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Данный документ содержит все тексты из учебника английского языка для технических вузов издательства МГТУ имени Баумана.
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LESSON 1
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
as conj — как; по мере тою как, когда; так как, поскольку
as well — так же
affect v — влиять, воздейст вовать на
become v — становиться
consider v — считать, рассматривать, учитывать
develop v — развивать, раз рабатывать; преображать
development n — развитие, разработка
enable v — давать возмож ность
ensure v — обеспечивать, гарантировать
especially adv — особенно
further а — дальнейший
improve v — улучшать, совер шенствовать
mean (meant) v — значить, оз начать
means n — средство, способ
number n — число, количество
a number of — ряд, несколько
prepare v — готовить, подго тавливать
provide v — снабжать, обеспе чивать
receive v — получать
remain v — оставаться
quality n — качество
thorough a — основательный, доскональный, тщательный
usually adv — обычно
to play a part — играть роль
to take into consideration — принимать во внимание, в расчет
at present — в настоящее время
Text 1A (страница 9)
Прочитайте и переведите текст.
Higher Education in Russia
Higher education plays an important part in the life of any country as it provides the country with highly-qualified specialists for future development and progress. It trains people to become teachers, engineers, doctors and other professional workers.
In all the industrial countries standards of living are steadily changing; this means that the kind of education, which was good enough thirty years ago, is not necessarily good for them today. The serious need to find ways and means of ensuring continuous and thorough adoption of the universities to contemporary needs in our rapidly changing world is widely recognized. And this means that styles of teaching, quality of learning materials1 and organization of the university itself have to be continuously brought up to date2 and improved.
Besides, knowledge and information which comes through the mass media must also be taken into consideration. This informa tion explosion3 has affected every field of study, especially, of course, in the natural and applied sciences and in all other sciences as well. The increase of information requires new methods and new approaches to students training and instruction4.
At present a new system of education is introduced in this country — a distance education system. This computer system of learning helps working professionals to continue their education while remaining at their jobs. This system enables people to get knowledge and a good foundation in the sciences basic to his or her field of study. Distance learning has developed over years5 from satellite video courses to modern videoconferencing through per sonal computers.
The academic year usually lasts 9 months and is divided into two terms (semesters). The first- and second-year students obtain thorough instructions in the fundamental sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry and drawing as well as computer engineering and a number of others. The curricula are enriched and broadened6 by instructions in such subjects as foreign languages, history and economics.
At the third year students get more advanced knowledge and begin to concentrate on their special interests, so to say, their «ma jor» subject and lake many courses in this subject. Specialized study and courses will help students to become specialists and prepare them for their future work.
After four years students will get a bachelor's degree. Then the students may go on with their studies and in a year or two of further study and research get a master's degree. After graduating from the university they may go on with their study and research and may get a still higher degree.
About 75 percent of students receive state grants and 15 percent arc sponsored by enterprises. Universities have their own students hostels and some of them have large and excellent sport centers.
Education is a process through which culture is preserved, knowledge and skills are developed, values are formed, and infor mation is exchanged.
Education is the way to success.
Notes to the Text
Text 1B (страница 18)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите об особенностях обучения в Кембридж ском университете.
Cambridge
Cambridge is one of the two main universities of England which is located at the Cam River. It was founded at the beginning of the 12th century. The University consists of (состоит из) 24 different colleges including 4 colleges for women. Each college is self-governing (самоуправляется).
The head of the University is the chancellor who is elected for life. The teachers are commonly called «dons» and «tutors». Part of the teaching is by means of lectures organized by the University. Besides lectures teaching is carried out by tutorial system for which Cambridge University is famous all over the world. This is a system of individual tuition (обучения) organized by the colleges.
Each student has a tutor who practically guides him through the whole course of studies. The tutor plans the student's work and once a week the student goes to his tutor to discuss his work with him. The training course lasts 4 years. The academic year is divided into 3 terms. The students study natural and technical sciences, law, history, languages, geography and many other subjects.
After three years of study a student may proceed (получить ученую степень) to a Bachelor's degree, and later to the degrees of Master and Doctor. Students are required to wear gowns (мантия) at lectures, in the University library, in the street in the evening, for dinners in the colleges and for official visits. All the students must pay for their education, examinations, books, laboratories, univer sity hostel, the use of libraries, etc. Very few students get grants. Not many children from the working class families are able to get higher education, as the cost is high. The cost of education depends on the college and speciality.
A number of great men, well-known scientists and writers stud ied at Cambridge. Among them are: Erasmus, the great Dutch scholar, Bacon, the philosopher, Milton and Byron, the poets, Cromwell, the soldier, Newton and Darwin, the scientists.
Text 1С (страница 19)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите об особенностях системы высшего образования в нашей стране и в США.
Higher Education in the USA
There is no national system of higher education in the United States. Higher education is given in colleges and universities. There are over 2100 various higher educational institutions, including colleges, technological institutes and universities. The average col lege course of study is 4 years. The academic year is usually 9 months or 2 terms (semesters) of four and a half months each. Classes usually begin in September and end in June. The first-year students are called freshmen.
Students choose a major subject (профилирующий предмет, дисциплина) and take many courses in this subject. After four years, they get a traditional Bachelor's degree. Then the students may go on to graduate school (старшие курсы) and with a year or two of further study get a Master's degree.
After another year or two of study and research, they may get a still higher degree as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.). The student's progress is evaluated by means of tests, term works and final exami nations in each course. The student's work is given a mark, usually on a five point scale (5-балльная система). Letters indicate the level of achievement. «A» is the highest mark. «F» denotes a failure.
Most American colleges and universities charge for tuition. The methods of instruction in (he universities are lectures, discussions, laboratory and course works and seminars.
Most cities have colleges or universities that hold classes at night as well as in daytime. In this way people may work for a de gree or just take a course in the subject that interests them.
Text 1D (страница 20)
Прочитайте письмо и напишите ответ.
A Letter
Dear Sergei,
How are you? I have received your letter of 10-th June for which 1 thank you very much. I am sorry I haven't written to you sooner, but I have had many things to do. You know it was a very hard year for me. I spent my time getting ready for my exams and I was doing well in many subjects. After passing the exams I was enroled into the University. The whole course of study is four years. My major subject is mathematics. It is my favourite and my hobby. I am good at it and do maths whenever I have a chance. I take many courses in this subject. I like to take part in mathemati cal competitions organized at our department and at the Univer sity. I think that mathematics is «the language of science» and plays an important part in many sciences. We are lucky to have a brilliant lecturer in mathematics this term. He has a talent to take a difficult subject and make it simple. You leave the lecture hall with a feeling that mathematics is the most interesting subject under the sun. Next term I'll do research in the field of computer engineering.
And how do you feel about maths? Please, write to me, I am es pecially interested in your life in students' hostel.
Good-bye for the present, your friend Mike
LESSON 2
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
achieve v — достигать
advance n — продвижение вперед, успех, прогресс
area n — область
bring about v — вызывать
carry out v — проводить, вы полнять
change v — менять(ся), изме нять(ся); п — изменение, пе ремена
considerable a — значитель ный
deal with v — иметь дело с
effort n — усилие
evident а — очевидный
growth n — рост
however adv — однако, тем не менее
increase v — увеличиваться
level n — уровень
purpose n — цель, назначение
reach v — достигать
realize v — понимать, отчетливо представлять
remain v — оставаться
scale n — масштаб, размер
several а — несколько
similar a — подобный, схожий
solve v — решать
still adv — все еще, однако
success n — успех
therefore adv — поэтому
way n — путь, дорога; способ
joint efforts — совместные усилия
take measures — принимать меры
throughout the world — по всему миру
Text 2A (страница 29)
Прочитайте текст и ответьте, какие меры необходимы для успешного решения проблемы защиты окружающей среды в глобальном масштабе. Переведите
Environment Protection Must Be Global
That the problem of pollution and ecology has become the most important one for mankind is evident to all. The more civilization is developing, the greater the ecological problems are becoming. Air and water pollution by industry is now reaching tremendous proportions. In our era it is changing from a national to an interna tional problem, especially in territories where rivers cross several countries. The seas and oceans are also becoming seriously polluted. A similar situation is developing in the atmosphere. It is known that many cities throughout the world suffer from air pollution.
However, our scientific knowledge and technological advance ment make it possible to eliminate it if people use good will1 and make considerable investments for that purpose. The develop ment of natural resources on a global scale is already possible from a scientific and technical standpoint2. Large-scale experimental work in this area is successfully being carried out.
At present scientists in industrially developed countries are working on the theory of interaction of all the atmospheric and oceanic global processes that determine the climate and weather of the world. Increasing growth of population, industrialization and the use of resources are slowly but surely changing the global climate and water balance. This can be described as a great experi ment, one that may bring about changes in the environment more serious than ever before.
The essential feature in the environment protection is that many problems can be solved only on the level of world community3. Therefore, the planning of protection against pollu tion by human society as a whole4 is imperative today and in the near future. It is necessary to develop an international program to study data on land, forest, atmospheric and oceanic resources, both renewable and non-renewable. It is the joint efforts of many scien tists and special public organizations that can deal with the prob lem and take necessary measures to protect the environment.
It is still a big job and much remains to be done5. However, sci entists are confident that planned actions of all countries can elimi nate pollution and achieve successes in purifying air, water and soil and in safeguarding natural resources. At the same time one must realize that social and political circumstances may stand in the way of further progress in this field.
Notes to the Text
Text 2В (страница 37)
Прочитайте текст. Укажите отрицательные стороны научно-техническо го прогресса. Приведите примеры экологической ситуация в Вашем городе.
Pollution
The British, like many other Europeans, are becoming more and more worried (беспокоиться) about their environment. Here are some of the environmental problems that they face.
As the population of large cities like London, Birmingham and Manchester continues to grow, pollution problems become worse.
The air in many towns and cities is being polluted by traffic (транспорт, движение) and industry. The number of cars and lor ries is growing all the time. On the one hand, they bring mobility to millions of people, but on the other hand, they need bigger, better and more expensive roads, which often ruin the countryside (сельская местность). Traffic in cities is getting worse and worse. Water pollution has become a serious problem in many British rivers. People living near airports suffer from the noise of increas ingly larger and more powerful jet airliners taking off and landing.
Text 2C (страница 37)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите по-английски о результатах исследова ния, проведенного Всемирной организацией здравоохранения.
Ecological Problems of Big Cities
There are over 150 supercities in the world with population from one to 15 million and more. Tokyo, New York, London, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro and Moscow are just a few of the cities which have become supercities.
People in the supercities suffer from polluted environment: bad water, bad air and noise. A new term, urban (городской) climate, is used now for such cities. It means high temperature, oppressive atmosphere and intensive smog.
Some experts consider that it is practically impossible to pro tect the big cities from pollution. The World Health Organization (WHO) studied air pollution around the world for over eight years. It measured two things: the level of sulphur dioxide (S02) in the air and the level of smoke. Sulphur dioxide and smoke pollute water and have serious effect on forest, buildings and health of people. In the WHO report it is shown that the cities with the most con siderable level of C02 in the air are Milan, Teheran, Prague, Santi ago and San Paulo. However, some cities with clean air get worse in winter. Helsinki, for example, becomes one of the cities with the largest proportion of it in the air in winter. This must be connected with the heating of houses. One can also mention (упоминать) Glasgow and Warsaw which suffer in the same way.
Text 2D (страница 38)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите по-английски о достопримечательностях современного Лондона.
London, its History and Development
It is known that the area around London was inhabited (населять) by the Celts. Later the Romans founded a military camp there. The camp developed into a port. The area of about 1 square mile where the Romans built their fortifications corre sponds approximately to today present City of London. London was the capital of one of the Roman provinces of Britain. After the Romans left Britain, London became less important and suffered greatly from the Danes and Vikings. It was under Henry the First in the 12th century that London finally became the capital of England. In the 16th century London, with its 500,000 inhabit ants, was the largest city in England. Under Queen Elizabeth the First in the 17th century England dominated the oceans and be came the Empire. It is in the Elizabethan Age that art, culture and literature flowered, especially in London. Over the centuries Lon don became the centre of a constantly growing empire. The em pire reached its apex (вершина) under Queen Victoria. In dustrialization and the expansion of international trade brought London power, growth and cultural and economic development. In the First and Second World Wars London was ruined consider ably.
Some 9 million people now live in London and its suburbs, and the city covers an area of 620 square miles, making it one of the largest of the world's capitals. One reason for its size is that the English people like to live in small houses and have small gardens. As a result, less than 5,000 people live in the City of London, while more than half a million come here to work in the daytime. Today London is the capital of Great Britain and is also the seat of the Royal Family, the Parliament, the major administrative bodies and scientific institutions.
The Houses of Parliament stand on the bank of the Thames at Westminster Abbey. Actually it is one building but it is called «Houses» as it consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It was set up in the 13-th century. At one end of the Houses of Parliament there is a tower with a large clock. The largest bell, known as Big Ben, chimes in (отбивать часы) the hour.
Westminster Abbey was a monastery built in the 8th century. It is one of the best examples of the Early English architecture. The kings and queens of England are buried there. Many great states men, writers and poets are also buried there.
In the centre of London there is one of the most beautiful squares — Trafalgar Square which was named so to commemorate (в честь) Nelson's victory in the battle of Trafalgar. There is the monument in its centre known as Nelson's Column.
In the vicinity of Trafalgar Square is Whitehall which is now a Street of government offices. Not far from Whitehall is Downing Street. Number 10 Downing Street is the residence of the Prime Minister of England. The Cabinet meets there. One must mention the British Museum. It is one of the most extensive and valuable museums in West Europe, It was founded in 1753. It also com prises the National Library. There are other numerous museums and galleries displaying interesting finds from all parts of the world and from all stages in the development of nature, man and art. There are also two large opera houses, the National Theatre and 50 other theatres. Monuments of past greatness are every where in London.
LESSON 3
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
advantage n — преимущество
appearance п — появление
application n — применение, заявление
completely adv — полностью, целиком
consumption n — потребление, расход
cover n — охватить, охватывать,
design v — конструировать, проектировать
device n — прибор, устройство
double v — удваивать
efficient a — эффективный
generate v — вырабатывать, производить
imagine v — представлять себе, воображать
invent v — изобретать
power n — энергия, мощность
property n — свойство
recent a — недавний, последний
reduce v — уменьшать, сни жать
replace v — заменять
set up (set) v — воздвигать, сооружать
source n — источник
state n — положение, состоя ние
such as — такой как
transform v — преобразовы вать
turn v — поворачиваться, об ратиться; превратить (into)
wide a — широкий without prp — без
whole a — весь, целый
in the case of — в случае
to be based on — основываться, быть основанным на.
Text ЗА (страница 47)
Прочитайте текст, перечислите наиболее важные изобретения в области электротехники. Переведите.
Electricity
It is impossible to imagine our civilization without electricity: economic and social progress will be turned to the past and our daily lives completely transformed.
Electrical power has become universal Thousands of applica tions of electricity such as lighting, electrochemistry and electro metallurgy are longstanding and unquestionable.
With the appearance of the electrical motor, power cables re placed transmission shafts, gear wheels, belts and pulleys1 in the 19-th century workshops. And in the home a whole range of various time and labour saving appliances2 have become a part of our ev eryday lives.
Other devices are based on specific properties of electricity: electrostatics in the case of photocopying machine and electromagnetism in the case of radar and television. These applications have most widely used.
The first industrial application was in the silver workshops in Paris. The generator — a new compact source of electricity — was also developed there. The generator replaced the batteries and other devices that had been used before.
Electric lighting came into wide use at the end of the last cen tury with the development of the electric lamp by Thomas Edison. Then the transformer was invented, the first electric lines and net works were set up, dynamos and induction motors3 were designed.
Since the beginning of the 20th century the successful develop ment of electricity has begun throughout the industrial world. The consumption of electricity has doubled every ten years.
Today consumption of electricity per capita4 is an indicator of the slate of development and economic health of a nation. Elec tricity has replaced other sources of energy as it has been realized that it offers improved service and reduced cost.
One of the greatest advantages of electricity is that it is clean, easily-regulated and generates no by-products5. Applications of electricity now cover all fields of human activity from house wash ing machines to the latest laser devices. Electricity is the efficient source of some of the most recent technological advances such as ' the laser and electron beams. Truly6 electricity provides mankind with the energy of the future.
Notes to the Text
Text 3B (страница 54)
Прочитайте текст. Ответьте на вопрос, почему Эдисон сказал: «Don't watch the clock».
A Great Citizen of the World
Every day many people visited Thomas A.Edison's laboratories in Orange, New Jersey. Some of them were young inventors who went to study, but many more of them were tourists. They came from all parts of the US and from other countries as well.
One day a very important citizen from England visited Edison's factories, taking with him his young son,eight years old. They spent many hours in great workshops, looking at hundreds of useful in ventions.
Before leaving the laboratories the man went to the office of the main building. Giving his card to the person in charge, he asked: «May 1 speak to Mr.Edison, please?». The man looked at the card and then answered: «Wait a minute, I'll sec». Soon he returned and said: «Come this way, please. Mr.Edison will see you».
The father and his son went into the great inventor's workroom. «Mr.Edison», said the Englishman, «I brought my young son here to see what the world's greatest citizen has done. I want this day to help him all his life. Will you please shake hands with him and say something that he will remember?»
Mr. Edison took the boy's hand. He laid his other hand on the child's shoulder and looked into his eyes. «My boy», he said, «don't watch the clock».
In 1928 Mr. Edison was eighty-one years old, but he still worked sixteen hours a day.
Text 3C (страница 54)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите по-английски о преимуществах солнеч ной энергии в качестве источника электричества.
Solar Light by Night
Most people living in towns consider it a usual thing that streets are lit at night. But street lights need a power supply (источник энергии) therefore distant areas with no source of electricity re main in darkness until the sun comes up again.
With new appliances now offered by several British firms, many distant places could be lit with solar-powered street lights. It may seem strange that the lamps can use the power of the sun which shines by day when the lamps are needed at night, but they work by using energy accumulated during the day from a solar panel produces electricity which charges (заряжать) a bat tery. When the sun goes down, the battery power is then used for lighting. Each lamp has its own panel so the system can be used for one individual light or a number of them.
In the south of Saudi Arabia a motorway tunnel miles from any power supply is lit day and night by solar-powered devices. The so lar panels provide power during the day and charge batteries which accumulate enough power to light the tunnel at night. The genera tion of electricity by batteries is still expensive but the advantage of sun-powered lamps is that they can bring light to areas distant from any other power supply.
There is one more advantage of solar power: not only it is un limited, but also its use does not pollute the environment. That is why it is very important to develop devices which make it possible to transform solar power into mechanical or electric forms of power.
Text 3D (страница 55)
Прочитайте текст. Найдите информацию о наиболее перспективных источниках энергии и об основных отличиях нетрадиционных источников энергии от традиционных. Изложите основное содержание текста по-английски.
Non-traditional Renewable Sources of Energy
It is known that much is being done in the world today for the development of non-traditional sources of energy. Without them the Earth cannot support its present population of 5 billion people and probably 8 billion people in the 21st century.
Now we are using traditional power sources, that is, oil, natural gas, coal and water power with the consumption of more than 50 billion barrels per year. It is evident that these sources are not un limited.
That is why it is so important to use such renewable sources of energy as the sun, wind, geothermal energy and others. Research is being carried out in these fields.
One of the most promising (перспективный) research is the development of power stations with direct transformation of solar energy into electricity on the basis of photo-effect. It was Russia that was the first in the world to develop and test a photoelectric battery of 32,000-volts and effective area of only 0.5 sq.m., which made it possible to concentrate solar radiation. This idea is now be ing intensively developed in many countries.
However, the efficiency of a solar power station is considerably reduced because of the limited time of its work during the year. But it is possible to improve the efficiency of solar power stations by de veloping different combinations of solar power stations and tradi tional ones — thermal, atomic and hydraulic. Today some engineers are working at the problem of developing electric power stations with the use of a thermal-chemical cycle. It will operate on products of the transformation of solar energy, whereas the «solar» chemical reactor uses C02 and water steam of the thermal power station. The result is that we have a closed cycle.
In Kamchatka there are geothermal power stations operating on hot water-steam mixture from the depths of about a kilometre. In some projects water will be heated by the warmth of mountains at a depth of four—five km.
It is planned that plants working on the energy of the solar heat provided by the sun will be built on a larger scale.
That different wind energy plants are being developed is also well-known. These energy plants can be small (of several kilowatts) arid large powerful systems.
It is important that all these advances in developing new sources of energy and improving the old ones help to solve the en ergy problem as a whole and they do not have negative effects on the environment.
LESSON 4
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
appear v — появляться
artificial а — искусственный
compare v — сравнивать
contain v — содержать, вмешать
continuous а — непрерывный
convenient а — удобный
direct а — прямой, непосредственный
during prp — в течение, во время, в продолжение
equipment n — оборудование
essentially adv — по существу, главным образом
etc (etcetera) — и т. д.
exist v — существовать
few a — мало, немного
a few — несколько
influence n — влияние
means n — средство
nowadays adv — сейчас, в на стоящее время
occur v — происходить, возникать
rapidly adv — быстро
research n — исследование
simultaneously adv — одновременно
state v — утверждать
switch on v — включать
time n — время, times — раз
transmit v — передавать
watch v — наблюдать, смотреть
weigh v — весить, взвешивать
within prp — в пределах, в, через
a lot of — много;
to be able to — мочь, быть в состоянии
Text 4A (страница 67)
Прочитайте текст и найдите абзацы, содержащие информацию о разви тии различных видов телевизионных систем в хронологической последова тельности. Переведите.
Television
The television set is evidently the most important and popular electronic product of all lime. All homes in developed countries have one or more TV sets and in many countries there are consider ably more TV sets than telephones.
But in 1939 at the World's Fair in New York a tiny nine-by-twelve inch box was the centre of attention for hundreds of people. They were the first to see a television set in action. Compared to to day's TV shows of underwater and outer-space research, those first black-white pictures were not very good. The pictures were only transmitted from one side of the Fair territory to the other. But in 1939 they were of historical importance.
Within a few days the news of television spread throughout the world. A lot of people wanted to have a look1 at the new invention. Everyone was interested in it. But only few people owned television sets in the next few years. When World War II broke out2 electronic factories that began the TV production stopped making them and started making war materials instead. When the war was over, TV sets began coming off factory assembly lines. By 1958 there were millions of them.
In a surprisingly short time people watched fewer films and turned from newspapers and magazines to TV. In its short history television has had great influence on people's life and way of think ing. Rocket-launching, concerts and football and tennis matches can be seen direct as they occur. The boundaries of time and space have disappeared.
At present TV communication is provided with the help of a system of artificial earth satellites so that people living in different parts of the country and all over the world and in different time zones are able to watch the central TV programs at the most conve nient hours.
Nowadays many countries also have cable TV, a system using wires for the transmission of television programs (like telephone calls). Cable television first appeared in 1949 as a means of trans mitting TV signals to rural and mountain areas far from big cities. Cable television's next big step forward was made by the mid — 1980s. Scientists announced that many technical problems had been solved and in the future it would be possible via satellite and cable TV to use more channels on a TV set at every home in the world.
Then we saw how a new technical invention, colour television, was rapidly replacing black-and-white television. Recently it was reported that the first pocket-size3 colour television set had been developed. It was stated that a liquid-crystal display4 was used sim ilar to those on calculators and watches and that it weighed less than a pound.
A few years ago it became evident that the next major advance for TV would be digital television. In a digital system the usual con tinuous signal is replaced by a digital code containing detailed in formation on brightness, colour, etc. A digital TV set hangs on the wall like a picture. Essentially, it is a minicomputer with a visual display. Once a week5 you put the programs you like into the memory, and the TV set will automatically switch on the desired channel at the right time. You can watch several programs simulta neously on miniscreens and then produce one of them in full for mat. Also, the TV set can automatically video-record the programs when you are absent or occupied.
By the end of 1980s television has moved to a new and the most important stage in its development since the appearance of colour television. Technically it is called high-definition television (HDTV)6 or Hi-Vision. This is the much higher resolution tele vision7 of the 21st century. This revolution was started by Japanese manufacturers when they developed a new video system with a pic ture resembling a wide-screen film more than traditional television. The new system increases the screen's width-to-height ratio8 (16:9). The result is a picture several limes sharper than in the exist ing TV sets. Besides, recent developments in plasma display panel technology9 make HDTV commercially practicable. The plasma display makes it possible to produce a large, bright, colour, flat TV screen so thin and light that it can also be hung on a wall like a framed picture. The engineering problem that has existed almost since the first days of television may be solved now.
Notes to the Text
Text 4B (страница 76)
Прочитайте текст и найдите информацию о том, в каких странах ученые работали над созданием телеграфной связи, какие трудности встретились при этом. Перескажите.
Telegraph
Benjamin Franklin, an American who is famous for his inter esting and useful inventions, published his ideas about electricity in 1752. Scientists in many countries became interested in this won derful form of energy. They wanted to find the answer to a very im portant question: could the electricity be used to develop a fast, efficient system of long-distance communication? Experiments proved that electricity could travel instantly over a very long piece of wire. But a note that was written on a piece of paper couldn't be put into a wire. How could electricity be used to send a message? A Danish scientist discovered that electricity could move a needle from left to right and that the needle could be pointed at letters on a piece of paper. Then a German government worker made up a code system that could be used with an electric needle. In 1837 two English scientists sent a message by electric telegraph for a distance of more than 1,6 kilometers.
Samuel Morse, an American portrait painter, was experiment ing with an electric telegraph too. At first he connected a pencil to an electric wire. When the electricity came through the wire the pencil made wavy lines. Then Morse invented a code that used dots and dashes for the letters of the alphabet. Finally, he discovered thaе telegraph messages did not have to be written, they could be sent in sound.
On May 24, 1844, the first long-distance message was sent by telegraph for 64 kilometers.
Telegraph companies were formed in many cities. By 1861 tele graph wires stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In Europe too, Samuel Morse's system became popular.
But telegraph wires couldn't be hung over an ocean. Messages to and from Europe had to be sent by ship — a journey of two or three weeks. A new method was needed.
The Atlantic Telegraph Company which was organized in 1856 wanted to try to lay a cable on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. The 4,000-kilometer cable broke three times. Each time a new cable had to be made. Finally, on July 27, 1866, the first transatlantic message was sent from Newfoundland to Ireland.
Later cables were laid to Central and South America. After 1900 transpacific cables were laid to Asia and Australia. At last news and business information could be sent instantly to almost every country in the world.
Text 4C (страница 77)
Прочитайте текст и ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1. Какие биографические факты из жизни изобретателя телефона приве дены в тексте?
Telephone
Alexander Graham Bell never planned to be an inventor, he wanted to be a musician or a teacher of deaf people (глухих). The subjects that he studied at school included music, art, literature, Latin and Greek. They did not include German which all scientists used in their books. Alexander's mother was a painter and a musi cian. His father was a well-known teacher of deaf people.
When Alexander was only sixteen, he became a teacher in boy's school in Scotland. He liked teaching there, but he still wanted to become a teacher of deaf people as his father.
He read all the books about sound that he could find and started to work on some of his own experiments.
At twenty five Alexander became interested in finding a way to send human voice through an electric wire. The parents of his pu pils contributed money for the equipment. He found an assistant, Tom Watson, who worked in an electrical shop. For two years Tom and Alexander were working together to build a machine that peo ple could use to talk to one another over long distances. After two years, the two young men were becoming discouraged (опустились руки). Then, one day, when they were working on a new transmit ter Alexander spilled some acid (пролить кислоту) on himself. Tom Watson, who was alone in another room, heard a voice. The voice was coming through a wire to a receiver on the table! The voice was Alexander Bell's! It was saying: «Come here, Mr. Wat son. I need you!»
The first telephone line was built in Germany in 1877. By 1915 a telephone line was opened in the United States — 5,440 kilome ters from New York to San Francisco.
Now design bureaus all over the world are conducting experi ments to develop video-phone or picture phone. A young man in Moscow wants to speak to his friend in Vladivostok. He lifts his telephone receiver, dials a number. After a very short time his friend answers. As he picks up his receiver, his picture appears on the screen. They can speak to each other face to face because they are using a new kind of telephone which may be called «a video-phone». In addition to the usual telephone, the equipment includes a small television screen (14 cm by 13 cm) and, combined with the screen, a television camera. The camera tube will allow the user to switch from a wide view of the room to the face of the per son speaking. The focus can be changed to give clear pictures of objects 0.3,0.9 and 6.0 meters away from the camera. There is also a mirror attachment, which allows the camera to scan documents which may be lying on the table. The camera adjusts itself auto matically to different lighting conditions.
Text 4D (страница 78)
Прочитайте и перескажите текст.
Talking via Space
Communication has come a long way from the time when an In dian beat a drum (барабан) in the forest to the lime when a scientist receives messages from a satellite. In this space age communication has become a highly developed field. The system of communication in large countries is unthinkable today without space satellites. Besides large distances, there is a great time difference: the territo ries of some countries comprise up to 11 zones. Satellites help to minimize all the difficulties that may appear. They rapidly transmit TV and radio programs to different towns, cities, and distant areas.
Space systems and electronic technology have made it possible to set up an automatic system of communication designed for rapid transmission of all kinds of information.
People write letters and send telegrams. But at the same time people living in various cities like to exchange (обмениваться) news on the telephone. Statistics reports that the number of long distance telephone calls is about 2, 000 million per year. A person in Moscow talking on the phone with Vladivostok must know that this conversation is carried on through a satellite.
Trains and cars can use mobile radio telephones to make calls. Businessmen can use fax machines which provide electronic trans mission of documents and messages over telephone lines. Even photographs can be sent and received over telephone wires.
Practically all the population in large countries can watch TV via satellites. The orbital communication systems make it possible for people from different continents to sec and hear one another.
The importance of space means of communication is increasing every year. The communication satellites of the international orga nization «INTERSAT» enable people to keep reliable telephone, telegraph, telex and fax communication in any weather with ships practically in every part of the World Ocean.
LESSON 5
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
according tо adv — согласно, соответственно
available a — доступный, имеющийся в распоряжении
beam п — луч
built-in p.p. — встроенный
by means of prp — посредством, при помощи
calculation n — вычисление
capable а — способный
circuit n — схема, цепь
close а — близкий, тесный
complete v — завершать
control — управлять, контролировать
depend on v — зависеть от
fast a — быстрый
generation n — поколение
go on v — продолжать(ся)
machine-tool n — станок
matter п — дело, вопрос
ordinary — обыкновенный
perform v — выполнять, делать, исполнять
quality n — качество
reliable a — надежный
require v — требовать(ся)
speed n — скорость
surround v — окружать
task n — задание, задача
up to prp — вплоть до
usage n — использование
whereas conj — тогда как, в то время как
Text 5A (страница 87)
Прочитайте текст и прокомментируйте его заголовок. Прав ли автор, дав такой заголовок? Найдите в тексте соответствующие факты. Переведите.
Is there an End to the Computer Race?
Today the word «electronics» is in general usage. Millions of people have electron watches. There are a lot of various radio and TV sets, video cassette recorders and CD players in our houses. In factories and plants we are surrounded with electronically con trolled machines and instruments, we are carried by airplanes, ships, trains and cars with built-in electronic devices, and satellites circle the globe. In other words, we are living in an electronic world.
And the center of this world is a tiny silicon plate1 of a few square millimetres, an integrated circuit2, or a chip3, as it is more commonly known. The integrated circuit is undoubtedly one of the most sophisticated4 inventions of man, science and technology. It is in the heart of every electronic device and the more cassette re corders, TV sets and computers we need, the more integrated cir cuits are required.
When we speak about a further development of computers we mean not only quantity, but also high technology5 and high speed. As the operation of an integrated circuit depends on microscopic «components", the purity of all materials and the cleanness at the plant they are produced at must be of the highest quality. A con tinuous search is going on in laboratories throughout the world for more perfect, reliable and high speed electronic circuits.
In the past it took6 scientists and researchers a whole lifetime to make a few thousand calculations, whereas for a modern computer this task is a matter of a few seconds. At present computers capable of performing billions of operations a second are required. Super computers are different from ordinary computers. The ordinary computer does the computations operation by operation, while the supercomputer operates like a brain: all operations are being done simultaneously.
In the next few years engineers will complete the work on com puters of above 2 billion operations a second. It will take a few more years to produce a 10-billion operations computer. The fifth-generation computers performing 100 billion operations a second will become available in the near future. Is there an end to this race?
According to some researchers, we are close to what can be re garded as a true physical limit. But other specialists think that pho tons will make the operation a thousand times faster. This means that in the future it will be possible to expect the appearance of photon computers and that computations will be done by means of light. Light has several advantages over electronics: light beams are faster, travel in parallel lines and can pass through one another without interference7. Already, the optical equivalent of a transis tor has been produced, and intensive research on optical-electronic computers is being carried out in a number of countries around the world. In a few decades a new age of light may replace the still youthful electronic age. The race is going on.
Notes to the Text
integrated circuit — интегральная схема
high technology — передовая технология
it takes ... (one year) — требуется
interference — взаимное влияние, помехи.
Text 5B (страница 95)
Прочитайте текст и найдите информацию об использовании компьюте ров в повседневной жизни и работе. людей. Выпишите и переведите определительные придаточные предложения.
Computers Concern You
When Ch. Babbage. a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, invented the first calculating machine in 1812, he could hardly have imagined the situations we find ourselves in today. Al most everything in modern world is done with the help of comput ers — the complicated descendants (потомки) of his simple machine. Computers are being used more and more extensively in the world today, for the simple reason that they are far more effi cient than human beings. They have much better memories and can store (запоминать) great amount of information and they can do calculations in a fraction of the time required by a human math ematician. No man alive can do 500,000 sums in one second, but a modern computer can.
In fact, computers can do many things we do, but faster and better. They can control machines at factories, work out tomor row's weather and even play chess, write poetry or compose music. Let's look now at some of the ways in which computers concern people in their daily lives and work.
Many people associate computers with the world of science and mathematics, but they are also a great help to scholars in other subjects: in history, literature and so on. It is now possible for a scholar to find a book or an article he needs very quickly, which nowadays when a million or more new books arу published each year is quite an advantage. You tell the computer which subject you arc interested in and it produces any microfiche (микро фише, диамикрокарта) you need in seconds.
There are also systems which are being developed to translate articles from foreign magazines by computer and to make up many lists of information which are needed in a modern library. So, com puter can help us to deal with the knowledge explosion in many ways. One can imagine a time when libraries will be run by comput ers, without human beings at all.
Or, let's take another example. When a man drives a car for long distances he has two problems: to keep the car at a constant speed and watch that he does not run into the car in front of him. Engineers are now experimenting with a system which has a com puter control of these two problems. The car's computer keeps the speed constant. At the same time the distance between the car and any other car in front of it is measured by a beam of light transmit ted forwards. The beam meets the rear reflectors of the car in front and it is reflected back, which enables to measure the distance. This information is fed to the computer which adjusts (регулировать) its speed control accordingly.
Text 5С (страница 96)
Прочитайте текст и озаглавьте его. Кратко изложите основное содержа ние текста по-английски.
Sir Isaac Newton was a supergenius of science who among other things invented calculus (исчисление), stated the laws of gravity and optics. But it turned out (оказываться) Newton also made mistakes. The University of Chicago announced recently that R. Garusto, 23. a physicist, had discovered in one of Newton's cal culations an error that had been undetected for three centuries.
The young scientist discovered it while he was studying New-ton's masterpiece (шедевр) of physics «Principia» (1687). Newton had derived (выводить) a figure for the Earth's mass based on his new theory that a single force — gravity — governed (управлять) falling bodies on the Earth and the motion of planets around the Sun. The calculation depended on the angle (угол) between two lines from the Earth to the Sun, but because that angle was not ex actly known at the time. Newton used slightly different figures in -Principia». It was that mistake that the young scientist found, a discovery that was soon confirmed (подтвердить) by other physi cists. The mistake has no influence on Newton's theory, but its dis covery was enough to get him a prize from the University of Chicago.
Text 5D (страница 97)
Прочитайте текст и расскажите по-английски, из каких зданий состоит комплекс Библиотеки Конгресса и каким известным деятелям посвящено каждое из них Найдите предложении со словами houses и numbers, пере» те и запомните их значения
The Library of Congress
The Library of Congress is the Nation's library in the USA. It serves not only to members and committees of the Congress, but to libraries throughout the USA and the world and to the scholars, re searchers and scientists who use it.
Its foundation was laid in 1815 when President Thomas Gef-ferson offered his personal library accumulated for 50 years and considered one of the best in the United States at that time as the for a great national library.
Now the Library of Congress complex on Capital Hill includes three buildings. The Thomas Gefferson Building, which has been built in Italian Renaissance style, is the oldest of them. It was the largest and costliest (роскошный) library' building in the world when it was completed in 1897. It is decorated with splendid sculp ture, murals (фрески) created by 50 American artists. Its Main Reading Room is 160 feet high.
The Room houses a collection of 45,000 reference hooks (справочники), a part of the extensive main catalog of more than 23 million cards and desks for 212 readers. The Computer Catalog Center provides public access (доступ) to the Library's automated catalog.
The simply designed John Adams Building faced with white marble (мрамор) was opened in 1939. Sculptures on its large bronze doors represent 12 famous writers
The while marble James Madison Memorial Building opened in 1980 more than doubled the Library's available Capitol Hill space. The building which is the official memorial to the Nation's fourth dent contains the James Madison Memorial Hall, exhibition areas, eight reading rooms, offices and storage areas for collections which number over 50 million items (предметов).
LESSON 6
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
aim v — стремиться, це лить(ся)
alloy n — сплав
approach v — приближаться, подходить
certain a — определенный
condition n — условие
create v — создавать
consequently adv — следовательно
data n — данные
density n — плотность
differ from v — отличаться от
difference n — различие, разница
estimate n — оценивать
except рrр — кроме, за исключением
i.e. (that is) — то есть
include v — включать
launch n — запуск
liquid n — жидкость, а — жидкий
manned р — пилотируемый, с человеком на борту
movement n — движение
numerous a — многочислен ный
obtain v — получать
possess v — обладать, владеть
thus adv — так, таким образом
valuable a — ценный
prove v — доказывать
substance n — вещество
surface n — поверхность
vehicle n — транспортное средство, космический летательный аппарат
weight n — вес
Text 6A (страница 108)
Прочитайте текст и найдите абзацы, в которых сообщается о результатах и значении проведенных экспериментов по производству материалов в космосе. Переведите.
Made in Space
This label «Made in Space» for industrial materials will proba bly surprise no one in the not so distant future. They may include superconductors, new kinds of alloys, substances with peculiar magnetic properties, supertransparent laser glass1, polymers, plas tics, and so on. Numerous experiments carried out at the Russian orbital space stations have paved the way2 to the development of methods and means of industrial production of new materials of better quality on board a spacecraft3. Experts estimate that within a few coming years industrial production of various materials will be started in space.
Conditions on board a space vehicle orbiting Earth greatly dif fer from those on its surface. However, all of these conditions can be simulated4 on Earth, except for one — prolonged weightless ness. Weightlessness can be created on Earth, but only for a few seconds. A space flight is another matter: a satellite orbiting Earth is in a dynamic zero-gravity state, i.e., when gravity is cancelled out5 by inertia.
What can weightlessness be used for? Many well-known pro cesses go on differently due to the absence of weight. The Archime des principle is no longer valid and, consequently, stable-state6 liquid mixtures can be obtained, the components of which would immediately separate on Earth because of different density. In case of melts7 of metals, glasses or semiconductors, they can be cooled down to the solidification point even in space and then brought back to Earth. Such materials will possess quite unusual qualities.
In space there is no gravitational convection8, i.e., movements of gases or liquids caused by difference of temperatures. It is well-known that various defects in semiconductors occur because of convection. Biochemists also have to deal with the worst aspects of convection, for example, in the production of superpure biologi cally active substances. Convection makes it very difficult on Earth.
Following the launch of the first orbital stations the specialists started experiments aimed at proving the advantages of the zero-gravity state for the production of certain materials. In this country all orbital stations from Salyut 5 onwards were used for that purpose, as well as rockets. Since 1976 over 600 technological experiments have been carried out on board manned and un manned space vehicles.
The experiments proved that many of the properties of the ma terials obtained under the zero-gravity condition were much better than those produced on Earth. Besides, it has been established that it is necessary to develop a new science — physics of the weightless state — which forms the theoretical basis for space industry and space materials study. This science has basically been developed. The methods of mathematical modelling of the hydromechanical process under the zero-gravity condition have been created with the help of computers.
Special space vehicles will also be needed for industrial produc tion of new-generation materials. Research has shown that the ac celeration rate on board these vehicles must be reduced to the minimum. It was found that space platforms in independent flight carrying the equipment were most suitable for producing materials. These vehicles will have to use their own propulsion systems to ap proach their base orbital station after a certain period of time. The cosmonauts on board the station can replace the specimens. Many new and very interesting projects are planned for orbital stations. Here is one of them. Convection does not allow to grow large pro tein crystals on Earth. But it is possible to grow such crystals under the zero-gravity condition and to study their structure. The data obtained during the experiments can be useful for the work of labo ratories on Earth in using the methods of gene engineering9. Thus, it may be possible to make new materials in space and also to obtain valuable scientific data for new highly efficient technologies on Earth.
Preparatory work for industrial production in space at a larger scale is being carried out in Russia, the USA, Western Europe and Japan. It should be said that according to the estimates of Ameri can experts production of materials in space is to bring 60 billion dollars in the future.
Notes to the Text
Text 6B (страница 116)
Прочитайте текст и расскажите о новом способе повышения пластично сти и износостойкости режущего инструмента из композиционной керамики.
Composite Ceramics
Advanced ceramic materials have such interesting properties that mechanical engineers are becoming more and more interested in their use as structural parts (конструкционные детали).
Ceramic cutting tools have been in use for some time. How ever, it is only during the last twenty years that there has been rapid development in this field because of the development of new com posite ceramics.
Composite materials are materials in which two or more differ ent substances, such as metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers are combined without chemical reaction. As a result one can produce a material with properties different from those of any of the individ ual constituents. The constituents of a composite would retain their individual characteristics.
Recently engineers have developed various kinds of composite ceramics which must combine an increased toughness (пластич ность) with the same hardness and strength of usual ceramics. A promising recent development is the addition of a tiny quantity of metal to increase toughness and tool life. Thus, at room and high temperatures (1000° C) the composite ceramics for cutting tools should possess the following properties: high strength, high tough ness, high hardness, high thermal shock resistance and high chemi cal inertness.
Text 6C (страница 117)
Прочитайте текст, выделите интересные для вас факты и перескажите.
Ancient Steel-Making Secret
When two metallurgists at Stanford University were trying to produce a «superplastic» metal they became interested in the secret of Damascus steel, the legendary material used by numerous war riors (воины) of the past, including Crusaders (крестоносцы). Its formula had been lost for generations.
Analyses of a new steel revealed properties almost identical to those they found in Damascus steel, although their own plastic steel had been produced by present-day methods.
The remarkable characteristics of Damascus steel became known to Europe when the Crusaders reached the Middle East in the 11th century. They discovered that swords (меч) of the metal could split (рассечь) a feather (перо) in air and at the same time retain their edge sharp through many battles.
The secrets of Damascus steel were known in many parts of the ancient world, especially in Persia, where some of the finest speci mens were produced. For eight centuries the Arab sword makers kept the secret about their techniques and methods. And with the invention of firearms (огнестрельное оружие), the secret was lost and it was never fully rediscovered.
The two metallurgists carried out a lot of researches. When they realized that they might be close to the discovery of a new material, a sword fancier (знаток), at one of their demonstrations, pointed out that Damascus steel, like their own product, was very rich in carbon. This led them to conduct a comparative analysis of their steel and those of the ancient weapons. As a result, it was found that a basic requirement was a high carbon content. The two metal lurgists believed it had to be from 1 per cent to 2 per cent, compared to only a part of 1 per cent in ordinary steel. Their research showed how to make steel of even greater hardness than Damascus steel.
Text 6D (страница 118)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите по-английски, чем примечателен читальный зал Библиотеки Британского музея и какие отделы имеются в Британ ском музее.
The British Museum
The British Museum consisting of the National Museum of Ar cheology and Ethnography and the National Library is the largest and richest of its kind in the world. Built in the middle of the last century it is situated in central London which consists of quiet squares and streets.
The British Museum was founded by Act of Parliament in 1753 to bring together the collection of Sir Robert Cotton, some others and future addition to them.
Anthony Panizzi designed the famous circular Reading Room at the British Museum. The first thing that strikes a visitor on en tering the Reading Room is its unusual shape. It is a perfect circle. The superintendent (управляющий) and his assistant sit in the centre of the room and they issue (выдавать) and collect books. Long rows of reading desks radiate to the outer walls, like the spokes (спицы) of the wheel.
Many famous people have used the Reading Room at the Brit ish Museum. Of the many distinguished people who have used the Reading Room no one was perhaps more regular and more intent (целеустремленный) than the German philosopher and socialist Karl Marx. Soon after he arrived in England in 1849, Marx became a daily visitor of the Reading Room, where he used to remain from nine in the morning till closing time.
The British Museum has a department of ethnography. Ethnog raphy is concerned with primitive people and their cultures in vari ous stages of development as revealed by their tools, ritual objects and various crafts (ремесло). This collection is so vast that only a tiny percentage is on show to the general public. Then there is a department of prints and drawings. There are also departments devoted to maps, coins and medals. Visitors interested in chronology can see a large collection of clocks and watches. Those who are interested in philately can find a magnificent collection of postage stamps.
LESSON 7
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
adjust v — регулировать
angle n — угол
apply v — применять
avoid v — избегать
axis n — ось
current а — современный, те кущий
destination n — пункт назначе ния
detect v — обнаруживать
directly adv — прямо, непосредственно
engine n — двигатель
ensure v — обеспечивать, гарантировать
equip v — оборудовать
exceed v — превышать
exhaust n — выхлоп
guidance п — управление, на ведение
ignition n — зажигание
indicate v — указывать, пока зывать
make v — делать, заставлять
mount v — монтировать, уста навливать
only a — единственный; adv — только
place v — помешать
select v — выбирать
size n — размер
sophisticated p.p — сложный
valve n — клапан
warn v — предупреждать
withstand v — выдерживать
in many respects — во многих отношениях
to look like — быть похожим
to turn on/off — включать/выключать
Text 7A (страница 132)
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Transport for Tomorrow
One thing is certain about the public transport of the future: it must be more efficient than it is today. The time is coming when it will be quicker to fly across the Atlantic to New York than to travel from home to office. The two main problems are: what vehicle shall we use and how can we plan our use of it?
There are already some modern vehicles which are not yet in common use, but which may become a usual means of transport in the future. One of these is the small electric car: we go out into the street, find an empty car, get into it, drive to our destination, gel out and leave the car for the next person who comes along. In fact, there may be no need to drive these cars. With an automatic guid ance system for cars being developed, it will be possible for us to se lect our destination just as today we select a telephone number, and our car will move automatically to the address we want.
For long journeys in private cars one can also use an automatic guidance system. Arriving at the motorway, a driver will select the lane1 he wishes to use, switch over to automatic driving, and then relax — dream, read the newspaper, have a meal, flirt with his pas senger — while the car does the work for him. Unbelievable? It is already possible. Just as in many ships and aircraft today we are piloted automatically for the greater part of the journey, so in the fu ture we can also have this luxury in our own cars.
A decade ago, the only thing electronic on most automobiles was the radio. But at present sophisticated electronics is playing a big part in current automotive research. For example, in every gasoline-powered2 car that General Motors Corporation makes there is a small computer continuously monitoring the exhaust. The device, about the size of a pack of cigarettes, adjusts the vehi cle carburetor fuel intake3 to get the best fuel economy. Ford cars are equipped with an electronic instrument panel that, among other things4, will calculate how far one can drive on the fuel left in the tank. It will also estimate the time of arrival at destination and tell the driver what speed he has averaged5 since turning on the ignition.
According to specialists these features made possible by micro electronics are only the beginning. Radar may control the brakes to avoid collisions, and a display screen may show the car's position on the road. Recently a radar to be mounted on lorries and cars has been designed in the USA. The radar aerial looks like a third head light placed directly above the bumper. Having summed up the in formation about the speed and distance of various objects ahead, the computer detects all possible dangers and their nature. A third com ponent in the system is a monitor on the instrument panel. The radar only observes objects ahead of the vehicle. It is automatically turned on when the speed exceeds ten miles an hour. The green light on the panel indicates that the system is on. The yellow light warns of sta tionary objects ahead, or something moving slower than the car. The red light and buzzer warn that the speed should go down. Another red light and sound signal make the driver apply the brakes.
A Japanese company is designing a car of a new generation. When completed, the new model will have a lot of unusual charac teristics. The car's four-wheel control system will ensure move ment diagonally and even sideways, like a crab, at right angles to the longitudinal axis. This is especially important when leaving the car in parking places. To help the driver get information while con centrating on the road, the most important data will be projected On the wind screen. A tourist travelling in such a car will not lose his way even in Sahara with its impassable roads: a navigation Earth satellite will indicate the route.
A new ceramic engine has been developed in Japan. Many im portant parts as pistons, pressure rings6, valves and some others have been made of various ceramic materials, piston rings7 made of silicon materials being in many respects better than those of steel. They withstand temperatures up to 1,000 °C. Therefore, the engine does not need a cooling system.
Notes to the Text
Text 7B (страница 141)
Прочитайте текст и заполните следующую таблицу
|
Саг design innovations since 1770 |
The latest car electronic systems |
Their advantages |
Their disadvantages |
|
1. 2. … |
Используя таблицу, расскажите по-английски о наиболее важных усо вершенствованиях в конструкции автомобиля с момента его изобретения. О каких последних достижениях в области конструирования автомобилей вы знаете? Какая информация в тексте наиболее интересна с вашей точки зре ния и почему?
Саг of Future
Ever since Nicolas Cugnot, a Frenchman, invented the first self-propelled road vehicle in 1770, there has been no shortage of companies willing to make a better automobile. Over years their ef forts have given users the gasoline engine (дизель), the electric starter, tubeless tires (бескамерная шина), fuel-injected engines and anti-lock brakes (тормоз с антиблокировочным устройством), these are only a few innovations. What is next? Here are some examples of what the car designers are working at in the world today.
Engineers are experimenting with a state-of-art (новейший) system that enables drivers to see better after dark. This «night vi sion» system uses infrared sensors that can detect a human figure at night more than 1,600 feet away. That's five times the distance at which conventional headlights are effective. The sensors pick up infrared rays emitted by any object that gives off heat. An im age-processing system scans the information from the sensors, cre ating different images for different objects. The images are then displayed on a cathode-ray screen built in a car's instrument panel. It is like black-and-white photograph of an object ahead. And the system is passive, which means no lights are needed to illuminate the object in front of the vehicle. But the biggest problem will be re ducing costs and the other one is the size of the sensor mechanism which is too big now.
One of the latest applications of sophisticated electronics is the wheel-computerized system that not only monitors air pressure in automobile tires but adjusts it automatically. In addition this sys tem enables a driver to set tire pressure while seated. The system developed consists of three separate modules. The first is the in strument panel display which houses the system's main micropro cessor, programming buttons (кнопка включения программы) and warning signals. The second component is the detector drive module (модуль привода) which is essentially four microchips at tached, in one unit, to the chassis. Each chip detecting pressure changes that may occur, the transistors within the module signal the third component — a programmable transducer (программи руемый преобразователь). The transducer attached to each wheel changes the tire pressure accordingly.
However, some automobile experts think this system is too com plicated and cosily. The design has to be simple and of low cost.
Text 7C (страница 142)
Прочитайте и перескажите текст.
Talking Instrument Panels
For a few years now some of the most advanced new automo biles have been equipped with instrument panels that can «speak» providing instrument readings or safely warnings from special elec tronic circuits.
In a polite female voice, the device will report on engine oil pressure, parking-brake and headlight operation, seat belt connec tion, totalling 14 different functions. The driver can even program the Voice Warning System to announce the time or to give a low-fuel warning for any preset gas tank level. The heart of the Voice Warning System is a microprocessor-based electronic speech module made by National Semiconductor Corp. (US). The device requires the connection of 18 wires, but it is simple enough to in stall in a car.
Text 7D (страница 143)
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Testing Times
Exam stress doesn't occur most strongly during the actual exams but in the few weeks just before them. The climax is usually the night before when last minute preparations confirm your worst fears (страх). There are, however, some simple ways of dealing with the problem.
First, one must know that the night before is too late to do any thing. Much better to go to a dance, for a walk, to the pictures or to play a game rather than increase stress by frantic efforts to plug in gaps (затыкать пробелы) in your knowledge.
The brain is a complex bio-electrical machine which, like a computer, can be overloaded. It does not work continuously. When you study, your brain reaches its maximum efficiency about five minutes you start work, stays at it for about ten minutes and then it is down. Indeed, after thirty minutes your attention wonders (от влекаться), your memory shuts off, and boredom (скука) sets in.
For this reason, the best way to study is in half-hour sessions with gaps in between of about the same length. It even helps to change subjects and not keep at the same one since it reduces the boredom factor.
Study stress was experienced by Isaac Newton, the greatest mathematical genius, and by Einstein. Newton had a depression af ter his efforts on gravity.
Einstein had no such difficulty: he would break off and go sailing or play violin — not very well, he said, but it was very comforting.
The lesson here is clear. To avoid exam stress, you have to tell that what you are doing is fun (забава) and the best way to do this is to treat revision as a game. If you stimulate your brain with short, snappy (энергичный) sessions, you will be surprised how quick and sharp you are. A laugh with friends or a walk through the coun try is really giving your mind the recreation it needs.
LESSON 8
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
amount n — количество
announce v — объявлять, заяв лять
combine v — сочетать(ся), комбинировать(ся), объеди нять(ся)
combined with — в сочетании с
combustion n — горение
complicated p.p. — сложный
conventional a — обычный, стандартный currently adv — в настоящее
время
disadvantage n — недостаток
measure n — мера
noise n — шум
overall a — полный, общий
overcome v — преодолевать
resistance п — сопротивление
stress n — напряжение efficiency n — производитель ность, КПД, эффективность
e.g. (for example) — например
expect v — ожидать, предпо лагать
extreme a — крайний, чрезвы чайный
friction n — трение
fuel n — топливо
heat v — нагревать(ся)
inject v — впрыскивать, вво дить
mainly adv — главным образом
structure n — конструкция, структура
substitute v — заменять, под ставлять
vaporize v — испарять(ся)
velocity n — скорость
apart from — помимо, кроме
way out — выход
Text 8A (страница 154)
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A New Era for Aircraft
Aviation experts expect that today's aircraft will begin, to be re placed with some new form of supersonic transport in a few years' time. A 21st century hypersonic aircraft may open a new age of air craft design.
The designers of this country displayed the project of such a su personic passenger liner among the prospective models at one of the latest Aerospace Salon held on the old Le Bourget airfield1 in Paris. An elongated fuselage with a sharp nose and without a hori zontal stabilizer makes it look more like a rocket. The speed matches the looks2. This plane will fly at a speed five to six times above the speed of sound, e.g., it will cover the distance between Tokyo and Moscow in less than two hours. The diameter of the fu selage will be 4 meters and the overall length 100 meters, with the cabin accomodating 300 passengers. The future superplanes of such a class will have no windows, but the passengers can enjoy3 watching the panorama of the Earth on the TV monitor at the front of the cabin. They will fly so fast that ordinary aircraft windows would make the structure too weak to withstand the stresses at such a speed. At high velocities the air resistance in the lower atmosphere is so great that the skin is heated to very high temperature. The only way out is to fly higher. Therefore, airliners' routes will mainly lie in the stratosphere.
In general, to build a reliable hypersonic plane one has to overcome a whole set of technological and scientific difficulties. Apart from creating highly economical combined engines and heat designers have to make such an amount of thermodynamic computations that can't be performed without using supercomputers. One of the ways to make planes as economi cal as possible is lightening the aircraft by substituting new com posite materials for conventional metal alloys. Accounting for5 less than 5 per cent of the overall aircraft weight now, the percentage of composite material parts will exceed 25 per cent in new generation models. An extensive use of new materials combined with better aerodynamics and engines will allow increasing fuel efficiency by one-third6.
Because of the extreme temperatures generated by the atmo sphere friction, a hypersonic craft will also require complicated cooling measures. One possibility is using cryogenic fuels, such as liquid hydrogen, as both coolants7 and propellants. The fuel flow ing through the aircraft's skin would cool the surfaces as it vapor izes before being injected into combustion chamber.
In addition, specialists in many countries are currently working on new propeller engines considered much more economical and less noisy than jets. The only disadvantage is that propeller planes fly slower than jet planes. However, it has recently been announced that specialists succeeded in8 solving this problem. As a result a ventilator engine with a propeller of ten fibre-glass blades has been built, each being five meters long. It will be mounted in the experi mental passenger plane.
Notes to the Text
Text 8В (страница 163)
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Почему вернулись вновь к использованию дирижабля?
Чем отличаются современные дирижабли от первых конструкций?
Каково их практическое применение?
Какие сведения из текста вам знакомы?
Что нового вы узнали, прочитав этот текст?
The Return of the Dirigibles
When it comes to technology, people are not inclined to return to the past. Yet, some exceptions do exist. Such is the attitude at present towards dirigibles. Having abandoned the skies more than 40 years ago, they have suddenly begun to reappear. Designers have once again sat down to design this kind of transportation. Their use can still be limited, but there is no doubt that dirigibles are coming back.
Why is dirigible attractive? What do you do with it? As its cruis ing speed is about 60 miles per hour, it is too slow to be used as a passenger carrier. But it is cheaper to operate than a helicopter, comfortable and capable of flying for several days. The craft's large size and staying power (dirigibles have remained in skies for as long as a week) make it ideally suited for exploration.
Their use in countries that have large territories and are rich in forests and are planning to explore and exploit new regions is most promising. They may be used to make a geological survey and to make maps, to look for off-shore oil and minerals, to take tourists to roadless, but beautiful places, to deliver heavy loads to remote regions and bring the products back. They have a potential use as a flying platform. In general, their possibilities are endless. They do not need expensive runways required by cargo planes.
Besides, the technological possibilities of manufacturing these crafts have changed. In 1920 and 1930s the dirigibles were manned by a big crew. Today being equipped with electronic control they can be operated by three pilots.
The modern dirigibles have one more important advantage over older models — that of complete safety in flight, for, instead of hy drogen, they are filled with helium which does not burn. The craft is 200 feet long and is made of superstrong materials.
In the future it may be possible to build a dirigible with a metal hull that could carry hundreds of passengers and transport cargo around the world. In fact, it is probably as a cargo vehicle that the dirigible will have the best chance to find its use.
Text 8C (страница 164)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите по-английски о трех способах навигации и применяемых для этого устройствах.
Off the Ground: How do We Find Where We are Going?
Scientists who are concerned with such a problem generally agree that birds have some kind of so-called «second sense» that al lows them to fly over land and water without getting lost. Indeed, birds are always able to find their destinations and make a return fly without any trouble at all.
But people need help in finding their destination when piloting their own airplanes. This, of course, is called navigation.
Navigation is the art of finding your way from where you start to your destination. Whether used by the seamen, explorer or the pilot, navigation falls into three basic categories: dead reckoning (счисление пути) which is the basis for all navigation, celestial navigation which is flying by the aid of the sun and other stars, and radio and radar navigation.
Several different kinds of aeronautical maps provide all the de tails which might be needed by the pilot. And hundreds of radio navigation stations are located at different places around the world to help guide the pilot. All the pilot needs to do is to tune to these radio transmitters and he will get the directional signals he needs. Distance measuring equipment now used in many airplanes tells the pilot exactly how far he is from a radio station and at what speed he is travelling over the ground.
When certain types of weather prevent the pilot from seeing the ground, additional radio transmitters let him make his approach to an airport by simply watching his flight instruments and his radio receiver indicators. These receivers help the pilot descend on the runway, thus landing at an airport even though he cannot see the ground.
At the world's larger air terminals airplanes are provided with radar guidance as another means of guiding the pilot to the destina tion. With the help of an electronic transponder (ретранслятор) in each airplane which shows it on the radar screen, radar controllers guide hundreds of airplanes to landing.
Because of the great improvement in electronic and radio navi gation equipment, flying to where you are going is done as effi ciently as the birds do it and much more scientifically.
Text 8D (страница 165)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите по-английски о Нью-Йорке, культурном, финансовом в промышленном центре США.
New York
Situated at the mouth of the deep Hudson River, New York has always been the gate of the USA. But it is more than just a door: it is also a window through which the life of the whole nation may be observed. New York is a city of striking social contrasts. It is a place where most of the millionaires live and at the same time a greater proportion of New Yorkers live at a lower level than the average for the US. In 1626 Dutch colonists set up here the first settlement, named New Amsterdam. They bought Manhattan Island from In dians for 24 dollars and a barrel of rum. The Americans say that it was the best business deal ever made in New York. In 1664 the colony was captured by British fleet under Duke of York and re named New York.
Now New York includes five boroughs: Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn and Richmond.
Manhattan is the smallest of the five city boroughs in size and it is not the largest in population although the majority spend a con siderable part of the day in this center of business life. Here are Broadway, Wall Street and the Stock Exchange. This is the heart and source of American policy.
Harlem is also in Manhattan. Thick walls separate this «Black Bottom» with 450,000 coloured people from the white population.
In the bay stands the bronze Statue of Liberty given to the United States by France as a present in 1886. Its torch is 60 meters high and can be seen at night for many miles. A new American Mu seum of Immigration is open at the base of the Statue.
The Bronx is a more residential rather than industrial part of the city. The well-known Zoo and Botanic Gardens are in the Bronx.
Queens is both a residential and industrial area. New York's two biggest airports are both there.
The Brooklyn Navy Yard is the largest naval shipbuilding cen ter in the world. Brooklyn has more people than any other part of the city — about 3,000,000. It is mostly a district of middle-class people.
Richmond is the borough of piers and warehouses. Its popula tion is only 200,000.
What makes New York? First of all, it is a great seaport, the greatest in the USA. The sea encircles many of the city areas. It is also a great financial center, where «money-making» is the main law of life. It is the symbol of big business and its Wall Street has become a nickname for big monopolies all over the world. New York is the leading textile center of the country and its clothes in dustry. It has a considerable printing industry and many book-shops. It is also undoubtedly one of the centres of social and spiritual life of America. There are a lot of Art Galleries, among them rich Henry Frick collections, and many impressive art muse ums (Metropolitan Museum, Modern Art Museum, American Art Museum and others). For a long time New York specialized in giv ing visitors a good time at its theatres, restaurants, night clubs, sporting arenas, and therefore has a large hotel industry. It is the main publishing, advertising and radio center with Columbia and New York universities and various city colleges.
Among the inhabitants of New York one can meet people of al most all nations. The population of New York numbers about 16 million. The citizens speak seventy-five different languages.
LESSON 9
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
accurate a — точный
almost adv — почти
advanced p.p. — новейший, передовой
collect v — собирать
construct v — строить, сооружать
crew n — экипаж
depth n — глубина
descend v — спускаться, опус каться
due to prp — благодаря, из-за
explore v — исследовать
find out v — выяснить, узнать
image n — изображение
instead of adv — вместо
join v — соединять, объединять
lift v — поднимать(ся)
mankind n — человечество
operate v — работать, действовать
particular а — данный, особенный, отдельный
penetrate v — проникать
precision n — точность promise v — обещать provided cj — при условии что; в том случае, если
realize v — осуществлять, реализовывать resist v — сопротивляться, выдерживать
sample n — образец
submerge v — погружаться, опускаться вглубь
test v — проверять, под вергать испытанию
transparent а — прозрач ный
try v — пытаться, пробо вать
battery-operated p.p. — работающий на батареях
Text 9A (страница 175)
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В каких странах ведутся работы по созданию погружаемых аппаратов?
Каковы особенности погружаемых аппаратов нового типа?
Descending to New Ocean Depths
We know little about the ocean yet. The dream of exploring un der the waves is almost as old as seagoing. Legend says that Alexan der the Great submerged himself in a round glass container, and Leonardo da Vinci designed a submersible vehicle in his notebooks centuries before Jules Verne wrote «Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea». If their dreams had been realized and such a craft had been constructed, mankind would have known about the secrets of Ocean much earlier. However, already during the Swiss National Fair in 1964 a submersible vehicle took thousands of people deep into Lake Geneva.
Not long ago, the crafts that penetrated the ocean depths were almost as primitive as the marine life they watched around them. However, non-military deep sea ships, so-called submersibles, were progressing rapidly. Russian, French, Japanese and American scientists are developing crafts that can submerge deeper, stay lon ger and find out more than earlier apparatuses.
Soon, one of the most advanced crafts, a one passenger sub merging ship, will be tested. It may be able to take explorers and technicians deeper than ever before (up to 3,300 feet) and perform difficult underwater tasks with extreme precision.
This new submersible is essentially a spherical transparent plastic hull1 mounted on a metal platform. It looks like an underwater heli copter and can manoeuvre itself in its water environment with some of the versatility2 of a helicopter due to the use of a cycloid rotor3 instead of conventional marine-propeller screws4. It is expected that this apparatus will move around the ocean like a sports car.
However, the breakthrough5 that will make this particular с quite different from other manned submersibles is a mechanical hand called the sensory manipulator system6. Miniature video cameras on the «wrist» of the manipulator provide it with vision and microphones enable the submersible to «hear». This manipula tor system is designed to lift up to 120 pounds and will also be able to perform such accurate scientific work as collecting samples of ocean-floor minerals and marine life. When demonstrated, it lifted crystal glasses, drew pictures and wrote with a pen.
Some scientists are trying to develop the world's deepest manned submersible. When completed, it will be capable of sub merging to the depths of 21,000 feet. Its crew will be in a pres sure-resistant titanium-alloy cabin. This craft will be driven by a battery-operated electric motor and will work for up to nine hours. It will record images with colour television and stereo cameras and will collect samples by manipulating two robotic arms.
If such crafts are constructed on a large scale, we shall be able not only to spend our holidays enjoying the underwater life, but also grow and cultivate sea plants, fish and pearls. It will be possible provided scientists, designers and politicians from all over the world join their efforts and solve the most important problems in this field.
Notes to the Text
Text 9B (страница 186)
Прочитайте текст и озаглавьте его. Ответьте на следующие вопросы: Какую новую информацию вы нашли в тексте?
За счет чего можно устранить недостатки в существующих погружаемых аппаратах?
Now most submersibles are connected with a support ship on the surface. This connection is an armoured cable measuring an inch or two in diameter and weighing up to 10 tons and it transmits power and navigational commands to the submersible, as well as sends sensor data and television images back to the support ship. Cables allow submersibles to transmit data at a great speed, but they limit the range of territory studied and have many disadvan tages in operation.
Autonomous underwater submersibles can move freely. Con trolled by on-board microprocessors or by acoustic signals trans mitted by a ship on the surface, battery-operated submersibles can cover much greater areas. They can operate under ice and in very deep water. Such three-ton unmanned crafts can submerge to the depth of almost 20,000 feet and stay there for up to seven hours. High quality images of the ocean bottom can be transmitted to the support ship in three to four seconds (because of the slow speed — about 5,000 feet per second through water — acoustic data trans mission is much less quick than signals sent via cable which travel at the speed of light).
But even these most advanced submersibles have definite disad vantages: batteries are heavy, data transmission is slow and com puter programs are primitive. Future submersibles may overcome those difficulties. Some may be propelled by nuclear power or by fuel cells (топливные элементы) that use oxygen from the sea water. Many of them will rely on signal-compression techniques to speed up acoustic data links. Computerized systems will enable some submersibles to repair damaged telephone cables or oil plat forms. If research work in this field continues to expand at its present rate, the number of radically different kind of more effi cient crafts will appear very soon.
Text 9C (страница 186)
Прочитайте текст. Назовите особенности современного спасательного средства на воде и принцип его действия.
Lifeboats
Even though we now have ships of a kind unknown in earlier centuries, we are still very far from mastering the sea. The Greek sailor who was shipwrecked (терпеть кораблекрушение) on his way home from Troy and the sailor of tomorrow whose nuclear-powered cargo ship might be on fire both face the same dangers. They may drown (тонуть), and so they need to keep afloat. They may die, and so they need to keep themselves covered and dry. Rescuers (спасатель) may never find them, and so they need to send signals.
The Greek sailor at the time of the Trojan war had only a small chance of survival (спасение). The sailor of tomorrow has a greater chance, especially if the ship has one of the new rescue crafts on board.
One such lifeboat looks more like a flying saucer (тарелка) than a boat. Sailors on board a ship which is in trouble can get into the capsule, close the water-tight doors and operate the controls which drop the capsule automatically into the sea. Made of glass fibre (стекловолокно) the capsule will float on the sea and will not be dragged down by the sinking ship. It will protect the men inside from explosions, fire and extreme cold. It has a thirty-kilowatt diesel engine and so can carry survivors to the coast. To help rescue ship and aircraft to find it, the upper part of the capsule is covered with a special orange paint which can be detected by radar. Each capsule is large enough for twenty eight men.
Text 9D (страница 187)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите по-английски, что вы узнали об истории Гринвича и его сегодняшнем дне.
Greenwich
Greenwich is on the river Thames, five miles from the middle of London, and its story is 2,000 years old. The first English people — the Saxons — were fishermen there and they gave Greenwich its name — «the green village».
You can still walk along the old Roman road in Greenwich park. But the river was the true road to the outside world for the Romans and for English kings and queens who later lived in Greenwich.
The King Henry VIII loved this place. He knew that England must be strong at sea. So two big shipyards were started at Greenwich and for 350 years the ships made there were the best in the world.
Many ships were lost at sea — their sailors did not know how to tell exactly where they were.
In the 17th century astronomer Flamstead tried to find the an swer. He worked in an Observatory on the high ground in Green wich park. The walls of its big light-sided (непрочной) room shook when the weather was bad. But from it, with a telescope made by himself, Flamstead could look all round the sky. And he did look night after night for twenty years. Carrying on Flamstead's work a hundred years later, an astronomer called Harrison finally made a clock which told the time at sea and helped sailors to know where they were. You can see Harrison's clock, still working in Green wich museum of the sea. Because of Flamstead's work every coun try in the world now tells its time by Greenwich time.
Every year a million people come to Greenwich to see its mu seums and palaces and its two famous ships: one old, one new. Both the big CUTTY SARK and the little GYPSY MOTH sailed through dangerous waters before they came safely back to their Greenwich home. At the end of the 1800's the CUTTY SARK was the fastest ship of its size. Carrying more than a million kilos of tea, she travelled the 25,000 kilometeres from China to England in only hundred days.
Next to the CUTTY SARK is the GYPSY MOTH - only 16.5 metres long, but full of newest equipment. Her captain Sir F. Chichester wanted his ship to sail as far and as fast as the CUTTY SARK. When he sailed round the world by himself in CYPSY MOTH in 1966 - the first man ever to do this - he took a flag from the CUTTY SARK with him.
LESSON 10
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
amplification n — усиление
as well adv — также
approximately adv — почти, приблизительно
capacity n — мощность, нагрузка, производительность
conduct v — вести, проводить
cost п — стоимость
duration n — продолжительность
enough adv — достаточно,
довольно
entire а — полный, целый
fulfilment n — выполнение, осуществление, исполнение
single а — один, одиночный
suggest v — предлагать, советовать
tool n — инструмент, орудие, средство
heat v — нагревать; п — тепло, теплота
heating n — нагрев
heat-resistant a — теплостой кий
indeed adv — действительно, на самом деле
installation n — установка, сборка
involved p.II— связанный, рас сматриваемый, имеющий место
rapidly adv — быстро
represent v — представлять, олицетворять
stimulate v — возбуждать, ин дуцировать
treatment n — обработка
vary v — менять, изменять(ся)
weapon n — оружие
to meet the demands, the requirements — удовлетво рять требованиям
in order to — для того чтобы
power plant — силовая установка, электростанция
Text 10A (страница 198)
Прочитайте текст и найдите абзацы, где говорится о применении лазеров. Переведите.
Laser
In the «War of Worlds» written before the turn of the last cen tury H. Wells told a fantastic story of how Martians almost invaded our Earth. Their weapon was a mysterious «sword of heat». Today Wells' sword of heat has come to reality in the laser. The name stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Laser, one of the most sophisticated inventions of man, pro duces an intensive beam of light of a very pure single colour. It rep resents the fulfilment of one of the mankind's oldest dreams of technology to provide1 a light beam intensive enough to vaporize the hardest and most heat-resistant materials. It can indeed make lead run like water, or, when focused, it can vaporize any substance on the earth. There is no material unamenable2 to laser treatment and laser will become one of the main technological tools quite soon.
The applications of laser in industry and science are so many and so varied as to suggest magic3. Scientists in many countries are working at a very interesting problem: combining the two big tech nological discoveries of the second half of the 20th century — laser and thermonuclear reaction — to produce a practically limitless source of energy. Physicists of this country have developed large la ser installations to conduct physical experiments in heating ther monuclear fuel with laser beams. There also exists an idea to use laser for solving the problem of controlled thermonuclear reaction. The laser beam must heat the fuel to the required temperature so quickly that the plasma does not have time to disintegrate. Accord ing to current estimates, the duration of the pulse has to be approx imately a billionth of a second. The light capacity of this pulse would be dozens of times greater than the capacity of all the world's power plants. To meet such demands in practice, scientists and engineers must work hard as it is clear that a lot of difficulties are to be encountered on route4.
The laser's most important potential may be its use in commu nications. The intensity of a laser can be rapidly changed to encode very complex signals. In principle, one laser beam, vibrating a bil lion times faster than ordinary radio waves, could carry the radio, TV and telephone messages of the world simultaneously. In just a fraction of a second, for example, one laser beam could transmit the entire text of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Besides, there are projects to use lasers for long distance com munication and for transmission of energy to space stations, to the surface of the Moon or to planets in the Solar system. Projects have also been suggested to place lasers aboard Earth satellites nearer to the Sun in order to transform the solar radiation into laser beams, with this transformed energy subsequently transmitted to the Earth or to other space bodies. These projects have not yet been put into effect5, because of the great technological difficulties to be over come and, therefore, the great cost involved. But there is no doubt that in time6 these projects will be realized and the laser beam will begin operating in outer space as well.
Notes to the Text
Text 10B (страница 207)
Прочитайте текст и найдите информацию о преимуществах применения оптических волокон в технике связи; о том. что послужило основой разра ботки систем оптической связи, а также о практическом применении опти ческой технологии Соотнесите отмеченные в тексте факты со следующими датами; I960, 1970, 1982 гг. Изложите эту информацию по-английски.
Optical Technology
One of the most interesting developments in telecommunica tion is the rapid progress of optical communication where optical fibers are replacing conventional telephone wires and cables. Just as digital technologies greatly improved the telephone system, opti cal communication promises a considerable increase in capacity, quality, performance and reliability of the global telecommunica tion network. New technologies such as optical fibers will increase the speed of telecommunication and provide new, specialized in-information service. Voice, computer data, even video images, will be increasingly integrated into a single digital communication network capable of processing and transmitting virtually any kind of information.
It is a result of combining two technologies: the laser, first dem onstrated in 1960, and the fabrication 10 years later of ultra-thin silicon fibres which can serve as lightwave conductors. With the further development of very efficient lasers plus continually im proved techniques to produce thin silica fibres of incredible trans parency, optical systems can transmit pulses of light as far as 135 kilometers without the need for amplification or regeneration.
At present high-capacity optical transmission systems are being installed between many major US cities at a rapid rate. The system most widely used now operates at 147 megabits (thousand bits) per second and accommodates 6,000 circuits over a single pair of glass fibres (one for each direction of transmission). This system will soon be improved to operate at 1.7 gigabits (thousand million bits) per second and handle 24,000 telephone channels simultaneously.
A revolution in information storage is underway with optical disk technology.
The first digital optical disks were produced in 1982 as compact disks for music. They were further developed as a storage medium for computers. The disks are made of plastics coated with alu minium. The information is recorded by using a powerful laser to imprint bubbles on the surface of the disk. A less powerful laser reads back the pictures, sound or information. An optical disk is al most indestructible and can store about 1000 times more informa tion than a plastic disk of the same size.
One CD-ROM disk (650 MB) can replace 300,000 pages of text (about 500 floppies), which represents a lot of savings in databases.
The future of optical storage is called DVD (digital versatile disk). A DVD-ROM can hold up to 17 GB, about 25 times an ordi nary CD-ROM. For this reason, it can store a large amount of mul timedia software and complete full-screen Hollywood movies in different languages. However, DVD-ROMs are «read-only» de vices. To avoid this limitation, companies also produce DVD rewritable drives.
Besides, it is reported that an optical equivalent of a transistor has been produced and intensive research on optical electronic computers is underway at a number of US companies as well as in countries around the world.
It is found that optical technology is cost-effective and versa tile. It finds new applications every day — from connecting com munication equipment or computers within the same building or room to long-distance transcontinental, transoceanic and space communications.
Text 10C (страница 209)
Прочитайте текст и расскажите о практическом применении лазеров.
An Encyclopedia on a Tiny Crystal
Scientists have discovered that a laser beam can be effectively used to record alphanumeric data and sound on crystals. According to Russian researchers a method for recording information on crys tals by means of a laser has already been developed, but advanced technologies are needed to make it commercially applicable.
At present researchers are looking for the most suitable chemi cal compounds to be used as data storages and trying to determine optimum recording conditions. Theoretically, the entire «Great Soviet Encyclopedia» can be recorded on a single tiny crystal.
As far back as 1845, Michael Faradey discovered that a light beam reverses its polarization as it passes through a magnetized crystal. Scientists of our day have used this phenomenon to identify crystalline materials capable of storing information. Lasers have been successfully employed to record information on and read it off.
No ideal data storage crystal has yet been found, but it is obvi ous now that the future of computer engineering lies in lasers and optoelectronics.
Text 10D (страница 209)
Прочитайте текст и найдите примеры все возрастающей тенденции к более тесному международному сотрудничеству. Почему такое сотрудничество необ ходимо? Назовите страны-участницы такого сотрудничества. Запомните произ ношение названий стран.
Science and International Cooperation
One of the most striking features of modern science is the in creasing tendency towards closer cooperation between scientists and scientific organizations (institutions) all over the world. In fact, it is becoming more and more evident that many of the prob lems that affect the world today cannot be solved without joining scientific efforts and material resources on a world-wide scale. The exploration of space, world finance, global environment protection problems and the development of new sources of power are the ex amples of areas of scientific research which are so costly and com plicated that it is difficult for a single country to solve them efficiently and in a short period of time. The renewal of interna tional scientific cooperation was demonstrated in the sharing of data which were obtained by Russian, Japanese and European space probes in 1986 on Halley's comet.
Many countries were successfully cooperating on a programme called lntercosmos in launching a large number of vertical geo physical rockets and satellites. Space exploration programmes were being conducted between Russia and Austria, India, France, Swe den and other countries. Joint manned flights by Russian and for eign cosmonauts included citizens from numerous countries. Many international crews have worked on orbit and carried out a lot of scientific experiments.
Russian and the U.S. engineers are now working side by side on the International Space Station, the largest peacetime engineering project in history.
Launched from opposite sides of the world, the first Interna tional Space Station components Zarya and Unity have begun a new era of exploration as 16 nations joined their scientific and technological resources in the first truly international space pro gram to improve life on Earth. Even before its launch, the Interna tional Space Station has opened new spheres of research on Earth by overcoming barriers of language, culture and technological dif ferences worldwide.
Indeed, it represents unprecedented (беспрецедентный, бес примерный) global cooperation and trust. There is no doubt that it is the first step towards a unified «planetary civilization» that will explore space as citizens of Earth, not of individual nations.
LESSON 11
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
achievement n — достижение
below adv — ниже, внизу
benefit n — выгода, польза
boil v — кипеть
continue v — продолжать
cool v — охлаждать
current n — электрический ток
discover v — открывать, обна руживать
finally adv — наконец
introduce v — вводить
lack v — нуждаться
likely adv — вероятно
lose v — терять
master v — овладевать
moreover adv — более того
pass v — пропускать
present v — представлять
previously adv — ранее, предва рительно
prominent a — выдающийся, известный
random a — беспорядочный, случайный
resistivity n — удельное сопро тивление
return v — возвращаться
satisfactory a — приемлемый, удовлетворительный
suddenly adv — вдруг, внезапно
sufficiently adv — достаточно
tend v — стремиться, иметь тенденцию
wire n — провод
at once — сразу, немедленно
Text 11A (страница 218)
Прочитайте текст. Расскажите об основных этапах развития сверхпроводимости и о тех ученых, которые внесли свой вклад в исследование сверхпроводимости.
Superconductivity
According to the prominent scientist in this country V.L. Ginz-burg the latest world achievements in the field of superconductivity mean a revolution in technology and industry; Recent spectacular breakthroughs1 in superconductors may be compared with the physics discoveries that led to electronics and nuclear power. They are likely to bring the mankind to the threshold of a new technolog ical age. Prestige, economic and military benefits could well come to the nation that first will master this new field of physics. Super- conductors were once thought to be physically impossible. But in. 1911 superconductivity was discovered by a Dutch physicist K. Onnes. who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his low-temperature research. He found the electrical resistivity of a mer cury wire to disappear suddenly when cooled below a temperature of 4 Kelvin (-269 °C). Absolute zero is known to be 0 K. This dis covery was a completely unexpected phenomenon. He also discov ered that a superconducting material can be returned to the normal state either by passing a sufficiently large current through it or by applying a sufficiently strong magnetic field to it. But at that time there was no theory to explain this.
For almost 50 years after K. Onnes' discovery theorists were unable to develop a fundamental theory of superconductivity. In 1950 physicists Landau and Ginzburg made a great contribution to the development of superconductivity theory. They introduced a model which proved to be useful in understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors. Finally, in 1957 a satisfactory the ory was presented by American physicists, which won for them in 1972 the Nobel Prize in physics. Research in superconductors be came especially active since a discovery made in 1986 by IBM2 sci entists in Zurich. They found a metallic ceramic compound to become a superconductor at a temperature well above3 the previ ously achieved record of 23 K.
It was difficult to believe it. However, in 1987 American physi cist Paul Chu informed about a much more sensational discovery: he and his colleagues produced superconductivity at an unbeliev able before temperature 98 К in a special ceramic material. At once in all leading laboratories throughout the world superconductors of critical temperature 100 К and higher (that is, above the boiling temperature of liquid nitrogen) were obtained. Thus, potential technical uses of high temperature superconductivity seemed to be possible and practical. Scientists have found a ceramic material that works at room temperature. But getting superconductors from the laboratory into production will be no easy task. While the new superconductors are easily made, their quality is often uneven. Some tend to break when produced, others lose their superconduc tivity within minutes or hours. All are extremely difficult to fabri cate into wires. Moreover, scientists lack a full understanding of how ceramics become superconductors. This fact makes developing new substances largely a random process. This is likely to continue until theorists give a fuller explanation of how supercon ductivity is produced in new materials.
Notes to the Text
Text 11B (страница 227)
Прочитайте текст и озаглавьте его.
Superconductivity is a state of matter that chemical elements, compounds and alloys assume on being cooled to temperatures near to absolute zero. Hence, a superconductor is a solid material that abruptly loses all resistance to the flow of electric current when cooled below a characteristic temperature. This temperature differs for different materials but generally is within the absolute zero (-273 °C). Superconductors have thermal, electric and magnetic properties that differ from their properties at higher temperatures and from properties of nonsuperconductive materials.
Now hundreds of materials are known to become superconduc tors at low temperature. Approximately 26 of the chemical ele ments are superconductors. Among these are commonly known metals such as aluminium, tin, lead and mercury and several less common ones.
Most of the known superconductors are alloys or compounds. It is possible for a compound to be superconducting even if the chemical elements constituting it are not.
Text 11C (страница 228)
Прочитайте текст и найдите информацию о применении сверхпроводни ков в будущем. Изложите кратко содержание текста по-английски.
New Hope for Energy
Recently some ceramic materials have been found to be super conductors. Superconducting ceramics are substances which can transmit electric currents with no loss of energy at temperatures much higher than conventional superconductors (that is, at the temperature of liquid nitrogen).
One use for the new superconductors would be to replace those that need the extreme cold of liquid helium — huge superconduct ing electromagnets used in nuclear magnetic resonance research, atomic particle acceleration and research reactors.
Other types of electromagnets made with superconductors could be used to lower the cost of electric generation and storage. Such uses may take 10 years of research, a quicker use will probably be in electronics.
Researchers now estimate that tiny but immensely powerful highspeed computers using superconductors may be three to five years away. Further off are 300 m.p.h. trains that float on magnetic cushions which now exist as prototypes but may take at least a de cade to perfect. Power lines that can meet a city's electric needs with superconductor cables may be even further in the future.
Meanwhile, scientists around the world are trying to turn the new materials into useful products. Among the most notable is a micron-thin film to transmit useful amounts of electric current without losing superconductivity. The film could be used in the mi croscopic circuitry of advanced computers as high-speed pathway (маршрут, соединение) between computer chips.
Several nations are known to be very active in superconductor research. For example, the United States is spending millions of dollars on such research, much of it for military uses: projectile ac celerators, lasers, ship and submarine propulsion.
Text 11D (страница 229)
Прочитайте текст и расскажите по-английски о Массачусетском Техно логическом Институте.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MIT is an independent university located in Boston area. It was founded in 1861 by William Barton Rogers, a distinguished natural scientist, who believed professional competence to be best fostered (воспитывать) by the combining of teaching, research, and the ap plication of knowledge to real-world problems. MIT held its first classes in 1865 after having delayed opening because of the Civil War. There were approximately 15 students enroled at that time.
Today MIT has about 9,700 students, a faculty (профессор ско-преподавательский состав) of approximately 1,000 and sev eral thousand research staff. The total teaching staff numbers more that 1,800. The institute is broadly organized into five academic Schools — Architecture and Planning, Engineering, Humanities and Social Science, Management and Science — and a large num ber of interdisciplinary programs, laboratories, and centers, includ ing the Whitaker College of Health Science, Technology and Management. A unique feature of MIT is that undergraduates join with graduate students, faculty, and staff to work on research pro jects throughout the institute.
Most academic activities take place in a group of intercon nected buildings designed to permit easy communication among the Schools and their 22 departments. Across the street from this set of buildings there are athletic fields, the student center, and many of the dormitories.
The main purpose of the academic program at MIT is to give students a sound command (прочное усвоение) of basic principles, the habit of continued learning and the confidence that comes from a thorough and systematic approach to learning. This results in continued professional and personal growth, especially in today's rapidly changing world.
The two essential parts of all MIT educational programs are teaching and research. Both of these activities carried on together have greater potential than either performed alone. They provide experience in theory and experiment for both students and teaching staff.
Each student pursues a degree (стремиться получить степень) in one of the departments. Undergraduate courses at MIT lead to the degree of Bachelor of Science (S.B.). The academic programs require four years of full-time study for the Bachelor of Science. De grees are awarded on the basis of satisfactory completion of general institute and departmental requirements (общеинститутские и ка федральные требования) in each program.
There is enough flexibility (гибкость), however, to allow each student, in collaboration with the adviser, to develop an individual program in accordance with his or her own interests and preparation.
LESSON 12
СЛОВА И СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ ДЛЯ ЗАПОМИНАНИЯ
add v — прибавлять, присоеди нять
advertise v — рекламировать
attract v — привлекать, притягивать
behave v — вести себя, работать
broad a — широкий
deliver v — доставлять
enterprise n — предприятие
establish v — учреждать, орга низовывать
explore v — исследовать, изу чать
facility n — сооружение, обору дование
fit v — соединять, подгонять
flight n — полет
follow v — следовать (за)
hence adv — следовательно implementation n — выполне ние, осуществление
investigation n — исследование
last v — сохраняться, длиться
launch v — запускать
maintain v — обслуживать, со держать
mission n — задача, полет
note v — отмечать
opportunity n — благоприятная возможность
predict v — предсказывать
promote v — способствовать, содействовать
properly adv — должным образом, правильно
space n — пространство, космос
stay v — оставаться, жить
supply v — снабжать, обеспечивать
trouble n — неисправность, повреждение
alternately — поочередно
at least — по крайней мере
Text 12A (страница 237)
Что вам известно о проекте создания Международной космической стан ции? Как осуществляется проект на данный момент? Прочитайте текст, про верьте ваши ответы, переведите.
The International Space Station
The International Space Station (ISS), the most complex and expensive structure that has ever been launched and built in space, is expected to be a permanent off-planet extension1 of human civi lization. When completed, it will be a multi-room hotel and re search facility orbiting the Earth every 90 minutes. By that time, resupply and assembly flight by shuttles or rockets will have be come routine.
The Russians and Americans are partners in this international enterprise. The three-person multi-national crews will be alter nately composed of two Americans and one Russian followed by a Russian majority. Later a six or seven-person crew will occupy the station. Some astronauts may stay on the ISS up to 187 days, but there are no plans yet for longer missions. The official life expec tancy of the station itself is 10 years, but it should last much longer.
Five times the size of the Russian space station Mir, the ISS will be one of the biggest objects in the night sky, looking like a supersize Lego set2, almost as long as a football field. Only the Moon and Venus will be bigger and more visible.
The fifth-generation station's complexity is as awesome3 as its size. Built by a partnership of 16 nations, the ISS will consist of 36 modules and hundreds of individual elements that come from all over the world. The station involves the most technologically ad vanced nations — Russia, the United States, Canada, Japan, Brazil, and 11 European nations. There will be many intercon nected parts from so many countries that it would be impossible to predict how they would interact.
Hence, it is very important that all of these elements made by different suppliers should fit together properly and work exactly as planned. But even if all the parts fitted perfectly, the assembly pro cess itself in orbit would be risky. The space station is flown while it is being constructed and each new building block added might change the way the station behaves in flight, which could result in serious trouble.
The ISS may be the world's most ambitious engineering project in history, but it could not have been realized without previous ex tensive experience in operating the Russian Mir space station. Mir was a great achievement. Russia learned how to build and maintain complex structures in space. Mir also gave citizens of more than a dozen countries their first opportunity to explore space. It should be noted that Mir has proved to be the perfect training ground for the ISS. For more than a decade, at least two humans were always in low Earth orbit. That is why it was planned that Russia would supply and deliver 12 modules for the future station, each being a key module among its 36 ones. They are: the basic power module, the control, the life support, the service modules and others.
What is the purpose of the ISS? It is a political program as well as a science program. This program is no longer only about con ducting scientific investigations in the absence of gravity, or about learning how to build a massive project weighing 400 tons in orbit, or about establishing the base for a future trip to Mars. The ISS is more than merely the next great adventure of the space age. It is also about promoting international cooperation and creating thou sands of peacetime jobs for highly skilled workers and engineers.
The implementation of the broad international program would require more than $40 billion. Some space experts would like to at tract commercial users such as, e.g., biotechnology companies in order that the cost of the station should be lowered. And some spe cialists have even suggested that the station be used for advertising and Hollywood filmmaking.
Notes to the Text
Text 12B (страница 246)
Прочитайте и переведите текст без словаря. Назовите наиболее практичные на ваш взгляд исследования на Международной космической стан ции.
Benefits of Building the International Space Station
When studying sound, you go into a quiet room. When studying light, you go into a dark room. When studying the effects of gravity, you would like to go into an «anti-gravity» room. Since there is no such thing on Earth, we have the International Space Station.
By flying around Earth at about 17,500 mph the station and ev erything in it remain in orbit, a continuous free fall around the planet. In orbit, forces are balanced and the effects of gravity are es sentially removed. The result is microgravity, one of the unique phe nomena of the ISS environment that promises new discovery. Thus, the ISS allows long-term exposure to a world nearly unexplored.
Gravity affects everything. From our bodies to the materials we use to build cars and buildings, to the flames we use to heat our homes, our world is controlled by gravity. Even flames burn differ ently without gravity. Reduced gravity reduces convection cur rents, the currents that cause warm air or fluid to rise and cool air or fluid to descend on Earth. This absence of convection changes the flame shape in orbit and allows studies of the combustion pro cess that are impossible on Earth. The absence of convection allows molten metals or other materials to be mixed more thoroughly in orbit than on Earth, opening the way to a whole new world of com posite materials. Scientists plan to study this field, to create better metal alloys and more perfect materials for applications such as computer chips. Investigations that use lasers to cool atoms to near absolute zero may help us understand gravity itself.
While investigating our surroundings, we have been limited, until recently, to accepting gravity as a given factor in all our studies. History shows that changing what once was constant can lead to revolutionary discoveries.
The 19th century saw temperature and pressure become con trolled in new ways to use steam power and revolutionize the way we live. The 21st century offers the hope of controlling gravity's ef fects to understand why things behave the way they d6. Observing and understanding this behaviour is key to new discoveries in many scientific disciplines and using that knowledge is key to the im provement of life on Earth. The station will allow mankind to per form research that may result in new medicines, materials and industries on Earth and will benefit people all over the world.
The Space Station Mir gave us a platform for long-term micro-gravity research, and important knowledge about how to live and work in space. Like all research, we must proceed one step at a time. As we open one door, answering one question, we are faced with the opportunity of more doors, more questions.
The ISS is the next step in that journey of discovery, and repre sents a quantum leap (скачок) in our capability to conduct re search on orbit. In space, electrical power is key to the quantity and quality of research. When completed, the ISS's enormous solar panels will supply 60 times more power for science than did Mir. This and the large space available for experiments will provide sci entists with unprecedented access to this unique environment.
Aboard the ISS scientists will explore basic questions in the fields of biotechnology, biomedical research, fluid physics, funda mental biology, physics, Earth science and space science. Observa tions of the Earth from orbit are expected to help the study of large-scale, long-term changes in the environment. The effects of air pollution, such as smog over cities; the cutting and burning of forests, and of water pollution are visible from space and can pro vide a global perspective unavailable from the ground.
Thanks to its research and technology the station is certain to serve as an absolutely essential step in preparation for future human space exploration.
Text 12C (страница 247)
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Living Aboard the Space Shuttle and the ISS
We often see the cosmonauts carry out their complicated work in space, but what do they do in their off-duty hours? What do they eat, where do they sleep?
One of the main features of the Shuttle is the relatively low forces of gravity during launch and reentry. These are about 3 g, that is within the limits that can be withstood by people.
Its living accommodation is relatively comfortable. The crew cabin is 71.5 m. There are two floors inside the cabin. On the top level, the commander and pilot monitor and control sophisticated equipment. Behind their seats is a work area where the crew can carry out experiments.
The bottom level is the living area. It contains facilities for sleeping, eating and waste disposal.
Living in such a kind of cabin requires only ordinary clothing. Air pressure is the same as the Earth's at sea level. This air is made of 80 % nitrogen and 20 % oxygen. The air is cleaner than the Earth's. Temperature can be regulated between 16 and 32 °C.
The Shuttle meals are eaten in a small dining area consisting of a table and restraints (ограничители) which function as chairs while eating in zero-gravity. Meals are served in a special tray which separates different food containers and keeps them from floating around in the weightless cabin. Most foods can be eaten with ordinary spoons and forks as long as there are no sudden starts and stops.
Just as on Earth recreation and sleep are important to good health in space. Different games, books and cassette-recorders to listen to music are available.
In zero-gravity there is no «up» position and the cosmonaut is oriented in the sleeping bag as if he or she were sleeping up. Now beds are built into the walls with an individual light, communica tions, fan, sound suppression, blanket and sheets. They even have pillows.
Experiences on the space shuttle have helped prepare astro nauts for life aboard the International Space Station. Let's imagine the life at the station in several years.
Life-support systems on the ISS can supply cleaner air, purer water, better food and more sanitary toilet facilities than on the space shuttle. Life aboard the station may not be easy, but it is sig nificantly healthier and more pleasant than in the past, allowing astronauts to focus on the scientific research and station mainte nance that occupy them for about 9 hours a day.
The kitchen on the station, for the first time in space history, has refrigerators and freezers. It may not sound like much, but it is a giant step forward. For the first 30 years in space, all food was kept at room temperature. Only now, in the 21st century, can re frigerator allow NASA to supply milk to help with bone loss in space flight. A glass of nice cold milk was asked for years. And the refriger ator proved to be an easier solution than a lot of experiments to make good powdered (порошковое) milk for a number of years.
Later in the day, thanks to another kitchen appliance, cosmo nauts will eat a frozen dinner just like the ones sold in supermar kets. The combination convection/microwave oven automatically thaws (размораживать) your food (using heat), than heats it with microwaves (just as they do on Earth). The refrigerator, freezer, and oven mean that astronauts eat a healthier diet. The shuttle food was low in fiber. «The ISS food can overcome that with salads, fruit, vegetables, apples, oranges, etc.,» a space expert had predicted. Now, with these food delivered by the space shuttle a few times a year, you no longer have to take special tablets.
There is no dishwasher in the kitchen. Instead, you wash your magnetic silverware (столовые приборы) with antiseptic towelet-tes (салфетка). It does not seem very hygienic, but the shuttle as tronauts just had to lick their silverware clean.
The empty food containers will be either ejected into space to burn up on re-entry to the atmosphere or returned to Earth on the shuttle.
The next step in life support will be a completely closed air-and-food cycle, with plants grown in space. Plants and microor ganisms could even help remove contaminants from the water sup ply. It is that sort of research that will be necessary if people are ever to establish settlements far beyond Earth.
Biological approaches to supplying food, water, and air could not only save power aboard the station, but could also reduce the number of resupply trips required.
May be some day astronauts will have fresh bread on the sta tion. But even with today's frozen dinners, they already spend 4 hours a day on meals and hygiene. Exercise takes 2 hours more a day. That leaves them just an hour of free time for the simple plea sures of life in space: The view of Earth through the window. A let ter e-mailed from their family. Microwave popcorn with a movie. And the friendship of the crew members with whom they share this tiny world.
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Time Travel and New Universes
It is known that for a long time well before Albert Einstein scien tists were studying the ideas that seemed strange. Consider a few of such ideas now accepted by the scientific community: clocks that tick slower when they arc on rockets in outer space, black holes with the mass of a million stars compressed into a volume smaller than that of atom and subatomic particles whose behaviour de pends on whether they are being watched.
But of all strange ideas in physics, perhaps, the strangest one is the hole in the structure of space and time, a tunnel to a distant part of the universe. American researchers have determined that it will apparently be possible in principle for mankind to create an entirely new universe by using the idea of wormhole (ход, проры тый червем; червоточина) connection. Such a universe will auto matically create its own wormhole, squeeze through it, and then close the hole after it.
Although to many people such an idea may seem useless and fantastic, it can help scientists to develop their imagination and ex plore how flexible the laws of physics are. It is such an idea that could give answers to some of the fundamental questions of cos mology: how the universe began, how it works and how it will end.
The idea of wormhole comes directly from the accepted con cepts of general relativity. In that theory A.Einstein proved that very massive or dense objects distort space and time around them. One possible distortion is in the form of a tube that can lead any where in the universe — even to a place billions of light years away. The name «wormhole» comes about by analogy: imagine a fly on an apple. The only way the fly can reach the apple's other side is the long way over the fruit's surface. But a worm could make a tunnel through the apple and thus shorten the way considerably. A worm-hole in space is the same kind of tunnel; it is a shortcut (кратчай шее расстояние) from one part of the universe to another that reduces the travel time to about zero.
In fact, instantaneous travel leads to the idea of wormhole as time machine. If it were possible to move one end of a wormhole at nearly the speed of light, then, according to general relativity, time at that end would slow down and that part of the tunnel would be younger than the other end. Anything moving from the faster-aging end of the wormhole to the slower one would essentially go back ward on time. The type of travel, however, could be nothing like the mechanical time machine described by H. Wells. It is difficult to imagine how a human being could move through a wormhole, since it would theoretically be narrower than an atom and it would tend to disappear the instant it formed.