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БИЛЕТ № 5
Lexicology deals with the word-stock, or the vocabulary (the “lexicon”) of a particular language.
Lexicon as a system: the vocabulary of any language exist as a whole of interconnection and interdependent elements.
Combination of synchronic and diachronic approaches: the lexical system of Modern English can be better understood in connection with its historical development.
Two basic approaches: semiological (through the form to the idea/meaning) vs. onomasiological (through the idea/meaning to the form).
Semiology (Semiological approach) Stubborn: obstinate, determinate, difficult to deal with – (PICTURE)
Onomasiology (Onomasiological approach): (PICTURE) - Stubborn, obstinate, bullheaded, dogged, mulish – a multitude of ways to express the mental picture.
A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN.
Word-form is one of possible grammatical forms of the particular word.
Lexeme is a unit of language. Word-form is a unit of speech.
БИЛЕТ № 10
Ex.: family – familiar = unfamiliar – familitary – familiarize
Ex.: friend|ship (n+ - sf >N). cf. boy|hood, steward|ess…
Ex.: Natural Event > precipitation(rain, snow…) / destructive natural phenomenon (volcano eruption, earthquake…)
Ex.: University
|
student, undergraduate, postgraduate, professor, assistant professor, tutor, advisor, lecture, seminar, test. Examination, give a lesson, read a lection…excellent (as a mark)
you can add any part of speech.
Ex.: [ dark ] : darkness, dark, bleck, blackness, to darken, dim, shade, unilluminated, starless, moonless…
(лекция 8, у меня не полностью!)
Transfer of meaning: semantic change based on associative relations.
Transfer of meaning is subdivided into:
Ex.: head ( of a cabbage) =similarity of shape head ( of a procession) = similarity of position head (of the family) = similarity of function orange, adj. = similarity of colour poetical metaphors ( toad ' unpleasant person' ) vs. dead (trite) metaphors (the long arm of the law)
Ex.: cup ‘small vessel to drink out of’ > ‘as much as a cup holds’ (He’s had three cups already) = spatial metonymy
Date ‘particular day’ > ‘arrangement to meet sb at a particular time’ = temporal metonymy
Cold ‘lack of heat or warmth’ > ‘common illness that affects the nose and throat’ = causal metonymy
Glass ‘hard, usu transparent substance’ > ‘container made of glass, used to drink out of’ = attributive metonymy.
Specialization – narrowing of the meaning, when the meaning becomes less general or less inclusive.
Ex.: meat <OE mete ‘food, item of food’ > ‘flesh used as food’
Fowl <OE fugel, fugol ‘bird’ (cf. Ger. Vogel) <OE fleogan ‘to fly’ > ‘domestic bird’
Disease <O. Fr. Desaise ‘discomfort, inconvenience’ > ‘illness, sickness’.
Generalization – broading of the meaning, when the meaning of a word becomes more general or more inclusive.
Ex.: bird <OE bird <OE bridd ‘young bird, nestling’ > ‘winged creature’.
Pipe <OE pipe ‘musical wind instrument’ > ‘any tipe of tube’.
To serve <O. Fr. Server ‘to render habitual obedience to (God)’ > ‘to attend to (a customer)’.
Secondary type of semantic change
Ex.: villain <O. Fr. Villain ‘inhabitant of a farm’ > ‘scoundrel’
Churl < OE ceorl ‘man without rank, peasant’ > ‘bad-tempered person’.
Silly <OE gesaelig ‘happy’ > ‘lacking in reason, foolish’.
Ex.: knight <OE cniht ‘boy, servant’ > ‘militaryfollower of a king’ > ‘noble man’
Marshal <O. Fr. mareschal < Frankish marhskalk, lit. ‘horse-servant’
Pretty <OE prattig ‘cunning, skillfil’ > ‘attractive’ (you do it pretty well)
БИЛЕТ № 15
(метод непосредственных составляющих)
It is morphemic segmentability of the word.
immediate constituent analysis suggested by Leonard Bloomfield in 1933.
Principles of immediate constituent analysis (or IC):
Ex.: ungentlemanly > un – gentlemanly > gentleman – ly > gentle – man (a semi-affix cf. nobleman) > gentle (not segmentable further; through there is gent n, with the colloquial meaning ‘man’ , there is no derivational morpheme – le)
Context is probably one of the driving forces in polysemy. It is linguistic (and very often extralinguistic) environment sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word or phrase; any meaning actualizes only in a specific context.
Ex.: eye
He opened his eyes > 1. ‘organ of sight’
The eye of a potato >2. ‘point from which a leaf-bud will grow, resembling an eye’.
Types of context
The typology of context depends on the discipline that uses this notion.
>Philosophical, social, cultural, historical…context. In linguistics, context is understood either as:
Contextual markers
Specific contextual markers (semantic units that surround the polysemous word – the polyseme) help to disambiguate polysemy (in Russian: снимать многозначность):
A sharp knife > refers to the cutting quality of the instrument’s edge
A sharp drop (in prices) > refers to the speed of change
A sharp mind > refers to the agility
Polysemy is disambiguated through grammatical and/or lexical contextual markers:
The girl ran when she saw us coming. > ran is used intransitively (grammar) + has girl (‘animate’) as subject (lexical semantics)
БИЛЕТ № 20
To pre’sent, v – ‘present, adj
To in’crease, v – ‘increase, n
To sub’ject,v – ‘subject, n and adj
The verbs keep the stress of their original source, whereas the nouns and adjectives have the stress on the first syllable.
Buzz - v, and n
Cuckoo - n
Homonym < gr. have the same name: words of the same language which are identical phonetically or graphically in all or several grammar forms but which have essential difference in lexical and or grammar meaning.
Ex.: I never saw a saw saw as that saw saws. This is an example of a pun (игра слов).
Homonomy is often use to create humorous effects.
Ex.: Spell checker poem
I have a spelling checker ...
Homonyms was known long ago: ancient philosophers noticed that one name can have several unrelated referents.
Types of homonyms
Criteria ( according to Yu. S. Maslov )
1) differences in meaning :
-lexical homonyms: words having the same grammatical form and from the same part of speech but with unrelated lexical meaning ex.
Ex.: Yard (partly) ‘encloses space near or round a building’- yard ‘unit of length, 36 inches’
- grammatical homonyms: different form-words of the same lexeme ( with the same lexical meaning)
Ex: Brothers -brother's
- lexico-grammatical homonyms: words with mostly different lexical meaning and belonging to different parts of speech
Ex. Work - to work
2) degree of morphological similarity:
-full homonyms: words whose grammatical forms fully coincide
Ex.: Ball ‘solid or hollow sphere’ - ball ‘social gathering for dancing’
- partial homonyms: words whose grammatical forms partially coincide
Ex.: lie lies lay lain vs. lie lies lied lied
- unequal homonyms (неравнообъемные омонимы): words with coinciding grammatical forms but one of a words has an addition grammatical forms
Ex.: Work - works vs. to work - works - worked - working
3) difference in spelling and sound form ( w. w. skeat)
- perfect homonyms: word identical in sound and spelling
Ex.: Bank ‘land along each side of a river’ – bank ‘financial institution for keeping money safely’
- homophones: words with the same sound but different spelling
Ex.: Piece pease
- homographs: words identical in spelling but pronounced differently
Ex. Bow [bou] [bau]
БИЛЕТ № 21
Conversion (in Russian конверсия) : a way of word-formation where a new word is obtained by changing the part-of-speech relation of the source word without changing the morphological structure of the word stem. The term “conversion” was introduced by Henry Sweet (1891).
Sometimes conversion is called zero derivation: the morphological and syntactic paradigms are changed without adding derivational morphemes (affixes).
Ex.: work n > works n, pl – to work v > (he) works, (he) worked, (he has been) working…
Love n – to love v
Paper n – to paper v
Types of conversation and their semantics
Hammer, n > to hammer, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the instrument is denoted by the source noun’)
Witness, n > to witness, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the subject is denoted by the source noun’)
Bottle, n > to bottle v (‘to accomplish an action, where the location is denoted by the source noun’)
Stitch, n >to stitch, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the result is denoted by the source noun’)
Winter, n >to winter, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the duration is denoted by the source noun’)
Tidy,adj > to tidy, v (‘to accomplish an action which causes the state denoted by the source adj’)
To cut,v > cut, n (‘result of the action denoted by the source verb’)
To decay, v > decay, n (‘process of the action denoted by the source verb’)
To drive > drive, n (‘ location of the action denoted by the source verb’)
To bore,v > bore,n (‘subject of the action denoted by the source verb’)
sources of homonomy:
1)split of polysemy one of the reasons of the existence of words with synchronically unreleated meaning is the split of polysemy (semantic derevation распад полисемии) \
Ex.: Springan ' to leap, burst forth, fly up'> OE spring generalized 'action or time of rising or springing into existance' I spring 'season following winter'< "spring of the year" when plants 'spring up' II spring 'source of steam of river' IIIspring 1 ' act of springing or leaping' 2'elastic coil that returns to its shape when scratched'
2) phonetic convergence on a specific development stage, historically unrelated words concide in their prononsiiation - phonetic convergence (фонетическая конвергенция)
Ex.: Bear n. < OE bera 'the brown(one)' - bear v. < OE beran 'to bring, to endure to wear' I pron < OE ic - eye n < OE eage base adj < L. Lat. bassus ' low in stature or position' - base n < Lat. basis 'foundation' ball n < OE beal 'round object' - ball n < O. Fr. Baller < L. Lat. ballare 'to dance'
3) word-formation
- conversion:
ex. Brass doesn't rust - the pipes were covered with rust.
-clipping:
flu < influenza
-abbreviation:
WOMAN - word organization of mothers of all nations