Stock synchronic nd dichronic pproches semsiology nd onomsiology
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БИЛЕТ № 5
- Specify the theoretical fundamentals of English lexicology: systemic character of the word-stock, synchronic and diachronic approaches, semasiology and onomasiology.
Lexicology deals with the word-stock, or the vocabulary (the “lexicon”) of a particular language.
Lexicon as a system: the vocabulary of any language exist as a whole of interconnection and interdependent elements.
Combination of synchronic and diachronic approaches: the lexical system of Modern English can be better understood in connection with its historical development.
Two basic approaches: semiological (through the form to the idea/meaning) vs. onomasiological (through the idea/meaning to the form).
Semiology (Semiological approach) Stubborn: obstinate, determinate, difficult to deal with – (PICTURE)
Onomasiology (Onomasiological approach): (PICTURE) - Stubborn, obstinate, bullheaded, dogged, mulish – a multitude of ways to express the mental picture.
- What are a lexeme and a word-form?
A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN.
Word-form is one of possible grammatical forms of the particular word.
Lexeme is a unit of language. Word-form is a unit of speech.
БИЛЕТ № 10
- Characterize the structural and conceptual types of lexical units in Modern English and principles of their arrangement (with examples).
- By morphological structure and way of word-formation:
- Simple words (or root-words). Ex.: heart, green, laugh.
- Derivatives (in Russian: производные). Ex.: hearty, greenish, laughter
- Compounds (in Russian: сложные слова). Ex.: heartbeat, greenhorn (an inexperienced and easily deceived person), belly-laugh (loud, coarse laugh)
- Parasyntheta (in Russian: сложнопроизводные слова). Ex.: warm-hearted (rind and sympathetic), green-eyed (jeleause)
- By common roots: word families (in Russian: словообразовательные гнезда)
Ex.: family – familiar = unfamiliar – familitary – familiarize
- By morphemic composition and segmentability of the word
Ex.: friend|ship (n+ - sf >N). cf. boy|hood, steward|ess…
- By semantic features:
- Semantic (or lexical, or lexical-semantic) fields
Ex.: Natural Event > precipitation(rain, snow…) / destructive natural phenomenon (volcano eruption, earthquake…)
- Thematic word lists.
Ex.: University
|
student, undergraduate, postgraduate, professor, assistant professor, tutor, advisor, lecture, seminar, test. Examination, give a lesson, read a lection…excellent (as a mark)
you can add any part of speech.
- Ideographic word groups
Ex.: [ dark ] : darkness, dark, bleck, blackness, to darken, dim, shade, unilluminated, starless, moonless…
- Explain the linguistic causes of semantic change.
(лекция 8, у меня не полностью!)
Transfer of meaning: semantic change based on associative relations.
Transfer of meaning is subdivided into:
- Metaphor: figure of speech based on a perceived similarity between objects or phenomena.
Ex.: head ( of a cabbage) =similarity of shape head ( of a procession) = similarity of position head (of the family) = similarity of function orange, adj. = similarity of colour poetical metaphors ( toad ' unpleasant person' ) vs. dead (trite) metaphors (the long arm of the law)
- Metonymy: semantic change based on contiguity (in Russian: смежность)
Ex.: cup ‘small vessel to drink out of’ > ‘as much as a cup holds’ (He’s had three cups already) = spatial metonymy
Date ‘particular day’ > ‘arrangement to meet sb at a particular time’ = temporal metonymy
Cold ‘lack of heat or warmth’ > ‘common illness that affects the nose and throat’ = causal metonymy
Glass ‘hard, usu transparent substance’ > ‘container made of glass, used to drink out of’ = attributive metonymy.
Specialization – narrowing of the meaning, when the meaning becomes less general or less inclusive.
Ex.: meat <OE mete ‘food, item of food’ > ‘flesh used as food’
Fowl <OE fugel, fugol ‘bird’ (cf. Ger. Vogel) <OE fleogan ‘to fly’ > ‘domestic bird’
Disease <O. Fr. Desaise ‘discomfort, inconvenience’ > ‘illness, sickness’.
Generalization – broading of the meaning, when the meaning of a word becomes more general or more inclusive.
Ex.: bird <OE bird <OE bridd ‘young bird, nestling’ > ‘winged creature’.
Pipe <OE pipe ‘musical wind instrument’ > ‘any tipe of tube’.
To serve <O. Fr. Server ‘to render habitual obedience to (God)’ > ‘to attend to (a customer)’.
Secondary type of semantic change
- Degradation (in Russian: ухудшение значения) : the meaning becomes worse or less favourable.
Ex.: villain <O. Fr. Villain ‘inhabitant of a farm’ > ‘scoundrel’
Churl < OE ceorl ‘man without rank, peasant’ > ‘bad-tempered person’.
Silly <OE gesaelig ‘happy’ > ‘lacking in reason, foolish’.
- Elevation (in Russian: улучшение значения) : the meaning becomes better, more positive or favourable.
Ex.: knight <OE cniht ‘boy, servant’ > ‘militaryfollower of a king’ > ‘noble man’
Marshal <O. Fr. mareschal < Frankish marhskalk, lit. ‘horse-servant’
Pretty <OE prattig ‘cunning, skillfil’ > ‘attractive’ (you do it pretty well)
БИЛЕТ № 15
- What is the immediate constituent analysis and what are its principles?
(метод непосредственных составляющих)
It is morphemic segmentability of the word.
immediate constituent analysis suggested by Leonard Bloomfield in 1933.
Principles of immediate constituent analysis (or IC):
- Binarity
- Comparing words with the same morpheme having the same meaning
Ex.: ungentlemanly > un – gentlemanly > gentleman – ly > gentle – man (a semi-affix cf. nobleman) > gentle (not segmentable further; through there is gent n, with the colloquial meaning ‘man’ , there is no derivational morpheme – le)
- What is context and why is it so important for the interpretation of polysemous words? What are contextual markers?
Context is probably one of the driving forces in polysemy. It is linguistic (and very often extralinguistic) environment sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word or phrase; any meaning actualizes only in a specific context.
Ex.: eye
He opened his eyes > 1. ‘organ of sight’
The eye of a potato >2. ‘point from which a leaf-bud will grow, resembling an eye’.
Types of context
The typology of context depends on the discipline that uses this notion.
>Philosophical, social, cultural, historical…context. In linguistics, context is understood either as:
- Linguistic environment (context in the narrower sense), or
- Extralinguistic communicative situation (context in the broader sense).
Contextual markers
Specific contextual markers (semantic units that surround the polysemous word – the polyseme) help to disambiguate polysemy (in Russian: снимать многозначность):
A sharp knife > refers to the cutting quality of the instrument’s edge
A sharp drop (in prices) > refers to the speed of change
A sharp mind > refers to the agility
Polysemy is disambiguated through grammatical and/or lexical contextual markers:
The girl ran when she saw us coming. > ran is used intransitively (grammar) + has girl (‘animate’) as subject (lexical semantics)
БИЛЕТ № 20
- Speak about non-linear non-morphological types of word-formation (distinctive change and onomatopoeia).
- Distinctive change (in Russian: сдвиг ударения)
To pre’sent, v – ‘present, adj
To in’crease, v – ‘increase, n
To sub’ject,v – ‘subject, n and adj
The verbs keep the stress of their original source, whereas the nouns and adjectives have the stress on the first syllable.
- Onomatopoeia (in Russian: звукоподражание,ономатопея)
Buzz - v, and n
Cuckoo - n
- What is homonymy and what types of homonyms do you know?
Homonym < gr. have the same name: words of the same language which are identical phonetically or graphically in all or several grammar forms but which have essential difference in lexical and or grammar meaning.
Ex.: I never saw a saw saw as that saw saws. This is an example of a pun (игра слов).
Homonomy is often use to create humorous effects.
Ex.: Spell checker poem
I have a spelling checker ...
Homonyms was known long ago: ancient philosophers noticed that one name can have several unrelated referents.
Types of homonyms
Criteria ( according to Yu. S. Maslov )
1) differences in meaning :
-lexical homonyms: words having the same grammatical form and from the same part of speech but with unrelated lexical meaning ex.
Ex.: Yard (partly) ‘encloses space near or round a building’- yard ‘unit of length, 36 inches’
- grammatical homonyms: different form-words of the same lexeme ( with the same lexical meaning)
Ex: Brothers -brother's
- lexico-grammatical homonyms: words with mostly different lexical meaning and belonging to different parts of speech
Ex. Work - to work
2) degree of morphological similarity:
-full homonyms: words whose grammatical forms fully coincide
Ex.: Ball ‘solid or hollow sphere’ - ball ‘social gathering for dancing’
- partial homonyms: words whose grammatical forms partially coincide
Ex.: lie lies lay lain vs. lie lies lied lied
- unequal homonyms (неравнообъемные омонимы): words with coinciding grammatical forms but one of a words has an addition grammatical forms
Ex.: Work - works vs. to work - works - worked - working
3) difference in spelling and sound form ( w. w. skeat)
- perfect homonyms: word identical in sound and spelling
Ex.: Bank ‘land along each side of a river’ – bank ‘financial institution for keeping money safely’
- homophones: words with the same sound but different spelling
Ex.: Piece pease
- homographs: words identical in spelling but pronounced differently
Ex. Bow [bou] [bau]
БИЛЕТ № 21
- What does conversion consist in?
Conversion (in Russian конверсия) : a way of word-formation where a new word is obtained by changing the part-of-speech relation of the source word without changing the morphological structure of the word stem. The term “conversion” was introduced by Henry Sweet (1891).
Sometimes conversion is called zero derivation: the morphological and syntactic paradigms are changed without adding derivational morphemes (affixes).
Ex.: work n > works n, pl – to work v > (he) works, (he) worked, (he has been) working…
Love n – to love v
Paper n – to paper v
Types of conversation and their semantics
- Formation of verbs (the most productive type of conversion)
- Noun(source) > verb:
Hammer, n > to hammer, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the instrument is denoted by the source noun’)
Witness, n > to witness, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the subject is denoted by the source noun’)
Bottle, n > to bottle v (‘to accomplish an action, where the location is denoted by the source noun’)
Stitch, n >to stitch, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the result is denoted by the source noun’)
Winter, n >to winter, v (‘to accomplish an action, where the duration is denoted by the source noun’)
- Adjective (source) . verb:
Tidy,adj > to tidy, v (‘to accomplish an action which causes the state denoted by the source adj’)
- Formation of nouns.
- Verb (source) > noun:
To cut,v > cut, n (‘result of the action denoted by the source verb’)
To decay, v > decay, n (‘process of the action denoted by the source verb’)
To drive > drive, n (‘ location of the action denoted by the source verb’)
To bore,v > bore,n (‘subject of the action denoted by the source verb’)
- What are the sources of homonymy?
sources of homonomy:
1)split of polysemy one of the reasons of the existence of words with synchronically unreleated meaning is the split of polysemy (semantic derevation распад полисемии) \
Ex.: Springan ' to leap, burst forth, fly up'> OE spring generalized 'action or time of rising or springing into existance' I spring 'season following winter'< "spring of the year" when plants 'spring up' II spring 'source of steam of river' IIIspring 1 ' act of springing or leaping' 2'elastic coil that returns to its shape when scratched'
2) phonetic convergence on a specific development stage, historically unrelated words concide in their prononsiiation - phonetic convergence (фонетическая конвергенция)
Ex.: Bear n. < OE bera 'the brown(one)' - bear v. < OE beran 'to bring, to endure to wear' I pron < OE ic - eye n < OE eage base adj < L. Lat. bassus ' low in stature or position' - base n < Lat. basis 'foundation' ball n < OE beal 'round object' - ball n < O. Fr. Baller < L. Lat. ballare 'to dance'
3) word-formation
- conversion:
ex. Brass doesn't rust - the pipes were covered with rust.
-clipping:
flu < influenza
-abbreviation:
WOMAN - word organization of mothers of all nations
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