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МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ
РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ
ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ
ПИЩЕВЫХ ПРОИЗВОДСТВ»
М. С. Иоаниди, Т. И. Расторгуева
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ
по развитию навыков и умений
чтения и устной речи по английскому языку
для студентов 2 курса
(3 семестр, часть 2)
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Утверждено научно-методической комиссией Департамента гуманитарной подготовки 12 ноября 2007 года |
Москва 2008
Рецензенты:
Лейченко Е. В. – доцент кафедры «Иностранные языки» МГУПП
Шишурина Н. Г. – доцент кафедры «Иностранные языки» МГУПП
П Р Е Д И С Л О В И Е
Методические указания предназначены для студентов 2-го курса всех институтов МГУПП (3–й семестр).
Целью данной работы является формирование и развитие умений и навыков чтения на базе учебного материала профессиональной направленности. Предлагаемый материал предусматривает также возможность развития других умений и навыков речевой деятельности.
Методические указания состоят из семи разделов в 2–х частях: часть 1 – разделы 1 – 3, часть 2 – разделы 4 – 7. Каждый из разделов содержит материал для изучающего (А) и ознакомительного (В) чтения, а также тексты для индивидуального письменного перевода (С). К текстам А и В предлагаются различного рода задания для эффективного усвоения учебного материала. Каждый раздел содержит грамматический материал с комплексом упражнений.
Предлагаемый материал является основой для подготовки студентов к чтению научно-технической литературы по специальности в оригинале.
Часть II
Грамматика «Неличные формы глагола»……………………………. 4 – 12
Грамматика «ING–формы»…………………………………….…….. 12 – 22
Раздел 6. Пивоварение
Грамматика «Субъектный инфинитивный оборот»” ……..…..…… 22 – 32
Раздел 7. Виноделие
Грамматика «Объектный инфинитивный оборот»…….……….….. 32 – 42
Grammar «NON–FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB»
Text A4 ECOLOGY IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Active Vocabulary
(v) расточать, терять, тратить, портить, опустошать, истощать
hazardous (adj) ['hæzədəs] – рискованный, опасный
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
1. Переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.
malt and soft drink industries; desirable options in waste management; utilization of by-products; spent process water; food approval and safety; large amounts of generated wastes and effluents; removal of suspended solids; elimination of colloids; pre-treatment; to generate high volume of wastewater and solid wastes
2. Запомните значения следующих слов и словосочетаний.
ecology – экология; наука, изучающая взаимоотношения живых существ (осо-бенно человека) и окружающей среды; охрана окружающей среды
environment [in'vaiərənmənt] – окружение, окружающая среда, окружающая обстановка
human environment – среда обитания человека
environmental protection (management) – охрана окружающей среды
3. Переведите следующие словосочетания:
industrial ecology, chemical ecology, theoretical ecology, plant ecology; environmental changes, environmental sciences, environmental impact, environmental engineer, environmental hazards
Прочитайте и устно переведите текст А4. Выпишите незнакомые слова
Text A4 ECOLOGY IN FOOD INDUSTRY
Food and drink industry is one of the most important industry sectors. The principal sectors in the food industry are the meat processing, bakery, dairy, and malt and soft drinks industries.
However, food industry produces large amounts of waste that are usually not hazardous, but mostly they are of biodegradable origin. Beside, many of the sub-branches also produce large amounts of effluent water with high chemical oxygen demanding substances.
The avoidance of waste formation and pollution is always a key task, but on the other hand, waste prevention, minimization and valorization, and the use of energy efficient process technologies are more and more desirable options in waste management as these streams from food industry are usually rich in valuable compounds (e.g. oils, sugars, antioxidants, etc.). The controlling of raw material, water and energy use, as well the utilization of by-products and reducing the effluent discharge lead towards the realization of industrial ecology in food industry.
Recycling preservation of embedded utilities and the design of a product to create other useful are sometimes carried out in the case of packaging materials and spent process water, but one should always consider food approval and safety in first respect. Waste prevention measures include prevention, reduction at source and re-use of products, while waste minimization also includes waste management measures, the quality improvements (e.g. reducing of hazards) and recycling.
Technologies for waste prevention and minimization
Waste prevention and minimization are key issues in food industry because of the large amounts of wastes and effluents usually generated.
Technologies for solid waste treatment can be divided into:
Technologies for wastewater treatment include:
Agro-food industry generates high volume of wastewater and high amounts of solid waste that causes environmental problems and means cost for companies in terms that it has to be managed. The focus should always be on prevention, as it is always more economic to prevent and reduce waste than to clean it up.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Образуйте глаголы от следующих слов и переведите их.
avoidance, prevention, management, utilization, recycling, approval, treatment, digestion, stripping, sedimenting
2. Укажите номера синонимичных пар.
1. drink, 2. processing, 3. hazardous, 4. amount, 5. generate, 6. screening, 7. dump,
8. eliminate
1. produce, 2. quantity, 3. sifting, 4. treatment, 5. discharge, 6. beverage, 7. reduce,
8. harmful
3. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What are the main tasks in food industry ecology? 2. What is the difference between waste prevention and waste minimization? 3. What forms are the wastes in?
4. What are the main technologies of wastewater? 5. What is more profitable to prevent and reduce wastes or to clean them up? Why? What do you think?
4. Укажите номера пропущенных слов в следующих предложениях и переведите их.
1. Food industry produce large quantities of … . 2. A key task is to avoid … . 3. The realization of industrial ecology can be carried out by means of …, the utilization of … . 4. The wastes of food industry are sometimes rich in … . 5. The main problem in food industry ecology is … . 6. Waste minimization concerns waste management measures, … and recycling. 7. It is possible to realize the preservation of … . 8. Food industry produces large amounts of wastes that bring about … .
1. the controlling of raw material and water; by-products; 2. food approval and safety; 3. hazardous wastes; 4. the quality improvements; 5. pollution; 6. valuable compounds; 7. embedded utilities 8. environmental problems
5. Расскажите об основных проблемах в пищевой промышленности, связанных с экологией.
Грамматическая тема «НЕЛИЧНЫЕ ФОРМЫ ГЛАГОЛА»
1. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на причастие и причастные обороты.
1. Machines having being introduced into milling, this process became much more efficient and productive. 2. In the past the chief ingredient being sugar, the fundamental processes of candy making have much in common. 3. Macaroni consumption rising in most countries, the consumers’ recognition of them is changing nowadays. 4. Ancient traders having brought grapes to France by 600 B.C., grape cultures began rapidly spreading throughout Europe. 5. Different pollutants having being eliminated from wastewater, it can be re-used. 6. Being the main branches of food industry, bakery malt and soft drinks industries cause a lot of waste problems. 7. Food industries choosing non-toxic materials in designing products, food safety is achieved.
2. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на герундий и герундиальные обороты.
1. Brewing and baking having a long history is certain. 2. Chocolate being used only as a beverage in the 16th century is an interesting fact. 3. Pasta products having become an important part of the diet for all the people in the world is evident. 4. Food science proves sugars varying in their composition and properties. 5. We know dough undergoing great changes during its processing. 6. Specialists discovered grain milled by machines being much lower in vitamins and minerals. 7. They insisted on raw material, water and energy being controlled carefully.
Text B4 MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY FOR WASTE MINIMIZATION
1. Прочитайте текст и составьте план.
2. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:
1) Что такое мембранная технология?
2) Каковы преимущества данной технологии?
3) Есть ли негативные стороны и в чем они состоят?
4) Назовите основные операции мембранной технологии?
MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY FOR WASTE MINIMIZATION
Notes:
permeable – проницаемый
retentate – вещество, удерживаемое мембраной, не проходит сквозь ее поры
osmosis – осмос, диффузия растворителя через мембрану и выравнивание концентрации растворов по обе стороны мембраны
Evaporation is a conventional method used for concentration and recovery of material in the food and also in other industries. This is an energy intensive process as the materials have to be heated to evaporate the excess of liquid. As an alternative method, membrane filtration can be used where a selectively permeable1 membrane is used and driving force is applied in order to separate materials. Depending on the properties of applied membrane (e.g. pore size) the materials either pass through the membrane (this is called permeate), or are rejected (this is called retentate2). If we consider economically the application of membrane technologies, the capital costs are much higher than for evaporation, however, the operating cost are about half and the energy use can be decreased up to 90%.
The other advantage comes from the possibility to prevent the heat sensitive compounds as in membrane technology phase change does not occur. If we consider the process from preservation point of view, the preservation take place without using additives or chemical agents, therefore we are able to get healthier products that are of good quality and during processing fewer by-products are formed. If we think about the equipment, usually their installation does not need big space, they are simple design, flexible and easy to scale-up.
In food industry, application of pervaporation is used for aroma recovery and electrodialysis for demineralization. However, application of pressure driven membrane processes are most common, therefore operation differs in membrane’s pore size and applied pressure, in their ability to retain particles.
In food industry they are used in following operations:
Microfiltration
Ultrafiltration
Nanofiltration
Reverse osmosis3
Письменно переведите Text C4 на русский язык.
Text C4 VALORIZATION OF FOOD INDUSTRY
WASTES/BY-PRODUCTS
Notes:
valorization – валоризация, мероприятия по обработке отходов с целью их последующего использования (с экономической выгодой)
Food industry usually generates large amounts of solid wastes and by-products which have to be managed or used whenever possible.
Valorization1 techniques include different separation technologies, such as mechanical and diffusional separation technologies, as well chemical and biochemical modifications.
Mechanical separation methods
From the mechanical separations, the mechanical extraction or pressing is used often for solid-liquid phase separation method. Fat and oil in different oil seeds are separated by pressing, and it can be used for fruit juice extraction.
Diffusional separation methods
Diffusional separation methods, such as distillation, different forms of
extraction, adsorption, ion exchange, evaporation, crystallization, drying and
membrane separation are widely used in different areas of food industry for by-product valorization.
Chemical separation methods
From chemical modifications, hydrolysis, i.e. breaking up of a chemical compound influenced by water. The addition of strong acids, bases or steam will be often applied if ordinary water has no effect. Some examples for use of hydrolysis includes the conversion of starch into sugars in a presence of strong acid catalyst, the conversion of animal fats or vegetable oils to glycerol and fatty acids by reaction with steam, or just the conversion of proteins, fats, oils or carbohydrates by enzymes.
Biochemical methods
Biochemical modification for food by-product valorization includes pasteurization, fermentation, biogas production and enzymatic treatment. Pasteurization, such as HTST (high temperature short time) and LTLT (low temperature long time) pasteurization in usually applied in dairy industry for utilization of by-products.
The product of fermentation processes varies greatly on the particular microorganisms involved, e. g. yeast and fungi result in ethanol production from glucose.
Enzymatic treatment is the other application field of biochemical methods. Enzyme can be used for the degradation of food waste consisting of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. Enzymes are also used to degrade plant cell walls and help e.g. the extraction of oils or other valuable compounds from seeds, skins and peels.
Grammar «–ing FORMS »
Text A5 EXTRUDING IN FOOD PROCESSING
Active Vocabulary
to extrude – выдавливать, формовать выпрессовыванием через отверстия
extruder – экструдер, шприц-машина
extruder cooker – экструзионный варочный аппарат
cook (v.,n.) – подвергать/ся тепловой обработке; варка, варщик, оператор
pasta [‘pastə] – 1) макаронные изделия; 2) макаронное тесто; 3) блюдо из макарон
macaroni products – макаронные изделия
spaghetti – спагетти
noodle/s – лапша
vermicelli – вермишель
jacket – кожух, рубашка (парового котла)
to jacket – надевать кожух
PRE–TEXT EXERCISES
1. Укажите номера русских эквивалентов.
1. ultimately, 2. essentially, 3. in addition, 4. thus, 5. along with
1. наряду с, 2. таким образом, 3. в конечном счете, 4. по существу, 5. кроме
2. Переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.
food pastes; macaroni products; uniform cross-sectional shape; initial pasty mass; temperature control; multi-purpose machine; ready-to-eat foods; food processing operations; high-quality protein sources; protein-rich sources; low-cost processing system; low-cost extruder cookers; low-cost extruder cookers approach; mechanical energy inputs; soy-or cottonseed-based foods
Прочитайте и устно переведите текст А5. Выпишите незнакомые слова
Text A5 EXTRUDING AS ONE OF OPERATIONS
IN FOOD PROCESSING
Food pastes include such products as macaroni, spaghetti, noodles, and vermicelli. Such products are called pasta. Italy is considered to be the place of origin of macaroni products. Pasta is manufactured in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. One of the main stages in pasta manufacturing is extruding. It should produce pasta of a uniform cross sectional shape1 and length, these characteristics are imparted by forcing an initial pasty mass through the dies of an extruder. For decades, the importance of temperature control to the operation has been highly valued. Extruders were jacketed to provide heating (sometimes cooling). These practices led to consideration of the extruder as a multi-purpose machine – heater, cooler, mixer, as well as a device for forming products like pasta.
Since extruding is used so widely for numerous food products (besides pasta, for example, for meat and fish products, ready-to-eat foods) it can be classified as one of the unit food processing operations.
During the last several years, interest has been shown in adding high-quality protein sources (milk powder, dried milk, whey, fish flour) and protein-rich sources (soy flour, soy concentrate, yeast protein, etc.) to extruded pasta products. Besides, food manufacturers have developed a number of blends, for example, a blend of cereals and legumes. In order to process blended foods, it was necessary to have a simple, rugged (прочный) and low-cost processing system. This necessity has resulted in designing low-cost extruder cookers (LEC).
The low-cost extruders differ from typical extruders in that the extrusion requires little added water, thus eliminating redrying after extrusion. In addition, all of the heat energy comes from the slow dissipation (рассеяние) of mechanical energy. Thus, no steam or auxiliary heat is required on the extruder barrel. One advantage of the LEC approach (метод) with soy–or cottonseed-based foods is that it offers a means of introducing high-quality protein, much needed food energy, along with vitamins and minerals into the diet at low cost.
1 – одинаковой формы в поперечном сечении; единообразный профиль
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Приведите в соответствие слова левой колонки со словами правой.
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2. Найдите в тексте синонимы выделенных слов.
Italy is regarded to be the birthplace of macaroni products; pasta is produced in a broad variety of forms; pasty mass is forced through the moulds of an extruder; the significance of temperature control has been highly estimated; interest stimulated by the requirement for improved alimentation; a mixture of cereals and legumes; the necessity has resulted in inventing cheap extruder cookers; one of the merits of the LEC method
3. Укажите номера пропущенных слов в данных предложениях.
1. Italy is considered to be the place of … of macaroni products. 2. Pasta is manufactured in a wide … of sizes and shapes. 3. These characteristics are imparted by forcing an … pasty mass through the … of an extruder. 4. Extruders were … to provide heating. 5. Extruding can be classified as one of the … food processing operations. 6. Interest has been shown in adding high-quality protein … to … pasta products. 7. In order to process … foods, it was necessary to have a simple, rugged … processing system. 8. New extruders … little added water, thus … redrying after extrusion. 9. All of the heat energy comes from the slow … of mechanical energy. 10. One advantage of the LEC approach with soy-or cottonseed-based foods is that it offers a … of introducing high-quality protein into the diet at low cost.
1. jacketed; 2. require, eliminating; 3. sources, extruded; 4. dissipation; 5. initial, dies; 6. variety; 7. means; 8. origin; 9. unit; 10. blended, low–cost
4. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What products do food pastes include? 2. What country is considered as the birthplace of macaroni products? 3. What characteristics are imparted to pasta by means of extruding? 4. What are the functions of an extruder? 5. Why can extruding be classified as one of the unit food processing operations? 6. What branches of food production is extruding used in? 7. What is added to extruder pasta products to make them more nutritious? 8. Why do food manufacturers need low-cost extruder cookers? 9. What is the difference between typical and low-cost extruders? 10. What advantage is achieved by using the LEC approach with soyor-cottonseed-based foods?
5. Кратко расскажите по–английски:
а) об экструзии как одной из составных операций пищевых производств (ее принципе действия и области применения);
б) о преимуществах нового типа экструдера.
Грамматическая тема «-ing ФОРМЫ»
(причастие, герундий, отглагольное существительное)
Способы различия:
Participle – обладает свойствами глагола и прилагательного/наречия
Gerund – обладает свойствами глагола и существительного
Verbal Noun – обладает свойствами существительного
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Функции и граммати-ческие признаки |
ПричастиеParticiple |
ГерундийGerund |
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—— |
Reading is his hobby. |
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—— |
He likes reading. |
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вспом. гл.”to be”+P I He is reading now. |
смысл. гл.”to be”+G His hobby is reading. |
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левое и правое a reading student the student reading a book |
только правое и всегда с предлогом “of / for” the rules of reading the book for reading |
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Reading such texts he uses a dictionary. |
предлог + Gerund By reading such texts he enlarges his vocabulary. |
Отглагольное существительное с окончанием “-ing” (Verbal Noun)
Данное отглагольное существительное имеет только внешнее сходство с Gerund Indefinite, так как не может иметь форм времени и не выражает залога, поскольку в отличие от Gerund обладает только свойствами существительного.
Характеристика:
The reading of such literature is useful.
His reading of poetry is wonderful.
The readings of our scientific society will begin next week.
We were impressed by his wonderful reading.
The reading of scientific literature is very important.
Сравните:
Reading scientific literature is very important.
1. Определите функции «–ING forms» и чем они выражены. Переведите данные предложения на русский язык.
1. The making of pasta has been known for many centuries. 2. The purpose of using sugar in confectionery production is clear. 3. Main sweetening agents are cane and beet sugars. 4. Candy manufacturing began rapidly to develop due to inventing confectionery machinery. 5. Machines cleaning and grading cacao beans were introduced only at the end of the 18th century. 6. The increasing popularity of macaroni products required more efficient technology. 7. At the beginning of the 20th century advanced equipment was introduced into food processing. 8. There are many factors affecting the development of new types of pasta. 9. One of the main stages of pasta manufacturing is extruding. 10. The necessity of an effective processing system has resulted in designing low-cost extruder cookers. 11. Producing flour the miller must carry out several steps before the actual milling. 12. Flour producing operations are performed by different milling facilities. 13. There are spring and winter wheats which define the season following planting. 14. In making flour we are interested in removing the bran and germ from the kernel.
2. Укажите номера предложений, в которых содержится герундиальный оборот (А) и независимый причастный оборот (В).
1. Candy makers must know sugar being used in two basic forms-either granulated or liquid. 2. After roasting cacao beans need cooling. 3. Extruding enables to produce pasta of different configuration, the shapes depending upon the dies of an extruder. 4. Sugars and starch belong to carbohydrates being composed of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon. 5. The requirement for improved nutrition has resulted in the development of new products, the addition of protein-rich sources to pasta products becoming most popular. 6. A confectioner believes the sugars present in candies and the manner of their treatment governing the characteristics of final products. 7. Pasta-type products having become an important part of the diet for people all over the world is evident. 8. Cacao beans must be fermented, the period of fermentation covering 7-12 days. 9. Refined sugar being almost 100 per cent pure sucrose is obvious. 10. Pure sucrose syrup being applied in various grades must be known by confectioners.
3. Переведите на английский язык данные словосочетания.
А. специалисты, работающие в хлебопекарной промышленности; машины, сортирующие продукцию; инженер, сконструировавший этот агрегат; кондитеры, производящие различные кондитерские изделия; устройство, контролирующее температуру;
В. метод экструдирования макаронных изделий; необходимость охлаждения сока; цель использования сахаров; возможность усовершенствования экструдера; способ обработки шоколада;
С. внедрив экструдер; говоря о разнообразии макаронных изделий; проанализировав новый продукт; решая проблему сохранения пищи; храня зерно при высокой температуре;
D. после обработки зерна; благодаря использованию подсластителей; не определив состав продукта; без использования жиров; при производстве муки
4. Переведите на английский язык данные предложения, используя причастный или герундиальный оборот.
1. То, что макаронные изделия производятся различного размера и формы известно давно. 2. То, что макаронные изделия производятся в широком разнообразии форм и размеров, стало возможным благодаря усовершенствованному типу экструдера. 3. Производители знают, что в процессе экструзии большое значение имеет температурный контроль. 4. Мы знаем, что экструдеры снабжаются кожухом для обеспечения тепла. 5. Технологи считают, что экструдер является агрегатом многоцелевого назначения. 6. Последние годы большой интерес проявляется к использованию белковых добавок, так как наблюдается потребность в улучшенном питании. 7. Специалисты понимают, что обработка смешанных продуктов требует простой, надежной и недорогостоящей технологической системы. 8. Новый тип экструдера имеет много преимуществ, причем одним из них является возможность избежать повторной сушки после экструзии.
Text B5 PASTA PRODUCTION: HISTORICAL REVIEW AND
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
PASTA PRODUCTION: HISTORICAL REVIEW AND
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
Pasta is an ancient foodstuff. However, the origin of pasta products is not well documented. One can only speculate that the earliest form of wheat consumption was probably in the form of paste products. According to one account, wheat cultivation began in Mesopotamia around 6,000 – 7,000 B.C. Around 2,000 B.C., the Egyptians discovered the fermentation process for baking as well as the use of unleavened dough for “noodle products”. Details of the development of the extrusion process, in general, and of its application to form flour products are still unknown. The first written record of this staple of human diet became known in Italy in 1279.
Pasta-type products have become an important part of the diet for people all over the world. The widespread consumption of paste products throughout the world is most likely due to their simple formulation and relative ease of processing, their storability and immense versatility, and their low cost relative to some other foods.
The popularity of pasta products eventually led to a crude form of mechanization in the 18th century. This apparently resulted in the development of the mechanical press, initially made of wood, by about 1850. At the turn of the present century, mixers, kneeders1, hydraulic extrusion press, and drying cabinets became available.
In the 1930s the batch hydraulic press was replaced by a continuous extruder developed in France to produce the myriad of pasta shapes available today. About the same time in Italy and Switzerland continuously operated automatic presses made their appearance. These extruders combine all the operations needed for the production of pasta. They have the ability to mix, knead, and form an endless variety of pasta types in a continuous process. In 1946, the first production line that converted semolina2 into dried pasta in one continuous operation came into being.
Due to advanced machinery and technology pasta products exist in many different configurations. There are over 150 pasta shapes. Manufacturers, however, try not only to improve pasta production and quality, but also to develop new types of pasta.
Письменно переведите Text C5 на русский язык.
The best known pastas are macaroni, vermicelli and spaghetti. There are also many other pastas which are called by Italian names given according to the shape or the region the pastas come from. Other countries, apart from Italy, have their forms of pasta, but in Italy it is part of the staple diet. The making of pasta has been known for many centuries. The earliest mention of a dough of this kind is found in Chinese and Japanese cook books dating 3000-3550 B.C. But it was often made with rice instead of wheat flour.
A small industry developed first in Italy, and by about 1800 the first mechanical devices for the manufacture of macaroni products appeared in Italy. These were very crude and inefficient. Nearly 50 years later the first hand-operated mechanical presses – mainly built from wood – came into existence. More elaborate machines were developed later, most of them driven by animal power, but the increasing popularity of macaroni products called for more efficient machinery.
At the beginning of the 20th century efficient equipment became available. Numerous and efficient plants for the production of macaroni products were built, and the home-made goods were replaced by goods produced by an economical process on a commercial scale.
Grammar « Complex Subject (Nominative with the Infinitive)»
Text A6 BREWING: RAW MATERIAL AND TECHNOLOGY
Active Vocabulary
brewer – пивовар
brew (v.,n.) – варить пиво;
варка, жидкий полуфабрикат, бражка
brewery – пивоваренный завод
malting – соложение
замачивание, чан для замачивания, замочная жидкость
hops – высушенные шишки хмеля (получение сусла)
clarity – прозрачность, чистота
clarified – осветленный (пиво)
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
1. Укажите номера русских эквивалентов.
1. next, 2. to a large extent, 3. constantly, 4. a lot of, 5. as well as, 6. by means of
1. постоянно, 2. также как, 3. следующий, 4. посредством, 5. в большой степени, 6. много
2. Запомните значение слова “TERM”; переведите словосочетания.
|
term – 1. термин; 2. срок, определенный период terms – 1. условия соглашения, договор; 2. выражения, язык, способ выражения |
in the simplest term; in terms of figures; in terms of money; in terms of product quality; to come to terms with somebody; a number of terms derived from Latin; the term of our research
3. Переведите на русский язык данные словосочетания.
to steep barley in water; to boil malted barley with hops; to mix malt with water in a mash tun; to cool hopped wort; to ferment malt wort flavoured with hops by yeast; to clarify or filter the beer; to pump the beer into storage tanks; to rack the beer into casks; to pack the final product into bottles or cans; to use on-line measurements; to monitor and control blending; to influence packaging technique; to maintain brightness and clarity
Прочитайте и устно переведите текст А6. Выпишите незнакомые слова
Beer is considered to be an effervescent (шипучий) beverage resulting from an extract of malted barley boiled with hops and fermented by yeast.
The basic raw materials for brewing include cereals (besides barley, oats, rice, maize, wheat); water (it accounts up to 90% by weight); yeast (specially selected strains). The first phase in the brewing process is malting: the barley is steeped in water for forty-eight hours or longer. Many complex changes take place during malting. The product resulting from the sprouting of the barley is called malt.
The next stage – mashing – consists in mixing malt with water in a special machine called a mash tun. The final result of mashing is the production of wort. The wort is then boiled with hops and later on hoped wort needs cooling.
The essential step in the brewing of beers involves fermenting: the fermentation of malt wort flavoured with hops takes place by means of adding to it yeast. The type of yeast determines the type of fermentation. There are two types of fermentation: “top fermentation” where yeast rises to the top and “bottom fermentation” where yeast falls to the bottom of the tank. The yeast changes the malt extract into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
It should be noted that the fermentation comes only as a climax of a whole series of operations, and the taste, aroma, and appearance of the beverage depend, to a large extent, on the stages leading to the fermentation.
When fermentation is completed the beer is clarified or filtered and is either pumped into storage tanks or racked into casks and finally packed into bottles and cans. The problem of packaging appears to be of great importance as the popularity and demand for brewing production greatly depend on the quality of packaging materials and their forms, their attractiveness playing a significant role.
Brewing is known to be traditionally done, but techniques are better understood and constantly improved. For example, brewers are increasingly using on-line measurements (замеры в режиме онлайн (в темпе поступления информации)) to monitor and control blending. They tend to influence flavour by controlling the raw materials, the fermentation and subsequent processing conditions and packaging techniques. A lot of work is being done to maintain or increase brightness and clarity. There have been considerable improvements in equipment as well.
Brewers are very concerned that the finished techniques they use are the best in terms of product quality and cost effectiveness. Nowadays, various kinds of beers are being manufactured, including light beer, ice beer, dry beer, etc.
1. Пользуясь текстом, укажите, под каким номером предлагаются определения к следующим словам; переведите полученные словосочетания на русский язык.
1. … beverage, 2. … raw materials, 3. … barley, 4. … process, 5. … changes,
6. … tank, 7. … tun, 8. … techniques, 9. … measurements, 10. … conditions
1. on-line, 2. packaging, 3. processing, 4. mash, 5. brewing, 6. basic, 7. complex,
8. effervescent, 9. malted, 10. storage
2. Назовите представленные сорта пива, указав номер соответствующего русского эквивалента.
1. cask/keg, 2. bottled, 3. canned, 4. bright/light, 5. clarified, 6. dark/black, 7. stable/un-stable, 8. weak/small, 9. green/new, 10. carbonated, 11. lager, 12. malt, 13. diabetic, 14. ice
1. солодовое 2. диетическое 3. слабоалкогольное 4. диабетическое 5. газированное 6. лагерное 7. светлое 8. бутылочное 9. зеленое (молодое) 10. баночное 11. охлажденное (со льдом) 12. бочковое 13. стойкое /нестойкое 14. темное 15. осветленное
3. Назовите английские эквиваленты следующих глаголов и составьте с ними предложения.
1. замачивать, 2. прорастать, 3. солодить (выращивать солод), 4. затирать, 5. очищать (осветлять), 6. варить (пиво), 7. смешивать, 8. качать насосом, 9. переливать, 10. прорастать
4. Укажите номера пропущенных слов.
1. The basic phase in the brewing process is … 2. The product resulting from the … of the barley is called malt. 3. The final result of mashing is the production of … 4. The fermentation of malt wort flavoured with … takes place by means of adding to it … 5. The yeast changes … into alcohol and carbon dioxide. 6. After fermentation the beer is … or filtered. 7. Brewers use on-line measurements to … and control blending. 8. Beer flavour greatly depends on the adequate control of the raw materials and … conditions. 9. A lot of work is being done to maintain or increase … and … of the beer. 10. Brewers are very … that the finished techniques are the best in terms of product quality and cost effectiveness.
1. wort, 2. malt extract, 3. monitor, 4. concerned, 5. processing, 6. malting,
7. brightness, clarity; 8. sprouting, 9. hops, yeast; 10. clarified
5. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. How is beer characterized? 2. What are the basic raw materials for brewing?
3. What main stages does the brewing process consist of? 4. What is the aim of each stage of brewing (malting, mashing, fermenting, filtering)? 5. Where is beer stored during maturation? 6. In what way do brewers influence beer flavour in? 7. What is the greatest concern of brewers?
6. Кратко расскажите по-английски:
а) об основных этапах процесса пивоварения,
б) о задачах пивоваров в целях получения качественной продукции.
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКАЯ ТЕМА
«СУБЪЕКТНЫЙ ИНФИНИТИВНЫЙ ОБОРОТ»
Грамматические признаки:
|
1) оборот образуется из |
существительного местоимения |
в Им. п. + ИНФИНИТИВ |
2) сказуемое является формальным; оно указывает лишь на отношение говорящего к высказываемому (выражает мнение, суждение или предположение); фактически его функцию выполняет инфинитив; обычно сказуемое выражено глаголами:
|
1. Active Voice |
2. to be + наречие/прилагательное |
3. Passive Voice |
|||
|
to seem to appear to happen to prove |
оказывается |
to be likely – вероятно |
а) |
to know to consider to believe to expect |
|
|
to be certain to be sure to be aware |
несомненно определенно |
б) |
to say to report to inform |
Перевод на русский язык:
1) глагол-сказуемое – неопределенно-личным оборотом или вводным словом;
2) оборот становится подлежащим и сказуемым предложения, т.е. инфинитив переводится личной формой глагола.
|
2 |
1 |
3 |
|
|
Brewing |
is known (is likely/is certain/is said/appears) |
to be |
a very ancient industry. |
Известно, что пивоварение является очень древним производством.
(вероятно/несомненно/говорят/оказывается)
Пивоварение, как известно, является очень древним производством.
1. Укажите номера предложений, содержащих субъектный инфинитивный оборот, и переведите эти предложения на русский язык.
1. The art of brewing has been known since ancient times. 2. The 20th century is said to be the period of the development of effective processing technology. 3. More than 400 compounds are reported to have been identified in hop essential oils. 4. Different varieties of cereals are used to produce different kinds of beer. 5. New hop and barley varieties prove to be developed by crossbreeding. 6. The brewery to be built in this region will produce several types of beer. 7. For centuries hops are known to have played a significant part in the art of brewing. 8. Refrigeration is certain to be widely used as a means of maintaining low temperatures in storing perishable foods. 9. The most difficult problem in pasteurizing bottled beer is considered to be the pressure which develops in the bottle. 10. In his book the scientist wanted to describe the history of brewing industry.
2. Выделите субъектный инфинитивный оборот в данных предложениях и переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. This specialist is said to have studied the art of brewing of ancient Egyptians. 2. Pasta-type products are certain to have become an important part of the diet for people all over the world. 3. Breadmaking is sure to have history as long as that of brewing. 4. The term beer is considered to mean a lager-type beer. 5. Beers appear to contain a less percentage of alcohol than ales. 6. The essential step in the brewing of beers is certain to involve the addition of yeast to the hopped malt wort. 7. During the process of fermentation the yeast proves to grow and reproduce. 8. The operation of malt crushing is likely to be gentle so as to minimize the damage to a filtering medium. 9. Excessive crushing is certain to cause the production of undesirable substances that affect flavour and stability of the final product. 10. New types of malts are expected to be developed by processing barley under different conditions.
3. Сравните формы инфинитива в предложениях каждой пары и переведите их на русский язык.
4. Переведите на английский язык следующие предложения, используя субъективный инфинитивный оборот.
The history of beer is closely connected with that of civilization. The art of brewing has been in existence between 6000 and 10000 B.C. years.
The Greek historian Herodotus mentions in his writings that the peoples of Abyssinia and Nubia prepared a drink from barley. Some experts consider, however, that crude brewing was first practised in Babylon from where the Egyptians borrowed the art. A crude type of beer was developed as a result of keeping unbaked barley dough during the preparation of bread, for the brewer was also the baker in ancient times.
But it has recently been suggested that the Egyptians learned this art from the peoples of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys where beer was a common domestic beverage in the years 5000-7000 B.C. So, there is no doubt that beer has been brewed for a long time and it is known to have played an important part in the social life of the earliest civilizations.
From Egypt the art of brewing was handed on to Jews and Greeks and found its way to Rome though beer was never to play such an important part in the economy of the vine-growing countries as among the Germans, Scandinavians and Britons where it has been the favourite drink from earliest recorded times.
During the Middle Ages beer was made by monasteries and also in private houses. It is interesting to note that in the larger establishments the brewery and bakery were always side by side. Despite its antiquity, beer gained very little commercial status until the 16th century. Until then, brewing was very much a domestic function much like baking and cooking.
Gradually brewing was taken over by specialists who built own breweries and some famous firms in existence today have a history of several hundred years old.
The scientific study of brewing originated from the discoveries of chemists nearly a century ago. All brewing materials and processes have been the subject of laborious study with great benefit to science in general and the brewing industry in particular. Science permits a firmer control over all brewery materials and operations. The chemist is largely concerned with the application of the latest knowledge to the control of malt, hops and yeast together with the processes involved in making them into beer.
Письменно переведите Text C6 на русский язык.
Notes
1- brew – жидкий полуфабрикат 3 - haze - мутность
2 - off-flavour – привкус 4 - adjunct – добавка
MATURATION
The fermented beer remains at 5ºC for up to 7 days, and during this time the yeast is pumped off from the bottom of the tank to be either re-used in brews1 or sold to a food processing company. At 5ºC active fermentation has almost ceased and the yeast absorbs several compounds produced during fermentation which could give rise to off-flavours2 in the finished product. The beer is tested at this point, and if it is of usual high quality, it is chilled down to -1ºC where it will remain for 2-3 weeks. In some European breweries this period may extend up to 2-3 months longer.
This period of cold storage may be compared to the storage of wine in that the beer matures. Certain undesirable compounds which could give rise to haze3 problems in the bottled beer are precipitated out of solution, and further undesirable flavour compounds are removed by the yeast. During the cold storage period the settled yeast is pumped off the tank at weekly intervals. All of this yeast is sold and not re-used.
The period of cold storage generally depends on a number of factors such as beer type, the strength of the beer, the ratio of malt to adjuncts4 and the treatment used.
Grammar «Complex Object» (Objective with the Infinitive)
Text A7 SOME STAGES IN WINE MAKING
Active Vocabulary
green /bottled/ sparkling/ fortified/ table /vintage – молодое/ бутылочное/ игристое/ крепленое/ столовое/ марочное
wine making – виноделие
winemarker – винодел
winery – винзавод
vintage – годичная продукция винограда/ вина
ageing – выдерживание, выдержка
fining – очистка, рафинирование; оклейка (вина)
racking – переливание, сливание
binning – выдерживание (бутылочного вина) в подвалах
blending – смешивание, купажирование (вина)
filtering – фильтрование
clarification – осветление
stabilizing – стабилизация, стойкость
settling – отстаивание, осаждение
containerization – контейнеризация
refrigeration – охлаждение
fortification – крепление (вина)
aroma [ 'roum ] – аромат
to draw off – снимать с осадка; сцеживать
vessel – резервуар, чан; варочный котел
cask = barrel – бочонок, бочка
vat – чан
tank – танк, чан
PRE-TEXT EXERCISES
1. Запомните значение данных слов.
|
prior – прежний, предшествующий prior to – раньше, прежде, до priority – 1. очередность, порядок срочности 2. приоритет |
prior stages, prior technology; prior to filtration, steps prior to maturing; binning takes priority of blending
|
time – 1. время 2. период; эпоха 3. раз |
the time of the day, from time to time, in time, much time, to have a good time, to go with the time; old times, hard times; the time of discoveries, the time of explorations;
many times, several times, the number of times, four-five times
2. Переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.
to transform green wine into an acceptable product; to develop the ultimate bouquet of a wine; to bring about clarification of wine; to accomplish fining in relatively small vessels; to involve many variables; to determine the amount of fining agents; to form lees and sediment; to hasten the process of ageing; to prefer coloured bottles; not to filter prior to bottling; to practice filtration; to choose equipment and filtering media; to fortify wines
Прочитайте и устно переведите текст А7. Выпишите незнакомые слова
Maturing and Ageing. The aim of this process is known to be the transformation of the green wine into an acceptable product for market. There is the requirement for all wines for a minimum of clarification, stabilizing and settling prior to containerizing for the market. This period is critical for the development of the ultimate bouquet of a wine due to chemical reactions. There is the additional
maturing and ageing that occurs at the winery once a wine is in the bottle.
Fining. Fining is the term used to describe traditional methods for bringing about clarification of wine. Fining agents include gelatin, casein, tannin and some other additives. Because of so many variables involved, a careful laboratory examination of the wine is made prior to selection and determination of the amount of fining agent to be used. Overfining appears to cause a cloudy wine.
Racking. This operation involves the drawing off of the clear portion of a young wine from one vessel (vat, cask, or barrel) and transferring it to another vessel. In this process, the lees and sediment formed during the prior storage period are separated. Depending upon the type and quality of wine, the number of times a wine will be racked ranges from a minimum of two to three or more. In the period between rackings, the wine is maturing. Traditional winemakers are known to prefer storing their wine in wooden containers (casks). The size of the container affects the rate of ageing. Winemakers have found refrigeration to help to quicken the ageing process. It should be noted, however, full development of bouquet and flavour in wines is attainable only by slow ageing.
Binning. Binning is the term used to describe the storage of bottled wine for ageing. Always with table and sparkling wines, the bottles should be stored on their side so that the wine is in constant contact with cork. The wine should be stored at cool temperature. Because of the adverse affects of light upon ageing, coloured bottles (brown or green) are preferred.
Blending. Usually, the mixing of the wine of several casks to equalize vintage in any given year is not considered to be blending in the usual sense. Some wines depend upon a carefully worked-out system of blending.
Filtering. Some of the most superior wines are not filtered prior to bottling for some risks are involved if one is attempting to bring out the ultimate bouquet that will develop by further ageing in the bottle. But, most wines do not fall into this category and filtration is commonly practiced.
Fortification. Generally, the term signifies a wine that contains more alcohol than is obtainable through natural fermentation. It should be mentioned that a fortified wine is not grape juice to which alcohol has been added. Sweet table wines are examples of fortified products.
ASSIGNMENTS
1. A. Назовите глаголы, соответствующие данным словам и дайте их значение.
acceptable, requirement, additional, occurrence, accomplishment, preference, haste, attainable, involvement, attempting, determination, significance, equalization
Б. Найдите в тексте предложения с вышеуказанными словами.
2. Укажите номера словосочетаний, объясняющих сущность технологических процессов виноделия.
1. maturing, 2. ageing, 3. fining, 4. racking, 5. binning, 6. blending, 7. filtering, 8. fortification, 9. clarification, 10. settling
1. wine alcoholization, 2. making wine clear (transparent), 3. storing bottled wine in cellars for ageing, 4. passing wine through a filter prior to bottling, 5. keeping all wines for a minimum of clarification, stabilizing and settling prior to containerizing for market, 6. drawing off young wine from one vessel and transferring it to another vessel to separate the sediment, 7. clarifying wine by depositing the sediment, 8. the transformation of the green wine into an acceptable product for market, 9. mixing the wine of several casks to equalize vintage in any given year, 10.methods for bringing about clarification of wine
3. Назовите русские эквиваленты предлагаемых сортов вина.
1. bottled, 2. green/young, 3. matured/aged, 4. immature, 5. cloudy, 6. blended, 7. fortified, 8. sparkling, 9. still, 10. sweet, 11. dry/semidry, 12. strong, 13. table, 14. vintage, 15. tonic
1. марочное, 2. крепленое, 3. крепкое, 4. сухое/полусухое, 5. тонизирующее, 6. сладкое, 7. невыдержанное, 8. столовое, 9. игристое, 10. выдержанное, 11. мутное (с мутью), 12. бутылочное, 13. купажное, 14. тихое/неигристое, 15. молодое
4.Укажите номера синонимичных пар.
1. bring about, 2. ultimate, 3. adverse, 4. signify, 5. attainable, 6. obtainable, 7. sediment, 8. bouquet, 9. prior to, 10. cask, 11. vat
1. harmful, 2. tank, 3. barrel, 4. receivable, 5. lees, 6. before, 7. final, 8. mean, 9. cause, 10. aroma, 11. achievable
5. Укажите номера пропущенных слов в следующих предложениях.
1. The requirement for all the wines during … and ageing is clarification, stabilizing, and settling prior to … for the market. 2. Maturing and ageing is critical for the development of the … bouquet of a wine. 3. … is most efficiently accomplished in relatively small vessels. 4. In the process of racking … and … formed during prior storage period are separated. 5. The size of the … affects the rate of ageing. 6. Winemakers consider that … helps to quicken the ageing process. 7. Full development of … and … in wines is attainable only by slow ageing. 8. … is the term used to describe the storage of bottled wine for ageing. 9. Because of the … affect of light upon ageing coloured bottles are preferred. 10. Some wines depend upon a carefully worked-out system of … .
1.binning, 2. adverse, 3. bouquet, flavour; 4. blending, 5. maturing, 6. fining, 7. container, 8. ultimate, 9. refrigeration, 10. lees, sediment
6. Ответьте на следующие вопросы.
1. What is the aim of the process of maturing and ageing? 2. What is the requirement for all wines prior to containerization for the market? 3. When does additional maturing occur? 4. What does the process of fining mean? 5. What does the operation of racking involve? 6. What does the number of times of racking depend upon? 7. How can the term of binning be explained? 8. What is said about blending and filtering? 9. What does the term “fortification” signify?
7. Кратко расскажите по-английски:
а) о технологии производства вина;
б) о сырье и конечном продукте данной отрасли.
«ОБЪЕКТНЫЙ ИНФИНИТИВНЫЙ ОБОРОТ»
Грамматические признаки:
|
1) Оборот: |
существительное в Общем падеже местоимение в Косвенном падеже |
+ ИНФИНИТИВ |
2. Употребление: после глагола-сказуемого, выражающего:
а) желание (to want, to wish, to desire …),
б) умственные восприятия (to know, to consider, to believe …),
в) просьбу, приказание (to ask, to order),
г) физические восприятия (to hear, to see, to feel …) – в этом случае инфинитив употребляется без частицы «to»
3. Перевод на русский язык: придаточным дополнительным предложением, подлежащим и сказуемым которого становится оборот (следовательно, инфинитив переводится личной формой глагола).
We heard an interesting research have been done in the field of wine making in this laboratory. – Мы слышали, что интересное исследование было сделано в области виноделия в этой лаборатории. |
1. Укажите номера предложений, содержащих объектный инфинитивный оборот.
1. This type of wine is found to be most popular. 2. Winemakers consider the type of wine to depend on the raw material and the manner of its processing. 3. They discussed the methods to be applied in their research. 4. I heard this laboratory carry out experiments with wine filtration next month. 5. We have tested the clarified juice to be concentrated in a vacuum evaporator. 6. They expect a new winery to be built in this region. 7. Technologists knew some efficient methods to have been elaborated for quality control of foodstuffs.
2. Переведите на русский язык данные предложения, обращая внимание на формы инфинитива.
А. 1. The chief technologist of the winery ordered the workers to stop the production line because of the unexpected breakage of one of the installations. 2. They wished this very expert to take part in their research of table wines. 3. Winemakers know many changes in wine to take place during the fermentation process.
В. 1. Technologists believe cloudy wine to be clarified and aged before binning. 2. The administration wanted its winery to be reconstructed next year. 3. I suppose sugar to be used in the process of wine fermentation.
С. 1. Experts believe grape culture to have reached its widest extension in Europe in the 15th century. 2. Documents state Europeans to have imported wines if their climatic conditions were unsuited for grape cultivation. 3. We know than to have carried out the analysis of grape juice.
D. 1. They heard some wineries have been reconstructed according to their project. 2. Scientists believe the art of wine making to have been discovered in India and Egypt 3500 B.C. 3. We know mathematical models to have been developed to predict the length of some technological processes.
3. Переведите на русский язык данные предложения, выделив объектный инфинитивный оборот.
1. Winemakers expect new technologies to be applied to improve wine quality and enlarge wine assortment. 2. We know various types of wines to be produced on an increasing industrial scale in our days. 3. Winemakers recommend the fermenting vats to be filled not completely because of chemical reactions. 4. They believe a new method of filtration to be introduced in this winery. 5. Food scientists regard sugar to be the most economical form of food energy. 6. Specialists say the fermenters used for dry red wine processing to vary in size. 7. They expected their experiment with green wine to give interesting results. 8. The worker saw the pressure in vats remain unchanged during the process of racking. 9. We heard advanced equipment have been installed in this winery. 10. Specialists know wine making to create a certain amount of organic waste.
4. Следуя модели, сделайте необходимые изменения в структуре данных предложений, т.е., используя объектный инфинитивный оборот, замените сложно-подчиненные предложения простыми.
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Scientists consider that India and Egypt are the first countries making wine. → Scientists consider India and Egypt to be the first countries making wine. We expect that this type of wine will be widely produced. → We expect this type of wine to be widely produced. |
1. We know that wines are divided into two groups-vintage and ordinary. 2. Everybody understands that wineries are usually built not far from vineyards as only fresh grapes give good wines. 3. Technologists believe that mature fresh grapes are used for the production of table wines. 4. People consider that grape wine has been the best beverage since ancient times. 5. We know that modern wine making is a highly developed industry. 6. Specialists know that a desirable and acceptable bouquet of wine is formed during clarifying and ageing. 7. Winemakers saw that wines in small casks matured much faster in warm cellars. 8. Technologists expect that lees and sediment are separated during racking.
5. Переведите на английский язык следующие предложения, используя объектный инфинитивный оборот.
1. Мы знаем, что целью процесса созревания и выдерживания является пре-
образование молодого вина в продукт, приемлемый для рынка. 2. Эффективная технология требует, чтобы все вина подвергались осветлению, стабилизации и отстаиванию до их контейнеризации. 3. Следует помнить, что конечный аромат вина развивается в процессе выдерживания. 4. Технологи полагают, что оклейка вина осуществляется более эффективно в небольших емкостях. 5. Во время экскурсии на винзавод студенты узнали (услышали), что процесс переливания включает сцеживание молодого вина из одной емкости и его перемещение в другую. 6. Практика показала, что продолжительность этого процесса зависит от сорта и качества вина. 7. Виноделы обнаружили, что охлаждение ускоряет процесс выдерживания вина. 8. Доказано, что взаимосвязь размера конечной емкости и времени выдерживания вина является очень важной в процессе хранения бутылочного вина в подвалах.
Text B5 FROM THE HISTORY OF WINE MAKING
Notes
Wine has been a part of the diet of man since he settled in the Tigris-Euphrates basin and in Egypt several thousand years before our era. From these regions the vine1 was carried to all the Mediterranean countries by pre-Christian traders. Grape culture for wine production was known to the Assyrians and Egyptians by 3500 B.C. Greek traders brought grapes to Marseille by 600 B.C. and grape culture had spread far down the Rhine by 200 A.D. and reached its widest extension in Europe in the 15th century.
Long ago, wine became the normal table beverage of the Mediterranean countries, except for those where religion forbade its use. Even non-wine producing countries, such as England, the Benelux, and Scandinavian countries, imported large amounts of wine. Wherever Europeans have settled they have attempted the culture of the vine or, failing this, they have imported European wines for their needs.
The literature contains many references to the importance of wine from Homer to Hemingway. Roman historians and poets have left us eloquent testimony in praise2 of wine. The vine was cultivated and wines were made throughout Europe during the post-Roman and pre-modern period.
Assyrian records indicate that legal controls on wine making are several thousand years old. The regulations3 seem to have been made with the idea of preventing falsification or sophistication4 of commercial wines. To prevent dilution5 of wine in the Middle Ages, taverns were forbidden to have water. This concept is present in the laws of many countries at present. Various legal restrictions were set up to prevent wines from being diluted or otherwise reduced in quality with consequent loss in sales and reduction in the state’s revenue6.
Another concept, developed particularly in England, was that alcoholic beverages were a luxury product and should be especially taxed7 to produce additional revenue for the state. This idea is very much in evidence in modern British and American taxes on alcoholic beverages. It is not absent from the French and Italian tax structure.
Finally, in the late nineteenth century the development of public health regulations for foods began and many of these were applied to wines. This aspect of legal control is still being developed.
Маргарита Ставровна Иоаниди
Татьяна Игоревна Расторгуева
Кафедра “Иностранные языки”
Авторская редакция
Считка авторская