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From the point of view of user the main features of the text is informatively – the ability to carry a message. Informativeness is the real world that is the access of orientation while reading a text. The 2nd meaning – context.
Intentionality is text type (political speech, sensational news, ads). All require the choice of particular language structures.
The main feature of text from the point of view of text itself is coherence or compositional features.
Text as a product of language use is the ultimate complete unit which is distinguishes by a certain predmetic orientation, informativeness and coherence.
4. The main categories of textual structure
-thematazation
-progression
-cohesion
5. What is thematization?
All texts have an introductory segment (an orientation or a setting or initiating event segments) which must be present before the rest of the text can be properly formed. The reader actively looks for a sentence in initial positial that will indicate the general thought of the text (a text level theme) Thematization introduces heroes, narrator, time & place. Theme – the given info, starting point. Rheme – new info. Theme is a clause initial element. Rheme is the developing of the theme
6. Progression as a textual category
Progression is a standard text linguistic paragraph, a unit defined by indentic thing. Many paragraphs contain the theory – it’s a logical unit of discourse. Characteristics:
-it’s a group of sentences developing one central idea. It usually begins with a topic sentence it handles & exhausts a distinct topic
-it’s an independent self-contained whole
-it is a composition in miniature
7. What governs the division of a text into paragraphs?
A paragraph is a functioning part of discourse, a flexible rhetorical device shaped by the writer’s individual style, reader’s expectations and logic of a subject matter.
Many paragraphs contain the theory. It’s a logical unit of discourse characteristics:
the logical approach to the study of paragraphing describes the internal structure of a paragraph and as such is reasonable mainly for introductory paragraphs which serve as a platform for message in the text to develop. The central notion in the logical theory of a paragraph is the topic sentence.
The writer may adjust a paragraph to achieve a variety of rhetorical effects:
The factors that govern paragraphing practices:
Paragraphing practices are also governed by changes in fashion and social convertion. Writers use paragraph blocks – a number of short paragraphs.
8. What is paragraph as a logical unit?
A paragraph is a functioning part of discourse, a flexible rhetorical device shaped by the writer’s individual style, reader’s expectations and logic of a subject matter.
Many paragraphs contain the theory. It’s a logical unit of discourse characteristics:
the logical approach to the study of paragraphing describes the internal structure of a paragraph and as such is reasonable mainly for introductory paragraphs which serve as a platform for message in the text to develop. The central notion in the logical theory of a paragraph is the topic sentence.
The writer may adjust a paragraph to achieve a variety of rhetorical effects:
9. What is paragraph as a rhetorical unit?
Rhetorical par-h is conditioned by the psychological, sociological and historical factors. It is short - compared to the logical. It’s a visual textual unit which helps to establish a tone. The writer may adjust a paragraph to achieve a variety of rhetorical effects: -formality (long. par-h); -informality (shorter par-h);
The factors that govern paragraphing practices. The strucut. dep. on:
-writer’s personality; -perception of the reader; -perception of the structure.
Par-hing practices are also governed by changes on fashion and social conversion. Writers use par-h blocks – a number of short par-hs. A par-h is a functioning part of discourse, a flexible rhetorical device shaped by the writer’s ind. style, readers’ expectation and logic of a subject matter.
11. What can you say about paragraphing practices from the point of views of individual style?
The writer may adjust a paragraph to achive a variety of rhetorical effects:
The factors that govern paragraph practices:
- the writer’s personality and his perception of the reader as well as art of this perception of the structure of the subject matter.
Paragraphing practices are also governed by changes in fashion and social conversion.
Writers use paragraph blocks – a number of short paragraphs.
A paragraph is a functioning part of discourse, a flexible rhetorical device shaped by the writer’s ind. style, reader’s expectations and logic of a subject matter.
12. What is cohesion? What are the types of cohesive types?
Coherence is treated in 2 ways:
1) Cohesion is the product of textual connectivity or cohesion
it is a static text-based on descriptive approach
2) Cohesion is a more dynamic understanding, interpretative notion based on comprehension, understanding, follow the unfolding of the text;
Syntactic cohesion
Cohesive relations which draw on syntactic process the following:
- reference
-substitution
-ellipsis
Reference is the semantic relation between 2 items in the text. There are 2 types: anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference (anaphora, cataphora)
ex. Charlie was sitting out the window, reading the evening paper – he put it aside us. I went up to him and shook his hand.
Anaphora forms a cohesive chain across sentence boundaries through out the whole passage.
Cataphora - the use of pronouns before the co-referring elements they substitute. It is used to stimulate the reader’s interest, generates suspense; it puts a spec. emphasis on a certain part of the text.
Substitution – used in colloquial speech; ling item is substituted for another when 2 things are of one type, but diff.
ex. – Do you want this skirt?
Ellipsis – is substitution by nothing.
ex. – Where have you been?
13.What are the types of rhetorical content of paragraphs?
Functions of the paragraphs
-description -narration -illustration -process analysis
-cause and effect analysis -comparison and contrast -definition
-classification -persuasion -elaboration -explanation -result
1n imaginative prose writing
-narration -description -persuasion -academic discourse
14.What is coherence? What does it relate to?
Coherence -the logical connections that readers or listeners perceive in a written or oral text.
Contribute to the establishment of coherence in discourse – syntactic, lexical, conjunction or connectives.
Coherence is treated in 2 ways
-cohesion is the product of textual connectivity or cohesion ,it is a static text- based on descriptive approach
-cohesion is a more dynamic understanding , interpretive , notion based on comprehension , understanding , follow the unfolding of the text.
Cohesive relations which draw on syntactic process are the following
-reference
-substitution
-ellipsis.
15. What is modality as a textual category?
Modality-impact aspects of being an existence and its reflection in the consciousness; deals with what is real, possible, necessary and the attitude of the speaker to this constancy. Evaluation modality is closely connected with the point of view. In the study of the literature it’s point of view which determines the mode of narrating: -in non-fiction (narrator is a real person telling a story, describing what is happening in front of his eyes); -in fiction (the narrator is not a real-world person but an implied narrator (narrating self)). The notion of pragmatic context is very important for modality: -realistic background, -unrealistic background, -epistemological - “to know”, -stereotype background – “used to”.
16. What is temporality as a textual category?
Temporality - time constitutive importance, complex combination of sequence duration and frequency. 2 levels of narration: -chronological sequence of events (relies on what happened on the story level time is telling; concentrate on the story, history and society; -discourse level –time is based on psychological conceptions of time (conscious time is reflecting).
18. Intertextuality
Introduced by Julia Cristina. Bahtin: a single utterance or text is more dialogic and polyphonic. It is an interactive brending of different voices and dialogic relations among these voices.
He concept of intertexuality views the text as generated out of other text which it quotes or echoes. It might be direct/indirect quotation.
The use of direct quotations/speech is a central int. device.
Indirect quotes produce a much different int. link between two speech events. They maximize the int. gap between historical and contemp. Speech.
Framework:
2) the pretext/ the source text – the text from which a q. is taken
3)the quotation proper
The pragmatics of quotation
Pragmatics signifies the communication of quot. –
Factors : sender, receiver, code, place, time, function
Sender – 3 functions:
The functional shifts in the use of quotations:
19. What are the principles of classifying texts?
Each epoque produces its own text, clay tables, scroll, books, e-books.
they contain human experience, knowledge, skills.
Thematic classification
We need to use thematic catalogue to be oriented in ocean of books.
Porphyry – Greek philosopher tried to bring together Aristotle and Plato.
Linguistic classification
There are 2 principles: Linguistic criteria heterogeneity.
Type of the narrator - 1st person narration; 3rd person narration.
Number of participants – monologue, dialogue, polysologue
Functions of type – narration, description, commentary, argumentation, interior monologue.
Homogeneity - culinary receipt, CV, taxonomy, description, patient description, weather forecast, verbal portrait.
3) Pragmatic –linguistic interpretation realized in life situations.
Type of text:
Classification based on a cultural criteria:
In American genres is taken by letter genres.
-request letter (for info)
- submission letters
- letters of apology
-promotional letters(sales)
-letters of recommendation
It shouldn’t contain unnecessary personal info. Shouldn’t be excessively long ; the tone should not be exaggerated.
Based on speech acts (types):
International corples of English
20. What is an essay? What are the types of essay ? What are the main features of essay according to V. Woolf ?
Today the essay is the central poetic genre, It’s extremely adaptical and overloaded. Essay is defined as personal opinion. The voice of the author, changes according to his/her purposes and these intentions shaped the essay give it a form. According to the form essays are classified into types:
Narrative essay - stories, autobiography
To make a point – main function, to express a certain idea by telling a story.
Argumentative essay – a point by providing evidence to support it with examples, analogues, facts, statistics, author thinks through ideas by advancing arguments or presenting count of view.
-speculative/ informative – explores arguments, thinks round ideas, doesn’t have a single idea.
-expositary –author advances ideas by way of explaining, making them clear.
the main features of essay according to V. Woolf
FORM: