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UNIT 2
LEXICAL AND SEMANTIC MEANS OF COHESION IN TEXT
Main points:
2.1. Repetition as lexical and semantic means of cohesion in text
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2.1. Repetition as lexical and semantic means of cohesion in text
We have identified text as a piece of continuous language that is available for comprehension, linguistic analysis and, therefore, for interpretation and translation. It may be written or spoken and have one author or several. It is constructed in accordance with a certain structural model and has its semantic centre (nucleus, thematic kernel) and a communicative goal.
Cohesion was defined as one of the main properties of text whereby certain grammatical or lexical features of the sentences connect them to other sentences in the text.
Grammatical cohesion plays an important role in linking together the contents of texts by various grammatical means, such as conjunctions, prepositions, rules of the sequences of tenses, relationships of co-ordination and subordination established between clauses of composite sentences, etc. Thus, it greatly contributes to comprehending texts as “pieces of continuous language” [Гальперин 1981: 73-86]. However, grammatical structures appear to be very much redundant and usually present no major difficulties for text interpretation and translation.
Therefore, it is assumed by many authors [Halliday and Hasan 1976; Hoey 1991] that lexical cohesion appears to be the most significant kind of cohesion in texts, especially for the purposes of comprehension, interpretation and translation.
Lexical cohesion (or, to be more precise, lexical and semantic cohesion) is implemented through repetition, which is defined as the occurrence of one or more lexical items (words or word combinations) in a sentence that by themselves tell the reader or listener nothing new but reinstate some elements from earlier sentences so that something new can be said about them. In other words, repetition serves to show the relatedness of sentences in much the same way that bibliographical reference in academic papers shows the relatedness of scientific papers (articles, books and monographs written by various authors and referring to the academic subject in question).
2.2. Main types of lexical repetition links in texts
There are the following main types of repetition observed in texts [see Hoey 1991: 51-78, 83]1:
1. Simple lexical repetition occurs when a lexical item that has already occurred in the text is repeated with no greater alteration than can be explained in terms of a grammatical paradigm (e.g., singular vs. plural form; present vs. past; first person singular vs. third person singular; active voice vs. passive voice, etc.), e.g.: bear – bears; scientist – scientists; eat – ate; he – him; go – goes; стіл – столи; журнал – журналу; читаю – читав; він – його, etc.).
Only lexical words (повнозначні слова) can enter into such a link. We will not treat as simple lexical repetition connections between grammatical words (службові слова) such as articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries, negatives and particles.
2. Complex lexical repetition occurs when two lexical items share a lexical morpheme, but are not formally identical, or when they are formally identical, but belong to different parts of speech (or, rather, have different grammatical functions), e.g.: drug – drugging; a table – to table; politics – political; academy – academic; to travel – travelling – traveller; hero – heroism; книга – книжковий; ciль – солоний; їжа – їсти; мужність – мужній, etc.). Certain antonyms that share a common lexical morpheme also make up complex lexical repetition patterns, e.g.: happy – unhappy; audible – inaudible; contented – discontented; adequate – inadequate, etc. [Hoey 1991: 64].
3. Simple paraphrase occurs whenever a lexical item may substitute another item in context with no important change in meaning. Here belong most of the contextual synonyms, e.g.: produce – cause; statesman – politician; book – volume; works – writings; sedate – tranquillize; present – gift; sleep – dream; робота – праця; особа – людинa; викликати – спричиняти, etc.
4. Complex paraphrase occurs when one of the lexical items includes the other, although they may share no lexical morpheme. Here, first of all, belong certain antonyms that share no lexical morpheme, e.g.: happy – sad; hot – cold; dry –wet; true – false; old – young; день – ніч; гарно – погано; стояти – лежати, etc.
Secondly, complex paraphrase occurs when one item is a complex lexical repetition of another item (e.g.: writer – writings) and also a simple paraphrase of a third item (e.g.: writer – author). In this case complex paraphrase link is established between the second and the third items (writings – author). This semantic phenomenon is called “a link triangle” [Hoey 1991: 64-65] and may be graphically represented by the following figure:
complex repetition
writer writings
simple paraphrase complex paraphrase
(as consequence of the other links)
author
5. Co-reference repetition occurs when two items are interpreted as having the same referent (i.e., when two words refer to the same object of the real world in the given context), e.g.: my computer – machine; Mr. Tony Blair – British Prime Minister (in the context of 2006); Calligula – the Emperor (in the context of the ancient Rome); William Blake – poet; Тарас Шевченко – Кобзар, etc.
6. Substitution links occur when certain grammatical words (службові слова) such as, first of all, pronouns, (e.g.: he, she, it, they, this, that, these, those, the first one, another one, the same, etc.) substitute lexical items, e.g.: bears – they; a cat – it; Mr. Blair – he; жінка – вона; явище – воно; собака – він, etc.
There are also other, additional types of repetition, such as superordinate, hyponymy, repetition due to ellipsis and deixis (Hoey 1991: 69-75, 87). However, these types of repetition seem to be of less importance for text analysis in translation.
|
complex paraphrase |
складна парафраза |
|
complex lexical repetition |
складне лексичне повторення |
|
іtem |
лексична одиниця (слово або словосполучення) |
|
co-reference repetition |
кореферентне повторення, кореференція |
|
repetition link |
повторення (сполучення між реченнями , яке утворено шляхом лексико-семантичного повторення слів) |
|
substitution |
субституція, заміщення |
|
simple lexical repetition |
просте лексичне повторення |
|
simple paraphrase |
проста парафраза |
1 For the purposes of text analysis in the process of translation we slightly simplified M. Hoey’s classification, having adjusted it to the basic practical needs of translators.