordinative paragraph:
*1. In the names of justice, good sportsmanship and general honesty, it is simply essential that information reported in the public press, in meetings or committees or lunch tables be double-checked.
2. In engineering and industry this is a matter of profits or bankruptcy.
2. In medicine it is a matter of life and death.
2. In public affairs and in private life it is a matter of integrity or corruption.
2. In the laboratory it is taken for as a necessary and elementary part of scientific behavior.
In the process of translation there may occur a situation when we’ll have to divide a sentence into two or we’ll have to unite two sentences.
Во имя справедливости, честной игры и элементарной порядочности просто необходимо создать условия для того, чтобы информация, поступающая в прессе и обсуждаемая на заседаниях комитетов и во время деловых обедов, была бы проверена и перепроверена. Что касается технологии и производства, это вопрос прибылей или банкротства. В медицине это вопрос жизни и смерти. В общественной и частной жизни это вопрос порядочности или нарушения человеческих устоев. В области научных исследований это неотъемлемая характеристика научной этики.
An example of a subordinate paragraph:
* 1. The humanities, whatever is meant by that baffling term, seem to the musing observer to offer a succession of paradoxes.
2. The word itself is a modern invention, coming to us from the 19th century.
3. One might reasonably infer that, given so recent a coinage, we must know what we mean by it.
4. In fact, however, we don’t quite know what we mean by it and this is the 1st paradox.
5. We believe in something we cannot delimit.
6. Probably, the only safe working definition is that: you know horses – cows are different.
7. You know the sciences – the humanities are different.
8. They are what you have left in the college curriculum when you extract the sciences – natural, physical and social.
Here is the kind of hierarchy, which tells us that each sentence is dependent on the previous sentence, the one on the previous level.
Для вдумчивого исследователя то, что подразумевается под сомнительным термином “гуманитарные науки”, является рядом парадоксов. Сам термин появился сравнительно недавно, в 19 веке. Можно предположить, что, используя недавно изобретенное слово, мы должны знать, что оно означает. На самом деле мы не знаем, и это первый парадокс. Мы используем понятие, которому не можем дать определение. Единственно подходящим определением было бы следующее: вы когда-нибудь видели лошадь? Так вот, коровы – это совсем другое. Вы знаете, что такое естественные науки? Так вот, гуманитарные науки – это совсем другое. Это то, что останется в учебном плане университета, если оттуда убрать биологию, физику и социальные дисциплины.
We place every sentence on the separate level in the hierarchy of sentences and we try to show the dependence of one sentence on the other or others.
“1. The process of learning is essential in our life.
2. All higher animals seek it deliberately.
3. They are inquisitive and they experiment.
4. An experiment is a sort of harmless trial run of some action, which we shall have to make in the real world; and this, whether it is made in the laboratory by scientists or by fox cubs outside their earth.
5. The scientists experiment and the cub plays; both are learning to correct their errors of judgment in a setting in which errors are not fatal.
6. Perhaps, this is what gives them both their air of happiness and freedom in these activities.”
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A concept, considered as distinct from the word by which it is conveyed, is a recognizable unit of meaning. It may be broken down into meaning components and as such is a bundle of meaning components.
Larson quotes Barnwell:
"In a given language, the concept unit usually, but by no means always, is represented by a word; it may also be represented by a morpheme, or by an idiomatic expression, or by tone, or by word order. Concepts are identified in a given language on the principle of contrast and comparison within the system of that language" (1980, 141).
Although all languages have concepts, they do not have the same concepts. Each language conceptualizes in a different manner, packaging the phenomena of reality together in different ways and then reinforcing such distinctions by naming them.
Larson's examples include:
•(a) Existence of a single Vietnamese word to mean: "someone leaves to go somewhere and something happens at home so that he has to go back home". Conversely a "projector" may have to be named in some languages as: "the thing that shows pictures on the wall".
•(b) Plurality is often conveyed by the use of a suffix on nouns or verbs or both. In Aguarana different verb stems are used for singular and plural action.
•(c) The same meaning component may occur in several surface structure lexical items of the English word "sheep", whose meaning is also included in different ways in the words "lamb", "ram" and "ewe" combined with other meanings. In Huambisa (Peru), these would be translated by the word groups "sheep its child", "sheep big", and "sheep its woman".
Each language has its own system for arranging concepts into different parts of speech making it risky to seek one-to-one equivalents. One language may use the verb form more frequently, where another will seek to express the same meanings by means of a verbal noun or an adjective. Such skewing between the grammar and semantic structure is a device which counteracts monotony in the presentation of information. Such devices are a part of the style but will not accomplish the intended purpose if translated into a second language. In order to restate the information in a second language it may be necessary to unpack the concepts and then repackage them in a manner appropriate to the concept scheme of that language.
Mixed paragraph
This kind of arrangement is a bit faculty. The 2nd sentence can exist without the 1st one. Subordination & coordination represent a special kind of ties, gluing the sentences together. But the next example will show that it’s not enough & there are special connectives. We may use all sorts of special phrases (two by two; the really critical problems solved, they…etc.)
When we write a text we should take care of such things as redundancy, if it does not serve the purpose of effectiveness. The opposite notion is compression.
* We expect John to return from his journey today. When I looked out of the window half an hour ago I saw the lights of his flat are on. Of course it might have been Paul who was there – I know he has the key. But since I am not sure that Paul is in town, John had possibly arrived.
We could use Present perfect, but it’s wrong from the point of view of information the author wanted to convey. Due to the lack of past perfect in Russian we should use such means, which convey this idea logically.
Sometimes the removal of redundancy is possible due to the peculiarities of the language.
*We find it difficult to hear the distinctions, which are of importance in the foreign language but not in our own. We find it difficult to pronounce sounds of the foreign language with which we are not familiar. The Frenchman trying to speak English will have difficulty with our “” & “” because the sound doesn’t occur in his language. He may say “z” instead of “”because it’s familiar to him. – Трудно различать в иностранном языке то, что не различается в родном, например, произносить незнакомые звуки. Французу трудно произносить непривычный звук “” и он, скорее всего, заменит его на знакомый “z”.
We do not have to impose the rules of one language on the structural patterns of another. Instead of repeating the same structure we use connective, typical of the TL.
Language minimalism & the motto “remove redundancy” may be applied only as a result of special analysis. This happens because not all given information may be considered unnecessary to mention again. Redundancy may be saved for stylistic a purpose, that’s why it should be preserved.
* Я вас люблю любовью страстной – I love you with the passion of love
The translation can be done without a thorough analysis of a passage. But then we should use a skeleton. The skeleton of the text may be done both in the SL & in the TL. For an experienced translator the SL is more preferable, because it’s not the skeleton he is going to reproduce, but rearranged text in the TL.
Once a passage has been thoroughly understood and its essential points noted, then it’s time to write down a text of your own which is the translation. There are certain techniques to make the text most effective: compression and suppression.
Compression – rendering the same meaning economically, removing redundancy, making the meaning vivid by using the potential qualities of the language.
• Making phrase do the work of clauses and sentences.
Вскоре, после того как мы приехали… – shortly upon our arrival…
• Telescoping two o more sentences into one.
Уж лучше я останусь дома. Не хочется мокнуть. – I’d rather stay at home than get wet.
• Using single words instead of word combinations.
Нимало не убоявшись трудностей – undaunted.
• Using the shortest possible link to give the required “continuous connection of ideas” or semi-colon (punctuation).
Suppression is used on the context level.
1. Content redundancy must be eliminated.
2. Examples of the original passage can be suppressed and replaced by or grouped under generic terms or general definitions.
3. The interpreter should suppress anything, which s/he considers unimportant or immaterial.
4. Figurative language is unsuitable for an interpreter. Figures of speech are ornaments and must be discarded for economy’s sake.
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The challenge here is in situation itself, not in traditions. The cultural situation creates phenomena that are not typical of any other country. The translator has to consult different sources concerning the country’s culture.
*Drugstore – аптека + закусочная
*Sorority – a group of females living together, a kind of society with certain rules, no man is allowed.
*Fraternity – the same for males.
Culture bound words occur when a TL concept is not known in the SL.
*прописка- mandatory registration
If we deal with culture-bound words we have to consider the words that don’t have an equivalent in the TL because they haven’t been invented yet, and the words that cannot have any equivalent because they don’t present in the TL culture.
*Sputnik – satellite (later) – the case is psychological not linguistic.
*A TV-dinner – еда из полуфабрикатов (реклама по ТВ)
When we deal with words denoting places, flora and fauna we usually loan words. Transcription is the best of presenting the idea. E.g. “jungle, prairie, steppe, tundra (= a marshy plain or Siberian swamp). The realia are also words denoting dances, musical instruments:
*Былина – a folk legend
*Божба – swear words, an oath.
(deduction).
In a later chapter of Translation and Text Transfer (1992a: 152—3), Anthony Pym
comments on the historical invisibility of translators as monolingual rulers' servants
— "controlled nobodies" — and raises the very political question of loyalty or fidelity,
especially the knotty problem of proving one's loyalty to a ruler who cannot do what
the translator does:
It is not particularly scandalous that few translators have been kings, princes or
priests. There is even a certain pride to be taken in the fact that political and
moral authorities have had to trust the knowledge conveyed by their translating
servants. But how might the prince know that a particular translator is worthy
of trust? It would be foolish to suggest that all translators are equally competent,
that their fidelity corresponds automatically to what they are paid, or that their
loyalty is beyond doubt. This conception of translation theory as a necessary part of the translator's
defensive armor against attacks from the uncomprehending is at once age-old —
it was, after all, Jerome's fundamental motivation for theorizing translation in his
letter to Pammachius in 395, and Martin Luther's likewise in his circular letter on
translation in 1530 — and also relatively new. The official and dominant reason for
theorizing translation for over two thousand years, after all, has almost invariably
been to control the translators' actions, not (as for Jerome, Luther, and Pym) to help
them justify those actions after the fact: to make translators absolutely subject to
the ruler's command (be faithful, not free!), not to give them defenses against the
ruler's incomprehension
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Differences in relationships between concepts
(a) Generic-specific: the relationship of one concept as being more generic and another as more specific is reflected in the lexical structure of all languages and their taxonomies (e.g. in the case of plants or animals). There are situations in many languages where the same word form is used at several different levels within such taxonomies (e.g. man). The generic-specific relationships of two languages tend to be quite different. For example, in the Philippines "rice" is the generic term for all forms of grain so that "wheat" might be translated as "rice called wheat". Slavic languages do not have separate words for arm and hand which are together denoted by the same term. In Isnag (Philippines) the "trunk" of a tree is thought of as being in two parts separately named. The Tlingit of Alaska have no general word for "swim", instead they have many specific words for different kinds of swimming. Larson points out that languages tend to differ most in generic terminology, rather than specific. Whereas equivalent words can be found for specific objects or for phenomena such as "murder", "lie" and "steal", it may be very hard to find equivalent generic words for "bad". The translation of such abstract terms is often very complex, especially if the cultural contexts of the two languages are quite different. It is to be expected that the complexity increases with the degree of abstraction.
(b) Synonyms-antonyms: A second language may not have a specific word equivalent for each of the synonyms of the source language. There may be more synonyms or less. All languages have pairs of words which are antonyms, but different languages have different sets of antonyms. Larson gives the example of the two antonyms short/tall (vertical) and short/long (horizontal) which are covered by one Aguarana antonym set. Some languages have a word for only one of a pair, the other being indicated by the negative.
(c) Contrastive pairs: In all languages there are pairs of words which differ from each other only by a single component of meaning. Larson gives as example "show" and "see" in which show has the additional meaning of "cause to" (see), similarly in the case of "drop" and "fall" or "make" and "be". It is not uncommon that a language will have no exact equivalent for "show", "drop" and "make", but some causative form will be used instead. Two languages may have the same concept set as far as the generic components distinguishing each word from others in the set will be different. There may be more lexical items in the set and the contrastive components may not match. Larson gives the example of the set "human" which in English has components man, woman, boy and girl. In Aguarana the "man" term of this set must be distinguished as either married or unmarried.
(d) Semantic sets: The lexical items of a language represent a network of interrelated meanings that has been called a cognitive network. No two languages will have equivalent sets of terms referring to a particular domain. This is clearer in the case of tangible objects, but is also true in the case of verbs. Larson gives the example of Bora (Peru) in which a number of verb roots are used to describe different forms of "coming" and "going". Which do not match the English verbs. The roots include: go, go to, going arrive at, come, come to, coming arrive at, and come back to.
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As all lngs English is not a homogeneous system. It consists of many multitude subsystems & they represent territorial & social dialects. Standard English is not a homogeneous system ever. It comprises several varieties:1. American English2. Canadian English3. Australian English4. British EnglishThese are the major variations of English, but nowadays scholars speak of an awful lot of “Englishes”. These are accepted variations. The existence of all those subsystems poses a number of challenges for the translator. *Bonnet (Br.) = hood (Am.)=капотTerritorial dialects cannot be accepted as purely regional varieties of English. We may call them social-regional varieties. They are determined not only in lng terms, but also in geographic & social terms. They are certain facts that influence translation in many respects. In rendering dialect characteristics the translator does not only convey regional features, but the social markers as well, looking for the equivalents in the TL that have the same regional & social characteristics.*They did the old woman in (Pygmalion). – они укокошили старушкуAt the same time compensation is widely used. Sometimes the marker is purely phonetic. So we can use lexical compensation for phonetic dialect. The 2 major varieties of Standard English (American & British) have very much prominent distinctive features & they influence the process of translating. This influence is different when you translate into English or into Russian. When you translate into Russian the problem is of understanding & proper interpretation. It should be voted that seemingly identical lexical items might take different denotational meanings in British & in American. *Oxford faculty – факультет
*Harvard faculty - профессорско-преподавательский составTo diagnose the meaning properly the translator should find out the origin of the text. Sometimes differences of 2 variations influence not only denotational meaning but just one of its components. These partial semantic divergences are also important for translation. *To ship materials (cargo). Both in British & in American variations “to ship” denotes transportation. But in British it means doing transportation by sea & in American any means of transportation is suitable. Semantic differences between British & American English may affect not only words, but also phrases.*Public school – (US) school for primary & secondary grades that is maintained at public expense; (Br) – only exclusive schools sometimes boarding, most often for boys, which prepare students for universities: Some of them prepare people for public service.Translating articles or books, the translator should make sure what the country is. Essential semantic differences affect the system of numbers.*Billion – (US) 1000000000 (Br) 1000000Equally important are the differences between measures of weight. Some of the units in British & in American do not coincide. Lexical differences in lngs affect not only denotational but also connotational meaning as well. *Politician – (US) acquires some negative connotation. (Br) neutral meaning *Aggressive – (US) energetic, persistent (Br) negative connotationThere is a lot of confusion. But the most difficult is when the translator has to produce texts, oriented at any English speaking person, regardless of his/her nationality. So the choice of wording should be based on very different principles. Preference should be given to linguistic forms, which possess no local coloring. Unfortunately it’s not always possible to find a neutral word for a term. The translator should explain what he really means, but the publishers in most cases prefer British variant.
People usually use different approaches to classify words & the most important is classification from the point of view of translation challenges.
1.Words that cannot be found in the recent English-Russian dictionaries.
Even if you find them, it’ll be difficult to choose the right meaning. (E.g.: configure конфигурировать,придавать форму. overpredict – предсказать, second source – выпущенный по лицензии, из второго источника.) For the most part they are neologisms and are built according to the normal word-building (normal affixes) e.g.: specifically – в частности, например, характерно
A semantic field of a word may be rather great.
2.False friends of the translator.
These words are always misleading. These are pairs of words which in 2 languages look or sound similar but differ in meaning. If you don’t know the translation for sure it’s better to check in the dictionary. Real international words are “electronics, algebra, etc”. Completely pseudo-international words: “complexion (не комплекция а цвет лица), commutator (не коммутатор а переключатель), etc”. Partially pseudo-international words: “elevator (элеватор – лифт)” These words are known as false friends of the translator. E.g.: original- исходный, figure- цифра, object – целью.
3.Words with a broad semantic range.
E.g.: meaningful – значимый, выразительный, многозначительный, поддающийся интерпретации; имеющий ясную цель и т.д.
4.Words with a very narrow semantic range & low frequently of occurrence.
They name very specific things and can often be not registered in the dictionary. E.g.: chore – работа по дому, ежедневные обязанности (техн:задача,функция)
5.Words that are stylistically colored & have affective connotations.
Even in technical texts authors express their emotions e.g.:excellent,extremely
When we come to non-equivalents we should determine what we really mean by non-equivalents. In fact these are the words of the SL which either have no equivalents in the TL or no equivalent denotator in the TL culture. There are 2 groups:
1. Realia-words (denote objects, features of national life, customs, habits, etc)
2. Words that have no equivalents in the TL for some linguistic reason. (“Conservationist, readership, glimpse”)
There are 3 ways of rendering their meanings.
1. Direct borrowing (transliteration or transcription) “mayor, know how”. But we shouldn’t use such borrowings very often.
2. Free-word combinations. They are used to translate all sots of realia, by explaining their meanings. They serve to explain the cultural peculiarities in which the realia is used.
*баба-Яга – an old witch from Russian fairy-tales
3. Neologisms. They may be old words, which acquire new meaning, or new words: coined or loan words. Neologisms are not registered in dictionaries. We analyze the structure and the context to understand the meaning of the word.
*Peacenik – one who fights for peace. The suffix shows that the word is coined. “-nik” is popular since 1960-s (sputnik)
*To cross the house – to betray the interests of the party you belong to
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Semiotics (the science investigating the general properties of sign systems) distinguishes the following types of relations-
One of the most essential requirements, imposed on translation is that the 2 texts (the original and its translation) should be semantically equivalent. In other words they should be characterized by equivalent sets of relationships between the linguistic signs and their referents. The goal of translation is to produce a text bearing the same relation to the extra linguistic situation and the original. Semantic equivalence of messages does not necessarily imply the semantic identity of each linguistic sign. Semantically equivalent utterances include not only those, made up of the semantically identical signs. As distinct form semantic relations, syntactic relations are important only at the stage of analysis since relations between linguistics signs are essential for their semantic interpretations (Bill hit Shone and Shone hit Bill). But although they may be occasionally preserved in translation, the translator does not set himself this goal. Very often syntactically non-equivalent utterances prove to be semantically equivalent: He was considered invincible-его считали непобедимым.
Pragmatic relations are superimposed on semantic relations and play an equally portent role in analyzing the original text and in producing an equivalent text in the TL. Semantically equivalent messages do not necessarily pragmatically equivalent. The phrases “he made a fifteen-yard end run” & “он сделал пятнадцатиярдовый рывок по краю” are semantically equivalent for they denote the same situation but the American reader familiar with American football extract rar more information from it than his russian counterpart who would neither understand the aim of the maneuver nor appreciate the football-player’s performance. The pragmatic problems involved in translations arise from 3 types of pragmatic relations. The relation of the source language render to the original message, the relation of the target lang receptor to the TL message & the relation of the translator to both messages.
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Words present certain challenges for translators, so it’s necessary to consider 3 types of lexical meanings that can be distinguished and are to be rendered in translation: referential, emotive and stylistic. Referential – has direct reference to things or phenomena of objective reality, naming also abstract notions and processes so it’s also necessary to distinguish between primary and secondary referential meanings. When we speak of referential meaning we may come to the conclusion that lexical transformations in rendering referential meaning are caused by 1) differences in vision (seeing objects) and these differences can be caused by different usage; 2) different semantic structure of a word in the SL ad TL; 3) different valency or collocability. (Ex.of different vision and usage: one and the same object can be seen by different languages in different aspects. This is reflected in different usage. “Hot milk with skin on it” = горячее молоко с пенкой - English singles out the covering, Russian-the boiling form. “School-leaver” = выпускник - in English it’s the will of the student to leave, in Russian – it’s the school that lets them out, releases them into the world. “The city is built on the terraces rising from the lake = город построен на террасах, спускающихся к озеру”. “He folded his arms across his chest, crossed his knees = он сложил руки на груди, положил ногу на ногу»)
Emotive – we all know that people express their emotions while speaking of things. Emotive meaning has no direct reference to things or phenomena but to the feelings, emotions associated with phenomena. It’s a connotative meaning, raised in the mind of the speaker and reader, this meaning is inherent (неотъемлемый) in a definite group of words even when they are taken out of context (taboo words, metaphors, similes). These words convey emotive meaning. Emotive meaning of words shouldn’t be confused with contextual emotive meaning, which words may acquire in speech. Russian is rich in emotive suffixes. These suffixes should be rendered by additional lexical means. Sometimes it’s rendered by different lexemes (house-hovel-small wretched house=дом-домишко). Some words may acquire negative, positive connotation in different context.
(Examples: He was captivated by the vulgar glamour and the shoddy brilliance of the scene before him = Он был пленен вульгарным блеском и дешевой роскошью окружающего; Horror dawned in her face = ее лицо выразило ужас – here the verb is neutral but the noun applies negative connotation).
The emotional meaning of words usually determines the translator’s choice of words in the TL.
The word “endless” is neutral but «бесконечный» can be negative in some contexts meaning “boring/tiresome”.
Stylistic – is based upon stylistic stratification of vocabulary and is formed by stylistic connotations. Stylistic and emotive meanings are closely connected. Stylistically colored words, words belonging to different stylistic strata possess a considerable element of emotive meaning. Ex. mug, phiz. These words no doubt more expressive than their counterpart “face”. Some emotive meaning may be acquired in context. The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends so much not on inner qualities of each of the groups as on their interaction when opposed to one another.
Stylistically words can be subdivided into literary and non-literary. For example when you translate Dickens it’s important to use the high-flown style in which he writes to preserve the humour of the situation and author’s attitude towards the characters. There are 2 types of style: 1)characterizes the text from the point of view of stylistic devices being used to make the text more effective; 2) regards style as the personal manner of writing the author uses to achieve his purpose. We should note that every word is stylistically marked according to the layer of vocabulary it belongs to. If one avoids stylistic meaning instead of rendering it, it’s a bad mistake.
(Ex.: Then he finally let go at me = тут он мне врезал по-настоящему)
It’s a mistake to translate a neutral/literary word by a colloquial word
In every lng there seem to be certain unmentionables. Due to the fact that these words possess a strong effective connotation they cannot be used in polite speech. In English they do not mention words related to sex, extinction, anatomy. The behavior laws prohibit the translator to use taboo words. In the 19th century it was inelegant to speak of going to bed (they said “to retire”). Sometimes words & expressions degrade in meaning. If you translate the book, belonging to the 19th century you should understand that “to make love” in those times meant “to court”. Sometimes it’s necessary to discuss some shocking matters (AID). In such cases vague explanations full of euphemisms cannot be used. There are such themes as death, money, age, which are not to be discussed.
Nowadays in England taboo topics are: 1) money; 2) death (die = pass away, go west); 3) things which we don’t mention traditionally (God = gosh); 4) social characteristics of certain people (alcoholic = alcohol abuser; imbecile = mentally-weak – слабоумный )
In every language there seem to be certain unmentionables – the words that have such a strong affective connotation that can’t be used in polite situations. Words dealing with excretion and sex (e.g.: restroom, powder-room etc.) We use euphemisms (we don’t use toilet, we use ladies’ room. People used to use Water Closet -> Lounge -> Restroom. It always changes). Words referring to anatomy and sex used to have a very strong affective connotation. (We don’t use the word breast. People used not to use it even when meaning chicken meat. People started to use white meat, black meat or dark meat. But they never used breast or legs. Nowadays people are not so scrupulous). When ppl spoke about love they had to be careful in choosing words. Now ppl use vulgar expressions for that. If the text is about ppl without manners the translation will be different from that about ppl who belong to polite society. Verbal taboos may produce serious problems to a translator. There are cases when euphemisms are out of place. For example, we can speak freely about money in Russia – this is not acceptable in the US or the UK. It’s bad taste to enquire into ppls financial affairs. People use “gosh” for “God”, “Lord” as a substitute for “Jesus”. “What the dickens” “old nick” – euphemisms for bad/evil forces.
Loaded words are words that combine affective and informative connotations.
Religion, races, nations, political groups are other taboo issues.
“pick-pocket’ – вор-карманник. they use “criminal” instead of pick-pocket etc.
When we can’t find euphemisms for all those notions we use definitions.
for example,
In some of the states people don’t treat Mexican –Americans with respect. This happens because of come cultural and historical peculiarities. When we come to Taxes we can see this fact. People do all kind of job. People who are native of this region, they are dissatisfied because people employ Mexicans. So the word “Mexican” would stand for “stupid, lazy” (lazy- because they have a custom to have a rest during the day. Because in Mexico in the afternoon it’s hot and people can’t work). So Mexicans insisted upon calling themselves “Hispanic”. Names that are logged cause some change in behavior. Now they call themselves “Latinos”.
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In every lng there seem to be certain unmentionables. Due to the fact that these words possess a strong effective connotation they cannot be used in polite speech. In English they do not mention words related to sex, extinction, anatomy. The behavior laws prohibit the translator to use taboo words. In the 19th century it was inelegant to speak of going to bed (they said “to retire”). Sometimes words & expressions degrade in meaning. If you translate the book, belonging to the 19th century you should understand that “to make love” in those times meant “to court”. Sometimes it’s necessary to discuss some shocking matters (AID). In such cases vague explanations full of euphemisms cannot be used. There are such themes as death, money, age, which are not to be discussed.
Nowadays in England taboo topics are: 1) money; 2) death (die = pass away, go west); 3) things which we don’t mention traditionally (God = gosh); 4) social characteristics of certain people (alcoholic = alcohol abuser; imbecile = mentally-weak – слабоумный )
In every language there seem to be certain unmentionables – the words that have such a strong affective connotation that can’t be used in polite situations. Words dealing with excretion and sex (e.g.: restroom, powder-room etc.) We use euphemisms (we don’t use toilet, we use ladies’ room. People used to use Water Closet -> Lounge -> Restroom. It always changes). Words referring to anatomy and sex used to have a very strong affective connotation. (We don’t use the word breast. People used not to use it even when meaning chicken meat. People started to use white meat, black meat or dark meat. But they never used breast or legs. Nowadays people are not so scrupulous). When ppl spoke about love they had to be careful in choosing words. Now ppl use vulgar expressions for that. If the text is about ppl without manners the translation will be different from that about ppl who belong to polite society. Verbal taboos may produce serious problems to a translator. There are cases when euphemisms are out of place. For example, we can speak freely about money in Russia – this is not acceptable in the US or the UK. It’s bad taste to enquire into ppls financial affairs. People use “gosh” for “God”, “Lord” as a substitute for “Jesus”. “What the dickens” “old nick” – euphemisms for bad/evil forces.
Loaded words are words that combine affective and informative connotations.
Religion, races, nations, political groups are other taboo issues.
“pick-pocket’ – вор-карманник. they use “criminal” instead of pick-pocket etc.
When we can’t find euphemisms for all those notions we use definitions.
for example,
In some of the states people don’t treat Mexican –Americans with respect. This happens because of come cultural and historical peculiarities. When we come to Taxes we can see this fact. People do all kind of job. People who are native of this region, they are dissatisfied because people employ Mexicans. So the word “Mexican” would stand for “stupid, lazy” (lazy- because they have a custom to have a rest during the day. Because in Mexico in the afternoon it’s hot and people can’t work). So Mexicans insisted upon calling themselves “Hispanic”. Names that are logged cause some change in behavior. Now they call themselves “Latinos”.
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A tr. should always be aware not only of the syntactic structure of the sentences he translates, but each simple sentence and clause consists of 2 informational segments, the theme and rheme. The theme is what a sentence is about. It’s the subject of communication. It’s a communicative reference point which has 2 functions.
1. it connects back to previous stretches of the text and in this may maintains textual coherence.
2. it acts as the point of departure by connecting forward no later stretches of the text, ensuring further textual coherence.
In the clause однако ужин по русской традиции не очень обильный, в случае приема гостей перерастает в пир. The theme is ужин. This is what the clause is about. The speaker announces the topic of his message by thematizing it.
The rheme is what the speaker says about the theme. It’s the message of the sentence. It’s the most element in the rheme fulfills the communicative purpose of the structure. The theme is the old, the given and the known in the sentence, while the rheme is the new, unknown.
In Eng. The theme is typically expresses by the subject group and the rheme by those parts of the sentence, which are found at the end of the sentence-predicate, object.
Typical indicators of theme in Eng.:
1.A previous reference to the idea or object in question and the use of the definite article before the noun denoting them
2.the use of demonstrating personal pronouns before the nouns denoting the object.
Typical indicators of rheme:
1.the use of indefinite articles
2.the presence of a negatiob in the sentence
3.the construction there is/are
4.the phrases, expressing possessing to have, to own
When we write a text we should take care of such things as redundancy, if it does not serve the purpose of effectiveness. The opposite notion is compression.
* We expect John to return from his journey today. When I looked out of the window half an hour ago I saw the lights of his flat are on. Of course it might have been Paul who was there – I know he has the key. But since I am not sure that Paul is in town, John had possibly arrived.
We could use Present perfect, but it’s wrong from the point of view of information the author wanted to convey. Due to the lack of past perfect in Russian we should use such means, which convey this idea logically.
Sometimes the removal of redundancy is possible due to the peculiarities of the language.
*We find it difficult to hear the distinctions, which are of importance in the foreign language but not in our own. We find it difficult to pronounce sounds of the foreign language with which we are not familiar. The Frenchman trying to speak English will have difficulty with our “” & “” because the sound doesn’t occur in his language. He may say “z” instead of “”because it’s familiar to him. – Трудно различать в иностранном языке то, что не различается в родном, например, произносить незнакомые звуки. Французу трудно произносить непривычный звук “” и он, скорее всего, заменит его на знакомый “z”.
We do not have to impose the rules of one language on the structural patterns of another. Instead of repeating the same structure we use connective, typical of the TL.
Language minimalism & the motto “remove redundancy” may be applied only as a result of special analysis. This happens because not all given information may be considered unnecessary to mention again. Redundancy may be saved for stylistic a purpose, that’s why it should be preserved.
* Я вас люблю любовью страстной – I love you with the passion of love
The translation can be done without a thorough analysis of a passage. But then we should use a skeleton. The skeleton of the text may be done both in the SL & in the TL. For an experienced translator the SL is more preferable, because it’s not the skeleton he is going to reproduce, but rearranged text in the TL.
Once a passage has been thoroughly understood and its essential points noted, then it’s time to write down a text of your own which is the translation. There are certain techniques to make the text most effective: compression and suppression.
Compression – rendering the same meaning economically, removing redundancy, making the meaning vivid by using the potential qualities of the language.
Вскоре, после того как мы приехали… – shortly upon our arrival…
Уж лучше я останусь дома. Не хочется мокнуть. – I’d rather stay at home than get wet.
Нимало не убоявшись трудностей – undaunted.
Suppression is used on the context level.
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When we write a text we should take care of such things as redundancy, if it does not serve the purpose of effectiveness. The opposite notion is compression.
* We expect John to return from his journey today. When I looked out of the window half an hour ago I saw the lights of his flat are on. Of course it might have been Paul who was there – I know he has the key. But since I am not sure that Paul is in town, John had possibly arrived.
We could use Present perfect, but it’s wrong from the point of view of information the author wanted to convey. Due to the lack of past perfect in Russian we should use such means, which convey this idea logically.
Sometimes the removal of redundancy is possible due to the peculiarities of the language.
*We find it difficult to hear the distinctions, which are of importance in the foreign language but not in our own. We find it difficult to pronounce sounds of the foreign language with which we are not familiar. The Frenchman trying to speak English will have difficulty with our “” & “” because the sound doesn’t occur in his language. He may say “z” instead of “”because it’s familiar to him. – Трудно различать в иностранном языке то, что не различается в родном, например, произносить незнакомые звуки. Французу трудно произносить непривычный звук “” и он, скорее всего, заменит его на знакомый “z”.
We do not have to impose the rules of one language on the structural patterns of another. Instead of repeating the same structure we use connective, typical of the TL.
Language minimalism & the motto “remove redundancy” may be applied only as a result of special analysis. This happens because not all given information may be considered unnecessary to mention again. Redundancy may be saved for stylistic a purpose, that’s why it should be preserved.
* Я вас люблю любовью страстной – I love you with the passion of love
The translation can be done without a thorough analysis of a passage. But then we should use a skeleton. The skeleton of the text may be done both in the SL & in the TL. For an experienced translator the SL is more preferable, because it’s not the skeleton he is going to reproduce, but rearranged text in the TL.
Once a passage has been thoroughly understood and its essential points noted, then it’s time to write down a text of your own which is the translation. There are certain techniques to make the text most effective: compression and suppression.
Compression – rendering the same meaning economically, removing redundancy, making the meaning vivid by using the potential qualities of the language.
Вскоре, после того как мы приехали… – shortly upon our arrival…
Уж лучше я останусь дома. Не хочется мокнуть. – I’d rather stay at home than get wet.
Нимало не убоявшись трудностей – undaunted.
Suppression is used on the context level.
The challenge here is in situation itself, not in traditions. The cultural situation creates phenomena that are not typical of any other country. The translator has to consult different sources concerning the country’s culture.
*Drugstore – аптека + закусочная
*Sorority – a group of females living together, a kind of society with certain rules, no man is allowed.
*Fraternity – the same for males.
Culture bound words occur when a TL concept is not known in the SL.
*прописка- mandatory registration
If we deal with culture-bound words we have to consider the words that don’t have an equivalent in the TL because they haven’t been invented yet, and the words that cannot have any equivalent because they don’t present in the TL culture.
*Sputnik – satellite (later) – the case is psychological not linguistic.
*A TV-dinner – еда из полуфабрикатов (реклама по ТВ)
When we deal with words denoting places, flora and fauna we usually loan words. Transcription is the best of presenting the idea. E.g. “jungle, prairie, steppe, tundra (= a marshy plain or Siberian swamp). The realia are also words denoting dances, musical instruments:
*Былина – a folk legend
*Божба – swear words, an oath.
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The cumulative sentence allows us to go to linguistic units larger than a sentence, e.g. a paragraph. The structure of a paragraph is like that of a cumulative sentence. It follows the same two principles of addition and direction of modification. But instead of the main clause there’s the topic sentence and the same types of relationships among sentences that we observe in the cumulative sentence. They are: coordination (the same level) and subordination (different levels). The cumulative sentence may serve as a model for writing an effective paragraph.
An example of coordinative paragraph:
*1. In the names of justice, good sportsmanship and general honesty, it is simply essential that information reported in the public press, in meetings or committees or lunch tables be double-checked.
2. In engineering and industry this is a matter of profits or bankruptcy.
2. In medicine it is a matter of life and death.
2. In public affairs and in private life it is a matter of integrity or corruption.
2. In the laboratory it is taken for as a necessary and elementary part of scientific behavior.
In the process of translation there may occur a situation when we’ll have to divide a sentence into two or we’ll have to unite two sentences.
Во имя справедливости, честной игры и элементарной порядочности просто необходимо создать условия для того, чтобы информация, поступающая в прессе и обсуждаемая на заседаниях комитетов и во время деловых обедов, была бы проверена и перепроверена. Что касается технологии и производства, это вопрос прибылей или банкротства. В медицине это вопрос жизни и смерти. В общественной и частной жизни это вопрос порядочности или нарушения человеческих устоев. В области научных исследований это неотъемлемая характеристика научной этики.
An example of a subordinate paragraph:
* 1. The humanities, whatever is meant by that baffling term, seem to the musing observer to offer a succession of paradoxes.
2. The word itself is a modern invention, coming to us from the 19th century.
3. One might reasonably infer that, given so recent a coinage, we must know what we mean by it.
4. In fact, however, we don’t quite know what we mean by it and this is the 1st paradox.
5. We believe in something we cannot delimit.
6. Probably, the only safe working definition is that: you know horses – cows are different.
7. You know the sciences – the humanities are different.
8. They are what you have left in the college curriculum when you extract the sciences – natural, physical and social.
Here is the kind of hierarchy, which tells us that each sentence is dependent on the previous sentence, the one on the previous level.
Для вдумчивого исследователя то, что подразумевается под сомнительным термином “гуманитарные науки”, является рядом парадоксов. Сам термин появился сравнительно недавно, в 19 веке. Можно предположить, что, используя недавно изобретенное слово, мы должны знать, что оно означает. На самом деле мы не знаем, и это первый парадокс. Мы используем понятие, которому не можем дать определение. Единственно подходящим определением было бы следующее: вы когда-нибудь видели лошадь? Так вот, коровы – это совсем другое. Вы знаете, что такое естественные науки? Так вот, гуманитарные науки – это совсем другое. Это то, что останется в учебном плане университета, если оттуда убрать биологию, физику и социальные дисциплины.
We place every sentence on the separate level in the hierarchy of sentences and we try to show the dependence of one sentence on the other or others.
“1. The process of learning is essential in our life.
2. All higher animals seek it deliberately.
3. They are inquisitive and they experiment.
4. An experiment is a sort of harmless trial run of some action, which we shall have to make in the real world; and this, whether it is made in the laboratory by scientists or by fox cubs outside their earth.
5. The scientists experiment and the cub plays; both are learning to correct their errors of judgment in a setting in which errors are not fatal.
6. Perhaps, this is what gives them both their air of happiness and freedom in these activities.”
Mixed paragraph
This kind of arrangement is a bit faculty. The 2nd sentence can exist without the 1st one. Subordination & coordination represent a special kind of ties, gluing the sentences together. But the next example will show that it’s not enough & there are special connectives. We may use all sorts of special phrases (two by two; the really critical problems solved, they…etc.)
When we write a text we should take care of such things as redundancy, if it does not serve the purpose of effectiveness. The opposite notion is compression.
* We expect John to return from his journey today. When I looked out of the window half an hour ago I saw the lights of his flat are on. Of course it might have been Paul who was there – I know he has the key. But since I am not sure that Paul is in town, John had possibly arrived.
We could use Present perfect, but it’s wrong from the point of view of information the author wanted to convey. Due to the lack of past perfect in Russian we should use such means, which convey this idea logically.
Sometimes the removal of redundancy is possible due to the peculiarities of the language.
*We find it difficult to hear the distinctions, which are of importance in the foreign language but not in our own. We find it difficult to pronounce sounds of the foreign language with which we are not familiar. The Frenchman trying to speak English will have difficulty with our “” & “” because the sound doesn’t occur in his language. He may say “z” instead of “”because it’s familiar to him. – Трудно различать в иностранном языке то, что не различается в родном, например, произносить незнакомые звуки. Французу трудно произносить непривычный звук “” и он, скорее всего, заменит его на знакомый “z”.
We do not have to impose the rules of one language on the structural patterns of another. Instead of repeating the same structure we use connective, typical of the TL.
Language minimalism & the motto “remove redundancy” may be applied only as a result of special analysis. This happens because not all given information may be considered unnecessary to mention again. Redundancy may be saved for stylistic a purpose, that’s why it should be preserved.
* Я вас люблю любовью страстной – I love you with the passion of love
The translation can be done without a thorough analysis of a passage. But then we should use a skeleton. The skeleton of the text may be done both in the SL & in the TL. For an experienced translator the SL is more preferable, because it’s not the skeleton he is going to reproduce, but rearranged text in the TL.
Once a passage has been thoroughly understood and its essential points noted, then it’s time to write down a text of your own which is the translation. There are certain techniques to make the text most effective: compression and suppression.
Compression – rendering the same meaning economically, removing redundancy, making the meaning vivid by using the potential qualities of the language.
Вскоре, после того как мы приехали… – shortly upon our arrival…
Уж лучше я останусь дома. Не хочется мокнуть. – I’d rather stay at home than get wet.
Нимало не убоявшись трудностей – undaunted.
Suppression is used on the context level.
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Technical texts can be range from a technical manual to an article dealing with some scientific issue. The idea is that in some cases the topic may seem broader the terminology management. And on the other hand terminology management may seem far more complex than the idea of technical texts. When we speak of TM we may speak of different texts.
When we deal with TT we should mention the style of it which is devoted of all embroidery, all the devices of affective communication. Precision is one of the main characteristic features of TT. The vocabulary of TT in its ideals form tends to exclude any ущешму connotation. It should keep to the informative value of a word or a structure. The main thing that a writer of a TT should observe it to avoid arbitarary interpretation. TT are written mostly in 2 moods of speech:
But explanation may be through description, narration, may be given as providing some argumentation to support validity of a certain postulate.
A TT may be written to disprove to invalidate a certain point of view. To prove that it’s wrong. And n this case we introduce some argumentations to prove that our idea is right.
Terminology.
According to any definition a term should possess one meaning. A term should avoid any emotive connotation- should be neutral. But for the most part terms are polysemantic. Terminology makes use of affective connotations and some terms are built on this connotation.
A term is a word or phrase that is used for special purposes. It characterizes some special human activity and it has very wide sphere of applications from astronomy to cooking:
E.G. In full blast- полной тягой
The wire is alive- провод под током
The wire is dead- провод отключен.
Engine – машина, двигатель, локомотив.
Oil- масло, смазочный материал, нефть.
A table- стол
A board доска
A plate- плитка, дощечка
A tablet скрижаль – God gave Moses two tablets for his headache.
One of the most important aspects of a translation’s job is the management of terminology. The translator should evaluate terminology from the view of correctness. He should care about that the context is able to make the context monosemantic. Terminology is one of the most important aspects of linguistics.
Most terms came from Greek and Latin.
“Haemogloben” comes from German “haema”(blood) and Latin “globus“ (ball).
TM began in the 18 th century.
For luck of invented terms people started to use every-day vocabulary to work as terms
E.g. Jacket- куртка и кожух (strait jacket- смирительная рубашка). Jar- кувшин и конденсатор.
To load- нагружать заряжать ( they reloaded their guns.)
Pocket- воздушная яма (aviation), окружение (military), гнездо месторождение (geology), мертвая зона (radio).
As for structure of terms:
Terms may be expressed by
radar- radio detection and raging – радиолокация
A V- belt- клиновидный ремень
X-rays- рентгеновы лучи
V- velocity – скорость
Some terms are transcribed and represented by word- for word translation^
E.g. a super-power-system- сверхмощная система.
When you can’t find a term itself in dictionary but you know what it really means you should supply a descriptive translation or give a short definition
Video gain- регулировка яркости отметок от полученных сигналов.
Wall beam- балка, уложенная вдоль стены
Roof beam- стропила
If it’s a medical text you should write “пневмония” instead of “воспаление легких”.
Texts are usually written in 2 modes of speech-
1-exposition (explanation)
2-argumentation
These modes of speech are the most complex one. The purpose of these 2 modes of speech are different, because in the first case they bring home to the reader the essence of a new motion.
In the case of argumentation it’s a purpose of the writer to ruin the readers holds, to give a new point of view, proving its validity.
The other 2 modes of speech-description and narration are also used in kind of frames and determine the text. They are not numerous. They are very effective- means-aim, means&means postulate or statement and proof of the validity of the given statement, conses contra expectation (you explain what is being considered and why)
So these phrames determine the ways ideas run in the text. Then technical text, we should first characterize their semantic structures, their peculiarities and the way they use terms.
Nida distinguishes between expressive, informative and imperative function of the text. He ends that the reader will often be totally reliant on the context how to determine a particular speakers experience include treier inner world, a world of his conscesness. The classification of the text classification falls into major contextual types:argumentative, expository, instructional, description and narration. The purpose is to produce an impression upon the reader or listener. We have to see what his point of view is. It gives us the choice of wording.
Textual types narrative, persuasive, technical, and expository are the text types • describe the animal's habitat in your report Descriptive writing is usually used to help a reader and writer develop an aspect of their work, eg. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc.
Features Description is a style of writing which can be useful for a variety of purposes: • to engage a reader's attention • to create characters • to set a mood or create an atmosphere • to bring writing to life.
Language • aims to show rather than tell the reader what something/someone is like • relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs. • is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description. • sensory description - what is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted. Precise use of adjectives, similes, metaphors to create images/pictures in the mind e.g. their noses were met with the acrid smell of rotting flesh. • strong development of the experience that "puts the reader there" focuses on key details, powerful verbs,precise nouns and important adjectives.
Based on perception in time. Narration is the telling of a story; the succession of events is given in chronological order.
Purpose The main purpose of narrative is to entertain, to gain and hold a readers' interest. However narratives can also be written to teach or inform, to change attitudes / social opinions e.g. soap operas and television dramas that are used to raise topical issues. Narratives sequence people/characters in time and place but differ from recounts in that through the sequencing, the stories set up one or more problems, which must eventually find a way to be resolved. The common structure or basic plan of narrative text is known as the "story grammar." Although there are numerous variations of the story grammar, the typical elements are: • Setting--when and where the story occurs. • Characters--the most important people or characters in the story. • Initiating event--an action or occurrence that establishes a problem and/or goal. • Conflict/goal--the focal point around which the whole story is organized. • Events--one or more attempts by the main character(s) to achieve the goal or solve the problem. • Resolution--the outcome of the attempts to achieve the goal or solve the problem. • Theme--the main idea or moral of the story. The graphic representation of these story grammar elements is called a story map. The exact form and complexity of a map depends, of course, upon the unique structure of each narrative and the personal preference of the teacher constructing the map.
Types of Narrative There are many types of narrative. They can be imaginary, factual or a combination of both. They may include fairy stories, mysteries, science fiction, romances, horror stories, adventure stories, fables, myths and legends, historical narratives, ballads, slice of life, personal experience and of course, fantasy stories. Features • Characters with defined personalities/identities. • Dialogue often included - tense may change to the present or the future. • Descriptive language to create images in the reader's mind and enhance the story.
Structure In a Traditional Narrative the focus of the text is on a series of actions: Orientation: (introduction) in which the characters, setting and time of the story are established. Usually answers who? When? Where? E.g. Mr. Bolt was running in the Beijing Olympics 2008- 4x100m rally race - in the morning. Complication or problem: The complication usually involves the main character(s) (often mirroring the complications in real life).
Resolution: There needs to be a resolution of the complication. The complication may be resolved for better or worse/happily or unhappily. Sometimes there are a number of complications that have to be resolved. These add and sustain interest and suspense for the reader. Further more, when there is plan for writing narrative texts, the focus should be on the following characteristics: • Plot: What is going to happen? • Setting: Where will the story take place? When will the story take place? • Characterization: Who are the main characters? What do they look like? • Structure: How will the story begin? What will be the problem? How is the problem going to be resolved? • Theme: What is the theme / message the writer is attempting to communicate?
The expository text type
It aims at explanation, i.e. the cognitive analysis and subsequent syntheses of complex facts. Example: An essay on "Rhetoric: What is it and why do we study it?"..
Technical text
it is a type of text when you describe how to do something