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Political systems of Kazakhstan
KZ is a presidential republic. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested (облачаться) in both the government and the two chambers of parliament.
President is Nursultan Nazarbaev, Prime Minister is Serik Akhmetov. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister and first deputy prime minister are appointed by the president. Council of Ministers (совет миностров) is also appointed by the president. President Nazarbayev expanded (расширил) his presidential powers by decree (указ): only he can initiate constitutional amendments (поправки), appoint and dismiss (назначить и освобождать) the government, dissolve (распускать) Parliament, call referendums at his discretion (усмотрение), and appoint administrative heads of regions and cities.
The president is the head of state. He also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who has been in office since Kazakhstan became independent.
Legislative branch
The legislature, known as the Parliament (Parliament), has two chambers. The Lower House Assembly (Mazhilis) has 107 seats. All MPs are elected for 5 yeas. The Upper House Senate has 47 members, 40 of whom are elected for six-year terms in double-seat constituencies by the local assemblies, half renewed every two years, and 7 presidential appointees. In addition, ex-presidents are ex officio senators for life. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though most legislation considered by the Parliament is proposed by the government. Several deputies are elected from the Assembly of People of Kazakhstan.
Judicial branch
There are 44 judges on the Supreme Court of Kazakhstan. There are seven members of the Constitutional Council.
The head of the state is the President
The supreme body of the authority is two-chamber Parliament that consists of the Senate and the Mazhilis. Kazakhstan — the constitutional parliamentary-presidential republic. The president is the head of the state and chief supreme commander.
Executive authority
The President of Republic Kazakhstan is voted by full age citizens of Kazakhstan on general, equal, direct and secret vote basis. The President of Republic Kazakhstan is Nursultan Nazarbaev. The Presidents terms of limit are 5 years.
The executive authority is carried out by the government. The system of the executive branch of the government consists of the ministries, services and agencies. The head of the government — the prime minister Karim Masimov.
Legislative power
Legislature is brought into action the Parliament that consists of two Chambers: the Senate and the Mazhilis working on a regular basis.
The Senate is formed by the deputies represented in order of constitution law for two person out of each region, city of republican value and capital of the Republic of Kazakhstan (14 regions, 2 cities). Fifteen deputies of the Senate are appointed by the President in order to fulfill the representation for the Senate of national-cultural and other significant interests of a society.
The Mazhilis consists of the 107 deputies selected by the constitutional law. Terms of limit of deputies in Senate are six years, for deputies of Mazhilis – five years.
The Judicial Branch
Judicial system is a set of all courts of Kazakhstan.
The judicial system includes the Supreme Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the local courts established according to the Constitution of RK and the Constitutional law.
To local courts concern:
The set of mentioned RK’s courts is connected by the unity of issue on distribution of justice and functional form of acting.
Political System of Great Britain (2)
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy. It means that the sovereign reigns but does not rule.
Britain does not have a written constitution, but a set of laws.
Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. Technically Parliament is made up of three parts: the Monarch, the House of Lords; and the House of Commons. In reality the House of Commons is the only one of the three which has true power.
The monarch serves formally as head of state. But the monarch is expected to be politically neutral and should not make political decisions.
The present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II. She was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953.
The House of Commons consists of Members of Parliament. There are 650 of them in the House of Commons. They are elected by secret ballot. General elections are held every five years. The country is divided into 650 constituencies. All citizens, aged 18 and registered in a constituency, have the right to vote. But voting is not compulsory in Britain. Only persons convicted of corrupt and certain mentally ill patients don't take part in voting.
There are few political parties in Britain thanks to the British electoral system. The main ones are: the Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal / Social Democratic Alliance.
Each political party puts up one candidate for each constituency. The one who wins the most votes is elected MP for that area.
The party which wins the most seats in Parliament forms the Government. Its leader becomes the Prime Minister. His first job is to choose his Cabinet. The Prime Minister usually takes policy decisions with the agreement of the Cabinet.
The functions of the House of Commons are legislation and scrutiny of government activities. The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker. The Speaker is appointed by the Government.
The House of Lords comprises about 1,200 peers. It is presided by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power. It acts rather as an advisory council.
It's in the House of Commons that new bills are introduced and debated. If the majority of the members are in favour of a bill, it goes to the House of Lords to be debated. The House of Lords has the right to reject a new bill twice.
But after two rejections they are obliged to accept it. And finally a bill goes to the monarch to be signed. Only then it becomes law.
Parliament is responsible for British national policy. Local governments are responsible for organizing of education, police and many others.
Political System of the USA
The United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states. Each state has its own government («state government*). In some ways the United States is like 50 small countries.
The government of the USA act according to the Constitution which was signed by the first thirteen representatives of thirteen original American states in 1787. The document was written in 1787 and since that time twenty six Amendments have been added. The first ten Amendments were simply rights or the Bill of rights. According to the Constitution the USA is a republic. So, the officials of any rank are elected by US citizens. Every citizen has rights which can not be violated.
The Constitution proclaims a federal system of government which keeps both the states and the federal power from getting too much power. It means that the federal government is given certain powers, for example, to make peace or war, to issue money and to regulate the trade and so on.
The federal power is located in Washington, D.C. It is based on legislative, executive and juridical branches of power.
The legislative power is vested in Congress, which consists of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives, There are 435 members in the House of Representatives and 100 senators in Congress. Each state elects two members for the Senate.
The executive branch is headed by the President who is assisted by the Vice President. The President enforces federal laws, serves as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The President can veto a bill unless Congress by a two-thirds vote shall overrule him. The Vice President, elected from the same political party as the President, acts as chairman of the Senate, and in the event of the death of the President, assumes the Presidency. The President of the USA is chosen in nationwide elections every 4 years together with the Vice.-President. The President can not be elected for more than two terms. The Cabinet is made up of Department Secretaries. The most important of them is the Secretary of State, who deals with foreign affairs.
The judicial branch is made up of Federal District Courts, 11 Federal Courts and the Supreme Court. Federal judges are appointed by the President for life.
Federal courts decide cases involving federal law, conflicts between citizens of different states.
Constitution has been amended twenty six times. The Bill of Rights guarantees individual liberties: freedom of word,» religion and so on. Later amendments abolished slavery, granted the vote to women and colour people and allowed citizens to vote at the age of 18.
The system of elections in Kazakhstan
Elections in Kazakhstan are held on a national level to elect a President and the Parliament, which is divided into two bodies, the Majilis (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Local elections for maslikhats (local representative bodies) are held every five years.[1]
Elections are administered by the Central Election Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Kazakhstan is a one party dominant state. This party is a union of several parties and it was elected in 2007.Opposition political parties are allowed, but are widely considered to have no real chance of gaining power.
Kazakhstan's president is elected by the people and serves for at most two five-year terms. Term limits were removed for the incumbent Nursultan Nazarbayev on 18 May 2007, when parliament also voted to reduce the term length from seven to five years.[5]
The legislature, known as the Parliament (Parlamenti), has two chambers.
The Assembly (Mazhilis) has 107 seats, elected for a five-year term, 98 elected in general elections by proportional representation with 7% threshold and 9 elected by the Assembly of Kazakhstani Nation.
The Senate has 47 members, 40 of whom are elected to six-year terms in double-seat constituencies by the local assemblies, half renewed every two years, and 7 presidential appointees. In addition, ex-presidents are ex officio senators for life.
The system of elections in the USA
The United States Electoral College is the institution that officially elects thePresident and Vice President of the United States every four years. The President and Vice President are not elected directly by the voters. Instead, they are elected by "electors" who are chosen by popular vote on a state-by-state basis.[3] Electors are apportioned to each state and the District of Columbia, but not to territorial possessions of the United States, such as Puerto Rico and Guam. The number of electors in each state is equal to the number of members of Congress to which the state is entitled,[4] while the Twenty-third Amendment has granted the District of Columbia with the minimum number of electors permissible for a state, which is currently three. In total, there are 538 electors, based on there being 435 representatives and 100 senators, plus the three electors from the District of Columbia.
Electors are pledged to particular presidential and vice presidential candidates, though unpledged electors are possible. In all states, except Maine and Nebraska, electors are elected on a "winner-take-all" basis. That is, all electors pledged to the presidential candidate who wins the most votes in a state become electors for that state. Maine and Nebraska use the "congressional district method", selecting one elector within each congressional district by popular vote and selecting the remaining two electors by a statewide popular vote.[5] Although no elector is required by federal law to honor a pledge, there have only been very few occasions when an elector voted contrary to a pledge.[1][6] The Twelfth Amendment specifies how a President and Vice President are elected and requires each elector to cast one vote for President and another vote for Vice President.
The candidate that receives an absolute majority of electoral votes (currently 270) for the offices of President or Vice President is elected to that office. The Twelfth Amendment provides for what happens if the Electoral College fails to elect a President or Vice President. If no candidate receives a majority for President, then theHouse of Representatives will select the President, with each state delegation (instead of each Representative) having only one vote. If no candidate receives a majority for Vice President, then the Senate will select the Vice President, with each Senator having one vote.
Critics argue that the Electoral College is inherently undemocratic and gives swing states disproportionate influence in electing the President and Vice President. The Electoral College gives a numeric advantage in the election of the president to the smaller states, as the minimum number of electors for the small states is three compared to one for the election of representatives. On the other hand, the winner-take-all method of voting favors the larger states. A number ofconstitutional amendments have been proposed seeking to alter the Electoral College or replace it with a direct popular vote.[7]
known as parliamentary elections, form the basis of Britain's democratic system. First universal suffrage was demanded by the British working people in 1837 in the petition known as People's Charter. Now each British citizen over eighteen has the right to vote (except prisoners, lords and mentally ill).
General election to choose MPs must be held at least every five years. Voting is by secret ballot.
The foundations of the British electoral system were laid in the Middle Ages. The system still has its old form with each community electing one representative to serve as its MP until the next general election. The whole country is divided into 650 parliamentary constituencies everyone of which is supposed to choose a single member. Any number of candidates from all parties can stand for election in each constituency.
A relative majority system of voting is used. In a constituency where a single member is supposed to be elected, the candidate who gets more votes than each other candidate separately taken wins. A candidate, for example, might get only 11% of votes but if it is more than each of his rivals gets separately taken he is elected, though 89% of voters didn't support him and the party he represents. An absolute majority system is more democratic. It means that a candidate is elected if he gets 50% of votes and one vote more.
History and politics.
Political history is the narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements, leaders and entities.[1] It is very interrelated to other fields of history such as Diplomatic history, social history, economic history, and military history, as well as constitutional history and public history.
Generally, political history focuses mainly (but not only) on decisions made by the leadership of nation-states. Political history studies the organization and operation of power in large societies. By focusing on the elites in power, on their impact on society, on popular response, and on the relationships with the elites in other countries. The field often involves the deconstruction of myths and received wisdom. The political historian has the constant responsibility of doing justice to the leadership of the past.[2] According to Hegel, political History "is an idea of the state with a moral and spiritual force beyond the material interests of its subjects: it followed that the state was the main agent of historical change"[3] This contrasts with social history, which focuses predominantly on the actions and lifestyles of ordinary people,[4] or people's history, which is historical work from the perspective of common people.
In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying withsocial history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[5] In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves withsocial history while political history came next with 1425 (25%).[6]
The political history of the world is the history of the evolution of the political events, ideas, movements, leaders and entities, and the way these elements shape society as a whole; Special importance is their crystallisation into political entities such as republics, empires and so on; and the study of the international relations between them. Together with this descriptive analysis, the history of political thinking narrates the evolution of the political ideas and philosophy, and goes back to antiquity. Political history, and thus the history of political thinking throughout human existence stretches though up to Medieval period and the Renaissance. In the Age of Enlightenment, political entities expanded from basic systems of self-governance and monarchy to the complex democratic and communist systems that exist of the Industrialied and the Modern Era, in parallel, political systems have expanded from vaguely defined frontier-type boundaries, to the definite boundaries existing today.
Aspects of political history
The first "scientific" political history was written by Leopold von Ranke in Germany in the 19th century. His methodologies profoundly affected the way historians critically examine sources; see historiography for a more complete analysis of the methodology of various approaches to history. An important aspect of political history is the study of ideology as a force for historical change. One author asserts that "political history as a whole cannot exist without the study of ideological differences and their implications."[7] Studies of political history typically centre around a single nation and its political change and development. Some historians identify the growing trend towards narrow specialization in political history during recent decades: "while a college professor in the 1940s sought to identify himself as a "historian", by the 1950s "American historian" was the designation."[8]
From the 1970s onwards, new movements sought to challenge traditional approaches to political history. The development of social history and women's history shifted the emphasis away from the study of leaders and national decisions, and towards the role of ordinary citizens; "...by the 1970s "the new social history" began replacing the older style. Emphasis shifted to a broader spectrum of American life, including such topics as the history of urban life, public health, ethnicity, the media, and poverty."[9] As such, political history is sometimes seen as the more 'traditional' kind of history, in contrast with the more 'modern' approaches of other fields of history.
Political pluralism.
Political pluralism is fundamental to political systems of democratic
states. One of the most popular definitions shows that the essence of this term
is free competition of groups in exerting influence upon the decisions taken
by the state. Political pluralism is thus a constitutive feature of a democratic
regime, and it is manifested in the freedom of association and expression of
opinion. In contrast to totalitarian systems, democracy assumes the existence
of diverse world outlooks. Despite heated debates and conflicts between the
government and the opposition, no one questions the legitimacy of pluralism;
in other words, the authorities do not reach out for repressive practices
towards people with different opinions. Thus, it is one the basic factors
differentiating between a totalitarian state and a democracy
Internal and external politics of English speaking countries.
Вопросы внутренней политики одинаковы почти во всех странах мира. Например, все правительства должны предоставлять гражданамобразование, закон, общественный порядок и другие основные услуги для своих граждан. Тем не менее, конкретные цели и задачи внутренней политики меняются в зависимости от потребностей каждой страны и её возможностей. Большинство богатых и демократических страны, например, тратят значительные суммы денег на внутренние программы. Многие бедные страны испытывают трудности в выделение ресурсов на таких важных областях, как образование и здравоохранение.
Многие внутренние политические дебаты касаются уровня участия государства в решении экономических и социальных вопросов. Традиционно,консерваторы считают, что правительство не должно играть важную роль в регулировании бизнеса и управления экономикой. Большинство консерваторов также считают, что действия правительства не могут решить проблемы бедности и экономического неравенства. Большинстволибералов, однако, поддерживают государственные программы, направленные на предоставление экономической безопасности, уменьшение человеческих страданий и сокращение неравенства. Многие либералы считают, что правительство должно регулировать предприятия для обеспечения безопасных и справедливых условий труда, а также ограничить загрязнение окружающей среды.
Особенно спорным среди людей разных культур являются некоторые вопросы внутренней политики, касающиеся религий и личных убеждений. К примеру, к таким вопросам относятся права на аборт, права гомосексуалов, роли религии в общественной жизни и культурное разнообразие в сфере образования и занятости.
Вне́шняя поли́тика (внешние сношения государства) — общий курс государства в международных делах. Внешняя политика регулирует отношения данного государства с другими государствами и народами в соответствии с его принципами и целями, достигаемыми применением различных средств и методов. Важнейшее средство внешней политики — дипломатия.
Внешняя политика неразрывно связана с внутренней политикой государства.
Главное внешнеполитическое ведомство государства — внутригосударственный орган внешних сношений, осуществляющий практическую деятельность по проведению внешней политики государства, — во многих странах именуется министерством иностранных дел и возглавляется министром иностранных дел.
В США это ведомство именуется государственным департаментом и возглавляется государственным секретарём США; во Франции — министерством внешних сношений, в Швейцарии — политическим департаментом, в Аргентине — министерством внешних сношений и культа, вЛивии — Народным бюро по внешним связям, и т. д.
Всеми́рная торго́вая организа́ция (ВТО; англ. World Trade Organization (WTO),фр. Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), исп. Organización Mundial del Comercio) — международная организация, созданная 1 января 1995 года с цельюлиберализации международной торговли и регулирования торгово-политических отношений государств-членов. ВТО образована на основе Генерального соглашения по тарифам и торговле (ГАТТ), заключенного в 1947 году и на протяжении почти 50 лет фактически выполнявшего функции международной организации, но не являвшегося, тем не менее, международной организацией в юридическом смысле.Штаб-квартира ВТО расположена в Женеве, Швейцария. Глава ВТО (генеральный директор) — Роберту Карвалью ди Азеведу, в штате самой организации около 640 человек.[4]
На 2 марта 2013 года в ВТО состояло 159 стран.
Kazakhstan and the OSCE
History of Kazakhstan’s participation in the OSCE
Kazakhstan joined the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe on 30 January 1992. In the same year, on 8 July, it signed the Helsinki Final Act of the CSCE, and on 23 September the Charter of Paris for a New Europe.
During the first years of its independence, Kazakhstan needed the support of the world powers and authoritative international organizations, including the OSCE. At the same time, the world community was interested in the constructive foreign policy line followed by the young republic, which, as history willed it, had turned out to be the possessor of the fourth largest nuclear arsenal. Mindful of this, the country made a conscious choice in favour of balanced approaches in its foreign and domestic policies, in which a pivotal role was assigned to the strategy of multilateral partnership and liberalization of the economy and society.
The invitation extended by the leading Western countries to join the Organization was perceived in Kazakhstan as a step towards forming a new European security architecture based on equality and absence of dividing lines.
Having become a full member of the pan-European conference, Kazakhstan took an active part in the processes of its further development, including its conversion into an international organization. President Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan participated in the OSCE Summits held in Helsinki (1992), Budapest (1994), Lisbon (1996) and Istanbul (1999). Each year, Kazakhstan is represented at the meetings of the OSCE Ministerial Council by its Foreign Minister.
Kazakh parliamentarians take an active part in the work of the Organization’s Parliamentary Assembly.