Fine building hve three qulities- commodity firmness nd delight
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The Art of Architectural Design and Its Chronological Development
Architecture is both the art of designing buildings and the results of this work embodied in the things built.
Since the beginnings of civilization, man has been an architect, devoting creative energies to the construction of buildings to live, work, and worship in. However, achieving an understanding of this tradition is not simply a matter of appreciating the great buildings of the past. Examining the use of different materi als, and the techniques of craftsmen, master builders and architects provide an insight into the development of architectural styles.
Two thousand years ago, the Roman architect Vitruvius recognized three differ ent requirements of architecture—utilitas, firmitas, venustas—which he formulated in his 'Ten Books on Architecture'. These are best known in English in the words of Henry Wotton, Elizabeth I's ambassador to Venice: "Fine building have three qualities: commodity, firmness, and delight". When trying to define what makes a good building, it is difficult to better this formulation even today.
Already primitive man tried to make his abode not only strong and convenient to live in, but also attractive, borrowing from nature itself. However, millenia had passed before man learned how to use the complex and powerful tools of architec tural expressiveness: symmetry, proportion, and harmony.
Once man discovered the stability resulting from cultivation of the soil and animal husbandry, settlements required consolidation. Quest for shelter and protec tion required buildings of permanence. Early enclosures were formed of mud walls and timber roofs. Where stone was available, the mud walls were placed on stone foundations. In this text, we shall cover only three main centres of civilization: an cient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.(1760 зн)
The Egyptians. Although Egyptian civilization rose and subsided over a period of 3 000 years, it was comparatively early in its development that the dynastic art and technology of building became consolidated. There was an intense period of early development, followed by two thousand years of repetitious and eclectic build ing construction.
The main material of the Egyptians was stone which they used in two quite different ways. Firstly, external walls and pylons were detailed to describe a single homogeneous surface upon which were inscribed figures and symbols. Like vast billboards, the calm surface of the background was then exploited by the carving that was subsequently inscribed upon it.
Secondly, the Egyptians will always be known for the construction of their tem ples and palaces—the first buildings to use post-and-lintel construction. This column and beam system was then limited to the interior.
The character of Egyptian architecture stemmed directly from the geological and climatic circumstances of the Nile Valley. The stone was quarried directly from the banks of the Nile, adjacent to the centres of population. The details of the column, reaching upwards to make a comfortable connection between the column and the largely undecorated lintel members, were inspired by the lotus, the papyrus, and the palm which were found growing beside the river.
Not fully appreciating the structural potential of stone, Egyptian builders placed columns at relatively close centres to avoid long-span lintel stones at roof level. The columns themselves were also relatively squat in proportion. The pillared (hypostyle) hall of the Great Temple of Ammon at Karnak (1500 B.C.) gives the impression that the galleries were literally quarried from solid rock.
Egyptian royalty exploited the emotional effect that architecture has on people. The shape, proportions, and, above all, colossal size of the palaces and temples were used to arouse depression, fear, and awe. For example, the columns at Karnak are 20.4 m high and 3.5 m in diameter. Another illustration is the Pyramids whose sole purpose was for the sepulture of one person (a pharaoh) only. The most celebrated are those at Giza, of which the largest, the Great Pyramid of Cheops (built around 3 000 B.C.), is 146.6 m high (this is the height of a modern 45-storey residential building) with the sides at the base 233 m long. The pyramid whose original volume was in excess of 2.5 million cubic metres took 20 years to erect, another ten years spent to build a road to the site.
Although the Pyramids remained the highest buildings in the world for 5 000 years and required methodical ingenuity in construction, by comparison with the temples and palaces higher up the Nile at Luxor, Karnak and Edfu, they remain monuments to engineering rather than architecture. (2820 зн.)
Classical Greek Architecture. The Egyptian palaces and temples were built for the satisfaction of priests and royalty; the public at large never penetrated these sanctuaries. The Greek, by contrast, were a much wider and open society. In about 500 B.C. when the Persian Wars ended, literature, music, drama, and sports thrived, and stone was used for the construction of theatres, stadiums, agoras, gymnasiums, and temples which served both sacred and civic purposes.
Intelligent and harmonically developed, Man himself was the Greeks' ideal. "Man is a measure of all things", they used to say. Hence, all structures must be proportionate to man and their appearance must arouse cheerfulness and respect to people in those who look at them.
Buildings of apparent simplicity, the Greek temples embodied a development that unfolded over 200 years between 700 and 500 B.C. and resulted in the highest refinement of technique and proportion of the famous ensemble on the Acropolis in Athens (Fig. 3.1). Its structures are erected upon a natural oblong rock and form an integral architectural composition, counterbalancing one another with their volumes. The scene is dominated by the Parthenon built on the hill top, which is regarded as the finest specimen of Greek architecture that exists. It was construct ed in 437 B.C. by Ictinus and Callicrates under Phidias who also carved the statue of Athena Parthenos (which is the Greek for virgin)—the maiden goddess to whom the temple was dedicated. (1490 зн.)
Fig. 3.1 The Acropolis in Athens (437 B.C., reconstruction):
1—The Propylaea; 2—The Temple of Nike Apteros; 3—The Parthenon; 4—The Erechtheion; 5—The Statue of Athena Parthenos
Fig. 3.2 Greek orders:
(a) Doric; (6) Ionic (fragments); (c) Corinthian (top part); /—echinus; 2—abacus; 3—mutules; 4—metopes; 5—triglyphs; 6—entablature (architrave, frieze, cornice); 7—volutes; 8—balusters; 9—column base; 10—stylobate; 11—capital (acanthus leaves)
The well-known motifs in Greek Classical construction had their origin, as did the capitals in Egyptian architecture, in nature. The basic components of the con struction were the stepped podium or stylobate (the base of the column), the column or shaft itself, the capital, and the entablature (the horizontal member at roof level). At either end above the entablature was the triangular form of the pediment.
These components were developed in three modes known as 'the orders': Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Fig. 3.2). The principal difference between them can be seen in the capitals, although there were minor differences in the entablature as well as the fluting to the column. The simplest, most widespread and famous order was the Doric, with the cushion-like profile to the capital making a comfortable junction with the vertical shaft beneath and horizontal lintel above. The Doric column is unique in having no base. The shaft is fluted, while the capital is plain. The Ionic column (centre) is slimmer and more elegant. Its distinguishing feature is the volutes (scrolls or spirals) that decorate the capital. The capital of the Corinthian column is bell-shaped, and the volutes are supported by eight acanthus leaves. Doric shafts are always fluted; the other two orders generally follow the same style. The Doric and Ionic orders developed simultaneously in different parts of the Greek world; the Corinthian order was a later development which greatly influenced the Romans. The proportions of each of the three orders reflect the proportions of the human body. This continuity is vividly illustrated by the caryatids (supporting members serving the function of a pier, column, or pilaster and carved or moulded in the form of a draped female figure) at the Erechtheion (421-405 B.C.)—a temple in Athens, designed by Mnesicles. (1840 зн.)
Roman Architecture. As stone had a wider use in the structures of the Greek civilization than in that of the Egyptians, in the same way, Roman stone buildings covered a wider range of uses than those of the Greeks. Triumphal columns and arches, libraries, archives, theatres, circuses, hippodromes, amphitheatres and baths are found with palaces, temples, and open forums, all reflecting the broader Roman pattern of life. In 180 B.C., an entirely new type of building—the basilica—was devised .
Superficially, Roman architecture was simpler in details, and on a larger, more robust, scale than the delicate buildings of the Greeks. It is characterized by the large structures built at the height of the Roman Empire (30-250 A.D.). Typical examples are the Coliseum—a magnificent amphitheatre in Rome—which rose from the arena by 80 tiers of seats and could contain 56 thousand spectators, and the Caracalla baths (Fig. 3.3) accommodating 3 500 visitors. The Romans also gave their buildings a richer mix of detail and decoration, using variegated marble and gilt.
The most important engineering structures built by the Romans are aqueducts—channels for supplying water by gravity from the surrounding hills to Rome. They were treated architecturally on high arches when crossing valleys or low ground. The total length of the aqueducts amounted to 404 km. Some of the Roman aqueducts are still standing, notably the Aqua Julia and the Aqua Felici.
Although they took on the Greek motifs and the orders, the Romans developed a very different concept of architecture. They used freestone and marble to clad their buildings, but the main structural material was cast concrete, usually faced with bricks. The Roman architect probably also trained as an engineer; in this peri od and increasingly through the following centuries the architect moved away from the position of artist, which he had held in Greece, to that of technician.
While the Greeks, building with walls or post-and-beam systems, never bothered with arches, which they must have known about, the Romans developed this form on a tremendous scale, and in brilliantly innovative ways. They produced huge bridges composed of arches on arches; more important were their great internal spaces, made of tunnel vaults and cross ('groin') vaults, and their domes, such as the mag nificent covering of the Pantheon (120-4 A.D.) which is 43.5 m in diameter.
Fig. 3.3 Caracalla baths in Rome (circa 300 B.C., reconstruction)
Because of its engineering and artistic perfection, the Graeco-Roman tradition had a tremendous effect on the architecture of the later ages, particularly the Italian Renaissance and European Classicism. (2670 зн.)
Romanesque and Gothic Architecture. Medieval architecture saw two stages of development: Romanesque (between the 6th and 12th centuries) and Gothic (be tween the 12th and 15th centuries).
The early Middle Ages were characterized by divided lands owned by numerous lords with constant feuds between them. Naturally enough, the sites on which to build were chosen at strategically advantageous points, and the constructions themselves were surrounded with fortification walls with guarded entrance gates. Buildings with their powerful walls and loopholes became agglomerations of parts, collections of spaces and mass enlivened by towers. These signs of the Romanesque style are found in the early medieval constructions throughout Europe.
It is difficult to be precise about the moment that Romanesque developed into fully fledged Gothic. The Gothic period saw the development of inventive and innovative techniques exploiting the characteristics of stone. Stone was not simply used on a grand scale to its fullest capacity to create space; the stones were shaped, formed and profiled to produce a fabric which, by use of tracery, virtually became dematerialized.
Pointed vaulting was the key discovery of French and English Gothic architec ture. Ribs and shafts, the essential components of the Gothic arcade, ran together in an almost continuous composition whose objectives were to make the fabric as light as possible. The Gothic vault originated in the intersection of two barrel vaults. It was the introduction of the rib at the intersection of the two barrel vaults which led to the development of the pointed transverse arch. The development of the pointed arch brought great advantages—first, an adjustable geometry was possible as ribbed vaults of different spans could be arranged to meet one another at their crowns; second, where the resulting descending faces were more vertical than horizontal, the weight could be carried to ground without too great a horizontal thrust. By introducing a rib at the intersection of the two vaults, it was unnecessary to use complicated centering to support the vaults during construction. Once posi tioned, the ribs formed the bones of the structure, upon which the voussoirs, or vaulting panels, could then be placed.
Through the centuries of Gothic architecture, the rib system was developed and refined, replacing load-bearing walls and solid cross vaults with a network of traceried structure built of small stones. The wall surfaces were increasingly reduced to pure supporting structures, and the space between was filled with windows. Previ ously, the mass of walling had been essential to resist the components of the load; now, buttresses and flying buttresses took the weight outside the columns. With this system of three-dimensional support, largely at right angles to the window plane, the heights of vaults could be tremendously increased without widening the plan to unusable proportions. This resulted in buildings which seemed virtually 'dematerialized', the huge vaults lying in a perpetual, mysterious greenish-lilac twilight, lit from the planes of stained glass. In such buildings, any mass of masonry was concentrated on the facade, which became covered with the most intri cate and iconographic sculpture. (3260 зн.)
The Renaissance. In the mid-fifteenth century, a renaissance began in Florence which was to remain a lively and developing force for the next 350 years.
The Renaissance was characterized by artists, town planners, and musicians, all involved in a quest for the ideal. A search for refinement, a preoccupation with symmetry, the study of the relationships between light and dark, solid and void, and the general belief in the visual and spiritual advantages of harmony became the bases of Renaissance architecture. Mathematical systems furnished formulas for studies in the proportion of objects. Similar analysis was used for establishing relationships between objects and buildings. This led to a greater comprehension of the phenomenon of perspective and the techniques for portraying it. The propor tion of the human body also took on a renewed significance and proportional les sons were drawn from it.
The writings and lessons of Vitruvius were reexamined, and the language of classical form was recalled. In fact, the diameter of the dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral in Florence, which is one of the first Renaissance structures still having a number of features typical of Gothic architecture (an egg-shaped dome, ribs, and round windows), equals that of the Pantheon. The classical meas urements and ideals were used in a new series of compositional relationships and prompted the appearance of a new professional class of builders, described as ar chitects. The architectural furniture of the Renaissance included the classical column, the pediment, the entablature, the Roman arch and the podium, and what was to become known as the 'piano nobile'. This was the name for the first floor of Italian palaces where the main apartments were located.
Churches, palaces, villas, various public structures, and organized open, urban spaces are the architectural works most often associated with this time. Great skill was exercised in ordering the interior of buildings, frequently using the same motifs as had been traditionally associated with the exterior.
Because of the social and economic circumstances that existed in the 12th-16th centuries, neither Gothic nor Renaissance architecture penetrated into Russia. Even foreign master builders who were invited to the country followed local traditions. An apt example is the Cathedral of the Assumption in the Moscow Kremlin, built in 1475-79 by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravante… (2450 зн.)
Baroque. In the late 16th century, the Italians moved on to the phase known as Baroque (which became popular in other European countries with time), a style which used the same language, Renaissance, but with greater profusion and in a more plastic and fluent manner. Built mainly in stone, often with integral sculpture and painting on its flowing forms, Baroque architecture increasingly took on an organic, sinuous character. An overall effect was largely achieved through exuberant decoration, complex spatial compositions, and sharp contrasts of colour and light. (560 зн.)
Classicism. After the Renaissance broke up in Baroque extravaganza, architects looked back to history for guidance.
Around the second half of the 18th century, architecture throughout Europe became ossified in an abstract classical style of simple basic forms, with only minimal decoration. Its distinguishing features were again symmetrical plans, sym metrical facades, and the classical orders, with porticos, arcades, colonnades, and domes included in the composition. (470 зн.)
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