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11 февраля
Language as a system.
Hierarchy.
1 text
2 sentence
(2.5) phrase
3 word
4 morphem. morphemic
morphems: 1 lexical (suffixes, prefixes) 2 grammatical (most inflexions (like -es in goes)
5 phonem. phonetical
The difference between a morphem and a word.
A morphem is bilateral: form + meaning
student = root 'stud' suffix 'ent'
student's = ... + inflexion 's' (grammatical - expresses case)
students = ... + inflexion s (grammatical - expresses number)
Grammatical category is a unity of certain grammatical meaning and the form of its expression.
Grammatical categories are expressed by morphems.
Differences between words and morphems:
1 morphems can be zero. words cannot be zero
2 morhems have a certain place in a word. we can't change their order. words possess positional mobility
Opposition in linguistics includes two or even more forms which are opposed to each other. One member is marked (students) and the other member is unmarked (student).
Neutralization of opposition.
I'm a fool < - > I'm being a fool
I am hungry x I'm being hungry (meaning is the same, neutralization)
Methods of grammatical investigation.
1 "IC"-method (immediate constituate)
Essense: division
but there are certain requirements:
1) we can't do more than 1 division at the time
2) preserve the meaning
Sentence (whole) = subject group + predicate group + ...
| The young handsome man | was quickly going | along the street.
1 - sub group
2 - pred group
3 - adv modifier
adverbial modifier = обстоятельство
2 The method of transformation
Essense: change.
requirement: preserve the meaning.
aim: this method helps us to show semantic relations.
Semantic relations are the relations between the actor, the action itself and the receiver.
1 The boy is easy to please (boy = receiver). -> It is easy to please the boy.
2 The boy is eager to please (boy = actor). -> The boy wants to please.
we can apply this method also to phrases:
1 silver spoon = spoon made of iron
2 iron lady -> strong lady
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations
Paradigmatic = vertical relations.
build
built
has built
...
(out of the context relations)
Syntagmatic are horizontal.
Priority = past perfect.
---past perfect----past------present------future
In the Russian language syntagmatic relations play the main role.
The meaning of priority is expressed on the syntax level. "Я сказал, что ходил туда".
In the English paradigmatic relations are more important. We can take any grammatical form like "had built" and understand its position on the time axis.
The main units of morphology:
we may speak about a grammatical category when we have at least two forms of a word or two types of phrases or even sentences which are opposed to each other.
25 февраля
Parts of Speech
Principles of classifying words into POS:
1 meaning
2 form
3 function
by meaning we understand the meaning which is common to a class of words
if a word has a meaning of substance, it is a noun
if a word has a meaning of quality, it is an adjective
if a word has a meaning of process, it is a verb
by form we understand morphemes which express different grammatical categories
if ment - noun
if ly - adverb / adjective
by function we understand behaviour of words in context
Which criterion is the leading one?
Traditional opinion: meaning, because it predetermines all morphological categories and functioning of words on the sentence level and on the phrase level.
Thus, the nouns, having a meaning of substance, have the category of number, because things may be counted.
Due to the fact that things may be qualified nouns are combined with adjectives.
Besides, the verb is the only part of speech which has the category of tense because actions are always associated with time.
Uggy cliggles woggled fogs. - nonsense
adv n v n
or
n v adj n
Therefore both meaning and from principles are unreliable.
The principle of the form is the leading one in the Russian and the principle of the function in the English.
Different classifications of POS.
the existent classifications which are many fall into two groups
1 morphological
2 syntactical
1 morphological - the principle of the form is the leading one
2 syntactical - function
examples:
1 morphological
Henry Sweet (XIX c.)
he divided all the words into declinable (capable of inflections) and indeclinable (incapable of inflections)
declinable - nouns, verbs, adj
indecl - prepositions, conjunctions, articles...
numerals = 3 (adj) men, 3 (noun) of the men
personal pronoun = "noun pronouns" because they behave like nouns (he likes)
possessive pronouns behave like adjectives = (his book) "adjective pronouns"
2 syntactical
depends on the word's position
class 1 nouns, personal pronouns
class 2 verbs
class 3 adj, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns
class 4 adverbs
1 I
2 take
3 this / my book
4 yesterday
Classifications of POS (Russian - Soviet)
The author
Principles function, form etc
Results e.g. nouns, verbs, etc
Ильиш (Теоретическая грамматика)
Блох (Теоретическая грамматика)
Иванова
Хаймович
Щерба
|
Ильиш |
Meaning common to a class of words (I), morphological form (II), syntactical function (III) |
Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, statives (слово состояния) (alive, afraid), verbs, participles (to), preposition, conjunctions, particles, modals (perhaps, certainly, possibly), interjection. |
|
Блох |
1) semantic 2) formal 3) functional |
Declinable (notional), indeclinable (functional) words. Изменяемые (смысловые), неизменяемые (служебные). |
|
Иванова |
1) lexical meaning 2) morphological form |
Content (знаменательные) (noun, adj., verb, adverb) & function (служебные) (article, preposition, conj.) words. + gerund, participle, infinitive. |
|
Хаймович (Теоретическая грамматика английского языка) |
Lexico-grammatical (I) (meaning), grammatical category (II) (form), function (III) Meaning |
Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs, adverbs, adlinks (the category of state), modals, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, articles, response words (yes, no). |
|
Щерба |
Function (syntactical) |
1 Слова знаменательные: существительные, прилагательные, наречия, слова количественные, категория состояния, глагол; 2 слова служебные: связки, предлоги, союзы; 3 междометия. |
1 morphological - the principle of the form is the leading one decl|indecl
2 syntactical - function position
meaning = substance-noun
form - ment
function - context
March, 1
Morphemes
Morphemic analysis
1 complete type of segmentability
beautifully
beautiful (stem) + ly
beauti (root) + ful
- normal morphemes
2 conditional type
perceive - root
deceive - root
conceive - root
recieve - root
ceive is a recurrent "pseudo" morpheme
3 defective type
ringlet - ring + let
booklet - book + let
hamlet (small village) - not connected with ham
let = diminutive meaning
Conversion
Word-building:
not-patterned ways
patterned ways
patterned ways : derivation
not-patterned ways :
vowel interchange - sing - song
consonant interchange - advise - advice
shortening - laboratory - lab
change of stress - cOnduct - condUct
conversion = a pen - to pen
He silenced everybody
I'll beautiful day you.
Don't madam me.
theories
1 analyze the semantic structure of the word. the word with the shortest definition is the original lexem
2 analyze word's clusters
a float to float floatable floater floating
3 logics
a smile - to smile
first to smile, then a smile appears
a hammer to hammer
instrument was the first. to hammer something you need a hammer
4 frequency of occurence
meanings:
1 instrumental (a hammer - to hammer)
2 agent (a crowd - to crowd)
3 place (a corner - to corner)
4 result (a laugh - to laugh)
March 11
Parts of Speech - General Characteristics
The Noun
meaning - substance, "thingness"
form - morphems
grammatical
1) number "s"
2) case "'s, s'"
lexical
suffixes - ment, ness, ship, er, or
function - combinability
phrase a) adj + noun; n + verb; v + n
sentence b) subject, object (дополнение)
Classifications of the Noun
1 countable - uncountable (number)
2 declinable - indeclinable (case)
3 animate - inanimate (semantically)
4 abstract - concrete
proper names
names of materials
The category of number
all nouns in the English are divided into countable and uncountable
those nouns which can have only singular form are called singularia tantum (fruit advice fish news)
NB! the waters of the Atlantic - figurative meaning, not substance.
the Daughter of the Snows
fuits, fishes - variety of fruit and fish, different species
damage - damages - убытки
business - businesses - companies
nouns which can be used only in pluralia tantum
glasses, scissors, trousers
the government, family, council, team = can be used both in plural and singular
family is = family as a social unit
family are = members of the family
police are / is
The Case
there are a lot of theories concerning the category case in the English language:
1 there is no category of case in the English. Apostrophe 's simply turns a noun into an adjective which modifies another noun
brother - brother's book
2 we have from 5 up to 6 cases in the English:
1 nominative the boy
2 genitive the boy's / of the boy
3 accusative the boy
4 dative the boy, to the boy
5 vocative boy!
6 instrumental with the knife
3 2 cases
the boy - the boy's
the boy's = case morpheme
the book of the boy = phrase
possessive case
apostrophe "s" has a lot of meanings besides the meaning of possession.
1 the boy's book = possession
2 the boy's mother = relations between people
3 the boy's leg = a part of the whole
4 the boy's arrival = subjective relation
5 the boy's arrest = objective relation
6 the child's love = quality
thus we should call it genitive, not possessive
the problem of gender
- there is no gender in the English which is expressed on the grammar level
gender is expressed strictly lexically
1 she-cat, he-cat; tom-cat
2 suffixes = -ess, -ette,
3 the Moon = she, the Sun = he, means of transport (ship) = she.
The Article
1 the status
2 the number
3 the meaning
4 the communicative role
1 there is a controversy among linguists concerning the status of the article in the English
they really doubt if it is a morpheme or a word
the artice is more likely to be a morpheme because it is very difficult to imagine a part of speech which consists of only two words: a & the.
2 article can be zero, word's can't be zero
if we consider the article to be a morphem, there are 3 articles
if word, 2.
Zero article
in modern linguistics zero article is usually called the meaningful absense of the article.
definite article the:
1 generalising function
the poor
2 particularising function
something concrete
the tiger was fed.
a (indefinite article)
1 classifying
general truths and beliefs: 0 / the / a
0 / the / a tiger is a wild animal
a = any tiger / the = tiger in general
it is impossible to figure out the meaning of the article without a context
the owl can't see well in the daytime (generalising)
the owl couldn't see well in the daytime (particularising)
the communicative role of the article
all articles perform a special communicative role in the context
to be more precise, they can express theme and rheme in the English.
theme = known information
rheme = new information
'the' usually expresses the information which is known
so it is a part of the theme
'a' shows us information which is new
it is a part of the rheme
in the English rheme is almost always placed at the end of the sentence
I have a mother.
There is a sofa.
sometimes the definite article can be the part of the rheme
all imperative sentences are usually rhematic
Give me a/the book please!
Homonyms
homonyms are words which are identical in sound and spelling, but different in meaning
fast = adj
fast = adverb
- proper homonyms
(no fastly)
a lot of puns are built on homonyms
is life worth of living? it depends on the liver.
Homographs
- different in sound and meaning, but identical in spelling
row / row
bow / bow
Homophones
tail / tale
Семинар
Compound are words which are formed from two or more stems.
1 compound stems
postman
2 derived
well-known
3 contracted
g-friend
Traditionally English compounds consist of 2 stems.
Compounds of 3 stems are rare (waste-paper basket)
Criteria according to which we define compound words:
1 graphical
solid spelling
open spelling
hyphen
= schoolboy, school-boy, school boy.
2 stress
usually all compound words have a stress on the first syllable
blAckboard
BUT! sElf-operAting machIne
3 semantic criterion
the meaning of a compound word is not simply the sum of the meanings of its components.
red tape = бюрократизм
white elephant = дорогая бесполезная вещь
4 morphological criterion
find the main word
the word which will be changed is the main one
postman - postmen
5 syntactic criterion
compound words may have a connective element
sportsground
handicraft
statesman
let the sleeping dogs lie
i don't like your let-the-sleeping-dogs-lie attitude to life.
what is the name of the girl you have been dancing with?
the-girl-you-have-been-dancing-with's name took my fancy.
ways of formation
1 repetition
a quack-quack - квакушка
2 rhyme
tidbit - лакомый кусочек
3 vowel interchange
sing-song manner
4 verbs in postposition
mister fix up
5 shortening
6 onomatopoeia
croak croak
25 марта
the verb
general characteristics
1 meaning: process, stative, punctual (limit) (to arrive)
2 form
1) tense: 3 (present, future, past)
2) aspect (вид): (continuous, perfect)
3) voice 2 (active, passive)
4) mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative, conditionals)
5) number (only in 3d person singular)
6) modality (speaker's attitude)
3 function
1) combinability (with other parts of speech)
v + n
n + v
v + a
2) predicate
tense and time
tense - used only in grammar
time and tense can be not the same
train leaves at five
time - future
tense - present
i'm a student
time - present + past
tense - present
Different Use of the System of Tenses in the English Language
- a lot of theories
from two tenses to sixteen tenses:
1 past + present
future is a combination of modal verb will/shall + infinitive (will ~ want)
2 the most widely known theory is the one which counts 3 tenses
the perfect forms
in the English all perfect forms are usually called relative because they don't express the past, the present, and the future, but relations between actions.
the most interesting thing is the present perfect.
"i have known him for many years" is present only in the form
i have brought her flowers (result)
i have known him for years (duration)
bring - punctual verb
if the verb is punctual, then there will be the idea of result.
continuous
all continuous forms in the English we refer to as aspect forms because there are a lot of meaning which these forms can express in the English
1 what are you doing tonight? (plan, agreement)
2 why are you always chewing? (irritation)
3 when mary was cooking supper, her husband was watching tv (parallel actions)
4 finally i am being the fool (i behave like a fool)
5 i am seeing you (see = meet)
continuous forms express the character of the action, not the time of the action
again, much depends on the verb:
difference
1 he brought her some flowers
2 he was bringing her some flowers
no difference
3 he was walking along the road
4 he walked along the road
5 i lived in london - permanent
6 i was living in action - temporary action
mood
3 moods: indicative изъявительно, imperative повелительное, subjunctive сослагательное
indicative expresses 3 tenses: past, present, and future
imperative: command
subjunctive:
subjunctive 1
intend
urge
ask
demand
insist
require
suggest
...
i suggest that you go there
i suggest that you should (Br.E.) go there
I demand that she (should) take it
conditionals
1 real possibility, truth, belief
if pr ind, then pr ind
if water is heated 100 degrees C it boils
2 real, one single action
if pr ind, fut ind
if the weather is fine we will go for a walk
3 unreal, present, бы
if past ind, would
if the weather was (were) fine, we would go for a walk
4 unreal, past
if past perf, would + pr perf
if the weather had been fine yesterday we would have gone for a walk
5 mixed (3+4)
if past perfect, would
if he had studied hard at school, he wouldn't be sweeping streets now
!
sometimes it is possible to use will after if in case it is a modal verb which performs or expresses the idea of willingness
if you will continue disturbing me, i will beat you
если ты всё же продолжишь мешать мне,
wish clauses
I wish...
1 past ind. (present)
i wish you were here (now)
2 past perfect
i wish you had been there (past)
3 could/would
i wish i could swim (not can!)
i wish i would do it (not will!)
the problems of meaning
in the course of time the meanings of words changed and there are different reasons for these changes
we can single out linguistic changes and extralinguistic changes
extralinguistic changes are connected with the life of the speech community
with the development of new branches of science different new words came into English
linguistic causes:
1 shortening (shrug one's shoulders -> shrug (пожимать плечами)
to nod one's head -> nod
eyewitness -> witness
wristwatch -> watch
2 narrowing/extending
land intially had two meanings = 1 surface 2 territory of certain people
now it has only the 1st meaning because of the borrowing of "country" from French
3 words can change their meanings by analogy
to grasp, to get, to catch
catch -> to understand, grasp and get also began to mean understand.
nature of changes
the connection between several meanings of words can be based similarity or on contiguity (смежность)
similiraty = metaphor
he is a devil on the football field (similarity)
dead metaphors: leg of the table, foot of the mountain, mouth of the river, the flight of fancy
genuine metaphors:
through the open window the dust was dancing and was golden
contiguity = metonymy метонИмия
we deal with metonymy when a part of something is used instead of the whole
the crown was sitting on the throne (the king/queen)
skirt-chaser
we live under the same roof
Семинар
Zeugma
he ate 3 cutlets and all his words.
verb + 2 objects
verb + object 1 = verb in direct meaning
verb + object 2 = verb in indirect meaning
he took his hat and a leave
Pun
liver - печень, житель
Is live worth living? Depends on the liver.
Did you miss my lecture?
Oxymoron
living death
cold fire
soundless voice
8 апреля
Syntax in Theory
The main units which we consider in syntax are:
a sentence
a phrase
Is there a difference between them?
the boy reads
boys and girls
sentence needs punctuation (capital letter + full stop etc)
The boy reads.
boys and girls?!
in oral speech we need intonation
markers of the sentence:
1 punctuation
2 intonation
Classification of phrases
1
- kernel phrases - contain kernel element (the boy reads), the other element depends on it
- non-kernel phrases - both elements are equal
2
- phrases can be divided into noun phrases in which the main element is a noun
- attributive phrases (с определением) "english books" (english - dependent, books - main)
- local phrases - the definition of place "to arrive in washington"
- temporal phrase - time "to get up at 7"
- verb phrases - the main element is a verb "to read a book"
means to form a phrase
1 preposition
2 conjunctions
boys and girls
go to school
Essential feature: government / agreement (согласование / управление)
this book (not these)
these books (not this)
In some cases these rules are violated.
The family is / are
Sentence
Definitons:
1 a sentence traditionally is considered as a structure which expresses a complete thought.
! A complete thought is very subjective. For some it is complete, for some it is not
2 a sentence is a means of communication. in this process of communication there are 3 things which are involved
1) act of speech
2) speaker / writer
3) the attitude of the speaker (reality / unreality)
3 it is a communicative unit which is made up of words according to their combinability and structurally united by intonation in oral speech and punctuation in written speech
Classification of sentences
Sentences as grammatical units may be classified into
one-member sentences. Spring. Go!
two-member sentences
There are elliptical sentences in which one member is omitted.
"Everything all right or what?"
"Me".
The primary members of the sentence
primary - subject, predicate
subject
1 The subject is a word or a group of words about which something is said.
but. John promised Mary a golden ring. - something is about john, mary, and ring
2 The subject denotes a thing which is determined by the predicate
In other words, the role of the predicate is to specify the subject
a blushing girl
a girl blushes
3 the subject is the primary member of the sentence which is grammatically independent on any other words in the sentence and on which the second primary member of the sentence, the predicate, is dependent.
He (subject) is a student (predicate)
The family is small.
My family are early-risers.
predicate
- the second primary member of the sentence which is grammatically dependent on the subject
Classification of subjects
1 the subject in the english language can be expressed by a person, a thing, a phrase, and even a sound
[O] is a back vowel.
subject can be personal / impersonal (it doesn't mean animate / inanimate)
personal - we can substitute a subject by any thing or object in reality (even abstract) (it is a cat)
impersonal -
1 "it" (it is hot)
2 "one" (one must be careful while crossing the street)
Classification of predicates
1 simple
simple verbal - простое глагольное
simple nominal - простое именное
2 compound
verbal
modal (he must read - составное, потому что 2 мысли)
aspect (with to begin, to finish, to continue) He began to read
emotive (with emotional verbs like, want) He likes to read
nominal (have a link verb + nominal part (adj/noun) (He is young, He is a reader)*
He has been reading - simple verbal
He takes care of children - simple verbal
(если выражена одна идея - simple)
Spring at last! - simple nominal
Spring - 1-member sentence.
* сложный случай!
He married young. He sat motionless. - есть прил, но нет глагола-связки, поэтому нельзя отнести к сост.именному. Это называется double predicate.
He worked slowly (slowly - adverbial modifier of manner, обстоятельство образа действия).
(adverbial modifier of attending circumstances)
The window was open (state) - compound nominal
The window was opened (action) - simple verbal
complex sentence - сложное предложение
composite sentence - сложноподчинённое (when, after ...)
compound sentence - сложносочинённое (and)
Secondary members of the sentence
are sometimes even more important than primary members
- He is a young man.
- Young! He is forty.
The second classification of predicates (semantic)
1 process predicates (he wrote, he danced)
2 qualifying predicates (he is a doctor)
3 objective predicates (I have many friends This book contains 5 chapters) - сюда относятся глаголы, требующие дополнения
4 adverb predicates - to be + adverb (He is in Moscow. It's 5 o'clock)
22 апреля
Actual Division of a Sentence
Gramatically sentences are divided according to the members which are present in the sentence.
We distinguish between the primary members and the secondary members of the sentence
Secondary members of the sentence include:
1 (adverb) - adverbial modifier (обстоятельство)
2 attribute (определение)
3 object (Дополнение)
The attribute may modify not only the subject but the object as well.
Side by side with the grammatical division of a sentence there exists the actual division of a sentence.
the purpose of this division is to reveal the informative value of each word in the sentence because it's quite natural that each word in a sentence contributes semantically to the general meaning of the sentence
in terms of the actual division all sentences are divided into
the theme part (known)
the rheme part (new)
this division is very often called informative because the theme part represents the information which is known and the rheme part represents the information which is new.
the informative division plays even a more significant than a grammatical division because the aim of communication is not to identify the subject and the predicate but to show the information which is known and which is new.
here we include the formal means of expressing the theme and the rheme:
1 word order
2 articles
3 intonation
4 structures with emphatic meaning
1 word order is the position of sense group in a sentence and each sentence is arranged according to the role of sense groups in it.
in the russian language stylistically neutral declarative sentences have communicatively important sense groups at the end of the sentence (theme -> rheme)
in general each next word in a sentence possesses even more information than the previous one and the most important word is usually placed at the end
Вчера я получил от брата письмо.
Вчера я получил письмо от брата.
in the english where the word order is grammatically fixed the word order is the most reliable means of expressing theme and rheme
the rhematic part is always placed at the end
SPO (adv.mod.)
subject is usually thematic, predicate and everything after predicate are rhematic
inversion ("exception to the rule": rheme is at the beginning)
adv.mod P S
Terrible was the night. (rheme -> theme)
Hardly had I reached the door when the phone rang. (rheme -> theme)
imperative sentences are usually rhemes
Do it! Go! Come in!
Interrogative sentences
General questions
- Do you like cats? (General questions = "open rheme")
- Yes (answer = always rheme)
tag / alternative questions
I am a student (theme), aren't I (open rheme)?
Let's go to the Zoo, shall we?
special question
Who (rheme) is here?
interrogative pronouns are rhemes
2. Articles occupy the second place in representing the rheme and the theme in the english
generally
the definite article is used to denote a theme
the indefinite article usually shows the new information (rheme)
the definite article is used rather often in the rhematic group: Give me the book please (rheme - it's imperative).
3. Intonation being the structural form of a sentence plays the most important role in communication and it's the intonation which makes grammatically identical different communicatively
Ты пойдёшь?!
The intonation is used to show logically more important words in the sentence.
4. Structures
It is he (rheme) who's the bad guy
It is the table (rheme) that I want to buy.
it is + rheme who / that
Even if + rheme
There is / there are + rheme
Modality
Modality is the speaker's attitude to what he is speaking about
There are two approaches to this category:
modality in a wide sense of a word is any attitude
a narrow approach: modality as the speaker's from the point of you reality / unreality
1 modality of reality / unreality proper is usually marked by the category of mood (conditionals)
2 modality of necessity, probability, obligation, uncertainty and so on which is expressed by modal verbs & modal words.
modal words - perhaps, probably, possibly, certainly
Modality always carries some elements of subjectivity but the first sphere (1) is more objective and the second sphere (2) is more subjective
In general modality as a category may be expressed at all levels:
phonetically (by intonation and stress)
lexically - by modal verbs and words
grammatically - by mood
syntactically - by emphatic constructions like inversion
Subjunctive mood
the imperative mood can be expressed by the form let + infinitive
let him finish his dinner
let her not go
let + inf = permission
let's + inf = an invitation, an order or request
Set expressions
subjunctive 1
(May) success attend you.
Long live the Soviet Army!
be it so.
god forbid! - боже упаси!
if we have had / should at the beginning of a conditional sentence they are usually translated as if.
Should he come this way I'll talk to him (partial inversion)
Had the child remained awake for half an hour, I would have left him.
Adverbs denote the quality of some process, action or state:
1 qualitative (kvOlitetiv) - characterize action, define the character and the quality of the described situation
run quiclky!
specially difficult.
2 adverbial - denote space, time, cause, purpose, relations, they point to the circumstances of the action (here, there, today, then, now)
The difference between them lies in the fact that adverbial adverbs denote only the external circumstances of the action and qualitative adverbs define the inner character of the action.
Their combinability differs. Qualitative can combine with verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Some adverbs are similar to adjectives:
fast
hard
near
deep
late
Adverbial modifiers:
of manner (образа действия)
of place
of time
of attending circumstances (сопутствующих обстоятельств)
6 мая
вопросы к экзамену
1 grammar in the system of language: morphology, syntax
2 opposition. neutralization of opposition
3 methods of grammatical investigation (IC-method, method of transformation)
4 paradigmatic (vertical) & syntagmatic (horizontal) approaches (и разница в представлении этих подходов в русском и английском) (в русском языке - синтагматические , в англ - парадигматические выходят на первый план)
5 classification of parts of speech (meaning, form, function) (give examples of morphological & syntactical classifications)
6 the noun. its categories
7 the category of number (+ difficult cases - e.g. uncountable nouns in plural) & case (theories of case: 2 cases - 5 cases)
8 the category of gender. its problem
9 the verb: general characteristics, classification (trans, intrans, punctual, stative)
10 the category of tense (difference between tense & time). theories of tense.
11 the category of aspect: continuous forms & perfect forms, their different meanings
12 the category of mood (indicative, subjunctive one, subjunctive present, wish clauses etc)
13 the category of modality (чем выражена: модальные слова, глаголы, наклонением (mood))
14 the article (status, number, meaning. difficult cases). theme (the) / rheme (a)
15 the adjective + the adverb: случаи, когда наречие совпадает с прилагательным. порядок расположения прилагательных. разница между older-elder, farther-further. разница между adverbs & adverbial modifiers.
16 sentence. classification of sentences. различные определения. что отличает предложение от других единиц языка. classification: one-member sentences, 2-member sentences, ellipitical sentences
17 phrases & sentences: difference between them, classification (kernel / non-kernel)
18 members of the sentence (primary, secondary)
19 types of the subject, types of the predicate. examples
20 actual division of the sentence. formal points according to which we can distinguish theme & rheme
21 conversion as a modern type of word-building
22 homonymy, homographs, homophones (examples)
23 synonyms & antonyms
24 types of meaning. play on words
Образец синтаксического разбора предложения
I have already told you of the sickness and confusion | that comes with time travelling.
1 type of sentence: complex, declarative ((complex - сложноподчинённое, compound - сложносочинённое))
main clause + subordinate clause
2
I - personal pronoun, singular, 1 person, nominative case
have told - simple verbal predicate
have - auxiliary verb
told - participle 2
present perfect
active voice, indicative mood
3
you - object, person pronoun, singular / plural, 2 person
4
the sickness and confusion - prepositional object (потому что после of)
expressed by 2 nouns in the genitive case
5
comes - predicate, verb, 3 p. sing, active voice, indicative mood
6
with time travelling - prepositional object, adj + noun
The Text
the text is the highest unit of speech
it is very rare that one sentence expresses the complete idea which can be clear without any context
usually in order to make us clear we have to produce a whole sequence of sentences which forms a discourse
discourse - a process of communication
text - a result of it
text is a "frozen discourse"
the phrase i'm sorry can be translated differently in different contexts
if we try to give a definition of a text we will come across several problems
1 its length (where are the signals of its beginning & end)
the text is a sequence of linguistic units which are joined together by semantic connections and characterised by integrity cohesion
2 semantic features
- information - any text should carry complete information
- profundity - it is some depth, some food for reflection, some idea, which may be expressed explicitly or understood implicitly
- presupposition - shared knowledge, the general background
- completeness - the text should be complete in meaning, it shouldn't be abrupt
3 structural categories
- integration - how to achieve integrity. how to use certain logical connections, a certain composition, and a certain word order
- cohesion - how to provide the logical connection (conjuctions (союзы), paranthesis (вводные конструкции)
- retrospection - flash back
- prospection - flash forward
- continuum - the text should continue without breaking. (there is a certain device which is called "a break in the narrative". She left him. For good.)
- polyphony - a good text usually has more than 1 line of thinking
Types of Text
1 narrative
2 description - the author uses mostly characteristics of space & time
3 dialogue - the dynamic means (vivid words, interjections)
разница между словом и морфемой
word is the basic unit of language and it directly corresponds to the object of thought
words can be distinguished morphologically as root words (только корень boy, girl) and derivatives (boyish) and compounds
semantically we distinguish between monosemantic (1 meaning) words and polysemantic (many meanings)
stylistically we distinguish bookish words, colloquial, and neutral words
etymologically - borrowings, native words
syntactically - notional words (смысловые - nouns, verbs, adj), functional words (служебные)
20 мая
Discourse and language
The runway (взлётная полоса) is full at the moment.
1 an instruction not to land the plane - pragmatic meaning
2 statement of fact - literal meaning
Semantics deals with literal (contrary to pragmatic) meaning.
Discourse analysis is intersted in how people organise what they say in the sense of what they typically say first and what they say next in the conversation.
Text and discourse
A discourse is a "dance" that exists in the abstract as a coordinated pattern of words, deeds, values, beliefs, tools, objects, times, and places... Like a dance, the performance here and now is never exactly the same (Gee 2005).
Grammatical intricacy and spoken discourse
1 The relationship between clauses in spoken discourse are more spread out, with more complex realtions between them than in writing.
2 Usually contains sets of clauses that are long and spread out/
We can argue that speech is no less highly organised than writing.
Grammatical intricacy is a relationship between clauses in spoken discourse whivh can be much more spread out with more complex relations between them then in writing.
Content and function words
1 Content words (nouns, verbs...)
2 Grammatical words (prepositions, prononuns, and articles)
In a spoken discourse content words tent to be spread out over a number of clauses, and pragmatics is the study of meaning in relation to the context in which a person is speaking or writing. This includes social, situational, and textual context. It also includes background knowledge (what people know about each other and about the world around them).
background knowledge = presupposition
Cohesion refers to the relationship between items in a text such as words, phrases, and clauses. A further aspect of cohesion is the ways in which words such as "one" and "do" are used to substitute for other words in a text (substitution) and the ways in which words or phrases are left out, or ellipsed, from a text (ellipsis).
Conjunction refers to words such as and, but, however, finally that join phrases, clauses, or sections of a text in such a way that they express logical connections between them.
Additive conjunctions: and, or, moreover, in addition, alternatively.
Comparative: whereas, but, on the other hand, equally
Temporal: while, when, after, meanwhile, then, finally, at the same time
Consequential: so that, since, thus, if, therefore
Substitution
A substituted form is used for another language item, phrase, or group.
1 Try reading this book. that one isn't very good.
Ellipsis
some essential element is omitted from the text
Announcer: Gary, what did you want to say to us tonight?
Caller: [i want to say] that I'm very sorry for the fight we had the other night
Announcer: What was that over?
Caller: [it was over] something rather silly actually
Theme and rheme
Theme is a starting point of a clause.
Hiragana represents the 46 basis sounds of the Japanese language.
The rheme is what the clause has to say about the theme.
Theme can be used as a point of departure of the message. The rheme is what the clause had to say about the theme.
Constant theme
"Text can be used for both spoken and written language. It usually refers to a stretch, an extract or complete piece of writing or speech. Discourse is a much wider term. It can be used to refer to language in action".
Split rheme
- рема повторяется через несколько предложений
The cooperative principle and discourse
Maxims:
Quality - we should say what we believe to be true
Quantity - make contribution as informative as possible
Realtion - make contribution relevant
Manner - avoid ambiguity, be brief and orderly
Review
form-building - грамматические формы (clauses)
The grammatical category is a unity of a grammatical form and grammatical meaning.
Terminative - глагол состояня (love, break, nod
non-terminative - open,
mixed
simple phraseological predicate