Если у вас возникли сложности с курсовой, контрольной, дипломной, рефератом, отчетом по практике, научно-исследовательской и любой другой работой - мы готовы помочь.
Предоплата всего
Подписываем
TYPOLOGY OF THE SYNTACTIC SYSTEMS
A successful typological contrasting of syntactic systems of the English and Ukrainian languages becomes possible due to the existence in them of several isomorphic and allomorphic features and phenomena. The principal of these are predetermined, as will be shown in this section, by several factors, the main of which are the following: 1) by common in both languages classes of syntactic units which are word-groups, sentences and various types of supersyntactic units; 2) by generally common paradigmatic classes and types of these syntactic units; 3) by isomorphic and allomorphic types and means of syntactic connection in them; 4) by mostly isomorphic syntactic processes taking place in their word-groups and sentences; 5) by identical syntactic relations in word-groups and sentences of both contrasted languages; 6) by common functions performed by different parts of speech in word-groups and sentences.
The allomorphic features and phenomena at the syntactic level find their expression in the following: 1) in the existence of various qualitative and quantitative differences in some paradigmatic classes of word-groups and sentences; 2) in some types of word-groups; 3) in the unequal representation of different means of syntactic connection; 4) in the existence of different ways of expressing predication; 5) in the difference in the structural forms of some English parts of the sentence; 6) in the means of joining some subordinate clauses to the main/principal clause, etc.
Syntactic Processes, their Types and Ways of Realisation
Syntactic processes are various in the contrasted languages and they find their realisation only in word-groups and sentences. The realisation of these processes in English and Ukrainian syntaxemes may be achieved both by isomorphic and allomorphic ways and means, the main of which are as follows:
All word-groups in sentences usually perform the syntactic function of a part of the sentence. As to their structure, word-groups can be unextended, i.e. consisting of two notional words (read well, nice flowers) and extended which consist of more than two notional words, e.g. to go to work every day.
Similarly extended in both contrasted languages may also be the simple and compound predicates, objects with attributive adjuncts and also adverbial modifies. For example, a simple phrasal predicate performed by an extended word-group:
She gave him a slightly rueful smile. Вона ледь помітно окинула його невеселим поглядом.
Extended in both contrasted languages may equally be the compound nominal predicate as in the following English sentences and their Ukrainian structural equivalents. Practically isomorphic by their structure are also extended objects with the adjunct attributes in both contrasted languages.
Extension may be achieved in English with the help of asyndetic clustering of nouns or other parts of speech forming syntactic (and semantic) strings of words or a regular tandem. For example: school library --» school library books --» new school library books --» school library books readers.
Ukrainian has no asyndetic substantival word - groups of this kind, though analytical joining of components may be observed in some cases of extension as well. Cf.: можна спати --» можна довше спати --» можна взавтра довше поспати --» можна взавтра вранці довше поспати. Consequently, the Ukrainian language is not completely devoid of extension via asyndetic clustering.
Apart from the above-named ways of realisation of syntactic processes achieved through extension, there are some others having isomorphic nature in the contrasted languages as well. They are: A. Apposition, which is equally often employed in English and Ukrainian. Eg: a woman doctor, the city of Kyiv/London, Shevchenko the poet, Shevchenko the painter, we all, they all, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: жінка-лікар, місто Київ, Шевченко-поет, Шевченко-маляр, ми всі, вони всі.
An external syntactic transformation may equally be achieved via parenthetic and inserted words, word-groups or sentences that are incorporated into the structure of a syntactic unit by addition or insertion.
B. Detachment is one more common way of external syntactic extension that is presumably of isomorphic nature in most languages. Detached (відокремленими) in English and Ukrainian may by any second any part of the sentence and detachment is achieved through extension by means of subordination.
C. Specification. Is achieved via a syntactic element/part of the sentence usually modified by one or more other complementing elements of the same nature and syntactic function. Though not necessarily of another lexico-grammatical class of words. As for example:
"I'm not very tall, just average." Я не дуже висока, якраз середня.
(A. Wilson)
Specification is more often employed for the identification of adverbial parts of the sentence as in the following example: In the evening, about eight о'clock, Увечері, десь біля восьмої години.
Alongside of extension, though formed on cardinally different principles of enlargement (on the basis of co-ordinate connection of componental parts) and yet performing the same syntactic functions of different parts of the sentence in the contrasted languages is also expansion.
2. Expansion as a syntactic process is equally aimed at enlarging the content of word-groups and sentences in either of the contrasted languages. It is no less often resorted to than extension though by its nature it is a completely different syntactic process representing a co-ordinate joining of components which are syntactically equal in rank. Expansion is usually achieved by way of addition. The formed in this way (through addition) strings of components usually function as homogeneous parts of the sentence. For example, homogeneous subjects: The police, the fishmonger, boys going to school, dozens of people Полісмени, торгівець рибою, учні, що йшли до школи, десятки людей
Among other internal syntactic process pertaining to the English or to Ukrainian oral and written speech the following are most often employed:
2. Representation (репрезентація) which is a particular process of syntactic substitution alien to the Ukrainian language. It represents a kind of reduction in which the component of a syntaxeme is used to present the content of the whole syntactic unit, which remains in the preceding syntaxeme but its meaning is implicitly represented by some element. For example: "I don't know if he's hungry, but I am..
No less often used alongside of the linking verb in present-day English is the syntactic substituting particle to. Eg. "He thought of making another phone call, but he realised that he was afraid to". (Ibid.)
3. Contamination (суміщення) is another internal process in which two syntaxemes merge into one predicative unit as in the following sentence: The moon rose red. This means: The moon rose + she was red. Or in Ukrainian: Наталка прибігла сердита, задихана., i.e. Наталка прибігла + (Наталка) була сердита + (Наталка) була задихана.
Partly close to contamination is also the secondary predication construction with the English past participle that has practically an identical equivalent construction in Ukrainian. Cf. They found the door unlocked (that is: they found the door, it/which was unlocked). Вони застали двері, відімкненими: вони застали двері, вони/ які були відімкненими.
4. Compression represents a syntactic process which is closely connected with reduction and with the secondary predication complex as illustrated above, but it exists only in English. This syntactic process is most often observed in English with the nominative absolute participial constructions, which are usually transformed in speech - He stood beside me in silence, his candle in his hand.
The mentioned above external and internal syntactic processes do not completely exhaust all possible ways of transformation taking place within English and Ukrainian sentences. And yet they graphically testify to the existence of isomorphic and allomorphic features that characterise respectively the syntactic systems of each contrasted language.
Syntactic Relations and Ways of their Realisation
Unlike some syntactic processes as, for example, representation that is observed in English and is completely alien to present-day Ukrainian and other languages, the syntactic relations in contradiction to them present a phenomenon characteristic of all the 5651 languages of the world. Syntactic relations, therefore, constitute a universal feature and are realised depending on their grammatical nature either at sentence level or at word-group level.
There exist four types of syntactic relations that are also realised in different languages partly via different means. These are: 1) predicative relations; 2) objective relations; 3) attributive relations and 4) various adverbial relations.
Not all these relations are equally represented in the contrasted languages. Thus, predicative relations may be in English and in most other West European Germanic and Romance languages of two subtypes: a) primary predicative relations and b) secondary predicative relations. The latter, it must be emphasised, are erroneously considered to be completely missing in present-day Ukrainian.
I. Primary predication is universal. It finds its realisation between the subject and predicate in any two-member sentence of any paradigmatic form or structural type. Consequently, primary predication presents a grammatical/syntactic and logico-semantic relation on the Subject-Predicate axis. Eg:
"I never said I was a beauty". - Я ніколи не казав, що я є красенем. -
he laughed. (Maugham) сказав, усміхнувшись, він.
In this quotation three predicates of two types are realised: two simple verbal predicates (/ said, he laughed] and one compound nominal predicate (I was a beauty). These types of predicate are presented in Ukrainian as well. Cf. Я не казав, усміхнувся він, and Я є красенем.
Consequently, predication of these sentences in both contrasted languages has an identical expression.
On the other hand, there also exist some differences in expressing predicative relations in Ukrainian that are unknown in English. These include first of all the placement of the predicate in Ukrainian, since the inflexional morphemes always identify person, number and tense form of the verb/predicate irrespective of its position in the sentence. Cf. Він мусив це знати. — Знати мусив він це. — Мусив він це знати. — Знати він це мусив. - Це знати він мусив. - Він знати це мусив. Despite the change of placement in the sentence, the Ukrainian predicate preservers its syntactic function unchanged. As a result, the grammaticality of the sentence is not ruined.
Besides, placement may often be used in Ukrainian as a reliable means of expressing and often also as a means distinguishing between the predicative and attributive relations in a word-group or sentence. Cf.:
Attributive Relations Predicative Relations
гарна погода, червоне небо; Погода гарна, небо червоне,
працююче колесо/ устаткування; Колесо/ устаткування працююче,
розбита клумба, засіяне поле, etc. Клумба розбита, поле засіяне.
//. Secondary predicative relation is formed in English by verbals in connection with other nominal parts of speech. The secondary predication constructions are formed in English by the so-called infinitival, participial and gerundial complexes, which function as various parts of the sentence. The nomenclature of them is as follows 1) the objective and the subjective with the infinitive constructions which perform respectively the function of the complex object and that of the complex subject. For example:
He stood by the creek and heard Він стояв біля струмка і чув як він
it ripple over the stones. (Cusack) (струмок) хлюпоче по камінцях.
He stood watching the red dawn Він стояв і спостерігав, як народжуєть-
break in the east. (Caldwell) ся (червоний) світанок на сході.
The subjective with the infinitive construction in English sentences has the function of the complex subject that is allomorphic for Ukrainian. Lexically and structurally isomorphic, however, is the English multifunctional secondary predication construction/complex of the for + to + infinitive. This English construction can perform the function of the complex subject, complex predicative, complex object, complex attribute and complex adverbial parts of the sentence. For example, the complex subject: "For you to decide it won't be easy."; the complex predicative: "That is for you to decide is it not?"; the complex object: She wanted to wait for the moon to rise; the complex attribute: "There is nothing for us to change at present, you see.", etc.
One more secondary predication group constitute participial constructions/complexes which are functionally similar to the infinitival constructions and are: a) the objective with the present or past participles performing the function of the complex object: She heard the door closing. (Galsworthy). I will have some photographs taken.
Note. It should be repeatedly emphasised that there is one more secondary predication construction which is practically identical in English and Ukrainian. It also performs the same function in the sentence. This is the already mentioned objective with the past participle (or adjective) construction, which has not only an identical meaning in both contrasted languages, but also the same structural form. It is treated in present-day Ukrainian grammars as double predicate (подвійний присудок). For example:
1 found the windows closed. Я застав вікна зачиненими.
We remember him quite young. Ми пам'ятаємо його зовсім молодші.
They found the soldier wounded. Вони знайшли воїна пораненим.
One more English secondary predication construction constitutes the subjective/ nominative absolute participial complex that is practically allomorphic for Ukrainian. The functions of this secondary predication construction is mostly adverbial. For example: She walked steadily, the showel in front, held like a spear in both hands. The nominative absolute participial construction may also perform the functions of the adverbial modifiers of time or cause. For example: This being done, they set off with light hearts. (Irving). In this sentence two functions may be implicit simultaneously - that of the adverbial modifier of time (When did they set off!) and that of the adverbial modifier of cause: Why did they set off!
///. Objective relations. These, like the predicative, attributive and adverbial relations are undoubtedly pertained to all languages without exception. They are directed by the action of the transitive verb on some object, which may be either a life or lifeless component.
As can be ascertained, objective relations in each English sentence are perceived due to the logico-grammatical nature of the parts of the sentence and due to their functional significance. In the sentence above the objective relations are realised partly through the position of the objects which (their position) is usually stable in English, i.e. always following the predicate, as well as with the help of prepositions: next to Diana, to your husband. In Ukrainian these objective relations are conveyed with the help of the prepositional government (preposition plus the dative case ending: до Діани) and via inflexions (свого чоловіка, the accusative case of the direct object чоловіка).
The fixed placement of these objects in Ukrainian is not obligatory and can easily be changed without ruining the objective relation in the sentences. Cf. До Діани підсіла Мері, or: свого чоловіка тільки послухай. Such kind of transformation is usually impossible in English. In Ukrainian too placement on rare occasions can be employed to distinguish the subject from the object or vice versa as in the following sentences: Радість сповнює серце (object) but: Серце (subj.) сповнює радість (object).
IV. Attributive relations. These are formed in all languages between adjuncts and head words (subordinating parts) of nominal word-groups.
The attributive components in the English sentence (young man, jaunty fair hair, alert eyes) do not agree syntactically with their head nouns as their Ukrainian equivalents do (cf. молодий шахтар, неслухняною чуприною, свіжим новачком, жвавими очима). Each Ukrainian adjunct reflects the grammatical number, case and gender of its head noun through the corresponding endings. The English adjuncts, on the contrary, rarely combine with their head components by means of their inflexions, the main means being semantic and syntactic placement (often with prepositions).
Nevertheless Ukrainian adjuncts may sometimes not agree in number, case and gender (as it is mostly in English). It happens when the adjunct is an indeclinable part of speech or a word-group. Eg.: бажання поспати, фільм "Вони боролися за волю батьківщини", акція "Допоможемо дітям-інвалідам", etc. with the help of quantitatively the same but qualitatively rather different means and ways of connection (and expression).
V. Adverbial relations in the contrasted languages are created both in co-ordinate and in subordinate word-groups to express different adverbial meanings. The latter may find their realisation in isomorphic by syntactic connection and componental structure co-ordinate or subordinate word-groups. Subordinate word-groups can be in all European languages substantival, verbal, adverbial and others. Co-ordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations may be a) substantival: in winter and/or in summer (time) зимою та/чи літом; by hook or by crook усіма правдами і неправдами (manner), b) adverbial, i.e. consisting of adverbial components: quickly and well швидко й добре (manner or attendant circumstances); neither seldom nor often ні часто ні рідко (time or frequency), etc.
Subordinate word-groups expressing adverbial relations and meanings may be 1) substantival: rains in March; university winter examinations in Ukraine, the harvest of 2002, дощі в березні, зимові іспити в університетах України, урожай 2002 року', винаходи 20 cm., etc.
The adverbial relations in all languages usually coincide with various adverbial meanings, the main of which are as follows:
1. Temporal relations which express adverbial meanings of time or frequency: the meeting in 1991 or: the 1991 meeting, the detention of last August or: the last August detention, зустріч 1991 року, затримання минулого серпня, зустріч у понеділок, etc.
2. Local relations: the house in Manhattan, life near the seaport, meetings at the hotel, помешкання в Мангеттені, життя біля/ поблизу морського порту, зустрічі в готелі.
Typology of the Word-Group/Phrase
The word-group in both contrasted languages consists of two or more grammatically connected notional parts of speech expressing some content. Word-groups in English and Ukrainian may be: 1) syntactically free combinations of words like to learn much, to learn hard, to learn quickly, to learn well, to learn there/here, etc. or 2) idiomatically bound (constant) collocations, i. e. unchanged for the given sense word-combinations as to have dinner/supper, to take measures, to throw light, Hobson's choice, etc.
Free word-groups or word-combinations exist alongside of prepositional phrases which are often considered even to be of the same nature as the idiomatic word-groups. Genuine syntactically free word-groups, unlike prepositional phrases, are used to name actions (quick reading), objects (a new hat), state of objects (the house ablaze), number or quantity (two thirds, the first three); also they may give characteristics of an action (singing well, going quickly, arriving first. Common features are also observed in the structural forms of word-groups in the contrasted languages. They are:
There are also structurally more complicated free word-groups in both languages, eg: those long sentences for you to analyze and translate — ті довгі речення тобі для аналізу й перекладу. In this English word-group and its Ukrainian semantic equivalent one can identify different grammatical relations: a) attributive (those long sentences) and predicative (sentences for you to analyze). Besides, the ways of syntactic connection are different: subordination with synthetic agreement in the initial part (those long sentences) and co-ordination (to read and analyze) in the second part of the word-group.
Since present-day English is mainly analytical by its structure, the predominant means of its grammatical connection in word-groups are naturally analytical. They are syndetic (prepositional) and asyndetic (syntactic placement). These two forms of analytical connection are very often of equal semantic relevance, as a result of which they are often interchangeable, as in the following substantival word-groups:
Syndetic connection Asyndetic connection
books/or home reading home-reading books
production of sugar cane sugar cane production
books at the institute library the institute library books
It goes without saying that amorphous components in any language can be connected with the help of analytical means only (both syndetically and asyndetically).
|
Type of syntactic connection 1 . Synthetic (agreement and government) |
In English much less common |
In Ukrainian absolutely dominant |
|
2. Analytical connection (syndetic and asyndetic) |
absolutely dominant |
much less common |
Pertaining to English only are substantival word-groups of the NN, NNN, etc. patterns having asyndetic connection of components. For example: cotton yarn, cotton yarn production, cotton yarn production figures.
Types of Word-Groups in English and Ukrainian
According to the existing interrelations between their immediate components all word-groups in the contrasted languages split into the following three types: 1) co-ordinate word-group 2) subordinate word-groups and 3) predicative word-groups.
I. Co-ordinate word-groups in English and Ukrainian are formed from components equal in rank which are connected either syndetically (with the help of conjunctions) or asyndetically (by placement). For example: books and magazines; to read, translate and retell; neither this nor that, книжки й журнали; читати, пере-кладати й переказувати, ні те й ні се. Co-ordinate word-groups are non-binary by their nature; this means that they may include several IC's of equal rank, though not necessarily of the same lexico-grammatical nature. Cf. (They were) alone and free and happy in love. (Abrahams).
Such and the like word-groups in both contrasted languages perform the function of homogeneous parts of the sentence..
According to the structure of the ICs and their number, co-ordinate word-groups may be elemental and enlarged. Elemental word-groups consist of two components only, eg: Pete or Mike, he and she, read and translate, all but me; Піт чи Майк, він і вона, читати й перекладати, всі крім мене.
Enlarged co-ordinate word-groups consist of structurally complicated components: to read the text, to analyze it stylistically and translate it — читати текст, аналізувати його стилістично і перекладати його.
As to the expression of sense, co-ordinate word-groups in the contrasted languages may be closed or unclosed, i. e. infinite. Closed word-groups denote some actions, objects and phenomena. They consist of two components only, eg: rivers and lakes, neither he nor she, all but me — річки й озера; ні він, ні вона; всі крім мене. Common in both languages are also the unclosed or infinite word-groups consisting of several constituent components the number of which may still be continued (as by enumerating). These constituents may be connected by means of conjunctions or asyndetically, eg: books, note-books, bags, pens and pencils; ні гори, ні гірські потоки, ні звірі чи птахи, ні рослини (не цікавили їх).
II. Subordinate word-groups in all languages are binary by their nature. It means that they consist of a head component, which is the nucleus of the word-group, and of one or more adjuncts/complements. They may be either a single notional word or a group of words/word-group functionally equal to it and having the function of a notional word, eg: my pen, his "oh", your "r", her father and mother, take part in the games, bad for you, the film "They fought for their Motherland", Peter's brother, etc.
Among the existing classifications of word-groups the morphological (paradigmatic) classification remains one of the most embracing. It is based on the lexico-grammatical nature of the head component or on its functional substitute.
Consequently, the combinability of the noun as head of the substantival word-group is practically isomorphic in the contrasted languages. The only exceptions form a) the Nprep + Vger pattern (books for reading), b) the N<Stative pattern word-group which is of attributive nature (the child ashamed the house ablaze, etc.). c) the N<Iposs.abs. pattern word-group are not available in Ukrainian since in край наш/Україно моя! Besides, the N<Stative pattern word-groups in Ukrainian are of predicative type (дитині страшно, жах бере) and not attributive as in English (the boy asleep), d) The English language has no I < Stative pattern word-groups like йому страшно, нам сором(но), etc. which present an allomorphic feature for the English language.
Note. Pertaining to English only are also substantival word-groups with adjuncts expressed by the definite or indefinite articles, which acquire a lexical meaning in a syntaxeme, i.e. in the context.
2. Verbal Word-Groups Generally common in both languages are the structural types of verbal word-groups that may be: 1) with simple objective or adverbial complements; 2) with extended or expanded complements; 3) with simple or extended/expanded objective and adverbial complements. Of common pattern in both languages are verbal word-groups with pre-posed and postposed complements.
Common are also prepositional complements in verbal word-groups of this pattern: to speak of somebody, to divide by two; говорити про когось, ділити на два (на двоє). Ukrainian has no equivalents, however, for the V<Ving and V<Vger English word-groups patterns as to sit reading, to like reading/being read (or having read it/the book).
It should be pointed out, however, that unlike English, most of Ukrainian complements and adverbial adjuncts have no fixed position in the word-group. Cf. слухати музику — музику слухати
Neither is the position of pre-posed complements/adjuncts fixed in Ukrainian. Cf. VprepN or prep N>V: думати про майбутнє — про майбутнє думати.
Some English complements, when emphasised, may also change their position, eg:
to speak of whom? — Of whom to speak? to be invited by Peter
— by Peter to be invited?
Allomorphism is observed in the nature of some complements (gerundial, infinitival, participial) which often form predicative complexes in English verbal word-groups.
3. Adjectival Word-Groups. Due to the restricted combinability of different notionals with the adjectival head, this paradigmatic class of word-groups has a much smaller number (and varieties) of structural models.
Allomorphic, і. е. pertaining to English only are adjectival word-groups with gerundial complements (A<Vger), eg: worth reading (being read): A<VgerN(P): worth reading the book; AprepN(I)Vger: proud of Pete/ him being decorated, proud of his having been invited.
Ukrainian is characterised by the free location of most of adjectival and complements adjuncts which is absolutely impossible in English. Cf. дуже добра — добра дуже. Nevertheless, it is impossible to change the order or position of any immediate constituent as in the word-groups like багато молодший, ніж вона but not* ніж вона, багато молодший.
Ukrainian head adjectives, however, express the morphological categories of number, case and gender which is impossible in English. Cf. гарний зовні, гарна зовні, гарні зовні.
4. Pronominal Word-Groups in the contrasted languages have some general features in common. Thus, most often the heads are indefinite, negative and mostly demonstrative pronouns, and much rarer personal and reflexive pronouns. The usually common adjuncts in both languages are pronouns, prepositional nouns, adjectives or adjectival word-groups, infinitives, verbal word-groups and subordinate clauses. The most common place of these adjuncts is postposition, though in Ukrainian they may be used in preposition as well. Besides, Ukrainian pronouns are all declinable. Cf. ми всі — нас усіх — нам усім — нами всіма; хто з учнів — 'кого з учнів — кому з учнів/з них.
5. Numerical word-groups Allomorphic is only one which is presented in Ukrainian by the Q<N(I) model (багато часу, мало нас), etc., since much or many are not numerals in English.
Isomorphic, however, is the ability of numerical word-groups to become extended.
6. Adverbial Word-Groups in both contrasted languages can be headed by adverbs or by adverbial phrases. The adjuncts/complements may be expressed by adverbs or by adverbial (usually prepositional) phrases used in preposition as well as in postposition to the head adverb.
Allomorphism can be observed only in the placement of some Ukrainian components which can be free in Ukrainian as in далеко звідси - звідси далеко or the use of the English once a year.
7. Statival Word-Groups rarely correlate in the contrasted languages semantically and structurally. This is because English statives have few direct lexical equivalents in Ukrainian and vice versa. Moreover, Ukrainian statives are often identified only at the syntactic level, since the same word may be in one word-group or sentence an adverb and in another — a stative. Or: Він живе добре (adverb); Кому там добре (stative); Надворі вже краще (adverb).
Gerundial complements, naturally, pertain only to English statival word-groups (cf. afraid of being sent away). The placement of Ukrainian statives in such word-groups is generally free.
III. Predicative Word-Groups
Predicative word-groups are only partly found in present-day Ukrainian. Completely isomorphic, naturally, are primary predication word-groups, which are singled out in the sentence and comprise the subject and the predicate. For example: The student works hard. Студент багато працює.
The syntactic interdependence between the components The student and works, The book and was published remains unchanged when the predicative word-group is singled out of the sentence. So are the syntagmatic relations between the components reflected by the verb works (The student works and was published (the book) — Студент працює. Книжка опублікована була.
Secondary Predication Word-Groups/Syntagmemes. There also exist the so-called "comlexes" or "clauses" which are mostly termed by our grammarians as "secondary predication word-groups". These pertain mostly to the English language.
Note. As will be shown further, the above-mentioned predicative constructions of the last two models (NStative and Nappos.N) are pertained to the Ukrainian language as well (cf. Він назвав хлопця сином. NDStative: Тепер дитині значно легше).
8. The nominative absolute participle constructions which exist in English in the following structural models: NVingNP: The two walked in silence, Soams watching him out of the corner of his eye. IVingNP: They having the keys, no entrance was possible. INDVing: Jame's face protruded naively,., his mouth slowly opening IVingD: This being so, I should like to go out.
The Ukrainian language has only two structurally similar, if not identical, models of syntagmemes expressing the so-called secondary predication. They are: 1) the participle constructions having the same grammatical nature and semantic meaning as the corresponding English constructions 2) the second type of objective secondary predication constructions in Ukrainian constitute the NN and IN models/patterns word-groups which are used in the following sentences: Ми вибрали Іваненка головою; Вони назвали хлопця Петром.
The italicised parts of the sentences are treated in Ukrainian as the so-called double predicates.
Typology of the Sentence
The existence of isomorphic features both in the simple and in the composite sentence is predetermined by the main common types of aspects characteristic of the sentence as a peculiar language unit. These aspects are three: 1) structural; 2) semantic and 3) pragmatic. This aspective trichotomy directly correlates with the meaning, form and functioning of the sentence in speech where it realises its explicit form of an utterance corresponding to a logically complete proposition.
Unlike word-groups, sentences in the contrasted languages are distinguished from word-groups and words, that are as lower in rank language units, by some peculiar features, the main of which are the following four: 1) an intonation contour; 2) predication; 3) modality; 4) and a relative sense completion.
Structural Types of Sentences in English and Ukrainian
According to the way in which the expressed content correlates with reality, there are distinguished in the contrasted languages the following common structural types of sentences: 1) two-member sentences 2) one-member sentences.
Binary sentence structures are more characteristic of English, i.e. they are represented by a larger variety of paradigmatic subtypes than in Ukrainian. This quantitative correlation of two-member sentences in English and Ukrainian constitutes the main typological difference in the system of simple sentences of the two languages.
The basic kernel structure of two-member sentences constitutes the binary S — P (Subject — Predicate) model which can be extended through complementation to S — P — O, S — P — O — M, S — P — О — М — M, etc.
Two-member sentences in the contrasted languages may be of two subkinds: 1) conventionally complete and 2) properly complete. The former are elliptical sentences in which any part/some parts of the sentence is/are deleted: "And when are you going?" — "On Monday".
Note. Many English sentences, traditionally qualified as elliptical, are structurally close to Ukrainian definite personal sentences. Cf. "Much obliged to you".
The only two-member sentences, which are non-existent in Ukrainian, are the following:
5. Sentences with the gerundial complexes used as predicative (sec ondary predication) constructions. These sentences have in Ukrainian complex or simple sentences for their semantic equivalents. For example: We learnt of his being decorated.
The bulk of two-member sentences are of common structural form in the contrasted languages. These are sentences with the subject expressed by a notional word or its equivalent and the predicate expressed by a finite verb, eg: Breakfast was not yet over... (Mansfield) She looks entirely different off the stage. (Parker) That was Coleman. (Maken) At dark the rain stopped. (Caldwell)
Common in the contrasted languages are also two-member sentences with the simple nominal predicate expressed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, a participle or a phrase.
Sentences in English and Ukrainian
Common in English and Ukrainian are the following paradigmatic types of one-member sentences:
Nominal sentences. Being typologically isomorphic, this paradigmatic type of sentences, however, is characterised in English and Ukrainian both by some isomorphic and by some allomorphic/divergent features. Isomorphic common is the structural form of nominal sentences which can be either extended or expanded. The surface structures of nominal sentences in English and Ukrainian are common, however. They have the following models:
A. The N model sentences which may consist of a single noun, a noun with a preceding determining article, a proper name with or without the family name, a pronoun or a numeral.
B. The NN/NNN model sentences.
C. Nominal sentences of the AN model (like of the N/dN model) may often convey injunctive, requestive and other pragmatic meanings.
D. The N/AN co-cjN/AN model sentences.
E. Nominal sentences with the prepositional connection of componental parts are presented in English and Ukrainian by both the isomorphic and allomorphic structural models. The deep structures of allomorphic nominal sentences reflect the non-existence of the equivalent grammaticalised prepositions of, to, by and with in Ukrainian and lack of inflexions in English nouns. Isomorphic models of nominal sentences with prepositional connection may be simple and complete by their structure, the simplest in the contrasted languages being the N/IprepN/Q, etc. models like Half past eleven. (B. Shaw) Confidence for confidence. (Ibid.) Пів на дванадцяту. Довір'я за довір'я.
Other types of one-member sentences in English and Ukrainian may have both common and divergent features. The latter usually pertain to the structural form of sentences as well as to the means of grammatical connection of their component parts. These one-member sentences are as follows:
A. Imperative (or inducive) sentences containing a verb and having a V or VP pattern structures.
Note. Imperative sentences in English and Ukrainian may sometimes be two-membered, eg: Don't you do that again! Ніхто не вмикайте світла!
B. Exclamatory sentences may structurally often coincide in English and Ukrainian with nominal and infinitival sentences, eg: How funny! Подумати тільки!
C. Infinitival sentences in both contrasted languages have practically identical structural forms. They may be unextended or extended. Eg: To be or not to be? Бути чи не бути?
Other allomorphic features observed in the types of one-member sentences have a larger representation in Ukrainian than in English. Thus, among these Ukrainian types are the following not pertained to the English syntactic system:
A. The definite personal sentences, which are widely used in literary and colloquial Ukrainian speech. The doer of the action in these sentences is indicated by the finite verb and its personal ending correlating with the main part of the sentence. Eg: Люблю (я) пісні мойого краю. (Рильський) Пам'ятаєш (ти) перший клас? (Павличко) Любіть (ви/всі) Україну всім серцем своїм... (Сосюра)
Note. One-member sentences of similar nature can be observed among English elliptical sentences, eg: Much obliged to you (і. е. І am much obliged to you). Going home? i. e. Are you going home? Understand? i. e. Do you understand? etc. In these elliptical sentences, like in some types of Ukrainian sentences, the finite verb is equally associated with a more or less definite performer of the action as well. The same sentences are also observed in other European languages as Italian, Russian, Byelorussian. Cf. Abbiamo molti compiti (We have many assignments). Подумаем об этом. (We shall think it over), etc.
B. The indefinite personal sentences may also be structurally identical to the above-given Ukrainian definite personal one-member sen tences. They have their actor, i. e. the logico-grammatical doer which is not definitely indicated. Their main part, the verbal component, also cor relates with the finite verb in the third person plural. Its action may refer to present, past or future in the indicative, imperative or in the subjunc tive mood. Eg: Сіяли всю ніч. Дзвонять в усі дзвони. (Шиян) Давніх друзів не забувають. (Ukr. saying) Нам дають чаю, гарячого, міцного. (Коцюбинський)
Sometimes the Ukrainian principal or subordinate clause may have the structural form of an indefinite personal sentence as well. Cf. He за me вовка б'ють, що сірий, а за те, що овечку вкрав. (Saying) Він розпорядився, щоб подали вечерю. Коли б Мирославі не говорили це, вона б заспокоїлась. (А. Головко)
C. Similar to the definite personal sentences are Ukrainian gener alised personal sentences. The action of their main part in such sen tences refers to any (generalised) person correlating with the second (rarer — other) person in singular or plural in the indicative or imperative mood. For example: За правду й за народ ставай життям! (Павличко) Дивиться лисицею, а думає вовком! Вибирай дівку, коли в глині, а не коли в калині. Поживемо — побачимо! Дурнів не орють, не сіють, а вони самі родяться. Подарунок назад не беруть. (Sayings)
D. One more group of one-member sentences in Ukrainian is pre sented by impersonal sentences which are represented in some sub types, the most common of which are the following:
a) Impersonal proper (власне безособові) one-member sentences with the principal part expressed by the finite (predicate) verb, eg: Світає. Край неба палає. (Шевченко) І світає й не світає. (Тичина) Весніє вже. (Гончар) Тепер тобі одразу полегшає. (Ibid.) The principal part in impersonal one-member sentences may sometimes be expressed by a personal verb form. Eg: Мело, крутило, скаженіло, огортаючи присмерковий край. (Гончар) По правді роби, по правді й буде. Вік живи, вік учись. (Нар. творчість)