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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ПИЩЕВЫХ ПРОИЗВОДСТВ
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ
по развитию навыков и умений чтения и устной речи
на английском языке для студентов 1 курса
(2 семестр, часть 1)
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Утверждено научно-методической комиссией Департамента гуманитарной подготовки 13 января 2003 года |
Рецензенты:
Стороженко В. А., к.пед.н., профессор кафедры «Иностранные языки» МГУПП
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Раздел А Тексты для изучающего чтения стр. 4 - 18
Раздел В Тексты для ознакомительного чтения стр. 18 - 33
Раздел С Тексты для письменного перевода стр. 34 - 39
Методические указания предназначены для студентов 1-го курса всех институтов.
Целью данной работы является формирование и развитие умений и навыков чтения и устной речи на базе учебного материала профессиональной направленности. Вместе с тем предусматривается развитие и других умений и навыков речевой деятельности.
Методические указания состоят из трех разделов, каждый из которых предполагает определенные виды работы. Материал раздела «А» предназначен для изучающего чтения (для работы по этому разделу необходимо использовать «Методические указания по обучению английскому языку на 1-ом курсе, части 2А и 2Б» авторы – Иоаниди М.С., Пушнова П.М.); материал раздела «В» подобран для ознакомительного и просмотрового чтения; раздел «С» содержит тексты для индивидуального письменного перевода.
Весь материал касается двух проблем: состава пищевых продуктов и важности питания.
Предлагаемый материал может служить базой для подготовки студентов к чтению оригинальной научной литературы по специальности на английском языке на последующих этапах обучения иностранному языку.
SECTION A
Работа над текстом № 1 «WHAT IS FOOD?»
Active Vocabulary
food, foods/foodstuffs; nutrition, nutrient, nutritive, nutritious, nutritionist; to nourish, nourishment; to eat (ate, eaten); to take in, intake; to digest, digestion, digestible; capacity; ability, able/capability, capable; to constitute, constituent; to compose, composition, component; to make up/to build up; to meet the need/requirement; to make contribution; amount, quantity; to lose (lost, lost); to repair; to supplement; to define, definition, definite; to refer to; to accept; to regard; to list; essential, adequate, complex
Food is essential to the nutrition of any human being or any form of life. If there is no food there is no life; if the amount or kind of food is inadequate, growth is stopped and the capacity to work is lost.
The term “food” is commonly used to refer to those substances that form a part of the usual diet. Milk, eggs, tomatoes, and flour are accepted as foods. Scientifically speaking foods are not so much substances that we eat as substances that supply certain nutrients when eaten. Foods, then are defined as those substances which when taken into the body, supply energy, build and repair tissues, and regulate body processes. Foods, which we eat, are often complex substances, capable of meeting more than one of these body needs. One food may supply both energy and building material, another may regulate body processes and give energy. The contribution that a food makes to the body depends upon its constituents and the ability of the body to utilize them. The chief constituents of foods are classified into six groups: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins and water.
The body’s need for energy is met through carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Its need for building and repairing tissues is primarily met by proteins and minerals, though these are supplemented by the other constituents. The regulation of body processes is commonly regarded as particular function of water, proteins, vitamins, minerals, organic acids and cellulose. Though water, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats make up the largest quantity of the food constituents used the others listed are also essential.
Задания
1. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. Why is food essential to the nutrition? 2. What are the chief constituents of foods? 3. What is the main function of food? 4. Why should people eat?
2. Кратко расскажите по-английски:
а) как определяется пища с научной точки зрения;
б) о функциях главных составляющих пищи.
Работа над текстом № 2 «CARBOHYDRATES»
Active Vocabulary:
carbohydrates, starch; grain, cereals; origin; plant, cell, seed, stem, leaf, root; grain/granule; to contain, content; to dissolve, solution, soluble, solvent; to store, storage; to utilize, utilization; source; bulk; total; similar; coarse; surplus; to be high in/to be rich in, to be low in/to be deficient in; to have a part; to take part in
Notes: cellulose – клетчатка acid – кислота
sucrose – сахароза
involved in (Part. II в функции определения) – связанный с
The sugars, starches and cellulose are known as carbohydrates. These are composed of the chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” to most people means cane or beet sugar, which is sucrose. However this is only the most common of the several sugars responsible for a sweet taste of certain foods. Milk, fruit, vegetables contain sugars other than sucrose. The different sugars in foods differ from each other, but all give the foods in which they are present a characteristic sweet taste.
Starch is a carbohydrate more complex in nature than any of the sugars. Like sugar, it is built by the combination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The production of sugar by the plant is an intermediate step in the manufacture of starch. The ability of the plant to build starch and the ability of the animal body to utilize it were known long before some of the processes involved in its synthesis and utilization were known. The plant by means of its chlorophyll, takes the carbon and oxygen from the air and, combining these with water brought through the roots from the soil, manufactures sugars. This sugar is dissolved in the juice of the plant and carried to all its parts as food. When the plant produces more sugar than is required for its immediate need the surplus is stored for future use. Whether the place of storage is seed, root, leaf or stem depends upon the plant. Usually the plant stores the carbohydrate as insoluble starch in the form of tiny grains or granules.
Although carbohydrates are mostly of vegetable origin, sugar is found in the blood streams of animals and of man. Provision is made in the cells of the liver for storage of animal starch (glycogen) sufficient to meet requirements of the human body for carbohydrates for a comparatively short time. The animal body, like the plant body, synthesizes this more complex substance from sugar and later hydrolyses it to sugar as needed.
Cellulose is also a carbohydrate, containing the elements present in starch in the same proportion. Cellulose used in the diet is to give bulk and provide material for certain regulatory processes. Foods high in cellulose are bran, dried fruits and legumes, fruits with skins, seedy fruits, and leafy and coarse fibered vegetables.
The organic acids, found in a large number of foods are frequently considered together with carbohydrates. The utilization of organic acids in the body for energy is similar to that of starches and sugars.
Organic acids also have a part in stimulating and regulating body processes. Fruits and vegetables are the best sources of organic acids. Citric and malic acids are examples of those commonly found in these foods.
Only a few foods consist of pure carbohydrate. A well-known example of these is sugar. A food is considered high or low in carbohydrates according to the amount it contains in proportion to its total solids. Foods high in carbohydrates are: cakes, candy, cereals and cereal products, dried fruits, honey, potatoes, sugar.
Задания
1. What substances are known as carbohydrates? 2. What is sugar responsible for? 3. How is starch built? 4. What is the role of cellulose? 5. What do you know about organic acids? 6. What foods are high in carbohydrates?
а) об образовании крахмала в растении;
б) о роли сахара в жизни организма.
Работа над текстом № 3 «FATS»
Active Vocabulary:
fat, fatty; to take in, intake; to protect, protection, protective; to derive, derivative, derivation; to deplete, depletion; layer; amount; excess; equipment; knowledge; essential; extreme; to include, to perform, to refuse, to call on; to prove; to play a part
Animals, human beings included, take in sugars and starches and store the excess as fat. The ability to make fats from carbohydrates or similar materials seems to be a characteristic of most living matter including plants. But man hasn’t been able to perform this task in the laboratory, even when armed with all the equipment and knowledge in the world. The microscopic walls of plant cells are much better laboratories than our scientists have yet been able to make.
The fatty foods perform some very important function in our animal lives; to do without them can be dangerous. Fats form a protective layer around the nerves, apparently to protect them from shocks. One of the characteristic results of semi-starvation is extreme irritability. It has been suspected that this may be due to the depletion of fat around the nerves.
Fats in the form of their derived compounds – phospholipids – also play an important part in our brain and entire nervous system. Another class of compounds derived from the fats and known as the sterols is also essential for the living organism. So one may say that, in its higher forms, life without fat is impossible.
Even admitting these facts, however, one might argue that they do not prove that a diet should contain any large amount of fat, for we make fat out of the carbohydrates we take in, hence sugars might be all that would be necessary to supply energy. As an argument this is unanswerable – but as an observation of facts it is a hundred per cent wrong. There are fats and fats and the human body is quite unable to meet the fat-manufacturing situation by itself. There are some necessary fats that our bodies refuse to, or cannot, manufacture and we need to call on other animals, such as cows, to help us out. Moreover, without fats in the diet we could not get a sufficient amount of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D and E.
There are two fatty acids, linileic and linolenic, which the body must have and which it cannot manufacture itself. These fatty acids get their names from linseed: oil in which they were first discovered. There are several other fats and fatty acids which are essential and which we do not make in our bodies.
Задания
1. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What functions do fats perform? 2. What kind of derived conpounds of fats are known? 3. What fatty acids are essential for a human body? 4. Out of what can a human body make fat? 5. Why must we call on animals to help us in fat manufacture?
2. Кратко расскажите по-английски:
а) какие функции выполняют жиры;
б) о способности животного организма производить жиры.
Работа над текстом № 4 «PROTEINS»
Active Vocabulary:
protein (complete, partially complete, incomplete); to vary variation; to link, to maintain, maintenance, to value, value, valuable; to support; to classify; to result in; to base upon; adequate; to be able, ability
Proteins differ from carbohydrates in that, besides the elements present in sugar and starches, they also contain nitrogen and in most cases sulphur. Phosphorus and iron are also found in some proteins. The importance of nitrogen content commonly varies from 10 to 18 per cent. Proteins are found in foods of both animal and plant origin. Meat, eggs, milk, nuts and certain of cereal foods are high in protein. All those foods contain more than one protein. Milk, for example, contains the proteins, lactalbumin and casein, as well as others of lesser importance.
Proteins are complex in nature, they are composed of a number of amino acids or “building blocks”, linked together, and also of amino acids linked with other substances. Proteins vary in the kind and number of amino acids present. Certain amino acids the body is unable to build. These are known as essential amino acids and must be supplied by the foods eaten.
Variation in the quality of proteins has resulted in their classification as complete, partially complete, and incomplete, based upon their ability to support normal growth and to maintain life even if it is the only protein in the diet. A partially complete protein is one that maintain life but does not support normal growth. An incomplete protein, although valuable in the diet, will by itself neither support normal growth nor maintain life. Most animal proteins are complete. Plant proteins are more or less incomplete, although the soya bean and the wheat grain contain proteins that are complete. Valuable sources of protein are: cereals and cereal products, cheese, eggs, fish, meat, milk, nuts.
Задания
1. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What is the composition of proteins? 2. What foods are valuable sources of proteins? 3. What is the basis of protein classification?
а) о составе белков;
б) о принципе классификации белков и их характеристике.
Работа над текстом № 5 «VITAMINS»
Active Vocabulary:
vitamin; health; well-being; to expose, exposure; to aid, aid; to constitute, constituent; to destroy, destruction, destructive; available; extent; to exceed; to remain, to recognize, to convert (to transform, to change into, to turn into), to affect (to influence, to act upon, to have effect), to prevent; to occur (to happen, to take place); stable; readily
The food constituents known as vitamins are exceedingly important in nutrition even though they are required only in small amounts. Vitamins are essential for good nutrition and health and for normal growth and development. Those vitamins that are generally recognized as essential, and some of those that may be essential, are considered here. Though many vitamins are available in the form of concentrated or in pure synthetic preparations, or both, foods still remain the best source of these important substances.
Vitamin A was first discovered in butter, egg yolk, fish liver oil, and green vegetables. It stimulates growth and aids in general well-being. Vitamin A occurs as such in animal foods. It occurs in certain vegetables as carotene or provitamin A, a bright yellow pigment which the body changes to vitamin A. This vitamin is stable to heat and, since it is a fat-soluble substance, does not dissolve to any appreciable extent in water. But it is not stable to light, especially ultra-violet light. Foods which are rich in vitamin A are butter, cheese, cream, eggs, fish oil, fruits, liver, milk.
Vitamin D. The antirachitic or “sunshine” vitamin, is really “stored sunshine” in food. This storage is due to the presence of ergosterol, a fat-like substance in food, which is called a provitamin D, and under direct exposure to the sun or to ultraviolet light for short daily periods, this substance is converted into vitamin D within the body. Unlike most of the other vitamins, this one is not easily destroyed and is stable to heat, alkalis1, acids, and oxidation. Vitamin D is essential for the development and maintenance of bones and teeth. Yeast contains ergosterol which can be irradiated by ultraviolet light and thus transformed into vitamin D. Sources of vitamin D are: butter and egg yolk, fish liver oil, oily fish.
Vitamin E affects reproduction and fertility growth, muscle tone and the condition of the nervous system. It has also a function in preventing the destruction of other foods through oxidation. Heat does not dissolve it, but it is easily oxidized. The best sources of vitamin E are the vegetable oils, butter, eggs, green leaves and liver.
Vitamin K is necessary for normal clotting2 of the blood. Heat has little effect upon vitamin K and, like the ether fat-soluble vitamins, it is not soluble in water. Alkalis1, strong acids and sunlight destroy this vitamin. Foods rich in vitamin K are cabbage, cauliflower, fish liver.
Ascorbic acid, known as vitamin C is the least stable of all the vitamins. It oxidizes readily, and in the presence of heat, alkali1, and oxygen, oxidation goes on rapidly. Ascorbic acid is water-soluble. The best sources of this vitamin include: citrus fruits, peppers, strawberries, vegetables, tomatoes.
1 –alkali – щелочь мн.ч. – s/-es
2 - свертывание
Задания
1. Why are vitamins essential in our nutrition? 2. In what form may vitamins be available? 3. What is the best source of vitamins?
а) о необходимости включения витаминов в питание человека,
б) об особенностях любого из известных витаминов и его источниках.
Работа над текстом № 6 «MINERALS»
Active Vocabulary:
to link, link (to connect); to trace, trace; to assimilate, assimilation, assimilable; to perform, performance; to occur, occurrence (to happen); to lack, lack; deficiency, to be deficient in; to ruin, ruination; outer, inner; coat, covering; layer; vital, exacting; to remove, removal
The minerals which we have in our system1 are very important links in our vital processes. The most important minerals are iron, calcium, iodine. Iron we must have in our blood to get oxygen from the air, and we must have minute traces2 of copper or the iron cannot be assimilated. Calcium and phosphorus must be present to make our bones and teeth, as well as to perform various other functions.
Minerals not only must be present in our food, but they must occur in a form which can be assimilated by the body. If our diet is lacking iron, you cannot make up the deficiency eating iron ore, for such a material is not assimiable. You must have copper but you cannot get it by sprinkling fine grains of copper-bearing rock3 on your salad. The body is not only very exacting in the specifications of what it must have, it also lays down strict rules4 regarding the form in which the material must be presented.
For the most part these materials are only the minor constituents of plants and animal life and, unfortunately for our good health, they occur most frequently in what we ordinarily do not like to eat. The outer layers and germ of the grains, the peelings of the tubers and fruits, the coarser, leafy, parts of vegetables. These are the materials that contain the minerals and often the vitamins. By stripping cereals of all their outer coats and refining sugar until it is whiter than the whitest snow, we have made a good start on the road to the ruination of human health, for fine milling removes 75 per cent of the minerals.
Calcium is a very important mineral in animal life. All of our calcium is completely replaced about every six years, and the only way to maintain the balance in the body is to take in a sufficient quantity in the food. If there is insufficient intake the body tries to make adjustment, but it is never completely successful. It goes on excreting calcium, taking it from bones and teeth. The calcium requirements for the growing young is fully twice as great as that of the average adult.
Phosphorus is to calcium as thunder is to lightning; the two together are required to make our bones and teeth. We must have our phosphorus and plenty of it, twice as much as calcium (about 1.4 grams per day) for we turn over our body’s total supply in less than three years. The greater need comes from the fact that phosphorus is required by some of the body proteins, phospholipins and phosphatases. Fortunately most foods are more plentiful in phosphorus than in calcium, the notable exception being milk. Meat and egg yolk are high in phosphorus.
Iron. If we had no iron, we should have no blood. There is a striking similarity in the energy-promoting or absorbing mechanism in all branches of life. Higher animals all have blood containing iron bearing hemoglobin, to act as an oxygen carrier. The green chlorophyll of plants, which promotes the reactions of photosynthesis which make all life possible, has a chemical composition quite similar to our own hemoglobin but magnesium has been substituted for iron in the molecule. Iron is found in egg yolks, in liver, meat, spinach.
Задания
1. What minerals are most important? 2. In what form must minerals be presented? 3. What are main characteristics of the given minerals?
Работа над текстом № 7 «CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS»
Active Vocabulary:
cereals, grain, germ, embryo, endosperm; covering (shell, skin), abundant, abundancy; uniform, uniformly, uniformity; nutritive value; deficient, deficiency; to make up (to build up, to compose, to constitute); to influence/to affect; to reflect; to indicate, to predict, to believe, to belong, to feel, to found, to find; concern; term; to derive
From earliest time grain has been man’s chief means of life.
So important was its production that the ancient peoples of many lands believed that the protection of grain was the primary concern of one of the most powerful goddesses. From the name Ceres1, given by the Romans to the goddess who was the protectress of grain, the term cereals, now so widely used, was derived.
The term cereals includes the plants of the grass family which are used as food. Wheat, rye, oats, barley, rice, corn (maize) and millet belong to this class, and buckwheat although not grass is here considered. The grain consists of the germ, and the endosperm with its coverings, which are the parts most utilized for human food.
The importance of the foods included, in this group is indicated by the part cereals have played and continue to play in world affairs. According to both myth and history the earlier civilizations were founded upon the growing of cereals and since that time the influence of cereal production has been constantly felt. The influence of cereals in world history is a reflection of their importance in the daily life of people.
Nutritive value. Cereals are excellent sources of energy. Starch, the valuable energy food, makes up three fourths of any cereal. Protein, the tissue-building food, although less abundant is present in significant amounts, composing about one eighth of the grain. The fat found in the grain, which varies in amount from 1/100 to 4/100 parts, is present mostly in the germ or embryo. This part, together with the outer covering, also contains the greater portion of the minerals and vitamins of the grain. The phosphorus content of the whole grains is relatively high, but the calcium is uniformly low. The amount of iron varies widely. Grains contain a generous amount of thiamine but are relatively less rich in riboflavin. The germ of wheat is an abundant source of vitamin E. Cereals in general are deficient in vitamin A.
1 – Церера
Задания
1. What plants belong to the group of cereals? 2. What was the term “cereals” derived from? 3. What does a wheat grain consist of? 4. Why are cereals very important in our life?
а) о главных характеристиках пшеницы;
б) о составе зерна пшеницы;
в) о роли злаковых/зерновых культур в жизни людей.
Работа над текстом № 8 «VARIETY OF FOODS IN OUR DIET»
Active Vocabulary:
to elaborate, elaboration; developments; manufacturing, processing, packaging, delivering, storing; preservation, preserves; shelf-life; to extend; to prolong; to displace; effort; advanced; counterpart; convenient; cooking; to supplement; to enjoy popularity
Notes:
counterpart – дубликат, двойник, копия;
controlled and modified atmosphere packaging – вакуумная упаковка
wholly formulated products – продукты с заранее заложенными качествами
dietary (dietetic) bread – диетический хлеб
fat-free milk products – обезжиренные молочные продукты
quick-serve products – продукты быстрого приготовления
semi-product – полуфабрикат
pre-cooked foods – продукты, подвергнутые предварительной кулинарной обработке (варке и др.)
instant – быстрорастворимый
instant noodle snacks – лапша быстрого приготовления
quick-cooking pasta – макароны быстрой варки
ready-to-eat (ready-prepared) snacks – завтрак, готовый к употреблению
potato crisps – хрустящий картофель
crisp rice – хрустящий рис
extrusion – экструзия; формование выпрессовыванием
puffing – взрывание
puffed products – воздушный/взорванный/зерновой продукт
Nowadays, there is a great variety of foods due to the advanced technology developed all over the world. Therefore scientific and engineering developments in the food industry are mainly aimed at the elaboration of different efficient methods of food manufacturing, processing, packaging and delivering.
One more problem, however, is storing. The problem of extending the shelf-life of processed foods is extremely significant. Much attention is being paid to food preservation in order to keep good quality and nutritive value. Manufacturers can already apply controlled and modified atmosphere packaging, ionising radiation, cold sterilization and other methods. Thanks to these methods, new materials and equipment for packaging the foodstuffs for prolonged storage have appeared: vegetable and meat preserves, sauces, mayonnaises, dry confectionary mixes, pasta products, etc.
As a result of the efforts of food manufacturers it has also become possible to displace the so-called traditional foods by frozen counterparts – frozen cake dough, frozen vegetables and fruit, frozen yeast, and many others.
Now, food manufacturers can supply people with wholly formulated products. As an example, first came flour, then cake mix, then ready-to-eat cakes. Another aspect of food manufacturing is the production of purpose-oriented foods: dietary bread or fat-free milk products.
Then, it is necessary to mention quick-serve products including semiproducts and pre-cooked foods that help to shorten the period of cooking and make the process more convenient. This group of foods includes instant soups, coffee and juices as well as quick-cooking pasta, instant noodle snacks, etc.
At last, it is impossible not to say about ready-to-eat (ready-prepared) snacks, potato crisps, crisps rice and, first of all, cereal breakfasts. Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals can be made through the use of extrusion or puffing. Usually wheat and rice are mostly used as raw material.
One can see that all these kinds of foods enjoy great popularity with the people of different age as they greatly supplement their diet and make easier the process of cooking.
Задания
1. What is the aim of food manufacturers today? 2. How is the problem of storing being solved? 3. What foods for prolonged storage have appeared? 4. What new types of foods can you speak about? 5. Why do new types of foods enjoy great popularity? 6. What foods do you prefer?
SECTION B
Text № 1 «WHY DO WE EAT?»
No record exists to tell us who first began to think about why we eat or about various effects of foods, but the ancient Greek philosophers and doctors commented along these lines. Socrates said, the purpose of food is to replace the water lost through the skin and the loss of heat from the body. Hipocrates, the “father of medicine”, thought that growing bodies should have more heat than those of older people and so require more food, that neither overeating nor fasting is a good idea.
Lavoisier thought that the combustion1 that produces body heat should occur in the lungs, but later several chemists could show that the oxygen combines with the red corpuscles of the blood and is carried to the tissues in all parts of the body to supply energy where it is needed.
Understanding of the composition of foods and what happens to them after they are eaten had to wait for several discoveries in chemistry. What happens to food from the time it is eaten until it is oxidized to produce heat and mechanical energy, could not be learned until the chemical nature of foods was discovered. And the foods appear to be very complex organic substances.
Foods are composed of organic substances far too complex to be understood with the state of chemistry as it was in the first half of the nineteenth century. Modern work on digestion and nutrition began about a century ago.
Although scientists had attempted to learn why we eat, they could learn very little. We might sum up their accomplishments by saying they learned that all animals inhale oxygen, combine it with the food to produce carbon dioxide, heat, and the energy with which they could move about. The chemistry of that time could not tell more.
Now we know that we should eat to have energy. When the nutritionist uses the word “energy” he means the capacity to do work. To him “work” is movement. All work requires energy and work involves motion; therefore, the more a person moves about, the more energy he requires. Even when a man is asleep he is still partly in motion because his heart, lungs and most of the other organs are working.
1- combustion - сгорание
Text № 2 «SUGAR AND STARCH»
Among common carbohydrates are sugar and starch. Although these substances differ widely from one another in properties and constitution, they show a very definite point of resemblance. They are all composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and the hydrogen and oxygen are always in the sane ratio to one another as in water, i.e.1, two of hydrogen to one of oxygen. The name, therefore, of carbohydrates was given because these compounds seemed to be built up of carbon and water in different proportions. Thus glucose, as sugar, has a formula C6H12O6 – which might be represented as 6C+6H2O. It may be pointed out that this last method of representation is only referred to for the purpose of showing how the name arose.
There is hardly a plant that does not contain either sugar or starch or cellulose or even all the three of them. The sugar and starches are among our most common foods, and the celluloses though not useful as a food, are found the main constituents of wood, paper, cotton and other fibres or fibrous materials.
Our ordinary everyday life leads us to think that there is only one sugar, viz2., that we use as a sweetening agent for tea. In fact there are many sugars, they are glucose (so called dextrose or grape-sugar), fructose (also called levulose) and galactose.
Glucose or grape-sugar is found in large quantities in grapes. When these are dried in the sun to form resins, the glucose in the juice separates out as hard brown nodules3. It is frequently found mixed with fructose in the juice of fruits, in the roots and leaves of plants and in honey. It can also be obtained from cane sugar and starch. Glucose is soluble in about its own weight of water and is not so sweet as ordinary cane sugar.
It readily ferments with yeast and yields principally alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Fructose occurs with glucose in the juice of sweet fruits and in honey. It is more soluble in water than glucose, and is about as sweet as the latter. It ferments with yeast but not as rapidly as glucose.
Text № 3 «ENERGY REQUIREMENTS»
No matter how quiet a person may be, his body is constantly at work. Certain processes and activities always go on as long as life continues. The blood must circulate and the heart must beat. Breathing must take place and elimination of body wastes must be carried on. All these require energy, which must be supplied by the food taken into the body. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins, when oxidized or burned in the body, give energy. However, protein is not widely recommended or used as a chief dietary source of energy. Foods classed as “protein-rich” should be the source of 10 to 15 per cent of the total energy requirement. Fats should furnish 20 to 30 per cent of the total energy. This amount is well utilized by the body and also provides the desired quality to the diet. The remaining 55 to 70 per cent of the energy requirement should be met by “carbohydrate-rich” foods, such as cereals, bread, potatoes, other vegetables and fruits and sugar.
The energy of fuel value of a food is measured in terms of calories. A calorie, indicated by cal., is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one decree Centigrade. A gram of carbohydrate has an energy or fuel value of four calories; a gram of fat nine calories; a gram of protein four calories. The daily requirement of a woman may range from 2,000 to 2,600 calories or more and the daily requirement of a man, from 2,500 to 3,700 calories or more.
The energy need depends chiefly upon the activity, age and size, but also upon climate and season. A tall person requires more calories than a short one of the same weight, engaging in similar activity. A cold climate tends to make the energy requirements higher than a warm one under similar conditions.
Text № 4 «VEGETABLE PROTEINS»
Plants can build up from nitrates and salts of ammonia complex nitrogenous substances called proteins. A typical protein is eggalbumin, the white of an egg. It is colourless, thick, sticky1, fluid2, soluble in water. When put into boiling water, it coagulates, i.e., it becomes a solid mass and is no longer soluble in water. If the white of an egg be exposed to the air, it decomposes into a great number of substances. If heated with dilute acid, it breaks down into ammonia carbon dioxide, and a number of complex substances. Proteins are built up principally from the five elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
The proteins found in the vegetable kingdom can be divided into seven main classes. We shall consider here only the glutenins, the prolamins and the globulins. The glutenins to which class wheat glutenin belongs are proteins which are not soluble in neutral salt solutions or in alcohol.
The prolamins are proteins soluble in alcohol. They were once called gliadins. To this class belongs gliadin from wheat or rye, hordein from barley, and zein from maize. The globulins are proteins insoluble in water but soluble in solutions of common salt. They are almost all coagulated by heating their solutions. It has long been known that, if a ball of dough (made from flour and water) be washed out, a compact mass of rubber-like material is left. This is gluten3. On treating with alcohol, it can be separated into two substances – glutenin and gliadin.
Text № 5 «FROM THE HISTORY OF VITAMINS»
In 1911 the young Polish scientist, Casimir Funk, published a book in which he described experiments by means of which he extracted a substance from rice hull1 which when fed to fowl in very minute quantities cured them of the paralysis of poly-neuritis within a few hours. For this white crystalline substance he gave a name, Vitamine (“Vita” for life, “amine” the name of a certain class of chemical compounds). Though it was soon shown that the life giving material contained no amine the name remained, not only with the researchers but also with the public, and it stayed though it has dropped its “e”. Naturally the first vitamin work was biological. Many organic chemists have attempted to find the exact chemical structures of these extremely complex materials. The principal members of the vitamin groups are A, B, C, D.
For the most part we obtain our vitamins directly from foods but there are amendments to the rules.
Vitamin A can be obtained from fish livers and a variety of other foods of animal origin, or our bodies can manufacture it from carotene found in green leaves and some tubers.
The body can manufacture its own vitamin D from the ergosterol on or near skin, if exposed to sunshine. The functions of the vitamins are very varied, interesting and important.
Vitamin A. It is essential for eyes, nerves growth, reproduction and lactation and the maintenance of bodily vigor at every stage of existence. Life without vitamin A is hardly worth while. Green vegetables, milk, bitter and cod liver oil contain vitamin A.
Vitamin B. The exact amount of vitamin B for optimum human health is not known; but the minimum intake necessary to prevent beriberi or other severe nervous disturbance has been well established.
In common with most of other vitamins vitamin D is necessary for normal growth. There is probably some connection between its growth and appetite-inducing properties.
Vitamin C. The citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, grape-fruits) are sources of vitamin C. Tomatoes, raw cabbage and onions also contain vitamin C. Apples, bananas, carrots and potatoes contain some, but they are important sources only if eaten in large amounts.
If the shortage of vitamin C causes scurvy, the teeth fall out, if the shortage is less, they rot out.
1 – шелуха риса
Text № 6 «B – COMPLEX VITAMINS»
Прочитайте текст и дайте характеристику витаминов группы В.
Thiamine which is designated as B1, is one of the B vitamins that are often called the B-complex vitamins. Thiamine is destroyed by prolonged heating. The shorter the cooking time and the less the amount of water used, the less is the loss of thiamine. Important sources of thiamine are: whole grain bread and cereals, meat, milk, liver, nuts, vegetables.
Riboflavin is another of the D vitamins and was called vitamin B2. It is essential to growth and due to it a high level of positive health is maintained. Riboflavin is little affected by heat but easily destroyed by baking soda. It is also readily destroyed by light and is soluble in water. Foods that are good sources of riboflavin are: whole grain or enriched bread and cereals, cheese, eggs, green leafy vegetables1, meat, liver, milk.
Still another of the B vitamins is niacin. Until it was recognized as vitamin, this substance was known to chemists as nicotinic acid. Niacin is essential for growth and normal functioning of the skin and the digestive tract. Niacin is stable to air, heat and light, however, it is readily soluble in water and especially hot water. Foods that furnish niacin are: enriched or whole grain bread and cereals, meat, liver.
In many states thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and iron are more and more commonly being added, flour, rice and other processed cereals to enrich them with these needed food constituents.
Pyridoxine, often referred to as vitamin B6, is essential for good health. It is especially involved in certain cellular activities and in the utilization of other foods by the body. This vitamin is soluble in water and stable to heat, alkalies and acids, however, it oxidizes readily and is destroyed by light. Good food sources are heart, liver, meat, seeds and whole wheat.
Certain relationships among the vitamins make for better use of these nutrients in the body. For example, thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin are all essential in the utilization of carbohydrates. Vitamin B6 is essential in the utilization of protein. Vitamin D is closely related to the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus and in its absence these minerals are not efficiently used in bone formation.
Many other vitamins than those presented here have been discovered, but their role in nutrition has not been determinated yet.
1 – green leafy vegetables – овощи со съедобными листьями (напр. салат)
Text № 7 «ESSENTIAL MINERALS»
Our body needs certain elements known as minerals, or ash1 constituents. They are calcium, chlorine, copper, iodine, iron, magnesium, sodium, sulphur, zine, and possibly aluminium, cobalt, fluorine, nickel, molybdenum and silicon. Due to the very small amount required of each, the six last named minerals along with copper and zine are usually referred to as trace elements2.
Calcium is required for all tissues but especially for bones and teeth. It is essential in the coagulation of blood, the beating of the heart, the irritability of nerves, cell activity, and the maintenance of the neutrality of the body. Foods that are important sources of calcium are: bread, carrots, cheese, egg yolk, ice-cream, milk, oranges, turnips, green and leafy vegetables.
Phosphorus, too, is necessary in all tissues and essential in the oxidation of carbohydrates. It helps in the regulation of the neutrality of the blood, in the conductivity of nerve impulses and in the controlling of cell activity. Important sources of this food constituent are: cheese egg yolk, fish, ice-cream, leafy vegetables, meat, liver, legumes, milk, whole grains.
Iron is necessary to form hemoglobin, a substance in the blood, which carries oxygen to the cells and plays an essential role in the body functions and the activity of cells. Valuable food sources of iron are: wheat, bread, and cereals, whole grain, egg yolk, fish, liver, potatoes. Copper is widely distributed in foods and most of those that are good sources of iron are also good sources of copper. Iodine aids in the regulation of general health and of the nervous system. When iodine is lacking in the diet, the thyroid gland is unable to produce thyroxin, a hormone which is necessary for all the oxidative reactions of the body. Sources of iodine are cod liver oil, salt water fish, sea foods, vegetables, cereals, dairy products, and fruit produced on soils of good iodine content and water supply.
Text № 8 «WHEAT»
1. Прочитайте текст и составьте план на русском языке.
2. Пользуясь планом, изложите основное содержание текста.
3. Расскажите на английском языке:
а) о структуре зерновки пшеницы;
б) о внешних особенностях и характеристиках разновидностей пшеницы
Neither the geographical, the historical, nor the biological origin of wheat is known. The evidence as exists seems to point to Mesopotamia as the original home of wheat, although there is a belief that the plant once grew wild in the Euphrates and the Tigris valleys and spread from these regions to the rest of the world.
The most ancient languages mentions of man notably in the earliest Swiss lake dwellings is proof of its antiquity. We also have evidence that wheat was cultivated in China 3,000 years B.C., and that it was the chief crop in ancient Egypt and Palestine.
Wheat is the most important of the cereals. It can grow in almost any kind of soil and in any climate. Thus, it is one of the most widely grown crops in the world.
The grain of wheat is a seed. It may by regarded as consisting of three parts: the germ or embryo which produces the new plant; the starchy endosperm, which provides the food for the new plant when the embryo first starts to grow; the various outer coverings constituting the bran of the grain. The protein of wheat which is contained in the endosperm is called gluten from its glue-like tendency to hold starch particles together.
Different varieties of wheat grown under diverge conditions of soil, climate and pedigree1 vary greatly in appearance and characteristics. In appearance, wheat may be red or white according to the colour of the bran or outer skin of the grain; in characteristics it may be hard or soft, “strong” or “weak”. Strong wheats give the best bread-making flour, weak wheats – the biscuit and self-rising flour.
Wheat may be divided into two classes, winter wheat and spring wheat. Spring wheats grown in suitable climate are usually strong, whereas winter wheats are usually weak.
1 – родословная
Text № 9 «RYE»
Rye, as a distant bread cereal, is of relatively recent origin. While it can be traced back to the early Middle Ages, it does not seem to have gained any real importance until about the thirteenth century. There is evidence that rye originally appeared as a contaminating cereal in wheat and that in some areas it became dominant because of its less demanding requirements with regard to soil, fertilization and climate.
It is light and bulky1 and is largely consumed in the country where grown. Rye is the only cereal besides wheat which contains a protein of such nature as to make it desirable for bread-making purposes.
The general structure of rye is similar to that of wheat. It contains 71 per cent of starch and sugar, but the proteins of rye are of different composition from those of wheat. Rye gluten is more sticky than that of wheat and the resulting bread is darker and less porous.
It is apparent that ryes of different origin will demonstrate varying properties, and that the baking methods must be adjusted to those properties. Rye varieties are not as numerous as are wheat varieties, and their characteristics are influenced to a greater degree by origin and climate than by variety.
Geographically, the same trend may be traced for rye as for wheat, namely, that countries with a hot and dry climate will produce ryes which are dry, high in protein, and frequently with a low amylase content.
The chief use of rye is as flour. The malted2 and fermented rye is a common source of alcoholic liquors.
1 – объемистый
2 – соложеный
Text № 10 «MAIZE»
Some scientists consider that the cultivation of maize began in the New World and was introduced into Europe only at the end of the 15th century after the discovering of America by Christopher Columbus. The word “maize” is generally used throughout Europe, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean Islands. In North America and in some countries associated with the USA the term “corn” is used.
According to another theory, however, maize was brought to Europe from Asia. They say it was introduced into Spain by the Arabs in the 13th century.
The production of maize played a big part in the development of the North America. In the whole world maize is one of the most important cereals now.
In the Russian Federation cultivation of maize is also of great importance for the development of agriculture as well as for the food and light industries.
Various factors are responsible for the rapid successful expansion of the usage of maize. First, it is a plant which possesses remarkable adaptability and versatility because of its great diversity of forms. Unlike wheat and rice, the cultivation of which is limited by climate, maize flourishes under the most varied conditions. A second important reason for wide maize cultivation is the high yields of food energy it affords.
Maize is cultivated for three major purposes: as a human food, as feed for livestock and as the raw material for many industrial products.
Maize is a large-grain cereal. Its kernel includes: the bran, the endosperm and the germ.
The bran, the outermost layer of the grain, is a tough fibrous and protective covering and it holds the grain together. The bran comprises about 5 to 6 per cent of the total weight of the kernel.
The endosperm forms the main bulk (80-84%) of the grain.
The germ of embryo is located at the lower end of the grain, it usually comprises 9.5 to 12 per cent of the whole kernel.
The different parts of the maize kernel differ in chemical composition. The endosperm which constitutes about 80 per cent of the grain contains over 80 per cent of its starch. It also contains 75 per cent or more of its protein.
About 75 per cent of the maize kernel is carbohydrate which is present as starch, sugar and fibre (cellulose). The starch is mainly in the endosperm, the sugar in the germ and the fibre in the bran. The average protein content of the whole maize is about 10 per cent. The fat content of the whole grain is about 4.5 per cent, more than 90 per cent of which is concentrated in the germ.
The maize grain also contains different minerals and vitamins which are located chiefly in the germ and in the outermost layer of endosperm.
Text № 11 «BARLEY»
Although wheat is the most used grain and even termed the “aristocrat of cereals”, it has not attained this position because of the longest use. Most evidence indicates that barley preceded it.
Barley has been known in China and Egypt for centuries. The methods of barley cultivation are similar to those of wheat or rye.
Barley is lacking gluten, to which wheat owes its bread-making qualities. As a result, a light, porous loaf cannot be made from it, but it is possible to combine barley flour with wheat flour in proportion of one to five and obtain an acceptable loaf of bread.
Barley contains a relatively large amount of mineral salts, fat and indigestible cellulose, but contains less protein and less carbohydrates than wheat.
From barley malt1 is produced, that is the product resulting from the sprouting2 of the barley grain.
During the process of sprouting many changes occur within the grain. The most important of these is the formation of diastase, an enzyme capable of changing starch to maltose, a fermentable sugar readily acted upon by yeast. Malt is much used with starch in the making of yeast and the production of fermented products such as beer and other beverages.
Text № 12 «FOOD ANALOGS»
NOTES
Food analogs1 are foods created by humans from agricultural raw materials which possess appearance, flavour, and textural qualities of the foods they are designed to simulate2. They are sometimes referred to as fabricated foods3.
Food analogs are fabricated from lower-cost agricultural raw materials such as grains, legumes, by-products of food processing such as cheese whey, fish muscle of little or no economic importance, and meat by-products such as bone marrow4 and low-cost organ meats. Such unlikely sources of protein and other nutrients have been successfully used.
There has, therefore, been a great interest of food analogs for two reasons: 1) to supplement human diet since many people cannot afford animal protein in the quantities heretofore consumed, and
2) to supply a palatable source of high-quality nutrients for the people who have never had an adequate supply of nutritive food. There is also a desire for foods designed to alleviate5 certain medical problems, including foods with lower saturated fat, with lower cholesterol, or free of salt or gluten.
The concept of food analogs is old in the culinary art. Centuries ago, European homemaker lacking the funds to use much meat learned through the clever use of sauces, flavour, and spices to use lower-cost protein sources such as seafood in soups, stews6, casseroles7, and the like in such a manner that they were acceptable as “meat” dishes. The Oriental people have used hydrolyzed vegetable protein for centuries to impart a meatlike flavour to their food, predominately vegetable and seafood. Soy sauce is an example.
Nowadays, advances in science and technology have permitted improvement in this technique since the chemistry of food components is now understood more fully. Food analogs are based fundamentally on a knowledge of the chemistry and technology of protein. Protein is a nutrient of greatest importance in food analogs since it is the nutrient in shortest supply. Because of its physical characteristics, it has become the fiber8, which provides the textural characteristics of the food analog.
Using the technology developed for the products of synthetic textile fibers, such as rayon and nylon, a process for preparing synthetic meat from protein fibers has been developed. In the 1950s fifties, a method for producing meatlike analog via a direct extrusion process, eliminating of fibers, was introduced. This method is lower in cost and has enabled the production of analogs with textural characteristics of meat. One more process, known as Lipton process, was actually designed to restructure meats for dry-soup manufacture.
Food technologists in contact with scientists continue looking for new methods of creating food analogs.
SECTION C
Text № 1 «DIGESTION»
Very little natural food can serve as nourishment just as it is, glucose is about the only natural substance that can. While chemists were trying to find what foods are made of, physiologists were trying to learn just what food must be used as nourishment.
It soon became evident to the physiologists that foodstuffs must undergo enormous changes in the human body, because the body tissues are profoundly different from the foodstuffs that nourish them. There is very little carbohydrate in the animal body and human fat is not much like either the vegetable fats or milk fat. Certainly the hair, skin and muscles bear little resemblance to the proteins of eggs, milk or wheat.
The word “food” is used loosely to designate anything edible whether it is a natural product such as wheat, fish, or potatoes, a partially processed product such as flour; or cooked foods such as an apple-pie. If it is edible it is food regardless of what must be done to it before it is eaten. Because of this uncertainty of meaning, the nutritionists use the word “food-stuffs” for those portions of the foods the body can use, mainly the carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
All digestion is a reaction of the foodstuffs with water or what the chemist calls a hydrolysis. As the digested food passes along the intestines1 it consists of 3 sugars, mostly glucose, about 20 amino acids, glycerol and several fatty acids. There are also salts and some other substances that were in the food, such as acids, chlorophyll, cholesterol and vitamins. Such is the food as it passes through the intenstinal wall into the blood stream to be distributed to the various tissues for growth, repair, or the production of energy.
1- пищеварительный тракт
Text № 2 «CARBOHYDRATES IN OUR LIVES»
Carbohydrates commonly occur as starch and sugar. The chief function of starches and sugars in our lives is to produce energy. If we eat them and then if we don’t utilize their potential energy they are stored usually as fat. If ordinary sugar molecules are eaten they are split in two to give the simple sugars, glucose and fructose. Starches end up as glucose.
In the body metabolism, fats and carbohydrates play more or less interchangeable roles, but it is generally considered that health is best served if 40% to 50% of the total energy value of the food is in the form of carbohydrates, and 30% to 35% in the form of fats.
Text № 3 «FAT IN THE DIET»
Every physiological process in the body requires energy. Energy is needed for the organism to function, to grow and to engage in physical activity, and is stored in food in the form of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
Fat contains twice as much energy as protein or carbohydrate, and is therefore an important source of energy. It also contains the essential polyunsaturated1 fatty acids and is a vehicle2 for the fat-soluble vitamins A.D.E and K. Apart from its nutritional aspects, fat also gives food taste and consistency, and is an excellent vehicle for flavourings.
In the body fat provides support and protection for internal organs and provides an important reserve of energy.
The body makes its own fatty acids, but only those that are saturated and mono-unsaturated. The essential polyunsaturated fatty acids can be produced only by plants and so have to be supplied via foods.
1 – to saturate – насыщать
2 – vehicle – связующее вещество
Text № 4 «PROTEINS AND PROTOPLASM»
Proteins represent the stream1 of life. They make up the vital part of that essential jelly material of the living cell – the protoplasm. The beginning of life on this and perhaps a few other planets must have been associated with the formation of proteins. This word means “to take first place”, for there is no life without proteins. If you would like to see proteins, look over your own body, or you can look at one that is practically pure, that is the white of an egg, which is almost all protein or albumen and water. Usually these lost essential of life’s materials have the indefinite and glue-like form known as a colloid though some of them have been separated as pure and definite crystals. Though the detailed2 structures of the molecules are complex, there are only a few chemical elements which enter into their composition. Most proteins contain 51 to 55 per cent carbon, about 7 per cent hydrogen, 20 to 23 per cent oxygen, 15.5 to 18.7 nitrogen, 0.3 to 2.0 per cent sulphur. Some of them also contain a little phosphorus or iron. Nature makes some tremendous structures out of these few materials.
1 – течение, основа
2 – мельчайший
Text № 5 «VITAMINS»
Vitamins are organic compounds essential for the normal functioning of the body, and usually obtained from foods. Vitamins are present in minute quantities compared to the other utilizable components of the diet - proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and minerals.
Almost all knowledge of the vitamins has been obtained during the 20th century. The discovery of the vitamins has primarily been the result of two lines of investigation: the study of nutritional disease in people and the feeding of purified diets of known composition to experimental animals. In this way vitamin deficiency diseases, known as avitaminoses, have been described.
Synthetic and natural vitamins usually have the same biological value. The use of vitamins has been the subject of different research. The principal members of the vitamin groups are A, B, C, D, E, K. The functions of the vitamins are extremely varied and important for health, development and growth.
Text № 6 «MINERALS AND HUMAN BODY»
There are 88 chemical elements in the crust of the earth. All the plant and animal life is composed of some of these elements.
Many chemists have contributed to our knowledge of the roles of the various mineral elements in nutrition.
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. The average man contains over 2.5 lb* of it of which 93% is in the bones and teeth. There is only 1 part of calcium in 10,000 parts of blood, but it serves several purposes; it controls the texture of the cell membranes, affects the heartbeat and the nerve and muscle action, and regulates the activity of several enzymes.
The bones and teeth contain about half as much phosphorus as calcium, but the soft tissues contain more phosphorus than calcium.
Phosphorus, like calcium, is not simply a structural element of the body but it takes part in metabolism. Phosphorus combines with the fats and the proteins to form compounds that are essential components of the heart, brain, and other vital organs.
There is less than 3 gm of iron in the adult human body. It is a part of several tissues, although most of it is in the blood and nearly all of it is combined with protein. The iron in blood is part of the protein, hemoglobin, which makes up the greater portion of the red corpuscles. It is the iron in this protein that carries oxygen to all the tissues of the body; each molecule of hemoglobin can carry four molecules of oxygen. If there is not enough iron supplied in the blood, anemia results.
* libra = pound – фунт (423г)
Text № 7 «WATER»
Water makes up approximately two thirds of the body’s consumption. It is present in every cell and tissue, and is important in regulating body processes. Drinking water frequently contains some of the minerals needed by the body, such as calcium, iron, and sodium. The body’s requirement for water is met through water consumed as such; through that taken in beverages and other fluid foods; and through that held in the composition of such foods as tomatoes which, though seemingly solid, really have a high water content. Most foods add some water to the day’s total consumption, a further addition is made by the body in the process of the utilization of food.
Text № 8 «RICE»
Rice is the cereal food for most of the world’s population. It is to the East what wheat is to the West. In fact it has been reliably estimated that rice is the principle food of over half the people in the world. About 95 per cent of the rice is grown in the Orient but several European and South American countries grow and eat considerable rice.
The cultivation and consumption of rice in the Russian Federation is considerable increasing from year to year.
A little amount of rice is ground to flour, but the vast majority of it is consumed in the whole grain simply boiled.
Text № 9 «CORN OR MAIZE»
The chemical analysis shows that corn is rich in fats although somewhat deficient in protein and mineral salts. As corn does not contain a true gluten like wheat, it cannot be used for making an ordinary bread raised with yeast, but it is used in numerous ways as food.
In fuel or energy value corn stands very high, having in fact nearly 1,800 calories per pound, or 100 calories above the average of the cereals. This is of course due to the large proportion of fat which it contains.
Text № 10 «CORNEFLAKE MANUFACTURE»
Cornflake are a popular breakfast cereal. Cornflakes are manufactured from maize grits1, which can originate from either yellow or white maize, cooked with malt, sugar and salt, with glycerol monosterate sometimes used as a processing agent.
The traditional manufacturing plant required maize grits from a yellow Dant maize variety because the size of maize grits regulated the size of the cornflakes – the larger the particle, the larger the flake. This not only limits the size of the cornflake that can be manufactured but also makes the raw ingredient a costly item.
One advantage, and a considerable one, is that the manufacture of cornflakes by extrusion-cooking method, widely used nowadays, does not require a large particle size and can produce extremely good quality flakes, comparable to those produced by the traditional process, with fine maize grits, which are obtainable in any maize-growing region. A further advantage of the extrusion-cooking process is that it is a stop-start process. That is to say, within minutes of start-up, cornflakes can be produced and packaged.
1 - крупа
Кафедра «Иностранные языки»
Иоаниди Маргарита Ставровна
Пушнова Павла Михайловна
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