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Вопрос 24 The OE vowel
The development of vowels in Early OE consisted of the modification of separate vowels, and also of the modification of entire sets of vowels. The change begins with growing variation in pronunciation, which manifests itself in the appearance of numerous allophones: after the stage of increased variation, some allophones prevail over the others and a replacement takes place. It may result in the splitting of phonemes and their numerical growth, which fills in the “empty boxes” of the system or introduces new distinctive features. It may also lead to the merging of old phonemes, as their new prevailing allophones can fall together.
The vocalic system in OE included 2 subsystems: monophthongs, diphthongs. All vowels existed in the pairs: ææдолг, a ā, e ē, o ō, i ī , u ū, y y долг (Уне было ā, ææдолг, ō) В виде пар существовали и дифтонги: ea eaдолг, eo eoдолг, ie ieдолг. The major factor in OE was a category of quantity vowels. It means, that all OE vowels, including diphthongs, could be both long and short. It it the system of vowels on the beginning of OE. The new system came with Anglo-Saxon tribes: In most cases these new processes represent result of influence of the next sounds and called the COMBINATORY CHANGES.
1.Influence of the next consonant–Breaking (diph thongization) Short vowel were diphthong-sed before consonant. The short vowels æ и е, a. Short vowels æ and е were diph-nized: æ turn into ea before combinations r + согл, l + согл, h + согл, and before h on the end of a word: wearþ,healp,eahta,seah e.g.: [e] > [eo] in OE deorc, NE dark.
e turn into eo before combinations r + согл, l + velar concordant c and h, before h on the end of a word: weorþan,meolcan,feoh
The essence of breaking consists that front vowel assimilates with the subsequent firm consonants by development of a sound of glide, which forms a diphthong. The glide, together with the original monophthong formed a diphthong.
Palatalization
After the palatal consonants [k’], [sk’] and [j] short and long [e] and [æ] turned into diphthongs with a more front close vowel as their first element, e.g. OE scæmu > sceamu (NE shame). In the resulting diphthong the initial [i] or [e] must have been unstressed but later the stress shifted to the first element, which turned into the nucleus of the diphthong, to conform with the structure of OE diphthongs. This process is known as “diphthongisation after palatal consonants”. It observes in Wessex dialect. æ - ea sceal , cearu. æдолг - ea долг scēāwian, зēāfon. a - ea scacan- sceacan. o - eo sceort, ceort. e - ie scield, з iefan
Contraction –(стяжение) The vowels contracted into 1 when they were separated by h and H disappeared. e+a=eo (sehan – seon. i+a=eo (tihan- teon). a+a=ea (slehan – slean). o+a=o долг (fohan – fon)
Mutation -перегласовка
Mutation is the change of one vowel to another through the influence of a vowel in the succeeding syllable. 2 types: i-Umlaut mutation (palatal mutation) and Back mutation (guttural)-гортанный.
1) i-Umlaut - under its influence vowel moves ahead or narrowed.
æ – e sætjan – settan, a-e talu – tellan, o-e ofost – efstan, ō –ē dōm – dēman, u - y fullian - fyllan , u - y cuþ- cŷþþan. Changes in diphthongs: ea – ie, ea долг – ie долг, eo – ie, eo долг – ie долг.
Back mutation – U-Umlaut it is caused by back vowels (a, o, u). In Wessex dialect take place only before consonants r, l, p, f, m. a-ea saru – searu, i- io hira – hioru, e-eo herot – heorot. The words which begin with wi – mutation occurred without dependence from the subsequent concordant: widu – wiodu
U-umlaut was optiona(facultative) and i-umlaut was the main (системообразующ).
The PG short [a] and the long [a:], which had arisen in West and North Germanic, underwent similar alterations in Early OE: they were fronted, and in the process of fronting, they split into several sounds. The principal regular direction of the change – [a] > [æ] and [a:] > [æ:] – is often referred to as the fronting or palatalisation of [a, a:]. The other directions can be interpreted as positional deviations or restrictions to this trend: short [a] could change to [o] or [ā] and long [a:] became [o:] before a nasal; the preservation of the short [a] was caused by a back vowel in the next syllable.
The PG diphthongs – [ei, ai, iu, eu, au] – underwent regular independent changes in Early OE; they took place in all phonetic conditions irrespective of environment. The diphthongs with the i-glide were monophthongised into [i:] and [a:], respectively; the diphthongs in –u were reflected as long diphthongs [io:], [eo:] and [ea:].
Вопрос 25 The OE consonant
The consonants were subdivided:
1. On a way/mode of an articulation: constrictives -смычные and fricatives-щелевые and Sonants
2By place of an articulation: labial-губной, guttural(velar) заднеяз-е, dental consonants.
3. On a lenght all consonants shared:
short (simple) t and long (geminate -геминаты) tt- удвоенные.
Consctictives– shared as voiced –звонкие(b,d,g) и voiceless (p,t,k). Смычные: простые: /t/ - /d/; /p/- /b/; /k/ - /g/; /k’/- /g’/ геминаты: /t:/ - /d:/; /p:/ - /b:/; /k:/ - /g:/; /k’:/ - /g’:/
Fricatives voiced (v, th, z) fīf /f/– ofer /v/ , sæt, hus /s/ – risan /z/, þeof, wearþ /Ø/ - weorþan /ð/. voiceless [f, Ө, x, s] and voiced [v, ð, γ, z]. Заднеязычные щелевые –h / H – X’/ - habban, nitht. /w/ /j/ /r/ /l/ /m/ / nhave paired geminate. Исторически геминаты употреблялись только интервокально.
Changes
The PG voiced [ð] (due to Verner’s Law) was always hardened to [d] in OE and other WG languages, e.g. Icel, gōðr and OE зōd. The two other fricatives, [v] and [γ] were hardened to [b] and [g] initially and after nasals, otherwise they remained fricatives. PG [z] underwent a phonetic modification through the stage of [з] into [r] and thus became a sonorant, which ultimately merged with the older IE [r]. This process is termed rhotacism. После фонологизации озвончения по закону Вернера некоторые из озвончившихся фонем изменились качественно. Звонкий денталь ный слился со звонким смычным,— отсюда возникла засвидетель ствованная в древнеанглийском форма fæder. Индоевропейская фонема /s/ при озвончении по закону Вернера превратилась в */z/, фонему, очень недолго просуществовавшую и перешедшую затем в /r/. Этот переход /s/ через */z/ в /г/ называется ротацизмом. Лабиовелярный /hw/ по закону Вернера изменяется в /w/, но иногда в англских диалектах встречается /з/: sawon, sæзon 'увидели'. Закон этот был открыт датским ученым Карлом Вернером. Графически эту позицию можно изобразить так: — щелевой-`- или: -`-согл.— щелевой. Озвончение НЕ происходило в позиции: -`- щелевой—.
Gemination (lengthening of conson) before j The process along with i-mutation, after a short sylible.
Assimilation – k,g +dental into h,t. (pyncan-puhte). P,b+dent. Into f,t. (liban-lifte). Dental+dent into ss,st. (vittan-visse). F,m into mm (wifman(n) –wiman(n). m is dropped before h,f,s,p(т.е.th) –fimf-fif. K,g dropped before dental. Macian-made.
Palatalisation – k,g’,sk,into sounds closed to affricares dz..ch,sh. Sk into sh.Front vowel was a resalt of mutation. (cuni-cyn-kin.)родственник, (cuni-cin-chin)подбородок.
Вопрос 10 The reform of OE orthography in ME
The most conspicuous feature of Late ME texts in comparison with OE texts is the difference in spelling. The written forms of the words in Late ME texts resemble their modern forms, though the pronunciation of the words was different. In the course of ME many new devices were introduced into the system of spelling; some of them reflected the sound changes which had been completed or were still in progress in ME; others were graphic replacements of OE letters by new letters and digraphs.
In ME the runic letters passed out of use. Thorn – þ – and the crossed d – đ, ð – were replaced by the digraph th, which retained the same sound value: [Ө] and [ð]; the rune “wynn” was displaced by “double u” – w – ; the ligatures æ and œ fell into disuse. After the period of Anglo-Norman dominance (11th–13th c.) English regained its prestige as the language of writing. Though for a long time writing was in the hands of those who had a good knowledge of French. Therefore many innovations in ME spelling reveal an influence of the French scribal tradition. The digraphs ou, ie, and ch which occurred in many French borrowings and were regularly used in Anglo-Norman texts were adopted as new ways of indicating the sounds [u:], [e:], and [t∫]. other alterations in spelling cannot be traced directly to French influence though they testify to a similar tendency: a wider use of digraphs. In addition to ch, ou, ie, and th Late ME notaries introduced sh (also ssh and sch) to indicate the new sibilant [∫], e.g. ME ship (from OE scip), dg to indicate [dз] alongside j and g; the digraph wh replaced the OE sequence of letters hw as in OE hwæt, ME what [hwat]. Long sounds were shown by double letters, e.g. ME book [bo:k], though long [e:] could be indicated by ie and ee, and also by e. Some replacements were probably made to avoid confusion of resembling letters: thus o was employed not only for [o] but also to indicate short [u] alongside the letter u; it happened when u stood close to n, m, or v, e.g. OE lufu became ME love [luvə]. The letter y came to be used as an equivalent of i and was evidently preferred when i could be confused with the surrounding letters m, n and others. Sometimes, y, as well w, were put at the end of a word, so as to finish the word with a curve, e.g. ME very [veri], my [mi:]; w was interchangeable with u in the digraphs ou, au, e.g. ME doun, down [du:n], and was often preferred finally, e.g. ME how [hu:], now [nu:]. For letters indicating two sounds the rules of reading are as follows. G and с stand for [dз] and [s] before front vowels and for [g] and [k] before back vowels respectively. Y stands for [j] at the beginning of words, otherwise, it is an equivalent of the letter i, e.g. ME yet [jet], knyght [knix’t]. The letters th and s indicate voiced sounds between vowels, and voiceless sounds – initially, finally and next to other voiceless consonants, e.g. ME worthy [wurði]. To determine the sound value of o one can look up the origin of the sound in OE or the pronunciation of the word in NE: the sound [u] did not change in the transition from OE to ME (the OE for some was sum); in NE it changed to [Λ]. It follows that the letter o stood for [u] in those ME words which contain [Λ] today, otherwise it indicates [o].
Вопрос 7 ME dialects. Earliest records.
The basic OE dialects continued to function in the ME period, and their territorial borders, in general, were kept. The ME dialects are called on the basis of their geographical position. Northumbrian now refers to northern (Northern), Mercian- central (Midland) is divided into West Midland and East Midland; уэссекский - (Southern, South-Western); only Kentish dialect has kept the name, because Kent continued to exist, but the dialect sometimes called (South-Eastern.) The Sou thzrh group included the Kentish and the South-Western dialects. The Southwestern group was a continuation of the OE Saxon dialects, - not only West Saxon, but also East Saxon. Among the dialects of this group we may mention the Gloucester dialect and the London dialect. In the course of Early ME the area of the English language
in the British Isles grew. In the late 12th c. the English made their first attempts to conquer Ireland. Theinvaders settled among the Irish and were soon assimilated, a large proportion of the invaders being Welshmen. The English language was used there alongside Celtic languages —Irish and Welsh — and was influenced by Celtic.For a long time after the Norman Conquest there were two foreign written languages in England: Latin and French.
Earliest records
West Midland Dialect. The continue of «Anglo-Saxson hronicles» - from the year 1122 to the year 1154, known as the «The Peterborough Chronicle». «Ormulum», начало 13 в. a poem composed by the monk Orm in about 1200 in the North-East Midland dialect (Lincolnshire). It consists of unrhymed metrical paraphrases
of the Gospels. The text abounds in Scandinavianisms and lacks French borrowings.
Also were wrote «King Horn» и «Havelok the Dane» («Хавелок Датский») -2 verse novel 13в. Роберт Маннинг из Бурна «The Story of England»-verse chronicle.
East-Midland dialect. «Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight» («Сэр Гавейн и Зеленый рыцарь») - knight's novel, конец 14 в.; the 2-nd knight's novel «William of Palerne» («Уильям Палернский», 14 в.). Jne of the main satirical poem «The Vision of William Concerning Piers, the Plowman» («Видение Петра Па харя») against corruption in church, and at court. The author is Уильям Лэнгленд.Southern dialect. Поэма Лайамона «Brut» (начало 13 в) with a touch of Midlest dialect. «Ancren Riwle» - (начало 13 в.). Роберт Глостерский «Chronicle» - стихотворная хроника (конец 13 в.), в на чале излагающая как реальную историю кельтские легенды (среди них легенду о короле Лире), а дальше - об ист.событиях. Kentish dialect. Дан Мичел «The Ayenbite of Inwit» («Угрызения совести»), XIV в., перевод с французского. Уильям Шорэмский -стихотворения (на чало XIV в.).Southern dialect. «Cursor Mundi» («Бегущий по свету»), 13 в.- рифмованная поэма, about bible legend. «The Pricke of Conscience» («Угрызения совести») первая половина 14 в. a translation attributed to Richard Rolle of Hampole. Among the Early ME texts in the South-Western dialects should mention THE LONDON PROCLAMATION of the year 1258.
Вопрос 14 OE syntax
The syntactic structure of OE was determined by two major conditions: the nature of OE morphology and the relations between the spoken and the written forms of the language. OE was largely a synthetic language; it possessed a system of grammatical forms which could indicate the connection between words. It was primarily a spoken language, consequently, the syntax of the sentence was relatively simple.
The Phrase. Noun, Adjective and Verb Patterns
The syntactic structure of a language can be described at the level of the phrase and at the level of the sentence. In OE texts we find a variety of word phrases. OE noun patterns, adjective and verb patterns had certain specific features which are important to note in view of their later changes. A noun pattern consisted of a noun as the head word and pronouns, adjectives, numerals and other nouns as determiners and attributes. Most noun modifiers agreed with the noun in gender, number and case, e.g. on þǽm ōþrum þrīm daзum ‘in those other three days’ – Dat. pl Masc.
An adjective pattern could include adverbs, nouns or pronouns in one of the oblique cases(косвенный) with or without prepositions, and infinitives, e.g. him wæs manna þearf ‘he was in need of man’.
Verb patterns included a great variety of dependant components: nouns and pronouns in oblique cases with or without prepositions, adverbs, infinitives and participles, e.g. brinз þā þīnз ‘bring those things’. Word orderThe order of words in the OE sentence was relatively free. The position of words in the sentence was often determined by logical and stylistic factors rather than by grammatical constraints. Nevertheless the freedom of word order and its seeming independence of grammar should not be overestimated(возвышен). The order of words could depend on the communicative type of the sentence – question versus statement, on the type of clause, on the presence and place of some secondary parts of the sentence. A peculiar type of word order is found in many subordinate and in some coordinate clauses: the clause begins with the subject following the connective, and ends with the predicate or its finite part, all the secondary parts being enclosed between them. It also should be noted that objects were often placed before the predicate or between two parts of the predicate.
Those were the main tendencies in OE word order.
Sentens
Simple sent. Composite(compound, complex). Sentense sometimes have opposition(приложение). Members of the dentense were the same + opposition.
3 types of word order: direct(subj+pred+obj) and inversion:begins with an adverbal modifier/any other subdivision part.
Syntactic sent –when any secondary member is between the subj and predicate.
Impersonal sent. Containes: Impersonal verbs(D.Case+1P.Sg) e.g: him puhte.
Compound sent – wre connected with conjunction(and, un, ac(but). Complex - pat, pe, pone.
Вопрос 26 Noun in OE
The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. Also, nouns distinguished three genders, but gender was not a grammatical category; it was merely a classifying feature accounting for the division of nouns into morphological classes. The category of number consisted of two members: singular and plural There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental.The nominative case indicated the subject of the sentence. It was also used for direct address. The accusative indicated the direct object of the sentence. It was never distinguished in the plural, or in a neuter noun.The genitive case indicated possession. It also indicated partitive nouns. The meanings of the Gen. case were very complex and can only be grouped under the headings “Subjective” and “Objective” Gen. Subjective Gen. is associated with the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin. Objective Gen. is associated with what is termed “partitive meaning” .The dative case indicated the indirect object of the sentence. was the chief case used with prepositions, e.g. on morзenne ‘in the morning’The instrumental case indicated an instrument used to achieve something. During the Old English period, the instrumental was falling out of use, having largely merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong adjectives retained separate forms for the instrumental.
Morphological classification of nouns. Declensions Historically, the OE system of declensions was based on a number of distinctions: the stem-suffix, the gender of nouns, the phonetic structure of the word, phonetic changes in the final syllables. Stem-suffixes could consist of vowels (vocalic stems, e.g. a-stems, i- stems), of consonants (consonantal stems, e.g. n-stems), of sound sequences, e.g. -ja-stems, -nd-stems. Some groups of nouns had no stem-forming suffix or had a “zero-suffix”; they are usually termed “root-stems” and are grouped together with consonantal stems, as their roots ended in consonants, e.g. OE man, bōc. OE nouns distinguished three genders: Masc., Fem. and Neut. Sometimes a derivational suffix referred a noun to a certain gender and placed it into a certain semantic group, e.g. abstract nouns built with the help of the suffix –þu were Fem. – OE lenзþu, ere were Masc. – OE fiscere.Masculine and neuter words generally share their endings. Feminine words have their own subset of endings. The plural does not distinguish between genders. The division into genders was in a certain way connected with the division into stems, though there was no direct correspondence between them: some stems were represented by nouns of one particular gender, e.g. ō-stems were always Fem., others embraced nouns of two or three genders. Other reasons accounting for the division into declensions were structural and phonetic: monosyllabic nouns had certain peculiarities as compared to polysyllabic; monosyllables with a long root-syllable differed in some forms from nouns with a short syllable. The majority of OE nouns belonged to the a-stems, ō-stems and n-stems.
Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional system. Strong (a,o,i,u –stem). A-stem and its variation ja&wa – m,n. O-stem – jo&wo –f noun. I-stem – m,f,n. U-stem – m,f. j,w –appeare before inflexion. Weak decl – n –m,f,n. es –n. room-stem (Root-stemm formed some cases not by an inflexional ending, but by the chance of the root vowel due to mutation)-no form suffixes. Sound of donation inner flexion. Mutation was used to define number and gender of noun. Primary compound (both parts in Nomcase) +adj+noun. Secondary comp.noun (the 2-nd part in Gen Case.)=noun+noun, verb+noun
Stem – part of the word comparasing(connected) root and stem.
Вопрос 27 Adjectives in OE
The adjective in OE could change for number, gender and case. Those were dependent grammatical categories or forms of agreement of the adjective with the noun it modified or with the subject of the sentence – if the adjective was a predicative. Like nouns, adjectives had three genders and two numbers. The category of case in adjectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to the four cases of nouns they had one more case, Instr. It was used when the adjective served as an attribute to a noun in the Dat. case expressing an instrumental meaning.
Adjectives can be declined either strong/weak.
Historically adjective is a younger class of words as compared to noun & it has borrowed many inflections from nouns & pronouns. Declensions (unlike nouns adjectives could be declined both ways):1. strong A-sterm, O-stemi, when adjective was used attributeliy without any determined (articles, demonstrative & possesive pronouns) when used predicatively 2. weak N-sterm, when an adjective was preceded by demonstrative pronoun or genitive case. Some adjectives were declined always strong: call, , oper; others always weak: ilca (=some).
The endings of adjectives showed agreement between noun &. adjective. There were a lot of anonymous forms -> inflections were lost & adjective became an unchangeable part of speech. Gender- first cathegory to disappear (1 r1 century) Cases: 1.instrumental ease fell together with dative (end ofOE) 2. all other cases disappeared by the end of 13th century
The difference between the strong and weak declension of adjectives was not only formal but also semantic. The choice of the declension was determined by a number of factors: the syntactical function of the adjective, the degree of comparison and the presence of noun determiners. The adjective had a strong form when used predicatively and when used attributively without any determiners. The weak form was employed when the adjective was preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or the Gen. case of personal pronouns.
Degrees of comparison Most OE adjectives distinguished between three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. The regular means used to form the comparative and the superlative from the positive were the suffixes –ra and –est/-ost. Sometimes suffixation was accompanied by an interchange of the root-vowel.
Вопрос 29 OE Pronouns
Pronouns in OE were subdivided into following categories: personal (now I, you), demonstr (this, that), interrogative (who, which), possesive (my, his), indefinite (one, some), negative (no+body). And relative particle which are used for connection of subordinate clauses, and reflexive pron. (mine). As for the other groups – relative, possessive and reflexive – they were as yet not fully developed and were not always distinctly separated from the four main classes.
Personal
In OE, while nouns consistently distinguished between four cases, personal pronouns began to lose some of their case distinctions: the forms of the Dat. case of the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd p. were frequently used instead of the Acc. It is important to note that the Gen. case of personal pronouns had two main applications: like other oblique cases of noun-pronouns it could be an object, but far more frequently it was used as an attribute or a noun determiner, like a possessive pronoun, e.g. sunu mīn.
They have categories of 3 persons, 3 numbers (у 3лица - 2), 4 cases, in 3 person, в 3 лице ед.ч - 3 рода. 1,2 Person have dual number, the 3P - gender. 1,2 – it is ancient paradigm, they are suppletive, 3 – is late, non suppletive. Suppletivity – the expression of grammatical categories of different roots by means of root vowel be, es, ves.
Demonstrative pronouns There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of NE that, which distinguished three genders in the sg. And had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the prototype of this. They were declined like adjectives according to a five-case system: Nom., Gen., Dat., Acc., and Instr. Demonstrative pronouns were frequently used as noun determiners and through agreement with the noun indicated its number, gender and case 2 types: the 1st with the demonstrative meaning considerably weakened. And have 5-th case –Instrumental (творительный). 2nd – with a clear demonstr.meaning..
Possesive pron. In the basic form coincided with G.Case.Personal pron. but they were perceived as Nom case.. 1-2 person declined by strong declinations (ср.рус "my", "your"), and it is no 3 person
Interogative pron – hwā, Masc. and Fem., and hwæt, Neut., - had a four-case paradigm (NE who, what). The Instr. case of hwæt was used as a separate interrogative word hwў (NE why). Some interrogative pronouns were used as adjective pronouns, e.g. hwelc
Indefinite pron – were a numerous class embracing several simple pronouns and a large number of compounds: ān and its derivative ǽniз (NE one, any); nān, made up of ān and the negative particle ne (NE none); nānþinз, made up of the preceding and the noun þinз (NE nothing).
Negative pron - другое слово+отр.частица ne дали no+thing=nothing. 1,2 – склоняются как “никакой”. 3 – как сущ либо ж.р., либо ср.р – «ничто».
Вопрос 28 OE verb
Grammatical categories - The verb-predicate agreed with the subject of the sentence in two grammatical categories: number and person. Its specifically verbal categories were mood and tense. Finite forms regularly distinguished between two numbers: sg and pl. The category of Person was made up of three forms: th 1st, the 2nd and the 3rd. The category of Mood was constituted by the Indicative, Imperative and Subjunctive. The category of Tense in OE consisted of two categorical forms, Present and Past. The use of Subj. forms conveyed a very general meaning of unreality or supposition. In addition to its use in conditional sentences and other volitional, conjectural and hypothetical contexts Subj. was common in other types of construction: in clauses of time, clauses of result and in clauses presenting reported speech. The meanings of the tense forms were also very general, as compared with later ages and with present-day English. The forms of the Present tense were used to indicate present and future actions. The Past tense was used in a most general sense to indicate various events in the past. In addition to Mood and Tense we must mention Aspect and Voice. In OE the category of aspect was expressed by the regular contrast of verbs with and without the prefix зe-; verbs with the prefix had a perfective meaning while the same verbs without the prefix indicated a non-completed action, e.g. feohtan – зefeohtan ‘fight’ – ‘gain by fighting’. it has been shown that the prefix зe- in OE can hardly be regarded as a marker of aspect, it could change the aspective meaning of the verb by making it perfective, but it could also change its lexical meaning, e.g. beran – зeberan ‘carry’ – ‘bear a child’. It follows that the prefix зe- should rather be regarded as an element of word-building, a derivational prefix of vague general meaning, though its ties with certain shades of aspective meaning are obvious. It is important to note that in OE texts there were also other means of expressing aspective meanings: the Past or Present Participle. The phrases with Participle I were used to describe a prolonged state or action, the phrases with Participle II indicated a state resulting from a previous, completed action. The category of voice in OE is another debatable issue. The passive meaning was frequently indicated with the help of Participle II of transitive verbs used as predicatives with the verbs beōn ‘be’ and weorðan ‘become’. Grammatical categories of the Verbals
In OE there were two non-finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive and the Participle. The Infinitive had no verbal grammatical categories. Being a verbal noun by origin, it had a sort of reduced case-system: two forms which roughly corresponded to the Nom. and the Dat. cases of nouns – beran – uninflected Infinitive (“Nom.” case) tō berenne or tō beranne – inflected Infinitive (“Dat.” case) Like the Dat. case of nouns the inflected Infinitive with the preposition tō could be used to indicate the direction or purpose of an action. The uninflected Infinitive was used in verb phrases with modal verbs or other verbs of incomplete predication.
The Participle was a kind of verbal adjective which was characterized not only by nominal but also by certain verbal features. Participle I (Present Participle) was opposed to Participle II (Past Participle) through voice and tense distinctions: it was active and expressed present or simultaneous processes and qualities, while Participle II expressed states and qualities resulting from past action and was contrasted to Participle I as passive to active, if the verb was transitive. Participle II of intransitive verbs had an active meaning; it indicated a past action and was opposed to Participle I only through tense. Participles were employed predicatively and attributively like adjectives and shared their grammatical categories: they were declined as weak and strong and agreed with nouns in number, gender and case.
Вопрос 30 OE Strong verbs
The majority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verbs. Besides these two main groups there were a few verbs which could be put together as “minor” groups. The main difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the principal parts, or “stems” of the verb. The strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and by adding certain suffixes; in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by consonant interchanges. The strong verbs had four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the Past Tense – one for the 1st and 3rd p. sg Ind. Mood, the other – for the other Past tense forms, Ind. and Subj. the weak verbs derived their Past tense stem and the stem of Participle II from the Present tense stem with the help of the dental suffix -d- or -t-; normally they did not interchange their root vowel, but in some verbs suffixation was accompanied by a vowel interchange. Minor groups of verbs differed from the weak and strong verbs. Some of them combined certain features of the strong and weak verbs in a peculiar way (“preterite-present” verbs); others were suppletive or altogether anomalous.
Strong Verbs The strong verbs in OE are usually divided into seven classes. Classes from 1 to 6 use vowel gradation which goes back to the IE ablaut-series modified in different phonetic conditions in accordance with PG and Early OE sound changes. Class 7 includes reduplicating verbs, which originally built their past forms by means of repeating the root-morpheme; this doubled root gave rise to a specific kind of root-vowel interchange. The principal forms of all the strong verbs have the same endings irrespective of class: -an for the Infinitive, no ending in the Past sg stem, -on in the form of Past pl, -en for Participle II.
Strong vrb indicate tense by a change in the quality of a vowel. They are original(germ. Europ). Restrictive group of verb. Oe – over 300Sv. 1 class –i class, a. 2 class-u-classu+root=diphthong,. Root consonant changed(rotasism). 3,4 class- the gradation was caused by consonant.(breaking), 6- qualitative-quantities ablaut 7 class –reduplication of the root-morpheme. They use form of conjugation known as ablaut. And this form of conjugation the stem of the word change to indicate the tense.
Вопрос 31 OE Weak verbs
W.v. form their Preterit and Participle2 by addition of a dental suffix (d/t) –love, loved. Weak verbs form the majority of Old English verbs. There are three major classes of weak verbs in Old English. The first class displays i-mutation in the root. The verbs of Class I usually were i-stems, originally contained the element [-i/-j] between the root and the endings. The verbs of Class II were built with the help of the stem-suffix -ō, or -ōj and are known as ō-stems. Class III was made up of a few survivals of the PG third and fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly -ǽj-stems.
Each Wv. is characterized by 3 basic forms: infinitive, Preterit and a participle 2.
1st class regular verbs are formed either from noun, or from other verbs. In regular verbs the root vowel in all forms subjected to mutation under the influence -i in suffix. 1. The verbs with long root vowels -i disappears irrespective of which consonant stood before it. dēman-dēmde-dēmed
The 1st class formally with ja in the present and i in the past. Its root vowel is mutated (anomalous). 3 forms, because Pl&sg distinguished only the inflection. There are 11 irregular verbs in 1 class. Their irregularity consist that they have suffix only in 1 form - the infinitive and present tense, and it means, that umlaut was only in 1-st form, that is the 1st form distinguished from the second and the third by quality of the root vowel. (sellan, sealed, seald-to give). Irreg verbs which have a mutated vowel in the Present tense and no mutation in the Preterit and P2
2rd class –o-class. This o –is preserved by preterit and Participle2. 2nd class has - oja -in the infinitive and –o- in preterit. The vowel is not mutated.
3rd class contained few verbs: habban-hæfde-hæfd (have), Libban-lifde-lifd (live), Secзan-sæзde/sæde-sæзd/ (say). The dental suffix is joined immediate to the root. In the present there was –j-, but the 2nd and 3rd pers.Sg show no trace of –j-.
Вопрос 32 OE anomalous verbs
Among the verbs of the minor groups there were several anomalous verbs with irregular forms. Suppletive v(beon, wesen –root be, es,wes)is verb which create different grammatical categories by means of root vowel(be,es,wes). The most important group of these verbs were the so-called “preterite-presents”. Originally the Present tense forms of these verbs were Past tense forms. Later these forms had a present meaning but preserved many formal features of the Past tense. Most of these verbs had new Past Tense forms built with the help of the dental suffix. Some of them also had the forms of the verbals: Participles and Infinitives. In OE there were twelve preterite-present verbs. Six of them have survived in Mod E: OE āз; cunnan; cann; dear(r), sculan, sceal; maзan, mæз; mōt (NE owe, ought; can; dare; shall; may; must). Most preterite-presents did not indicate actions, but expressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb, an Infinitive which followed the preterite-present. In other words they were used like modal verbs, and eventually developed into modern modal verbs. They have in Present vowel gradation and in the Past – dental suffix.
OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of volition and desire; it resembled(имело сходство) the preterit-presents in meaning and function, as it indicated an attitude to an action and was often followed by an Infinitive. Willan had a Past tense form wolde, built like sceolde, the Past tense of the preterite-present sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal verb, like the surviving preterite-presents, and, together with sculan developed into an auxiliary (NE shall, will, should, would).
Some verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE don formed a weak Past tense with a vowel interchange: and a Parti ciple in -n: don — dyde — зe-don (NE do). OE buan 'live' had a weak Past — bude and Participle II, ending in -n, ie-bun like a strong verb.
Вопрос 33 Changes of vowel in ME
There are qualitative and quantitative changes of vowel in ME. Quantitative vowel changes - In Later OE and in Early ME vowel length began to depend on phonetic conditions. The earliest of positional quantitative changes was the readjustment of quantity before some consonant clusters: 1) Lengthening - ME - in 9-10 century. Short vowels were lengthened before two consonants – a sonorant and a plosive. All vowels occurring in this position became long, e.g. OE wild – ME wild [wi:ld] – NE wild.
Shortening - occurred at long vowels before two consonants. All vowels in this position became or remained short, e.g. OE cēpte > ME kepte [΄keptə] – NE kept.
3) Short vowels became long in open syllables, e.g. OE nama > ME name [na:mə] – NE name. This lengthening
initially affected the more open of the short vowels [e], [a] and [o] 13 cent.
unstressed vocalism: There was a reduction of unaccented syllables in a final position, and then it is lost. At First there was weakening, and then loss of a unstressed syllable.
Qualitative vowel changes.
After Norman invasion continued to develop the dialect: Northern dialect(бывший Northumbrian), East-Midland(Mercian), West_midlend(Mercian), South-Eastern(Kentish), South-Western(Wesseks).
Short vowel - у краткого -а- - сохранился во всех диалектах. -а- или-о- befor nosal: in east-Midland закрепилось(fix) –о- (con), в остальных закрепилось – а- (can). -æ- (лигатура) – found во всех диалектах, но сам значок не существовал. Зап-центр, Кент - -æ turn into –е- (wæs – wes). In the rest - -æ перешел в –а- (wæs – was). e- во всех диалектах без изменений. о – без изменений. i – без измененй . u - без изменений. y – в разных диалектах развивалось по разному: сев, вост-центр –/y/-/i/ и в последствии знак –y- стал обозначать только этот звук (bisy). Wентр, юго-зап – letter –u- стала обозначать звук /ü/ (busy). Кент – /y/ - /e/ (besy). y-i –labialization. Y-e –labial+opening. Y-u. The vowels [y] and [y:] existed in OE dialects up to the 10th c., when they were replaced by [e], [e:] in Kentish and confused with [ie] and [ie:] or [i] and [i:] in WS. In Early ME the dialectal differences grew. In some areas OE [y], [y:] developed into [e], [e:], in others they changed to [i], [i:]; in the South-West and in the West Midlands the two vowels were for some time preserved as [y], [y:], but later were moved backward and merged with [u], [u:]
Long vowels – This was and early instance of the growing tendency of all long monophthongs to become closer, so [a:] became [o:] in all the dialects except the Northern group (hām – hōm, stān – stōn) -ō- иногда depicts as digraph –оа-. Долгая æ(была только в Уэссекском диалекте) преходит в –ē- открытую. (изображалась диграфом –еа-). OE slæpan – ME slēpan В других диалектах –æ- (являлась результатом умлаута) перещла в –ē- закрытое. ( изображалась диграфом –ее-). ē – ēзакр. ō- ōзакр., ū – без изменений, ī- без изменений.
OE diphthongs in ME were monophtongonized. ea – a (healf- half). eo: Сначала ео прешло в гласный ö(который изображался как ео и просуществовал а зап-центр и юго-зап диалектах до 14в.) В остальных диалектах с 12 в. ö пререшел в –е-) heorte- herte. Долгий ea преходит в ē откр. hleapan – lepen. Долгий eo – ē закр. (изображался как –ее) seon – sen.
One of the mosl important sound change:, of the Early ME period was the loss of OE diphthongs and the growth of new diphthongs, with new qualitative and quantitative changes. Long and short: [ea:], [eo:], [ie:] and [ea], [eo], [ie]. Towards the end of the OE period some of the diphthongs merged with monophthongs: all diphthongs were monophthongised before [xt], [x’t] and after [sk’]; the diphthongs [ie:], [ie] in Late WS fused with [y:], [y] or [i:], [i]. In Early ME the remaining diphthongs were also contracted to monophthongs: the long [ea:] coalesced (united) with the reflex of OE [ǽ:] – ME [ε:]; the short [ea] ceased to be distinguished from OE [æ] and became [a] in ME; the diphthongs [eo:], [eo] – as well as their dialectal variants [io:], [io] – fell together with the monophthongs [e:], [e], [i:], [i]. As a result of these changes the vowel system lost two sets of diphthongs, long and short. In the meantime anew set of diphthongs developed from some sequences of vowels and consonants due to the vocalization of OE [j] and [γ], that is to their change into vowels. In Early ME the sounds [j] and [γ] between and after vowels changed into [i] and [u] and formed diphthongs together with the preceding vowels, e.g. OE dæз > ME day [dai]. These changes gave rise to two sets of diphthongs: with i-glides and u-glides. The same types of diphthongs appeared also from other sources: the glide -u developed from OE [w] as in OE snāw, which became ME snow [snou], and before [x] and [l] as in Late ME smaul and taughte.
Вопрос 43 The great vowel Shift
Include ME long vowels which were monophtongonized.
General case:
i: > ai /ri:den/ > /raid/ ride, ė: > i: /sle:pen/ > /sli:p/ sleep, ę: > e: > i: /mę:l / > /me:l/ > /mi:l/ meal, a: > ae: > ei /na:m/ > /neim/, ò: (о-долгое открытое) > ou /ro:d/ > /roud/, ǒ: (о-долгое закрытое) > u: /mo:n/ > /mu:n/, u: > au /hu:s/ > /haus/.
There is a contraction(сужение) and push out (вытеснение) of vowels i: and u:, which became diphthongs, e: and o: have taken their place.
Spelling (Orthography): - “ee”: - “ea”, ò: - “ou”: - “oa” (See/sea; meet/meat - the spelling explaince a condition of16 century, and the end of a phase of merge(слияние):it: is 17 century.).
Great, steak, break -: ę: turn into ei. The basic result of this shift is reduction of number of vowel phonemes due to reduction of number of long vowels.
i:-------u:, ė:-----ò:, ę:---ǒ:, a:.
The Great Vowd Shift {14-18 cc). 1 theory - 15-17 century, 2-nd - 16-18 century, in 18 century - rhymes and орфоэпические texts. Historian G.S.Uajld at dating started with an illiterate writing. Bleynd (blind), credyll (cradle) in XV century. On the basis of some similar spelling it dates the beginning of the shift of vowels to 14 century – the beginning of. 15 century, and the end of merge /ė:/ и /ę:/ с /i:/ from ME. /e:/ - концом XVI в.
Some theories explains ВСГ -
1.push-chain. Все началось с e: и o: . Они стали «push out» narrow.
2.drag-chain Узкие ушли в дифтонги и потянули(drag) за собой монофтонги.
But: Both theory shows that: 1. In this chain it became tight (тесно). 2. At first the narrow monophtongs have gone (ушли) and more wide have taken their place.
|
ME |
- |
NE |
|
[i:] – [ai] |
- |
Time[i]-time[ai] |
|
[e:]-[i:] |
- |
Kepen [e]-keep[i:] |
|
[a:]-[ei] |
- |
Maken[a:] – make [ei] |
|
[o:]-[ou] |
- |
Stohe |
|
[o:]-[u] |
- |
Moon |
|
[u:]-[au] |
- |
Mous – mouse |
|
[au]-[o:] |
- |
cause |
Вопрос 42 The evolution of analytical forms.
In OE there were no analytical forms; they appeared in ME in all Germanic langs and consisted of two elements; 1) a verb of broad semantics (to be, to have) and high frequency; 2) non-finite forms (inf., PI/II). They are Perfect Passive. Future, Cont, Do-forms.
The rise of Perfect forms
1.habbant (transitive verb)/ beon (intransiuve verb) +PII
beon in ME ceased(прекращает) to be used not to confuse Perfect withPassive. 2. In ME also inf. and Participle acquired(преобритать) Perfect forms.
The rise of Passive forms
1. beon/ weorÞ (died out in ME) от переходных глаголов +PII. The Pass. Inf., consisting of beon plus Part. II, is found in OE texts. В с-а гл weorÞan уходит из употребления. Остается 1 глагол д/выражения пассива - bēon. Форма глагола "быть" утратила свое лексич значение. 2.Passive constructions were often used with prepositions by/with to show the doer(исполнитель) of the action and the instrument. В с-а предлог "by" еще не употреблялся (только в конце р-н-а), а были of, from, mid, with, through.
The rise of the Future forms
1. Analytical Future Tense forms developed from OE verbs Sculan/willan"+inf. 2. 13-14 cent. — Future Tense forms became very common "willan/scullan were completely interchangeable.(взаимозамен-й)
3.17lb cent. John Wales established rule - 'shall" – first person, will" - 2/3 person 4.present day tendency “will” is used with ail(нездоровый) persons
The rise of the Continuous Forms OE "beon" +PI - denoted a quality of a lasting(продолж-й) state of the subject. ME in ME this form fell into disuse. NE in the NE there were two forms to show continuous aspect (be+PI/ be +preposition "on"). In the 18 cent. Cont. forms were well established(принята). 19th cent - Cont. forms appear in Passive*, before this time such forms were considered clumsy and a grammatical.
The rise of the do-forms1. do-forms (do-periphrasis) appeared in Past and Present in Indicative Mood. 2. do-forms were used in negative, affirmative(положит-й) and interrogative scents and freely interchanged with simple forms - without do (16-17 cent) (ex. Did you hear this/ Heard you this? don't know/ I know not; I do like ice cream/ I like ice-cream) 3. 17 cent, do-forms only in negative and interrogative sents.
В р-на период развивается употреб ление глагола do как вспомогательного. В XVI — XVII вв. формы настоящего и прошедшего време ни часто образуются из сочетания «do + инфинитив». 18в. Do как вспом.глагол сохранился лишь там, где он получал доп.грамм.значение: 1)для образования отриц.формы глагола 2) для образования вопросит.формы глагола 3) для образования эмфатической формы глагола.
Вопрос 44 The evolution of syntax.
OE
The syntax of Old English was much more flexible than modern English because of the declensions of the nouns. The case endings told the function of the word in the sentence, so word order was not very important. But as the stress began to move to the first syllable of words, the endings were not pronounced as clearly and began to diminish from the language. So in modern English, word order is very important because we no longer have declensions to show case distinctions. Instead we use prepositions. The general word order was subject - verb - object, but it did vary in a few instances:1. When an object is a pronoun, it often precedes the verb. 2. When a sentence begins with an adverb, the subject often follows the verb. 3. The verb often comes at the end of a subordinate clause.
ME - Syntax was stricter and more prepositions were used. New compound tenses were used, such as the perfect tenses, and there was more use of the progressive and passive voice. The use of double negation also increased as did impersonal constructions. The use of the verbs will and shall for the future tense was first used too. Formerly, will meant want and shall meant obliged to.
The most obvious difference between OE syntax and the syntax of the ME and NE periods is that the word order became more strict and the use of prepositions more extensive.
In ME is used the direct word order. But in the sentences which began with adjunct (обстоятельственное) word, it was indirect word order. The synthetical word order gradually disappears. The word order in ME is not so fixed, as in NE, but has important meaning. Then a direct word order becomes obligatory. The indirect word order begins to be used in questions. The auxiliary word do is entered, which was fixed in questions and negations.
Sentences.
In OE is distinguished part of the sentence, as in the modern language: the main and minor clause.
In ME The word order from a rhetorical category becomes syntactic. A subject is absolutely obligatory member of the sentence. If it is absent there is a formal subject. The model with a formal subject “there” is traced already in OE.
In EarluNE the simple sentence develops basically on a way of ordering of all rules connected with an arrangement of all members, questions and negation.
Вопрос 45 The evolution of Gerund
Gerund appears in the 12th century. OE verbal noun(отглагольное сущ)with suffix —ung, -ing and P1 overlapped(частично совпад); verbal noun later turned into Gerund and could 1) take direct object (ex. buying the book) - verbal feature; 2) preceded by article or possessive pronoun – nominal(именной)feature. The gerund can be traced to three sources: the OE verbal noun in -uns and -ins, the Present Participle and the Infinitive. In OE the verbal noun derived from transitive verbs took an object in the Gen. case, which corresponded to the direct object of the finite(личных) verb. The syntactic functions of the verbal noun, the infinitive and the participle partly overlapped.
This verbal feature — a direct object as well as the frequent absence of article before the -ing-form functioning, as a noun — transformed the verbal noun into a Gerund in the modern understanding of the term. The nominal features, retained from the verbal noun, were its syntactic functions and the ability to be modified by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the Gen. case.
Вопрос 47 и 48 The evol. Of Participle&Infinitive
ParticipleI had an active meaning and expressed a process or quality simultaneous with the events described by the predicate of the sentence. ParticipleII had an active or passive meaning depending on the transitivity of the verb, and expressed a preceding action or its results in the subsequent situation.
Participle I coincided with the verbal noun, which was formed in OE with the help of the suffixes -ung and -ing, but had preserved only one suffix, -ing, in ME. (The fusion of the Participle with the verbal noun was an important factor of the growth of a new verbal, the Gerund,
and played a certain role in the development of the Continuous forms.
Participle 2 In ME the weak verbs built Participle II with the help of the dental suffix -(e)d, -t, the strong verbs — with the help of vowel gradation and the suffix -en.Strong v -4 grades(1-the form of the inf, 2-Preterit Sg, 3-Pret. Pl, 4-Partic2)
Weak v -3 grades (1-inf, 2-Pret, 3-P2).
Participle I - suffix -ende (ex. OE berende, ME bering. NE bearing) PII - suffix -en{strong verbs), and -t,-d according to the type of verb (weak verbs) and commonly marked by prefix -3e. in OE: active voice (ex. segan) and passive voice (ex.seboren). PI and PII were used predicatively and attributively (like adj.) and agreed with noun in number, Gender, case. PI and PII lost number, Gender, case in ME.
Inf. loss of dative case (ME) (ex. OE Nomin.: writan, Dative: to writanne; ME: to written, NE: to write, ("to” is a formal sign). The preposition to, which was placed In OE to show direction or purpose, lost Its prepositional force and changed into a formal sign of,the Infinitive. In ME the Infinitive with to does not necessarily express purpose. In order to reinforce the meaning of purpose another preposition, for.
Вопрос 38 The evolution of Strong verbs
The seven classes of OE strong verbs underwent multiple grammatical and phonetic changes. In ME the final syllables of the stems were weakened, in Early NE most of them were lost.
1.The OE endings •an, -on, and -en (of the 1st, 3rd and 4th principal forms) were all reduced to ME -en; consequently in Classes 6 and 7, where the infinitive and the participle had the same gradation vowel, these forms fell together. In Classes 1 and 3 it led to the coincidence of the3rd and 4th principal(основные) forms. 2. There were phonetic changes in root of verbs. The major factor is lengthening of root the vowel: in 4 and 5 class because the syllable is opened, also in 3 class - where after n goes d – (findan-> fiindan). Destruction of interchange [z~r] under Verner's law (remains only was-were). The 4 and 5 class in ME it begins to merge in favour of 4-th class. It is visible at Chaser. 4. Beren-bar-bren-boren.5. Treden-trad-trde-treden/trodden. The letter "o" gets into 2 and 3 form. Treden-trod - troden (ступать).
Early NE. Formation of a paradigm from 3 forms comes to the end. 1 class - has the form of Preterit Sg in all verbs, except bite. 2 class has the form of мн.ч. In 3 class it is differently, basically the form мн.ч. find-found-found, but ring-rang-rung. 4 and 5 class has vowel of Participle2, and these classes completely coincide. In 6 and 7 class ед.и мн.ч пр.времени were identical.
2) presence/absence of the suffix of Partis2
The unaccented inflection of infinitive was lost already in the ME, and Part2 in ME was: Зe-treden, зe-writen, зe-funden.
As a result, ранне-NE has the form without prefix. Remains: speak-spoken, find-found, but ring-rung. 3 class has rejected a prefix and the form of Preterite and Part2 coincided, as well as at weak verbs. Part2 has no suffix.There were kept some distinction in 5 class: англ get/forget - got/forgot, амер gotten/forgotten.
One of the most important events in the history of the strong verbs was their transition into weak. In ME and Early NE many strong verbs began to form their Past and Participle II with the help of the dental suffix instead of vowel gradation. Therefore the number of strong verbs decreased. In OE there were about three hundred strong verbs. Some of them dropped out of use owing to changes in the vocabulary, while most of the remaining verbs became weak. The changes in the formation of principal parts of strong verbs extended over a long period — from the 12th to'18th c.
Вопрос 40 The evolution of weak verb.
Class I are described used as sources of modern non-standard verbs. ME verbs of Class I took the ending -de in the past without an intermediate vowel before the dental suffix — and the ending -ed in the Past Participle.
Several groups of modern non-standard verbs have developed from the weak verbs of Class I. (1) Verbs like OE sellan and txcan had an interchange in the root caused by palatal mutation in the Present tense stem and
its absence in the other stems (Past tense salde/sealde, tahte.) In ME and NE they preserved the root-vowel interchange, though some of the vowels were altered due to regular quantitative and qualitative vowel changes: ME sellen — solde ME I'so:ld9]> NE sold [sould]), techen — taughte; NE sell — sold, teach — taught.
(2) Another group of weak verbs became irregular in Early ME as a result of quantitative vowel changes. In verbs like OE cepan fedan
me tan the long vowel in the root was shortened
before two consonants in the Past and ParticipleII; OE cepte> ME kepte ['kepta]. The long vowel in the Present tense stem was preserved and was altered during the Great Vowel Shift, hence the interchange[ i : ~ e ] , NE keep — kept, feed — fed.
(3) Verbs like OE settan, with the root ending in a dental consonant, added the dental suffix without the intervening vowel [e ] — OE sette.
When the inflections were reduced and dropped, the three stems of the verbs — Present, Past and Participle II fell together: NE set —set — set;
Class 2 formed a basis of the future irregular verbs. There are some verbs joined:
1.Some verbs of 1 class weak deem-deemed.
2.3 class live-lived.
The verbs of Class II, which were marked by -ode, -od in OE, had weakened these endings to -ede, -ed in ME. In Late ME the vowel [e] in unstressed medial and final syllables became very unstable and was lost. This change eliminated the differences between the two classes and also the. distinctions between the 2nd and 3rd principal forms.
3. All borrowings (unique loan word take from сканд remains in 6 class,).
Class 3 was destroyed. We have 2 classes by the end of this process:
1. Regular (on the basis of weak)
2. Irregular: 1) all remained strong 2) weak 1кл irregular 3) weak 1кл with devocalization in the end 4) 2 remained verbs of 3 class - have, say.
Вопрос 41 The evolution of anomalous verbs
Several preterite-present verbs died out. The surviving verbs losl some of their old forms and grammatical distinctions but retained many
specific peculiarities. They lost the forms of the verbals which had sprung up in OE and the distinctions between the forms of numbei and mood in the Present tense. In NE their paradigms have been reduced to two forms or even to one.
Among the verbs of the minor groups there were several anomalous verbs with irregular forms. OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of volition and desire; it resembled the preterite-presents in meaning and function, as it indicated an attitude to an action and was often followed by an Infinitive. Willan had a Past tense form wolde, built like sceolde, the Past tense of the preterite-present sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal verb, like the surviving preterite-presents, and, together with sculan developed into an auxiliary (NE shall, will, should, would).
Some verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE don formed a weak Past tense with a vowel interchange: and a Parti ciple in -n: don — dyde — зe-don (NE do). OE buan 'live' had a weak Past — bude and Participle II, ending in -n, ie-bun like a strong verb.
OE sdn has had a most unusual history. In OE its Past form was built from a different root and had a weak ending: code; its Part. II ended in -n, similarly with strong verbs (ie)^dn. In ME the verb acquired a new Past tense wente, which came from an entirely different verb, OE wendan (ME wenden, NE wend). Its OE Past form wente had entered the paradigm of goon (NE go, went), while wend acquired a new past form wended. Thus the verb go remained a suppletive verb, though its OE Past was replaced by a new form (this is a rare instance of suppletion appearing at a relatively recent period of history).
Вопрос 46 The evolution of word-formation.
Ways of formation - word formation fell into two types: word derivation and word composition.
Word Derivation
Suffixation has always been the most productive way of deriving new words, most of the OE productive suffixes have survived, and many new suffixes have been added from internal and external sources.
The development of prefixation was uneven: in ME many OE prefixes fell into disuse; after a temporary decline in the 15th and 16th c. the use of prefixes grew again; like suffixes, Early NE prefixes could come from foreign sources.
The Early NE period witnessed the growth of a new, specifically English way of word derivation — conversion (also known as "functional change"), which has developed into
a productive way of creating new words.
Sound interchanges
In OE they served as a supplementary means
of word differentiation and were mostly used together with suffixes. In ME and Early NE sound interchanges continued to be used as an accompanying feature together with other derivational means. The role of sound interchanges has grown due to the weakening and loss of many suffixes and grammatical endings.
Word Stress
The role of stress in word-building has grown in ME and EarlyNE in consequence of the same changes namely the weakening and loss of final syllables.
Prefixation
During the ME period prefixes were used in derivation less frequently than before. OE prefixes were productive means of forming verbs from other verbs. The simple and derived verb were synonymous. Consequently
the prefix could be easily dispensed with. Instead of the OEpairs of synonyms, differing in the prefix, ME retained only the simple verb. Native Prefixes - Many OE verb prefixes dropped out of use, e.g. a-, to-, on-. The negative prefixes mis- and un- produced a great number of new words. OE un- was mainly used with nouns and adjectives, seldom with
verbs; New formations inME are unable, unknowen, in Early NE — unhook, unload and others; Borrowed Prefixes- In Late ME, and in Early NE new prefixes began to be employed in word derivation in English: French, Latin, and Greek. com- and sub-. French and Latin. Between the years 1200 and 1500 English borrowed many French words with the prefix re-, e.g.: ME re-dressen, re-formen. Re- was separated, as an element of the word.
The verb prefixes de- and dis- of Romance origin (French and Latin) entered the English language in many loan-words, e.g.: ME destructive, discomforten.
Suffixation
Suffixation has remained the most productive way of word derivation through all historical periods. Though some of the OE suffixes were practically dead, many new suffixes developed from native and foreign sources.Native suffixes - suffixes:)Several OE suffixes of agent nouns -end (friend), -ere(fiscere) were lost as means of derivation; in ME -end, -en, -estre occur as inseparable parts of the stem.
The old suffixes of abstract nouns -ap, -op, -p, had long been dead in ME. The suffix -ness was equally productive in all historical periods. It was mainly used with adjectival stems, irrespective of their origin: ME derkness,, NE narrowness, (native stems); MEcleerness, NE politeness (borrowed stems).
new suffixes derived from noun root morphemes - A new suffix -man, developed from a root-morpheme in ME. Borrowed Suffixes - borrowed suffixes entered the English language with the two biggest waves of loan-words: French loans in ME and classical loans in Early NE. French loan-words with the suffix –able (agreeable). In Late ME the suffix -able began
to be used in adjective derivation — at first with Romance stems —admittable. The French suffix -ess produced many derivatives in ME, as it had replaced the native -estre; e.g.: ME authoress. The suffix -or (from Fr) resembled the native suffix –er.
Вопрос 36 The evolution of nouns. The rise of the articles
OE The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and instrumental.Общее количество типов склонения 7: 1) гласные основы: -a-, -ō-, -i-, -u-, 2) основы на согласный: -n-, -s-, -r-.OE nouns distinguished three genders: Masc., Fem. and Neut. Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional system. Strong (a,o,i,u -stem). Weak decl - n -m,f,n. es -n. room-stem (Root-stemm formed some cases not by an inflexional ending, but by the chance of the root vowel due to mutation)-no form suffixes. Mutation was used to define number and gender of noun. Stem - part of the word comparasing(connected) root and stem.
ME – Noun have no gender. 2 group exist in ME in Pl form. The one is the former a-declention and n-decl, which of former feminine noun( weak decl). The root-decl. has lost some words, but it cont to exist. The noun has 2 cases: the Common and Possessive. The weak decl. has no case forms at all. Noun was rejected into reduction of their flexion. All vowels endings –e-. OE a-stem, became the productive type. Grammatical gender was lost and difference between Weak and Strong decl. disappeared. (-n)/: -s- became for Pl all nouns (for G). Some nouns retain Pl with o-inflexions. For root-stem nouns their mutated forms were used only in Pl. Weak decl. –n- express the Pl.
The rise of the articles is English Causes: 1.loss of strong & weak declensions of adjectives - articles wereemployed to show definiteness & indefiniteness. 2.word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. Definite articles -> mascul, singular "se" Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral). It had 5 case declension -> in. Middle English cases were lost, 13th century an > oon/one -> a/an
Вопрос 37 The evolution or pronoun. OE Pronouns in OE were subdivided into following categories: personal (now I, you), demonstr (this, that), interrogative (who, which), possesive (my, his), indefinite (one, some), negative (no+body). In OE personal pron. Had 3 persons, 1,2 had 3 numbers: Sg, Pl, dual. 3P. Sg, Pl had 3 genders in Sg. – m,f,n. ME – Person. Pron 1P change Ich into Early NE I. 2P –ME thou/thow into NE -thou/ye, 3P –ME m-he, f-he/she, n-hit, it into NE – he, she, it. The forms of the dual number of the 1st and 2nd p. went into disuse in Early ME. two cases fell together— Dat. and Ace. — into what may be called the Obj. case but its distinction from the Nom. case was preserved. In Late ME the paradigm of personal pronouns consisted of two cases: Nom. and Obj.
The OE Gen. case of personal pronouns split from the other forms and turned into a new class of pronouns — possessive. In ME possessive pron lost thir declention. Some possessive pronouns had two variant forms in ME: myne/my,our(e)/ours, etc.
Appears a new type of pron – reflexive. The appeared from oblique case-forms of personal pronouns+ME Possesive+ adjective self.
Demonstrative Pronouns. There were two demonstrative pronouns in OE: the prototype of NE that, which distinguished three genders in the sg. And had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the prototype of this. They were declined like adjectives according to a five-case system: Nom., Gen., Dat., Acc., and Instr. In ME they lost category of case and gender, preserve only number. The0theo-thes-this –Sg and these-Pl. Weak form of Dem. Pron was used as a definite of the noun/formal indicator of noun. . The rise of the articles is English Causes: 1.loss of strong & weak declensions of adjectives - articles were employed to show definiteness & indefiniteness. 2.word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. Definite articles -> mascul, singular "se" in the 13th c. the uninflected oon/one and their reduced forms an/a Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral). It had 5 case declension -> in. Middle English cases were lost, 13th century an > oon/one -> a/an
OE demonstrative and interrogative pronouns became thesource of a new type of pronouns — relative.Relative pron – joined in subordinate clauses(from interog. Pron)
Вопрос 39 The evolution of adjective. In OE the adjective was declined to show the gender, case and number of the noun it modified; it had a five-case paradigm and two types of declension, weak and strong. In ME lost all its grammatical categories with the exception of the degrees of comparison. The first category to disappear was Gender, which ceased to be distinguished by the adjective in the 11th c.
The number of cases shown in the adjective paradigm was reduced: the Instr. case had fused with the Dat. by the end of OE; In the 13th c. case could be shown only by some variable adjective endings in the strong declension (but not by the weak forms); towards the end of the century all case distinctions were lost.
Adjectives lost agreement with the noun, but the weak ending -e still remained.
Degrees of Comparison - In OE the forms of the comparative and the superlative degree, like
all the grammatical forms, were synthetic: they were built by adding the suffixes -ra and -estl-ost, to the form of the positive degree. In ME the comparative degree is formed with the suffix -er, and superlative with the suffix – est.
The alternation of root-vowels in Early NE survived in the adjective old, elder, eldest, where the difference in meaning from older, oldest, made the formal distinction essential.
Вопрос 34 The evolution of consonant English consonants were on the whole far more stable than vowels. A large number of consonants have probably remained unchanged through all historical periods. Thus we can assume that the sonorants [m, n, l], plosives [p,b, t, d] and also [k, g] in most positions have not been subjected to any noticeable changes. The most important developments in the history of English consonants were the growth of new sets of sounds, - affricates and sibilants.
Growth of sibilants and affricates
In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants, except [s, z]. the new type of consonants developed from OE palatal plosives [k’, g’], which had split from the corresponding velar plosives [k] and [g], and also from the consonant cluster [sk’]. The three new phonemes which arose from these sources were [t∫], [dз] and [∫]. In Early ME they began to be indicated by special letters and digraphs, which came into use mainly under the influence of the French scribal tradition – ch, tch, g, dg, sh, ssh, sch. As a result of these changes – and also as a result of the vocalization of [γ] – the consonant system in Late ME was in some respects different from the OE system.
Palatal sonsonant finished palatalization: k-g, sk-∫ -sh. All palatal consonants disappeared. There was some dropping(сочетание) of consonants in initial position before sonorant. Hlof-lof, hlafa-lord. In Southern dialect –f- in initial position turn into –v-. Vocalization of -з- in the initial position before front vowel. з- formed new diphthong after front vowels. з – j –initial, з – I – final. (dæз –day [ai], weз – wei [ei], fæзer –fair [ai] –middle position)
NE From the combination of /ng/ appeared a phoneme / ŋ/.
Loss of consonants in some groups: Voiceless velar fricative lost in /night/; pronounced as f in /laugh/. [b] dropped in final -mb cluster (dumb, comb). [l] dropped between[ a] or [o] and consonant (half, walk, talk, folk). [r] dropped sometimes before [s] (Worcestershire). [k] and [g] dropped before/n/in initial position (knee, knight, gnat-nat). [g] in -ing endings (more commonly pronounced [ɪn]). Finally, assibilation occurred when the alveolars [s], [d], [t], and [z] preceded the palatal glide [j], producing the palatal consonants: [š], [ǰ], [č], [ž]. Zj-ж(decision), tj-ч(nature), dj-dз(solder). /w/dropped before /r/ in the initial position(wright-right). /h/ is dropped in the middle position –which-wich. /p/ is not pronounced in the initial position –physiology. NE vocalization of /r/(diphton-on) between the vowel and /r/ appeared, then /r/ was reduced(сокращена). Results: /e:/-/i:/-/iэ/-here, dear. /з:/-/e:/-/зэ/bear and /iэ/-clear. /a:/-/ei:/-/зэ/ -care, dare. /o:/-/u:/-/uэ/-poor, moor.
Вопрос 1 Subject matter and aims. Sources of lang history. Subject is the historical development of E. language: phonetic structure and spelling, evolution of grammatical system and growth of vocabulary, so as to understand a current status of language, we should to examine each phenomenon of modern language as known result of long historical development.
Language constantly develops under the certain laws. The law of development of Language: The Law of gradual transition of language from one quality to another, thus elements of new quality slowly collect, and elements of old quality slowly die off.
All the modern languages trace their roots back to great antiquity. It means, that elements of modern English language laid during period, when the tribes of Angles, Saxones and Utes still lived on the European continent, long before 5-th century A.D. Since that time the grammatical system of language slowly changed, and its vocabulary structure contained new words. These changes occurred in close relations with development of the society. The Manufacture began to develop, the states are appeared, there was a literature and writing, and the printing-press has been invented.
The aims – we should achieved both theretical and practical eimes So, one of the aims is to provide the student with a knowledge of linguistic history sufficient to account for the principal features of present-day English. For example, through centuries writing and spelling was changing in English. At the time when Latin letters were first used in Britain (7th c.) writing was phonetic: the letters stood for the same sound. After the introduction of printing (15th c.) the written form of the word became fixed, while the sounds continued to change. Another important aim of this course is of a more theoretical nature. While tracing the evolution of the English language through time, the student will be confronted with a number of theoretical questions such as the relationship between statics and dynamics in language, the role of linguistic and extralinguistic factors and so on. One more aim of this course is to provide the student of English with a wider philological outlook. The history of the English language shows the place of English in the linguistic world.
Вопрос 2 Germanic invasion. Formation of the G. states The 5th c. was the age of increased Germanic expansion. The history of the English language begins with the invasion of the British Isles by Germanic tribes in the 5th c. of our era. Newcomers were of the 3 races of Germany: the Saxons, the Angles and Jutes. Angels and Saxons the were called by Romans and by celts – Angelcyn. And their conqued territories Angelcunes land. The story of the invasion is told by Bede (673-735), a monastic scholar who wrote the first history of England, HISTORIA ECCLESIASTICA GENTIS ANGLORUM. According to Bede, the invaders came to Britain in A.D. 449 under the leadership of two Germanic kings, Hengist and Horsa. The first wave of invaders, the Jutes or the Frisians, occupied the extreme south-east: Kent and the Isle of Wight. The second wave of immigrants was largely made up of the Saxons, who had been expanding westwards across Frisia to the Rhine and to what is known as Normandy. The Saxons consolidated into a number of petty kingdoms, the largest and the most powerful of them was Wessex. Last came the Angles from the lower valley of the Elbe and southern Denmark. They made their landing on the east coast and moved up the rivers to the central part of the island. Angles founded large kingdoms: East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.
Вопрос 3 The Scandinavian invasion&influens upon English. In the 8th century Scandinavian Danes made their 1st attacks on England. He struggle lasted over 300 years. Then King Alfred proclaimed peace treaty of 878. England was divided into halves: the north-eastern (Danish) and called Danelagh. And south-western (Wessex). But in 10 century 1013 Danish attacked again headed by Sweyn and Canute. And Canute was a king of England. Under Canute death 1035 England became independent. A most important role in the history of the English language was played by the introduction of Christianity. It gave a strong impulse to the growth of culture and learning. Monasteries were founded all over the country with monastic schools attached. Religious services and teaching were conducted in Latin. Thus due to the introduction of Christianity the English language acquired much influence from Latin. Influence- The Germanic tribes in 5th and 6th c. spoke closely related tribal dialects belonging to the west-Germanic subgroup. Their original tongue transformed into single English tongue. Next – feudal system and a new phase in dialects. (Kentish, West Saxon, Mercian, Northumblian)
Вопрос 4 Norman Conquest. The struggle Eng&French. After Canute death, Edward was king of England. In 1066, upon Edward’s death, the Elders of England proclaimed Harold Godwin king of England. As soon as the news reached William of Normandy, he mustered (gathered) a big army by promise of land and, with the support of the Pope, landed in Britain. In the battle of Hastings, fought in October 1066, Harold was killed and the English were defeated. This date is commonly known as the date of the Norman Conquest. After their battle, William crown king and then he called the Conqueror.
After a Norman conquest both secular and church power completely belongs to Normans. The population of cities was mixed: it included both English, and Norman handicraftsmen (ремесл). The ruling class was feudal aristocracy and clergy - consisted of people of a Norman origin. The local population, both in countrysides, and in the cities continued to speak in English.
The struggle between English and French. Однако, английский был не единственным языком, на котором говорили и писали после нормандского завоевания. Как сказано выше, победители принесли с собою французский язык; точнее, его северный диалект - нормандский. В течение ближайших после за воеваний столетий в Англии образовался так называемый англо-нормандский диалект. В течение XII-XIII вв. англо-нормандский был государственным языком Англии. , третьим языком, функционировавшим в стране, была латынь, которая в Англии, как и во всей Западной Европе, была языком церковного обихода и языком науки. Таким образом, в Англии сосу ществовали три языка: английский, французский (англо-норманд ский) и латынь. Первым государственным документом, написанным на англий ском языке, была Прокламация Генриха III (1258 г.). Она напи сана на лондонском диалекте. преподавание в школах начинает вестись на английском; впервые английский язык стал изредка звучать в парламенте, К концу XIV в. английский окончательно стал государственным языком.
Вопрос 5 Old E. dialects. OE written record.
Германцы образовали семь королевств; это были Нортумбрия, Мерсия, Восточ ная Англия, Эссекс, Суссекс и Уэссекс и Кент. Эти семь государств объединились в четыре основных королевства - Нортумбрию, Мерсию, Уэссекс и Кент, в гра ницах которых образовались четыре диалекта: нортумбрийский, мер сийский, уэссекский и кентский.
Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian, Mercian; Kentish, and West Saxon.
Old English written records – The 1st was runic alphabet consist of 24 sighs, contain only vertical and inclined lines. After 1st 6 letter this alphabet is called FUTHARK. It is found only two best known runi inscription:(the Ruthwell Cross). And the 2nd Frank Casket. The total number of inscriptions is 40. Monuments of writing share on prosaic and poetic. Уэссекский диалект. «Англосаксонская хроника». Она су ществует в виде ряда параллельных chronicls, начиная с 7 в. Наиболее важной является так называемая «Паркеровская хроника», которая велась до конца 9 в.на уэссекском диалекте. К 9 в. относятся переводы, сделанные королем Альфредом: 1) «Сurа Pastoralis» («Забота пастыря») -произведение папы Gregory I. К 10 в. относятся the works priest Эльфрика (проповеди, пере вод «Искусства грамматики» и др.); к 11 в.- the Homilies of Wulstan. Мерсийский диалект. The translations of Psalter (IX в.), glosses (8 в.) и church гимны. Нортумбрийский диалект. 2 runic inscriptions, опи санные выше; The Gospel was translated by latin, Bede’s HISTORIA ECCLESIASTICA GENTIS ANGLORUM (written in Latin in the 8th c.) contains and English fragment of five lines known as “Bede’s Death Song” and a religious poem of nine lines, “Cadmon’s Hymn”.Написана на латинском и в IX в. она была переведена на древнеан глийский переводчиками школы короля Альфреда. Поэтические памятники. The greatest poem of that time was BEOWULF, an epic of the 7th or 8th c. автор которой не известен; The poems of monc Кюневульфа - «Helen», « Juliana», «Andrew»; Main Peculiarities of OE poetry1.Old Germanic alliterative verse.2. The Sines are not rhymed.3. The number of the syllables to a line is free, but the number of stressed syllables is fixed.4. Each line is divided intoo 2 halves and each half begins with one and the same sound.5. There are at least 2 stressed syllables in a line, one in each half.6. Metaphorical phrases.
Вопрос 6 Chronological division in the Hof E lang. Traditional periodization divides E into 3 periods: OE, ME, NE. OE begins with Germanic setlments of Britaine(5th c)or with the beginning of writtin(7) and ends with Norman Conquest.(1066). ME –with Norman Conquest and ends on the introduction of printing (1475). So then start NE and lasts to the present day. Some authors called them – early, classixal and late. The 1st period, which may be termed Early Old English. It is the stage of the tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders, which were gradually losing contacts with the related continental tongues. The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there being no written form of English. The 2ndperiod OE/Anglo-Saxon extends from the 8th c. till the end of the 11th. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects. The language of this period is usually described synchronically and is treated as a more or less stable system. The 3rd period, known as Early Middle English, starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers the 12th, 13th and half of the 14th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French. Under Norman rule the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature. (from syntactic into analytic). The 4th period – from the later 14th c. till the end of the 15th – known the age of Chaucer, Classical ME. It was the time of literary flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed dialect of London. H. Sweet called this period” leveled endings”, because most of inflections in the nominal system had fallen together. The 5th period is called Early New English, lasted from the introduction of printing to the age of Shakespeare. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in 1475. This period was also a time of sweeping changes at all levels, in the first place lexical and phonetic. The 6th period extends from the mid-17th c. to the close of the 18th c. In the history of the language it is often called “the age of normalization and correctness. The 18th c. has been called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great sound shifts were over and pronunciation was being stabilized. Word usage and grammatical construction were subjected to restriction and normalization. The 7th period in the history of English. It is called Late New English or Modern English. The 20th c. witnessed considerable intermixture of dialects. The local dialects were retreated and displaced by Standard English. The English vocabulary has grown.
Вопрос 8 London dialect.
The history of the London dialect reveals the sources of the
literary language in Late ME and also the main source and basis of the Literary Standard, both in its written and spoken forms. The history of London extends back to the Roman period. Even
in OE times London was by far the biggest town in Britain, although the capital of Wessex — the main OE kingdom — was Winchester. The capital was transferred to London a few years before the Norman Conquest.
The Early ME records made in London —beginning with the PROCLAMATION of 1258 — show that the dialect of London was fundamentally East Saxon; in terms of the ME division, it belonged to the Southwestern dialect group. Later records indicate that the speech of London was becoming more mixed, with East Midland features gradually prevailing over the Southern features. In the middle of the 14th c. London was practically depopulated during the "Black Death" (1348). About one third of the population of Britain died in the epidemics. Most of the new arrivals came from the East Midlands. As a result the speech of Londoners was brought much closer to the East Midland dialect.
The flourishing of literature, which marks the second half of the 14th c. This period of literary florescence is known as the "age of Chaucer", the greatest name in English literature before Shakespeare. Его произведения «Canter bury Tales», «A Legend of Good Women». Of greatest linguistic consequence was the activity of John Wyclif
(1324—1384), the forerunner of the English Reformation. His most important contribution to English prose was his translation of the BIBLE completed in 1384. Лондонский диалект начала XIV в. представлен стихотворениями Адама Дэви; вторая половина произведениями Джеффри Чосера, Джона Гауэра и Джона Уиклифа.
Вопрос 11 OE word-stock.
Word stock include 30~100.000 words, don’t represent the total number of words. 2 group of word: 1.Native and 2.Borrowings. Native –are not Homogeneous in their origin. Common IE words, Common Germanic Specifically OE words. (most encient part of vocab. This is word of natural phenomena, anomals, human body.) 2.Common Germanic(wide layer-слой) formed independent lex. Group. 3.Scpecificall OE words:(don’t occur in other lang.) Compound wifman or wimman(woman) consist of 2 roots which occurred in a separate words in other OG lang.
Borrowings- from other lang.(very small portions of word-stock~600). Major borrow. Were adopted after contact of people in everyday life. Latin borrow. – it was well known because of historical events. (Roman conquer, introduction of Christianity and other). Latin borrow divided into several layers: 1.when West Germanic tribes settled in Britanie, Anglo-Saxon invasion. OE borrow from Latin indicate new things (trade, agriculture, building, home life). Through Celts (were some place-names:e.g: camp) Christianity: 1.word pertaining to religion. 2.word connected with learning. E.g” clericos.
One more impact is called “translations” – word and phrases created on the partten of Latin words as their literal translations. Celtic borrow – is very small vocab. Germ. tribes assimilated with celtic tribes. Among celtic words: cumb-small valey, Avon- river.
Вопрос 9 The making of the national lang.
During 15 century London literary lang.gradually extends, superseding the local dialects. Лит.язык gets into all spheres of relations. colloquial speech in various areas of England gradually joins in the general лит.норму, and distinctions between written norm and is national-spoken speach are lost. In 16в the developing of англ as national language is finished. Dialects become actually unwritten, т.к.нац.язык (on the basis of London лит.языка) covers all the spheres connected with writing: state documentation, scientific and худ.лит-ру. Gradually гац.язык extends more and more, modifying and absorbing dialects.
Вопрос 12 Written in OE
The runic alphabet The runic alphabet is a specifically Germanic alphabet, not to be found in languages of other groups. The word rune originally meant ’secret’, ‘mystery’ and hence came to denote inscriptions believed to be magic. The runes were used as letters, each symbol to indicate separate sound. This alphabet is called futhark after the first six letters. Runic letters are angular; straight lines are preferred, curved lines avoided; this is due to the fact that runic inscriptions were cut in hard material: stone, bone or wood. The shapes of some letters resemble those of Greek or Latin, other have not been traced to any known alphabet, and the order of the runes in the alphabet is certainly original. The number of runes in different OG languages varied. As compared to continental, the number of runes in England was larger: new runes were added as new sounds appeared in English (from 28 to 33 runes in Britain against 16 or 24 on the continent). The main use of runes was to make short inscriptions on objects, often to bestow on them some special power or magic. The two best known runic inscriptions in England are the earliest extant OE written records. One of them is and inscription on a box called the “Franks Casket”, the other is a short text on a stone cross near the village of Ruthwell known as the “Ruthwell Cross”. Old English alphabet and pronunciation
OE scribes used two kinds of letters: the runes and the letters of the Latin alphabet. The bulk of the OE material is written in the Latin script. The use of Latin letters in English differed in some points from their use in Latin, for the scribes made certain modifications and additions in order to indicate OE sounds. The most interesting peculiarity of OE writing was the use of some runic characters, in the first place, the rune called “thorn” which was employed alongside the crossed d, ∂ to indicate [th] and [∂]. In the manuscripts one more rune was regularly used – “wynn” for the sound [w]. Like any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a phonetic principle: every letter indicated a separate sound. This principle, however, was not always observed, even at the earliest stages of phonetic spelling. Some OE letters indicated two or more sounds, even distinct phonemes. The letters could indicate short and long sounds. In reading OE texts one should observe the following rules for letters indicating more than one sound. The letters f, s and [th], [∂] stand for voiced fricatives between vowels and also between a vowel and a voiced consonant; otherwise they indicate corresponding voiceless fricatives. The letter з stands for [g] initially before back vowels, for [j] before and after front vowels, for [γ] between back vowels and for [g’] mostly when preceded by c: OE daз [j]
The letter h stands for [x] between a back vowel and a consonant and also initially before consonants and for [x’] next to front vowels: OE niht [x’]
The letter n stands for [n] in all positions except when followed by [k] or [g]; in this case it indicates [ŋ]: OE sinзan.
Вопрос 13 morphological classification of the verb in OE
The majority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verbs. Besides these two main groups there were a few verbs which could be put together as “minor” groups. The main difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the principal parts, or “stems” of the verb. The strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and by adding certain suffixes; in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by consonant interchanges. The strong verbs had four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the Past Tense – one for the 1st and 3rd p. sg Ind. Mood, the other – for the other Past tense forms, Ind. and Subj. the weak verbs derived their Past tense stem and the stem of Participle II from the Present tense stem with the help of the dental suffix -d- or -t-; normally they did not interchange their root vowel, but in some verbs suffixation was accompanied by a vowel interchange. Minor groups of verbs differed from the weak and strong verbs. Some of them combined certain features of the strong and weak verbs in a peculiar way (“preterite-present” verbs); others were suppletive or altogether anomalous.
Strong Verbs
The strong verbs in OE are usually divided into seven classes. Classes from 1 to 6 use vowel gradation which goes back to the IE ablaut-series modified in different phonetic conditions in accordance with PG and Early OE sound changes. Class 7 includes reduplicating verbs, which originally built their past forms by means of repeating the root-morpheme; this doubled root gave rise to a specific kind of root-vowel interchange.
The principal forms of all the strong verbs have the same endings irrespective of class: -an for the Infinitive, no ending in the Past sg stem, -on in the form of Past pl, -en for Participle II.
Weak Verbs
The number of weak verbs in OE by far exceeded that of strong verbs. The verbs of Class I usually were i-stems, originally contained the element [-i/-j] between the root and the endings. The verbs of Class II were built with the help of the stem-suffix -ō, or -ōj and are known as ō-stems. Class III was made up of a few survivals of the PG third and fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly -ǽj-stems.
Minor groups of Verbs The most important group of these verbs were the so-called “preterite-presents” or “past-present” verbs. Originally the Present tense forms of these verbs were Past tense forms. Later these forms acquired a present meaning but preserved many formal features of the Past tense. Most of these verbs had new Past Tense forms built with the help of the dental suffix. Some of them also acquired the forms of the verbals: Participles and Infinitives. In OE there were twelve preterite-present verbs. Six of them have survived in Mod E: OE āз; cunnan; cann; dear(r), sculan, sceal; maзan, mæз; mōt (NE owe, ought; can; dare; shall; may; must). Most preterite-presents did not indicate actions, but expressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb, an Infinitive which followed the preterite-present. In other words they were used like modal verbs, and eventually developed into modern modal verbs.
Вопрос 15, 11 Foreign elements in the OE vocabulary
The OE vocabulary was almost purely Germanic; except for a small number of borrowings, it consisted of native words inherited from PG or formed from native roots and affixes.
Native words
Native OE words can be subdivided into a number of etymological layers from different historical periods. The three main layers in the native OE words are:
a) common IE words;
b) common Germanic words;
c) specifically OE words.
Words belonging to the common IE layer constitute the oldest part of the OE vocabulary. Among these words we find names of some natural phenomena, plants and animals, agricultural terms, names of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, etc.; this layer includes personal and demonstrative pronouns and most numerals. Verbs belonging to this layer denote the basic activities of man; adjectives indicate the most essential qualities.
The common Germanic layer includes words which are shared by most Germanic languages, but do not occur outside the group. Being specifically Germanic, these words constitute an important distinctive mark of the Germanic languages at the lexical level. This layer is certainly smaller than the layer of common IE words. Semantically these words are connected with nature, with the sea and everyday life.
The third etymological layer of native words can be defined as specifically OE, that is words which do not occur in other Germanic or non-Germanic languages. These words are few, if we include here only the words whose roots have not been found outside English: OE clipian ‘call’, OE brid (NE bird) and several others. However, they are far more numerous if we include in this layer OE compounds and derived words formed from Germanic roots in England, e.g. OE wīfman or wimman (NE woman) consists of two roots which occurred as separate words in other OG languages, but formed a compound only in OE.
Foreign elements in the OE vocabulary
Although borrowed words constituted only a small portion of the OE vocabulary – all in all about six hundred words, - they are of great interest for linguistic and historical study. OE borrowings come from two sources: Celtic and Latin.
Borrowings from Celtic
There are very few Celtic loan-words in the OE vocabulary, for there must have been little intermixture between the Germanic settlers and the Celtic in Britain. Though in some parts of the island the Celts population was not exterminated during the WG invasion, linguistic evidence of Celtic influence is meager. Abundant borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The OE kingdoms Kent, Deira and Bernicia derive their names from the names of Celtic tribes. The name of York, the Downs and perhaps London have been traced to Celtic sources. Various Celtic designations of ‘river’ and ‘water’ were understood by the Germanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Esk, Exe, Avon; Thames, Stour, Dover also come from Celtic. Many place-names with Celtic elements are hybrids; the Celtic component, combined with a Latin or a Germanic component, makes a compound place-name, e.g.: Celtic plus Latin: Man-chester, Win-chester, Lan-caster; Celtic plus Germanic: York-shire, Corn-wall, Devon-shire, Canter-bury.
Latin influence on the OE vocabulary
Latin words entered the English language at different stages of OE history. Chronologically they can be devided into several layers.
The earliest layer comprises words which the WG tribes brought from the continent when they came to settle in Britain. Contact with the Roman civilization began a long time before the Anglo-Saxon invasion. Early OE borrowings from Latin indicate the new things and concepts which the Teutons had learnt from the Romans. They pertain to war, trade, agriculture, building and home life. Among the Latin loan-words adopted in Britain were some place-names made of Latin and Germanic components, e.g. Portsmouth, Greenport, Greenwich. The next period of Latin influence on the OE vocabulary began with the introduction of Christianity in the late 6th c. and lasted to the end of OE. Numerous Latin words which found their way into the English language during these five hundred years clearly fall into two main groups:
1) words pertaining to religion
2) words connected with learning.
The Latin impact on the OE vocabulary was not restricted to borrowing of words. There were also other aspects of influence. The most important of them is the appearance of the so-called “translation-loans” – words and phrases created on the pattern of Latin words as their literal translations. The earliest instances of translation-loans are names of the days of the week found not only in OE but also in other Old Germanic languages. OE Mōnan-dæз (Monday) ‘day of the moon’, L Lunae dies.
Вопрос 18 Introduction of printing.
15 в.–появление книгопечатанья. Английским первопечатником был Уильям Кэкстон, уроженец Кента, долго служил в Нидерландах, где познакомился с новым изобретением. Первую книгу на а.я. “ The collection of stories about Troy» он напечатал в 1475., Распространение(spread(ing) печатных книг очень содействовало нормализации языка в области графики и орфографии. Первые грамматики а.я. строились по образцу латинских. Это – грамматики Бена Джонсона, Ч. Батлера, Дж. Уоллиса (17 в.). В грамматиках 17-18 вв lay down 2 tendenses: одни grammarian считали, что язык должен based on “разума” (“reason”), т.е. из логики. Другие считали, что при установлении правил следует исходить из существующего обычая (“usage”). Но оба эти направления не сильно отличались.
Вопрос 22 Grammar and dictionaries in 17&18 c. Первые грамматики а.я. строились по образцу латинских. Это – грамматики Бена Джонсона, Ч. Батлера, Дж. Уоллиса (17 в.). В грамматиках 17-18 вв lay down 2 tendenses: одни grammarian считали, что язык должен based on “разума” (“reason”), т.е. из логики. Другие считали, что при установлении правил следует исходить из существующего обычая (“usage”). Но оба эти направления не сильно отличались. The largest representative of the principle based on logic, R.Laut, the author of the book “ Brief introduction in English grammar ” (1758) is, this book contains a number of recommendations and prohibitions. The opposite representative is Дж. Priestley, the author of the book of " the Basis of English grammar ” (1761).
In 1795 American Lindlej Marrej has published grammar “ English Grammar ” which has got enormous authority. The first dictionaries (15в.) were bilingual english dictionaries, but in 16в. there are dictionaries of "difficult" words - Robert Kodri's dictionaries, Какрама, etc. They included archaisms and latin little-used loans.
The first explanatory dictionary has been made by Natanielem Bailey (1721г) “ the Universal etymological dictionary ”. It is very important publishing of the dictionary “ Dictionary of the English language … ” Semjuelja Johnson (1755г). It was based on works of authors befor of Restoration's epoch of the end 16-сер17в. It aspired to keep traditional spelling.
Вопрос 19 Regional varieties of E Two varieties of English in Great Britain distinguished from Standard
English-Scottish, and Anglo-Irish - claimed to be literary tongues Scottish English reemerged again into literary eminence, after a decline in the 17th c n the poetry of Robert Burns (1759-1796). The literary tradition was not given up in the 19th c.: a series of poets employed the Scottish dialect in depicting the grievances
of the common people. For the most part, however, Scottish English was used for oral intercourse by the less educated people, while a Regional Modified
Standard displaced it in other funct1Ons. As elsewhere the local dialect was transformed into a social local dialect used by the lower classes.
Despite the attempts to revive the Celtic tongue Gaelic or Irish (which was one of the major issues in the vigorous
struggle for home rule in the 19th c ) , by 190D a variety of English with a strong rish accent, known as the "brogue", had become the main lanfuage of the population
Some authorities regard Anglo-Irish as a separate geographical variant of English possessing an independent national Standard, others treat it as a locadialect. Anglo-Irish is the official language of Northern Ireland and Eire and also the language of literature, school and universities.
Вопрос 20 Geographical Expansion of the English
England's colonial expansion to the New World began in the late 16th c. when her first colonies were set up in Newfoundland (1583). later colonists came from other regions, including Scotland and Ireland. Immigrants to the Southern areas were of a higher class origin. Many immigrants from Great Britain
settled in the West Indies, which,became a part of the British Empire in the 17th c.
'The colonists spoke different dialects of English. In North America those dialects gradually blended into a new type of the language, American English; contacts with other languages, especially Spanish in the South and French in Canada, have played a certain role in its development.
The expansion of English to Asia is mainly connected with the occupation of India. India was one of the main issues in the colonial
struggle of European powers in the 18th c. In the first half of the 19th c. India became a British colony and Britain acquired other possessions in Asia, turning them into colonies, dominions or protectorates. Thus the English language extended to many areas in Asia, as the language of the state and writing.
Australia was a place of deportation of British convicts since the late 18th c. A flow of immigrants were attracted to Australia, at
first by the free grants of land, later — by the discovery of gold.
British penetration into Africa was a lengthy affair that extended over the 19th c. In consequence of financial dependence on British capital, Sudan and Egypt fell under British political control.
Вопрос 21 Written Records in Late Middle English.
The flourishing of literature, which marks the second half of the 14th c. This period of literary florescence is known as the "age of Chaucer", the greatest name in English literature before Shakespeare. Его произведения «Canter bury Tales», «A Legend of Good Women». Of greatest linguistic consequence was the activity of John Wyclif
(1324—1384), the forerunner of the English Reformation. His most important contribution to English prose was his translation of the BIBLE completed in 1384. Лондонский диалект начала XIV в. представлен стихотворениями Адама Дэви; вторая половина произведениями Джеффри Чосера, Джона Гауэра и Джона Уиклифа. The literary texts of the late 14th c. preserved in numerous manuscripts, belong to a variety of genres^Translation continued, but originnal compositions were produced in abundance; poetry was more prolific than prose.
'John Gower, Chaucer's friend and an outstanding poet of the time,was born in Kent, but there are not many Kentisms in his London dialect. His first poems were written in Anglo-Norman and in Latin. His longest poem VOX CLAMANTIS ("The Voice of the Crying in the Wilderness"). We should mention one more poet whose name is unknown. Four feoems found in a single manuscript of the 14th c. — PEARL, PATIENCE.CLEANNESS and SIR GAWAINE AND THE GREEN KNIGHT it- have been attributed to the same author.
The poems are a blending of elaborate alliteration, in line with the OE tradition,and new rhymed |verse, with a variety of difficult rhyme schemes.
Вопрос 23 Historical Foundations of Modern English Spelling
The alphabetic way of writing was originally based on a phonetic principle: it was designed to give an accurate graphic representation of pronunciation by using letters to indicate sounds. Mod E spelling displays many deviations from this principle. The reasons are to be found in the history of English sounds. OE spelling was phonetic: They attempted to use a separate letter for each distinct sound; the sound values of the letters were for the most part the same as in Latin. Their spellings, however, were not absolutely consistent, for some letters indicated two or more sounds: the letter 3 stood for four different phonemes, c — for two; f, ძ, Þ and s indicated two allophones each (which developed into phonemes later). ME spelling innovations incorporated many sound changes which had taken place since the 9th—10th c, and spelling become more ambiguous and conventional. In many instances ; the one-to-one correspondence of letter and sound had been lost. Morel letters than before had two sound values: 0 stood for o], [u], long o and [0:]; c — for [s] and [k]; g — for [g] and [dз], etc.; u could even indicate three sounds — the vowels [u] and [y] and the consonant [v]. One and the same sound was commonly shown by different means: [dз] could be indicated by g, j or dg, [k] — by k, c and q, etc. The digraphs introduced in ME look familiar to the modern reader, since many of them are still in use, but their application in ME was rather contradictory. For instance, both ou and ow were used for [u:] and [oul; double 0 stood for the open and close long [o:] and [0:] alongside 0; long [e:l and [έ:] were shown indiscriminately by ie, double e and the single letter e. The conventional principle of spelling was later reinforced by the fixation of the written form of the word in printing and by extensive sound changes. The phoneticians and spelling reformers of the 16th c. strove to restrict the freedom of variation and to improve English orthography by a more consistent use of letters and digraphs, and by the introduction of new symbols. They insisted upon a strict distinction between u and v when used to indicate a vowel and a consonant: [u] and [v], e.g. Early NE loue, selues, vnripe, unshaken later spelt as love, selves, unripe, unshaken; They in troduced new digraphs to show the difference between some open and close vowels, namely the digraph ea for [έ: ] as distinguished from e, ee, and ie used for the closed [e: ], and the digraph oa alongside 0 in open syllables for [o:], as contrasted to 00 showing a long closed [0:]. The use of double consonants became less frequent, except in traditional spellings like kiss, sell, but double letters were sometimes employed to show that the preceding vowel was short/ § 415. The activities of the scholars in the period of normalisation — late 17th and the 18th c. — had a stabilising effect on the development of English spelling. The dictionaries and grammars fixed the written forms of the words as obligatory standards. Only a few innovations were made: a few new digraphs were adopted with borrowed words, such as ph, ps — NE photograph, psychology, ch — NE chemistry, scheme and machine, g — genre. In the 18th c. the sound changes slowed down. Standard pronunciation (later known as RP — Received Pronunciation) and standard spell ing were firmly established,