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History of Geology
Some observations and statements, which are usually considered the origins of geology, dates back to antiquity. Characteristically, the statements of ancient scholars (Pythagoras, Aristotle, Pliny, Strabo, and others) deal with earthquakes, volcanoes, erosion of the mountains, moving, coastlines and seas, etc., that is, the phenomenon of dynamic geology. Only in the Middle Ages appear attempts description and classification of geological bodies, such as the description of minerals Uzbek and Tajik scholar Biruni naturalist Ibn Sina (Latinized - Avicenna). The Renaissance saw the first judgment (except for early references to this in the ancient Greek scholar Strabo) the true nature of fossil shells as the remains of extinct organisms and large, in comparison with the biblical concepts, the long history of the Earth (Italian scientist Leonardo da Vinci in 1504 - 06, G. Fracastoro in 1517). Development of the first representations of removing layers and their original horizontal bedding belongs Dane N. Steno (1669), who first analyzed the geological section (in Tuscany), explaining it as a sequence of geological events.
The word "geology" appeared in print in the 15th century., But then had a completely different meaning than that which is embedded in him now. In 1473 a book was published in Cologne, Bishop R. de Bury "Philobiblon" ("Love of books"), which geologists call the whole complex of the laws and rules of the "earthly" existence, as opposed to theology - the science of spiritual life. In its modern sense, the term "geology" was first used in 1657 by the Norwegian naturalist MP Esholtom in his work on a major earthquake, which covered the whole southern Norway (Geologia Norwegica, 1657). In the late 18th century. it. geologist geology K. Fyuksel proposed and the German mineralogist and geologist geology A. Werner introduced (1780) to the literature, the term "geognosy" for events and objects studied by geologists at the Earth's surface. From that time until the mid-19th century. The term "geognosy" is wider than in other countries, used in Russia and Germany (although a clear distinction between the concepts of "Geology" and "geognosy" was not). In Britain and France, the term is used very rarely, and in America was hardly used. From the middle of the 19th century. The term "geognosy" in Russia is gradually disappearing. For some time he still found in the names of academic degrees and titles of departments of the old Russian universities, but by 1900 he was no longer appears, wiping out the term "geology".
The end of the 17th century. characterized by the increasing number of geological observations, and the emergence of scientific works, in which attempts are made to generalize far from a reasonable knowledge of some general theory of the Earth, in the absence of a satisfactory basis for this methodology. Most scientists late 17th - early 18th centuries. adhere to the existence in the history of the Earth the Flood, which formed as a result of sedimentary rocks and the fossils they contain. These views, called dilyuvianizma, shared English scientist R. Hooke (1688), J. Ray (1692), John Woodward (1695), the Swiss scientist Sheyktser Ya (1708), etc.
Geology as an independent branch of science began to emerge in the 2nd half of the 18th century., When under the influence of the emerging large-scale capitalist industry grew rapidly the needs of society in a fossil and mineral raw materials in connection with the growing interest in the exploration of mineral resources. This period was characterized by the development of the history of geology elementary methods of observation and the accumulation of facts. Studies have focused mainly to describe the properties and conditions of occurrence of rocks. But even then, there were attempts to explain the genesis of rock and grasp the essence of the processes occurring on the surface of the Earth, and in its interior.
Outstanding geological significance were the works of MV Lomonosov Moscow State University - "The word of the birth of metals from the earth quake" (1757) and "Layers of the Earth" (1763), in which he expounded comprehensively and interconnected existed at the time of geological data and their own observations. Decisive role in shaping the face of the earth deep Lomonosov assigned forces ("heat in the earth's womb"), while recognizing the impact on the Earth's surface and the external factors (wind, rivers, rain, etc.), developed the idea of the unity of the formation of mountains and valleys, argued duration and continuity of geological changes faced by the Earth's surface. In recognition of the synthesis of internal and external forces in their influence on the development of the Earth Lomonosov was far ahead of his time, at the time, as occurred in the West ideological struggle between opposing schools - neptunizmom and plutonism, fighting relating to indigenous issues, past and present Earth. Representatives of these schools were in Freiberg professor of mineralogy, geology, Werner A. Saxon and Scottish scientist James Hutton.
Neptunists Werner was an extremely one-sided positions, arguing that all rocks, including basalt, formed as sediments from the water, as to the volcanic activity, it is naive, he attributed the underground combustion of coal. In addition, Werner, who conducted geological observations only around Freiberg, unlawfully distributed patterns seen there (eg, the sequence of formations) on the whole surface of the globe. Work by J. Hutton and his followers - plutonistov corresponded to the correct direction of geological ideas, because they had a major role the internal forces of the Earth. These studies indicated the volcanic basalt and granite formation of the molten mass, which was subsequently confirmed by microscopic examination of rocks and special experiments.
In the mid-18th century. there are geological maps (more precisely, lithological and petrographic), small areas first, and then the large territories. These maps shows the composition of the rock, but did not indicate age. In Russia, the first "geognostic" map was a map of Eastern Transbaikalia, composed in 1789-94 D. Lebedev and Mikhail Ivanov. The first "geological stratigraphic map", covering large areas of European Russia, compiled in the late 1840s NI Koksharov. It has already been allocated formation - Silurian, Old Red Sandstone (Devonian), mining of limestone (Lower Carboniferous), and tertiary liasovaya. In early 1841 Geology P. Helmersen published "General Map of the mountain formations of European Russia."
Birth of geology as a science dates to the late 18th - early 19th centuries. and opportunities associated with the establishment of separate layers of the Earth's crust on the basis of age in these surviving remnants of ancient fauna and flora. Later, it will summarize and organize disparate earlier mineralogical and paleontological data, made possible the construction of geologic time scale and the creation of geological reconstructions.
The possibility of dismemberment layered sequences from surviving in these fossil organic remains have in 1790 the English scientist William Smith, who was "the scale of sedimentary formations of England," and then in 1815 the first geological map of England. Great contribution to the partition of the earth's crust from the remains of mollusks and vertebrates belong to the French scientist Georges Cuvier and A. Brongniart. In 1822 in the South-West of England has been allocated coal, and in the Paris Basin - Cretaceous, which began the stratigraphic taxonomy. But the methodological basis for the first stratigraphic studies was imperfect. The difference in the nature of the organic matter layers, one behind the other, it was explained french scientist Georges Cuvier series of disasters caused by supernatural forces, during which a wide area of all life is destroyed, and then the devastated areas were populated by organisms that migrated from other areas. Disciples and followers of Georges Cuvier developed this doctrine (see Disaster theory). They argued that in the Earth's history there were 27 accidents (A. D 'Orbigny), who died during the entire organic world and then re-emerged under the influence of another divine act, but in a modified form. Impaired primary occurrence of horizontal layers of rock and education Mountains is the result of a short-term disaster. German geologist L. Buch made in 1825 with the theory of "craters lifting", explaining all of the Earth's crust by volcanism, and these ideas he championed and in the future, although in 1833 the French scientist C. Prevost found volcanic cones that are not raised, and the accumulation of eruptive products. At the same time, the French geologist L. Elie de Beaumont (1829) suggested that the contraction hypothesis to explain the dislocation segments contraction during cooling of the earth's crust and the reduction of the volume of its central hot core. This hypothesis was divided most geologists until the early 20th century.
Of C. Lyell, "Principles of Geology" (1830-33) was dealt the first blow Catastrophists views. Were finally refuted prejudices of the short duration of the geological history of the Earth and a large amount of factual material shows that it is not to explain the need to resort to supernatural forces and disasters, as acting now geological agents (precipitation, wind, tides, volcanoes, earthquakes) over millions of years produced the greatest changes in the structure of the crust. An important achievement of Charles Lyell and his contemporaries in Germany, France and Russia had a profound development actualistic method that allowed the event to decipher the geological past. Presentation, Charles Lyell developed, had its disadvantages in that it is considered to be acting on the Earth forces are constantly on the quality and intensity not seen them change and the consequent development of the Earth (see uniformitarianism).
Great importance for the further development of the theory of evolution was stratigraphy Darwin. It provided a solid methodological basis for a detailed dissection of age sedimentary shell of the Earth by studying the phylogenetic changes in individual groups of fossil animals and plants. In the creation of evolutionary paleontology played a large role and Russian scientists. K. Rul'e who studied Jurassic suburbs, before Darwin defended the idea of the evolutionary development of organisms and inorganic nature. In the 2nd half of the 19th century. evolutionary ideas are widespread, developed scientific principles of historical and geological studies (J. Walter) and the beginning of the evolutionary paleontology (VO Kovalevsky). Important were the work of Russian scholars of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. AP Karpinsky in a number of monographs on the fossil cephalopods and fishes showed prospects offered for stratigraphy study of the development of organisms, A. Pavlov, exploring the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sediments, laid the foundations of comparative stratigraphy, which takes into account the diversity of zoogeographical and paleo- geographical environments of the past; N. Andrus for example Neogene sediments of southern Russia has shown a close relationship between changes in salinity, and other physical and geographical conditions of the last pools and especially the development of the fauna.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century. first successes were achieved in the study and the dismemberment of the Precambrian formations. American geologist J. Dana (1872) identified a group of Archean sediments, initially covered the whole Precambrian and later from the Group American geologists C. Emmons and R. Irving (1888) identified the Proterozoic group.
Thus., By the end of the 80's. established the basic unit of modern stratigraphic scale, formally adopted at the 2nd International Geological Congress in Bologna in 1881. Success of paleontology and stratigraphy helped develop recovery method paleogeographic conditions of past eras and the emergence of the early 20th century. new geological disciplines - paleogeography.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century. enhanced the differentiation of geologists from the relatively monolithic science geology into a complex set of geological sciences. In addition to the stratigraphy, which was in 19. the main thrust, which provided a chronological history of the foundation of the Earth, and other developed areas not only studied the geology of the vertical sequence of layers, but also changes in their material composition of strike-related changes in the conditions of formation of rocks. Swiss geologist A. Gresley (1838) first proposed the all rocks formed under the same conditions, to unite under the name of "facies". Facies developed Russian geologist Nikolai Golovkinsky.
Modern mineralogy began to develop at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Proceedings of the Russian geologists VM Severgina, D. Sokolov, French scientist R. Ayui (Haüy) and the Swedish chemist Berzelius. Its further development in Russia is connected with the names of NI Koksharov, PV Eremeev, MV Erofeev and AV Gadolin. In the late 19th century. there were major works Fedorov, founder of the study of symmetry, and the theory of the structure of a crystalline substance, the author of new methods of goniometric and optical studies of minerals. In the 19. as an independent geological disciplines were isolated petrography, which is associated with the beginning (1858) using a polarizing microscope to study rocks. Gained much material on their microscopic study, which allowed the development of the first petrographic classification. Of these, the greatest recognition hitherto enjoyed classification of igneous rocks, proposed in 1898 by the Russian scientist F. Levinson-Lessing. In the early 20th century. receive theoretical research on petrography, particularly on education igneous rocks, the origin and differentiation of magma on the processes of metamorphism, and began experimental physical-chemical study of silicate systems.
Late 19th - early 20th centuries. - Time for a new qualitative change in the history of geology transition of capitalism in its imperialist stage brought new expansion of exploitation of the bowels of the Earth and engaged in world economic relations new, previously affected territories. All the leading countries of the world there are geological services, launches systematic of geological work (eg, the U.S. Geological Survey, 1879). Vast new areas covered by the geological survey, anticipating growth in their mining. Growing stream of evidence and dramatically expands horizons geologists entered training geologists (see geological formation). Evolutionary ideas are firmly grounded in geology, and in general paints a picture of the Earth and its surface.
Of great importance for the development of geology in Russia in 1882, the organization has played the Geological Committee, led by AP Karpinsky, FN Chernyshev, KI Bogdanovich and others associated with the activities of the committee a significant shift in the study of the regional geology of Russia and the development of geological mapping, allowed AP Karpinsky to the Berlin meeting of the International Geological Congress (1885) to map a large part of European Russia. Complete geological map of European Russia in scale 1:2520000 was first compiled and published under the direction of A. Karpinsky in 1892. Important role in the development of geological mapping has played since the organization started by the Geological Committee draw up a general "desyativerstnoy" map of European Russia (scale 1:420000).
AP Karpinsky in 1887 for the first time achieved in European Russia paleogeographic reconstruction, following distribution of marine deposits and restore the position of shorelines for different geological periods. He managed to give an overall picture of slow tectonic movements of the geological past from the Cambrian period, for the vast territory of these movements were opposed to them "kryazheobrazovatelnym" processes, which are located in relatively narrow zones. The slow movement of the earth's crust American geologist geology Gilbert in 1890 proposed the name epeirogenic, as opposed to more rapid orogenic or orogenic.
In the 2nd half of the 19th century. there are the first presentation of an exceptional mobile belts crust - geosynclines (American geologist J. Hall, 1857-59, J. Dana, 1873, a French geologist E. Oz), who opposed the stable region - platform. French geologist M. Bertrand and Austrian geologist E. Suess in the late 19th century. for the territory of Europe provided uneven-age folding (Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine), began a multi-volume edition of the first description of the geological structure of the planet ("Face of the Earth," the Austrian geologist E. Suess). In this work orogeny from the perspective of the contraction hypothesis. Detailed studies of the tectonics of the Alps led to the establishment of a new type of crust structure - thrusts (frantstszsky Lyuzhon geologist M., 1902). Subsequent work by wide development thrusts proved applicable to many mountain systems.
In the 20th century. Geology, like all science in general, is developing much faster than before. For the first broad theoretical followed by new, often much to correct them or refute. A major event of this time was the discovery (1899-1903) French scientists Pierre Curie and M. Sklodowska-Curie of radioactive decay of elements accompanied by spontaneous heat. It is possible to develop a method for determining the absolute age of rocks, and thus the duration of many geological processes. On this basis, the following has been developed geology [A. A. Polkanov, NP Semenenko, KO Kratz (USSR), J. Anderson (USA), C. Stockwell (Canada), BA Shuber (France)]. Since radioactive decay in the Earth became associated presence of thermal energy on the planet, as well as activation of tectonic movements and volcanism that led to a radical revision of the fundamental geological concepts.
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