Notes refers to the pst present or future it shows only whether the ction is simultneous with the ction expressed by the min verb or prior to it
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- General Characteristics of the non-finite forms of the verb (verbals).
There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to take), the gerund (taking), participle I (taking), participle II (taken). The non-finite forms can be used in any function, but the predicate. The main features of the non-finite forms:
- They don’t have the categories of person, number and mood;
- They don’t have tenses, though there is a relative tense distinction: the form of the verbal doesn’t show whether the action it denotes refers to the past, present or future, it shows only whether the action is simultaneous with the action, expressed by the main verb, or prior to it. F.e. I’m glad to meet you(simult.); I’m glad to have met you(priority).
- All verbals are of double nature, that is they have grammatical features, common with the verb and the noun(gerund/infinitive) and common with the verb and the adj. and adv.(Participles).
- Characteristics of the infinitive…
The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in a most general way. The Infinitive is usually treated as the initial form of the verb. F.e. To err is human. In modern English the Infinitive has a double nature, that is nominal and verbal.
The nominal features(revealed only in its syntactic functions):
- Can be used as a subject. F.e. To succeed takes courage.
- As a predicative. F.e. The purpose of the lecture is to teach you.
- As an object. F.e. I want to sleep.
The verbal features:
- The infinitive of the transitive verbs takes a direct object. F.e. I began to feel some pain.
- Can be modified by an adverb. F.e. I want to finish it quickly.
- Morphologically the infinitive has the following verb categories(of voice, aspect, relative tense)
- Grammatical forms and categories of the infinitive.
Forms:
- The simple inf. is used is used when the actions expressed by the inf. and the main verb are simultaneous. F.e. I seem to know him.
- The continuous inf. also denotes simult. actions, but the action, expressed by the inf. is in progress. F.e. He seems to be falling asleep.
- The perfect inf. denotes the action prior to the main verb. F.e. He seems to have bought this book.
- The perfect cont. inf. denotes an action that lasted a period before the action of the main verb. F.e. He seems to have been waiting for you for an hour.
Categories:
- Of voice – only in the inf. of trans. verbs. F.e. I want to love(act.) and be loved(passive).
- Of aspect(continuous::non-continuous). F.e. At that moment I happened to be standing there.
- Of relative tense(simult::prior). F.e. I’m sorry to have kept you waiting.
- The use of the bare infinitive.
The bare infinitive is used:
- After modal verbs (except “ought to”). F.e. You must do your homework today.
- After the emphatic “do”. F.e. I do love you.
- After the verb “to help”. F.e. Could you help me carry this bag?
- After verbs of permission, causation:
- make (in the active voice). F.e. They made me do it.
BUT in the passive “to” is used – F.e. I was made to do it.
- have smb do sth. F.e. They had me come at 5. I won’t have you behave that way.
- let (in the active only), in passive – “to be allowed to”.
- bid. F.e. They bade me buy those shoos.
- In the inf. sentences, beginning with “why/why not”. F.e. Why not celebrate X-mas here?
- After the verbs of perception (sensory verbs) – in the active voice only. [see, hear, watch, notice, feel, sense]. F.e. I saw him cross the street.
- After the following expressions: had better, would rather, would sooner, would rather do sth than do sth, cannot but do sth, to do nothing but do sth, might just as well do sth.
- Functions of the infinitive in the sentence.
- The inf. functioning as subject may either precede the predicate or follow it. In the latter case it is introduced by the so-called introductory It , which is placed at the beginning of the sentence. F.e. To read is useful. It is everyone’s duty to attend classes.
- As a predicative it is used after link verb “to be”. F.e. All I need is to be left alone. Can be introduced by the conj. [how, what, whom, when, where]. F.e. The question is what to do.
- Part of a compound verbal(CV) predicate
- Part of a CV modal predicate – after modal verbs and verbs, denoting modality[had better, would rather, would sooner, rather than]. F.e. You should do your homework.
- Part of a CV aspect predicate – after verbs denoting beginning/continuation of an action[to begin, to start, to continue, to finish, to cease]. F.e. He began to work.
- Object. F.e. I hope to see you today.
- Attribute. F.e. There’s every reason to believe him; years to come; I have something to tell you.
- Adverbial modifier:
- of purpose – the inf. can be introduced by [in order to do/so as to do]. F.e. Sometimes you retreat in order to advance.
- of result – usually occurs after adjectives. Conj-s[enough, too, sufficiently, quite, such as, so as]. F.e. I was too busy to see you. He came to Africa to die.
- of comparison(manner) – [as if, as though]. F.e. She moved her hand as if to stop him.
- Parenthesis – to tell you the truth, to make matters worse, so to speak, so to say, to be more exact, to be frank etc.
- The for-to-infinitive construction.
The for-to-infinitive construction is a construction in which the inf. is in predicate relation with a noun or pronoun, preceded by the preposition “for”. F.e. It is necessary for you to do it. All the elements of this construction function as a single part of the sentence:
- As a subject (usually introduced by “it”)
- Predicative is used after the verb “to be”. F.e. This is for you to decide.
- Object. F.e. Students waited for the results to be announced.
- Attribute. F.e. Here are some books for you to read.
- Adv.mod.: - of purpose (F.e. Call me for me not to be late). – of result (F.e. The problem was too hard for you to solve).
- The use of the complex object with the infinitive.
In complex object the inf. is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the genetive case. CO-construction is used in the following cases:
- After verbs of perception [see, hear, feel, watch, observe, notice]. F.e. No one has ever heard her cry.{bare inf}
- After verbs of mental activity [think, believe, consider, expect, understand, suppose, find]. F.e. I know him to be an honest man.{to-inf}
- After verbs of emotion [would like, would love, would hate, would dislike]. F.e. I’d love you to come with me too. {to-inf}
- After verbs of wish and intention [want, wish, desire, intend, mean]. F.e. I don’t want him to be punished. {to-inf}
- After verbs of declaring [declare, pronounce]. F.e. I declare you to be out of your mind. {to-inf}
- After verbs of inducement [have, make, get, order, tell, ask]. F.e. I can’t get him to do it properly. {to-inf}
- The use of the complex subject with the infinitive.
Complex subject is used in the following cases:
- After the verbs used in CO (perception, mental activity), but their main verbs are in the passive voice. F.e. She is said to fall in love. You are supposed to know grammar.
- After such word groups: to be sure, to be certain, to be likely, to be unlikely, to be not likely. F.e. He is likely to come in time.
- After such verbs in the active voice: [seem, appear, happen, prove, turn out]. F.e. He proved to be a real friend.
- Characteristics of the gerund…
The gerund is non-finite form of the verb which is of a double nature since it developed from the noun and was verbalized. It serves as the verbal name of a process. Its substantive qualities are stronger than that of the infinitive.
The nominal ch-cs of the gerund:
- Like a noun it can function as: a subject(F.e. Swimming is fun); an object(F.e. I like swimming); a predicative(F.e. My favorite sport is swimming)
- Like a noun it can be preceded by a preposition(F.e. I’m sick and tired of your talking)
- Can be modified by a possessive pronoun(F.e. I insist on your coming)
The verbal ch-cs:
- It may be modified by an adverb(F.e. Thank you for coming quickly)
- The gerund of the transitive verbs takes a direct object (F.e. Editing the article is easy)
- Morphologically it has the verb categ. of:
- relative tense (non-perf::perf)
- the simple gerund is used when the action expressed by the gerund is simultaneous with the action expressed by the predicate.
- Grammatical forms and categories of the gerund.
The gerund has only two grammatical categories, those of voice and perfect. Voice – active::passive; perfect – perfect::non-perfect.
- Category of perfect. The non-perfect gerund denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb(F.e. He improved his pronunciation by listening to tape recordings). The perfect gerund denotes an action prior to the action denoted by the finite verb(F.e. I regret having uttered these words).
- Category of voice. Active gerund points out that the action is directed from the subject, whereas the passive gerund indicates that the action is directed towards the subject.(F.e. I hate interrupting people::I hate being interrupted). There are some verbs [need, want require, deserve] and the adj. worth, which are followed by the active gerund with passive meaning(F.e. You hair needs washing).
- Syntactic functions of the gerund.
- Subject, trans. into ukr. by the means of the noun(F.e. Measuring temperature is necessary). The subject stands on postposition in the sentence opening with an introductory It [It is no point, It is useless, There is no point, It is no good, It is worth](F.e. It is no point in running back).
- Predicative – in this function the gerund is used after link verb to be, and sometimes with prepositions [for, against](F.e. All you need is having a good sleep; I’m against being sent to school).
- A part of a compound verbal predicate(CVP)
- When the gerund is used with the verbs denoting the beginning, continuation and the end of an action, it forms a CVaspectP – [to go on, keep on, finish, leave off, stop, burst out, begin, start]. With the verbs and phrases denoting modality, the gerund forms CmodalP – [can’t help doing, intend doing, need, want, require, deserve].
- The gerund can be used as a direct or prepositional object(F.e. I’m fond of reading::I’m used to being talked to like that).
- Attribute – in this function the gerund modifies nouns always preceded by a preposition(F.e. She found an opportunity of going there).
- Adverbial modifier - the gerund in this function is usually preceded by a preposition:
- Of time – on, upon, after, before, in, at(F.e. At hearing that news she turned pale)
- Of manner – by, in(F.e. He improved his essay by proof-reading).
- Attending circumstances – without, besides, instead of, apart from(F.e. Besides being clever she’s beautiful).
- Purpose – for, for the purpose of, with the object of, with a view to.(F.e. She interrupted him for asking a question).
- Condition – without, in case of, in the event of, but for(F.e. You can’t speak correct English without knowing grammar).
- Reason/Cause – for, for fear of, owing to, because of, on account of(F.e. She couldn’t fall asleep for warring).
- Concession – in spite of, despite(F.e. In spite of being left alone he succeeded)
- Gerundial predicative constructions.
These constructions are used in cases when the subject of the gerundial process differs from the subject of the finite verb. The nominal element of the construction(the doer) can be expressed by the noun in the genitive case(animate nouns) or common case(inanimate nouns) or by a possessive pronoun. The nominal element of this construction can also be expressed by a pronoun without case distinctions, such as: both, all, this, that, each, something(F.e. I rely on both of you writing an article). This constr. forms a syntactic unit serving as one part of the sentence:
- Complex subject(F.e. Masha’s being rude was disgusting)
- Complex object(F.e. I insist on your returning home soon)
- Complex attribute(F.e. There is no hope our winning the championship)
- Complex adv. modifier(F.e. On lecturer’s entering the hall, there was a loud applause)
- The gerund and the infinitive compared.
In the infinitive the verbal nature is more prominent, and in gerund the nominal one. The basic difference in their meaning is that the gerund is more general, whereas the infinitive is more specific and more bound to some particular occasion.
- With the verbs to like, to hate, to prefer the gerund expresses a more general or a habitual action, the infinitive a specific one (F.e. I hate interrupting people::I hate to interrupt you, but I have to).
- With the verbs to begin and to start either form may be used, but again the gerund is preferable when the action is more general (F.e. She began singing when a child::She went over to the piano and began to sing).
- The verb to remember is followed by a gerund when it means a prior action(to recall), and by infinitive when it means a simultaneous action(the working of one’s memory); the same refers to the verb to forget(F.e. I remembered posting the letters::I remembered(не забув) to post the letters)(F.e. I shall never forget hearing him sing::Don’t forget(не забудь) to post the letters!).
- The verb to regret is followed by the gerund to suggest priority, whereas the infinitive suggests a simultaneous action (F.e. I regret following his advice::I regret to inform you).
- After to stop the gerund is used when it suggests the end of the action, whereas the infinitive is used as an adverbial of purpose (F.e. I stopped talking::I stopped to talk to a friend of mine); the phrasal verb to go on with a gerund suggests the continuation of the action and forms a part of a compound verbal predicate, an infinitive points out a new stage in the sequence of actions (F.e. The teacher went on explaining the use of verbals::The teacher went on to explain the use of the gerund after some verbs).
- The verb to allow is used with a gerund when it is not followed by an indirect object (F.e. They don’t allow smoking here::They allowed us to smoke).
- Characteristics of the Participle I; manifestation of its adjectival/adverbial and verbal nature.
P. is a non-finite form of the verb which has verbal, adjectival and adverbial features. It is formed by adding the suffix –ing to the stem of the verb. P.I is used:
a) to form the progressive aspect (F.e. We are working)
b) to modify a noun as an attribute (F.e. Let sleeping dogs lie)
c) to modify a phrase of sentence as an adv.mod. (F.e. Broadly speaking the project was a success).
The verbal ch-r of P.I is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and perfect and syntactically in its combinability. Thus, like the other non-finites, it may combine: a) with a noun or pronoun as an object; b) with an adverb or prepositional phrase as an adv.mod.; c) wth a noun or adjective as a predicative. The adj. and adv. features of P.I are manifested in its syntactical functions as an attribute and an adv.mod.
- Grammatical forms and categories of the P.I.
Categories:
- Of perfect: The non-perfect form suggests that the action denoted by participle I is simultaneous with that of the finite verb (F.e. Learning foreign languages you know your native tongue better). The perfect form of participle I indicates that the action denoted by the participle is prior to that denoted by the finite verb (F.e. Having learnt the elements of English we started upon French).
- Of voice: Participle I active denotes an action directed from the doer of the action, while participle I passive denotes an action directed towards it.(F.e. Translating from English into Ukrainian, she should know well both languages::Being translated into many languages, the novel is known all over the world)
- Functions of P.I in the sentence.
- Attributive (only P.I simple)(F.e. The man, smoking a cigar, is my father)
- Adverbial modifier:
- Time – is usually expressed by P.I simple of verbs of motion and perception (F.e. Turning slowly, she left the room). Conj: when, while.
- Reason/cause – verbs, denoting emotions and mental activity(knowing, remembering, realizing, fearing)(F.e. Knowing English well, he translated without the dictionary)
- Attending circumstances – P.I denotes some actions which are parallel to the action, denoted by the finite verb (F.e. He was sitting in an armchair reading a book)
- Manner – characterizes the action of the finite verb (F.e. She was running breathing heavily)
- Comparison – conj: as if, as though.
- Parenthesis (F.e. generally speaking, legally, strictly, broadly, roughly, putting it mildly, taking everything into account).
- Characteristics of the P.II; manifestation of its adjectival/adverbial and verbal nature.
P.II is non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival features. It is single-form, having no grammatical paradigm of its own, but implicitly it conveys the gram. meaning of the perfect and passive. The adjectival nature of P.II manifests itself in its function in the sentence, which is usually attribute or predicative. It may combine with adverbs of degree very, too, slightly, so, much, more, as (F.e. I am very pleased with you). The verbal character of P.II is manifested in its combinability. Thus P.II of trans. verbs easily combines with a by-object denoting the doer of the action(F.e. Jane entered the room followed by her brother). One of the main verbal features of P.II is revealed in its functioning as part of the compound verb forms of the passive voice and the perfect.
18. Functions of P.II in the sentence.
1) attribute – P.II can be used
a) before a noun it modifies (F.e. It was a neatly written letter)
b) after a noun it modifies - with one or more accompanying words: preposition, by-object phrase, adverb with a phrase(F.e. These are letters written by her lover). P.II can also be used as a detached attribute, occupying in initial, mid or final position in the sentence (F.e. Greatly excited, we decided to celebrate)
- Predicative – when used after to be or link verbs (F.e. The road is finished)
- Adv.mod:
- Of time – [when, while, till, until] (F.e. He won’t stop arguing until interrupted)
- Of condition – [if, unless] (F.e. He won’t stop talking, unless interrupted)
- Of concession – [though, although] (F.e. Though plunged into his thoughts, he gave me a clear answer)
- Of comparison – [as if, as though] (F.e. He looked at me as if puzzled by my question).
- The use of the complex object with P.I.
Complex object consists of a NOUN in the common case or a PRONOUN in the objective case +P.I, forming a syntactic unit. It is used:
- After verbs of perception (F.e. We were listening to the train arriving)
- After verbs to find, to catch, to discover (F.e. We caught our cat steeling meat)
- With verbs of causative meaning to start, to set, to keep, to leave, to get, to have (F.e. Don’t keep me waiting;Your words set/left me thinking)
- Occasionally with verbs to want, to like (F.e. I don’t want you talking back to me)
- The use of the complex object with P.II.
Denotes passive meaning. It is used:
- After verbs denoting wish to wish, to want, to like, to prefer, to desire (F.e. I want the exercise done)
- To see, to hear, to feel, to find (F.e. We found the door locked)
- Words of causation to have, to get, to make (F.e. Where did you have your hair cut)
- Have+obj+P.II – denotes smth done by amb else (F.e. I had my car cleaned)
- The use of the complex subject.
This is a construction in which the P.(usually P.I) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is a subject of the sentence. This constr. is used:
- With the verbs of perception, used in the passive voice (F.e. He was often seen drunk)
- After such verbs to find, to leave, to catch, to report – used in the passive voice (F.e. She was found sitting in the library)
- The nominative and prepositional absolute participial constructions.
The nom.abs.P.const. consists of two interdependent elements, nominal and verbal, which are in a predicative relation. The nominal element is a noun in a common case or a pronoun in the nominative case. The verbal is P.I in any of its forms. The nominal and the verbal elements make a syntactical complex functioning as a detached adv.mod. This c-n does not depend on a verb. The c-n functions syntactically as an adv.mod:
- Of attending circumstances (F.e. She hurried out of the car and walked away, tears streaming down her face)
- Of reason (The ship’s band did not play in the morning, it being Sunday)
- Of time[тоді, коли, після того як] (F.e. The question solved, we decided to have some rest)
- Of condition[якщо] (F.e. Weather permitting, we shall go for a picnic)
Prepositional absolute P.c-n(with P.I,II) is introduced by the preposition “with”. Its nominal element is usually a noun in the common case(or rarely a personal pronoun in the objective case). The main syntactic function of this c-n is an adv.mod. of attending circumstances (F.e. She rushed out of the room with her heart beating fast).
- Syntax as a part of grammar; its general characteristics.
Syntax deals with word combinations, clauses, sentences, texts, that is their combinability and relationships. These units can be analyzed from different points of view so consequently there exist different syntactic theories. The core of syntax is the study of the sentence. Syntax embraces on the one hand the structure of the sentence, that is, its components, their structure and the relations between these components, and on the other hand structural and communicative types of sentences.
- Characteristics of syntactic theories.
- Transformational Generative Syntax deals with a sentence from the point of view of its deep structure. Was introduced by an American scholar Z. Harris. The main point of this syntax is that the endless variety of sentences can be reduced to a definite number of kernels by means of transformation. The most typical kernel sentences of English are:
- N V – Mary plays
- N to be Adj – mary is beautiful
- N to be N – Mary is a girl
- N V N – John hits Bob
- N V N N – John gave Bob a book
- Constructional Syntax
Was introduced by prof. G. Pocheptsov. It deals with the constructional significance or insignificance of a part of a sentence for the whole syntactic unit.
- Communicative Syntax.
Is concerned with the analyses of utterances from the point of their communicative value and informative structure. It deals with “the actual division of the sentence” or the com.perspective, that is with theme and rheme. The theme is smth that is already known while the rheme represents new information. (F.e. Who is at home – John is at home(theme)::Where is John – John is at home(rheme))
- Modern approaches to analyzing syntactic units: pragmatics, discourse analysis, cognitive linguistics.
- Pragmatic approach can be described as the study of the way language units are used in particular contexts to achieve writer’s or speaker’s goals to influence the interlocutor, the situation. This approach is connected with Speech act theory by Austin, which presupposes that an utterance can be said with dif. intentions and thereof can influence the speaker and the situation in dif. ways. Within this theory there was given a classification of speech acts:
- Assertive – describe states or events in the world (F.e. Columbus discovery of America)
- Directives – when the sentence tries to make the addressers to perform a certain action(F.e. Stop talking)
- Commissives – committee the speaker to a future action (F.e. I’ll write you a letter)
- Expressers – express the speaker’s feelings, emotions (F.e. I’m sorry)
- Declarations – change the reality (F.e. I declare war)
- Discourse Analysis focuses on the study of language in use with reference to social and psychological factor that influences on communication.
- Cognitive Syntax is based on the asomption(припущення) that synt. units reflect our way of perceeding the world and accordingly the meaning of the utterance is also a product of the interaction between this utterance and the human beings knowledge bases.
- Basic syntactic notions: syntactic unit, syntactic form, syntactic meaning, syntactic function.
Syntactic unit – is always a combination of at least 2 constitutes. They are:
- a word group (belongs to the morphological level)
- a clause, a sentence (belongs to the syntactic level)
- a text or discourse (suprasyntactic level)
Their main features are:
- they are all hierarchical units – the units of the lower level serve the builder material for the higher level
- They are all of a two-fold nature(have a content side and the expression side)
- They can be non-communicative value (which units are not used in communication) – word groups. And communicative nature – sentence, text.
Syntactic meaning – is a complicated notion. It is the way in which separate word-meanings are combined to produce meaningful syntactic units.
Syntactic form – is a distributional formula of the syntactic unit. (John hits the ball – N/Subj V/Pred N/Obj)
Syntactic function – is the function of a unit on the basis of which it is included to a larger unit. In traditional terms it denotes the function of a unit within a sentence.
- Types of syntactic relations and syntactic connections. Illustrate the answer with your own examples.
Syntactic relations can be of 3 types:
- Coordination – is syntagmatic relation of independence. There exist symmetric and asymmetric. Sym. c. – is characterized by a complete changeability of its elements(F.e. I need pens and pencils/pencils and pens). Asym. c. – occure when the position of elements is fixed (F.e. rock and roll; ladies and gentlemen). Forms of connection within coord.relation:
- Copulative(and) – копулятивні
- Disjunctive(or) – розділові
- Adversative(but) – протиставні
- Causative-consecutive – причинно-наслідкові(F.e. Like father – like son)
- Subordination – is the relation of dependence.
Can be of such kinds:
- Adverbial (to speak honestly)
- Objective (to see a house)
- Attributive (a smart student)
Forms of subordination:
- Agreement (these books)
- Government (to help somebody)
- Enjoinment (when there are modifying particles: just, only, even, already…)
- Enclosure (when there are modal words: really, naturally, fortunately, after all…)
- Predication may be of 2 types - primary (sentence level) and secondary (phrase level). Primary predication is observed between the subject and the predicate of the sentence while secondary predication is observed between non-finite forms of the verb and nominal elements within the sentence. Secondary predication serves the basis for gerundial, infinitive and participial word-groups (predicative complexes).
- General characteristics of the word-group. Word-group classification.
The word-group is a combination of at least two notional words which do not constitute the sentence but are syntactically connected.
General characteristics of the word-group are:
1) As a naming unit it differs from a compound word because the number of constituents in a word-group corresponds to the number of different denotions: a black bird – черная птица (2), a blackbird – дрозд (1); a loud speaker (2), a loudspeaker (1).
2) Each component of the word-group can undergo grammatical changes without destroying the identity of the whole unit: to see a house - to see houses.
3) A word-group is a dependent syntactic unit, it is not a communicative unit and has no intonation of its own.
Classification of word-groups. Word-groups can be classified on the basis of several principles:
a) According to the type of syntagmatic relations: coordinate (you and me), subordinate (to see a house, a nice dress), predicative (him coming, for him to come),
b) According to the structure: simple (all elements are obligatory), expanded (to read and translate the text – expanded elements are equal in rank), extended (a word takes a dependent element and this dependent element becomes the head for another word: a beautiful flower – a very beautiful flower).
- Noun-phrases with pre-posed and post-posed adjuncts.
Consists of a noun-head and adjunct with relations of modification between them which can be of three types:
- Premodification, that comprises all the adjuncts placed before the head (pre-posed adjuncts) (F.e. two smart hard-working students)
- Postmodification, which comprises all the units placed after the head (F.e. a student from Boston)
- Mixed modification, that comprises the units in both prehead and posthead positions (F.e. two smart students from Boston)
- Verbal word-combinations. Types of verbal complements.
VP can be classified according to the nature of their complements:
- Nominal complementation – takes place in one or more nominal complements(nouns or pronouns) are obligatory to realize the meaning of the verb (F.e. to hear something)
- Adverbial comp. – takes one or more adv.elements are obligatory (F.e. he behaved well)
- Mixed comp. – both nominal and adv.elements are obligatory (F.e. to put a hat on the desk)
31. The notion of predication. Types of predicative relations. Predicative word-groups.
Predication – is the connection between situation in the utterance and reality.
Predicative relations are the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary predication.
As mentioned above, SR may be observed in utterances, which is impossible when we deal with PR. Therefore, PR are identified with ‘language’ while SR are identified with ‘speech’.
Predicative word combinations are distinguished on the basis of secondary predication.
The predicative word-group consists of a nominal element (noun, pronoun) and a non-finite form of the verb: N + Vnon-fin. There are Gerundial, Infinitive and Participial word-groups (complexes) in the English language: his reading, for me to know, the boy running, etc.)
32. General characteristics of the sentence. Sentence – proposition – utterance.
The sentence is the central syntactic construction used as the minimal communicative unit that has its primary predication, actualises a definite structural scheme and possesses definite intonation characteristics. The sentence is a unit of language while the utterance is a unit of speech.
We may define the proposition as the main predicative form of thought. Basic predicative meanings of the typical English sentence are expressed by the finite verb that is immediately connected with the subject of the sentence (primary predication).
To sum it up, the sentence is a syntactic level unit, it is a predicative language unit which is a lingual representation of predicative thought (proposition).
The utterance as opposed to the sentence is the unit of speech. The
main categories of the utterance from the point of view of its informative structure are considered to be the theme and the rheme.
33. Semantic and structural characteristics of the sentence.
The most essential features of the sentence as a linguistic unit are:
a) its structural characteristics – subject-predicate relations (primary predication)
b) its semantic characteristics – it refers to some fact in the objective reality. It is represented in the language through a conceptual reality:
34. General characteristics of the communicative types of the utterance.
Informative structure of the utterance is one of the topics that still attract the attention of language analysts nowadays. It is well recognized that the rheme marking devices are:
1. Position in the sentence. As a rule new information in English generally comes last: The cat ate the rat.
2. Intonation.
3. The use of the indefinite article. However, sometimes it is impossible (as in 1): A gentleman is waiting for you.
4. The use of ‘there is’, ‘there are’. There is a cat in the room.
5. The use of special devices, like ‘as for’, ‘but for’, etc.: As for him, I don’t know.
6. Inverted word order: Here comes the sun.
7. The use of emphatic constructions: It was the cat that ate the rat.
35. The simple sentence. It’s paradigm.
The sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to laws of language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it.
Paradigm of the simple sentence.
Sentence can be of 2 types:
1-member :nominal(by noun) and verbal(gerund/inf)
2-member: complete(both princ.parts) and incomplete(elliptical)
Both 2 types can be extended or unextended.
36. General characteristics of the principal parts of the sentence.
In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier.
The subject is the principal part of the two-member sentence which is grammatically independent and may denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an idea.
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject. It is grammatically independent upon the subject.
37. General characteristics of the secondary parts of the sentence.
In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier.
The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective, a word denoting state, or a noun.
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a nominal character.
The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb. According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial modifiers:
- of time
- of frequency
- of place and direction
- of manner
- of attendant circumstances
- of degree and measure
- of cause
- of result (consequence)
- of condition
- of comparison
- of concession
- of purpose
38. General characteristics of the independent parts of the sentence.
The independent elements of the sentence are words and word-groups which are not grammatically dependent on any part of the sentence.
They are:
1) Interjections, such as ah, oh, hurrah, eh, hallo, goodness gracious, good heavens, etc.
2) Direct address.
Ex. Good morning, sweet child!
3) Parenthesis, like probably, speaking seriously, to begin with, to be sure, unfortunately, indeed, surely, actually, thus, nevertheless, on the one hand, to tell the truth etc.
A parenthesis either shows the speaker’s attitude towards the thought expressed in the sentence or connects a given sentence with another one.
Ex. Unfortunately, we didn’t manage to get there.
39. The compound sentence. Types of coordination.
A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other.
We distinguish the following types of coordination:
1) Copulative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither…nor, not only…but. With the help of these conjunctions the statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in another.
2) Disjunctive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either … or , and the conjunctive adverb otherwise. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses.
3) Adversative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions but, while, whereas, and the conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, still, yet. These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning.
4) Causative-consecutive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions for, so and the conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence.
40. The complex sentence. Types of subordinate clauses.
A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
A subordinate clauses may follow, precede or interrupt the principal clause.
According to their grammatical function subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object, and adverbial clauses.