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РЕЗУНОВА М.В.
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ
ПОСОБИЕ
ДЛЯ ПРАКТИЧЕСКИХ ЗАНЯТИЙ
ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ
ДЛЯ СТУДЕНТОВ
СПЕЦИАЛЬНОСТИ «ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКАЯ БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ»
БРЯНСК 2013
SPECIALIZATION LANGUAGE
PART A
TEXT 1
ECONOMY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова специальной направленности. Укажите, к какой части речи относится каждая группа слов, выделите характерные словообразовательные элементы представленных частей речи. Найдите и подчеркните данные слова в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Collapse, a market economy, the executive, the legislature, implementation, decline, breakup, recovery, depreciation, a debt default, deterioration, recession, capital flight, expansion, average, petroleum, output, confidence, commodity, swing;
to establish, to achieve, to contract, to dither, to face, to occur, to culminate, to contribute, to advance, to account for, to reach;
consistent, slight, uneven, recent, dependent on;
comparatively, severely, consequently, annually, extremely, heavily, particularly, vulnerable;
however, nevertheless.
2. Отработайте произношение следующих числительных.
1991 (год) – (the year) nineteen ninety-one, 1997 - nineteen ninety-seven, 1998 - nineteen ninety-eight, 1999 - nineteen ninety-nine, 2000 - two thousand, 2001 – twenty oh-one, 2004 - twenty oh-four, 2005 - twenty oh-five, 6.7% - six point seven per cent, 80% - eighty per cent, 1.2 trillion – one point two trillion, 1.5 trillion – one point five trillion.
3. Найдите в тексте, прочитайте и переведите все порядковые числительные.
4. Найдите в тексте и переведите прилагательные в сравнительной или превосходной степени сравнения, укажите степень сравнения.
5. Найдите в тексте следующие причастия. Назовите их (причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
Developed, showing, having, made, renewed, leaving, making.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. What is Russia trying to do more than a decade after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991?
2. When did Russia's first slight recovery occur after the breakup of the USSR?
3. What was the year 1998 marked by?
4. Why has the economic development of the country been extremely uneven?
5. What has the recent recovery raised in its second decade of transition?
6. What does Russia remain heavily dependent on?
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание, что в предложении Then it entered a phase of rapid economic expansion, the GDP growing by an average of 6.7% annually in 1999-2005 on the back of higher petroleum prices, weaker ruble, and increasing service production and industrial output. выделенный фрагмент представляет собой независимый причастный оборот, перевод которого начинается словами «причем, при этом, а, и», причастие (подчеркнуто) переводится как сказуемое.
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
ECONOMY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Russia saw its comparatively developed centrally-planned economy contract severely for five years, as the executive and legislature dithered over the implementation of reforms and Russia's agro-industrial base faced a serious decline.
After the breakup of the USSR, Russia's first slight recovery, showing the signs of open-market influence, occurred in 1997. That year, however, Asian financial crisis culminated in the August depreciation of the ruble in 1998, a debt default by the government, and a sharp deterioration in living standards for most of the population. Consequently, the year 1998 was marked by recession and intense capital flight.
Nevertheless, the economy started recovering in 1999. Then it entered a phase of rapid economic expansion, the GDP growing by an average of 6.7% annually in 1999-2005 on the back of higher petroleum prices, weaker ruble, and increasing service production and industrial output. The economic development of the country, however, has been extremely uneven: the capital region of Moscow contributes a third to the country's GDP having only a tenth of its population.
The recent recovery, made possible due to high world oil prices, along with a renewed government effort in 2000 and 2001 to advance lagging structural reforms, has raised business and investor confidence over Russia's prospects in its second decade of transition. Russia remains heavily dependent on exports of commodities, particularly oil, natural gas, metals, and timber, which account for about 80% of exports, leaving the country vulnerable to swings in world prices.
The country's GDP shot up to reach €1.2 trillion ($1.5 trillion) in 2004, making it the ninth largest economy in the world and the fifth largest in Europe.
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TEXT 2
ECONOMY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова специальной направленности. Укажите, к какой части речи относится каждая группа слов, выделите характерные словообразовательные элементы представленных частей речи. Найдите и подчеркните данные слова в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Primarily, independently;
industrial, commercial, major, private, decimal, domestic, overseas;
transportation, communication, steel, iron, petroleum, vehicle, equipment, data processing equipment, machinery, power-generating machinery, precision instrument, government, trade, unit of currency, conversion of currency, coin, coinage, bank of issue, savings bank, branch, retail trade, wholesale trade, department;
to nationalize, to consist, to introduce, to complete, to permit, to float, to charter, to provide, to maintain, to carry out.
2. Отработайте произношение следующих числительных.
1694 - sixteen eighty-four, 1946 - nineteen forty-six, 1971 – nineteen seventy-one, 1972 – nineteen seventy-two, 1973 – nineteen seventy-three, 1968 - nineteen sixty-eight, 17,000 – seventeen thousand, the 1980s (восьмидесятые годы) – the (nineteen) eighties, 100 pence – one hundred pence.
3. Найдите в тексте, прочитайте и переведите все существительные во множественном числе.
4. Найдите в тексте и переведите инфинитивы.
Обратите внимание, показателем инфинитива является частица to (не путайте с предлогом to, который употребляется с существительным). После модальных глаголов тоже употребляется инфинитив, но без частицы to.
5. Найдите в тексте следующие причастия. Назовите их (причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
Called, consisting, beginning, chartered, leading, limited.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. What kind of nation is Great Britain?
2. What industries were sold to private investors by the Conservative government in the 1980s?
3. What is the basic unit of currency in Great Britain?
4. When did Great Britain take the first step in a three-year conversion of its currency to the decimal system of coinage?
5. When was the conversion completed?
6. How many major commercial banks has Great Britain got?
7. Where do many foreign banks maintain offices in London?
8. What is most domestic retail trade conducted through?
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на перевод следующих реалий:
Great Britain [ˌgreɪt'brɪt(ə)n]= United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (буквен. код – GBR) - Великобритания (гос-во в Западной Европе; столица - Лондон).
England ['ɪŋglənd]- Англия (составная часть Великобритании [Great Britain]; занимает юго-восточную и центральную часть Великобритания; в административно-территориальном отношении делится на 39 графств и 6 графств-метрополий).
Wales [weɪlz]- Уэльс (составная часть Великобритании; занимает полуостров Уэльс с прилегающим к нему о-вом Англси; в административно-территориальном отношении разделена на 8 графств).
Scotland ['skɔtlənd]- Шотландия (составная часть Великобритании; расположена на севере Великобритания и на прилегающих о-вах; в административно-территориальном отношении разделена на двенадцать графств).
Northern Ireland [,nɔːðən'aɪələnd] - Северная Ирландия (составная часть Соединённого Королевства; занимает северо-восточную часть Ирландия; в административно-территориальном отношении разделена на 26 округов).
London ['lʌndən] - Лондон (столица Соединённого Королевства Великобритании и Северной Ирландии; крупнейший промышленный и культурный центр страны)
European Community [ˌjuərə'piːən kə'mjuːnətɪ] – сокращ. от European Economic Community = EC - Европейское сообщество (сокращенное название Европейского экономического сообщества; вошло в обиход с преобразованием ЕЭС в Европейский Союз начиная с 1992 года).
European Union [ˌjuərə'piːən 'juːnjən] = EU - Европейский союз (государственное образование, объединяющее с мая 2004 года 25 европейских государств; до 1994 года - Европейское (экономическое) сообщество, Общий рынок).
pound sterling [,paund'stəːlɪŋ] (буквен. код – GBP, цифр. код – 826) - английский фунт стерлингов (денежная единица Великобритании, равнялась 20 шиллингам, или 240 пенсам; с 1971 равная 100 пенсам).
Shilling ['ʃɪlɪŋ] - шиллинг (монета; чеканилась до 1971; равнялась 12 пенсам или 1/20 фунта стерлингов).
Bank of England [,bæŋkəv'ɪŋglənd] = BoE - Банк Англии (центральный банк Великобритании; осуществляет денежную эмиссию, а также регулирует эмиссию и обращение некоторых видов ценных бумаг (государственных облигаций, депозитных сертификатов и т. д.); согласно закону "О банках" от 1987 г., нарушение предписаний Банка Англии в области обращения и эмиссии ценных бумаг может повлечь уголовное наказание; банк был создан в 1694 г., национализирован — в 1946 г.; расположен на Треднидл-стрит в Лондоне, отсюда разговорное прозвище "старая леди с Треднидл-стрит").
Lloyds [lɔɪdz] - сокращ. от Lloyd's Bank - "Ллойдз банк" (один из крупнейших коммерческих банков; входит в "Большую четвёрку" [Big Four]; до 1968 входил в "Большую пятёрку" [Big Five]. Основан в 1865).
Barclays ['bɑːklɪz]- сокращ. от Barclays Bank - "Барклиз банк" (крупнейший из банков, входящих в "Большую пятёрку" [Big Five]. Основан в 1896).
National Westminster [,næʃənl'westmɪnstə] - сокращ. от National Westminster Bank - "Нэшнл Вестминстер банк" (коммерческий банк; второй по величине в "Большой четвёрке" [Big Four]. Основан в 1833)
Midland [ˈmidlənd] - сокращ. от Midland Bank - "Мидленд банк" (один из крупнейших коммерческих банков; входил в "Большую пятёрку" [Big Five]. Основан в 1836; с 1968 входит в "Большую четвёрку" [Big Four]).
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
ECONOMY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
Great Britain is primarily an industrial and commercial nation. Major industries, such as transportation, communications, steel, petroleum, coal, gas, and electricity, which had been nationalized by Labour governments, were sold to private investors by the Conservative government in the 1980s. The country is a world leader in international trade. In January 1973, Great Britain became a member of the European Community (now called the European Union).
The pound sterling, consisting of 100 pence, is the basic unit of currency. In 1968 Great Britain took the first step in a three-year conversion of its currency to the decimal system of coinage by introducing the first two new coins, the 5-new-pence piece (equal to 1 old shilling) and the 10-new-pence piece. The conversion was completed in 1971. The pound was permitted to float against the dollar and other world currencies beginning in June 1972.
The Bank of England, chartered in 1694, was nationalized in 1946 and is the bank of issue in England and Wales. Great Britain has 17 major commercial banks with more than 17,000 domestic and overseas branches, most of which are offices of the four leading banks: Lloyds, Barclays, National Westminster, and Midland. Several banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland may issue currencies in limited amounts. Some banking services are provided by the postal system, savings banks, and cooperative and building societies. Many foreign banks maintain offices in London.
Britain is one of the world's leading trading nations. Its major exports are road vehicles and other transportation equipment, industrial machinery, petroleum and petroleum products, electrical machinery, office machines and data processing equipment, power-generating machinery, organic chemicals, precision instruments, and iron and steel. Most domestic retail trade is conducted through independently owned shops, although the number of department, chain, and cooperative stores and supermarkets is increasing. More than half of all wholesale trade is carried out in London.
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TEXT 3
ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова специальной направленности. Укажите, к какой части речи относится каждая группа слов, выделите характерные словообразовательные элементы представленных частей речи. Найдите и подчеркните данные слова в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Early, directly, mainly, approximately, usually, yearly;
century, activity, environment, agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, processing, combining, manufacturing, construction, output, goods, services, example, wholesale trade, retail trade, banking, government, transportation, currency, denomination, coin, paper money, domestic commerce, wholesaler, retailer, producer, consumer, labor force, value of export, manufactured goods, processed food, crude material, metal ore, chemical, mineral fuel, lubricant;
to consist of, to issue, to constitute, to account for, to specialize in, to enable, to suit, to make up, to amount;
primary, secondary, tertiary, decimal, available, inedible.
2. Отработайте произношение следующих числительных.
4%, 10%, 20%, 23%, 40%, 73%, 90%, the 20th (century).
3. Назовите, какое грамматическое явление представлено следующими примерами:
world's, leading, those, the most important, issued, them.
4. Найдите в тексте и переведите инфинитивы.
5. Найдите в тексте причастия. Назовите их (причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. Since when has the United States been the world's leading industrial nation?
2. How many sectors does the U.S. economy consist of?
3. What do primary economic activities involve?
4. What do secondary economic activities involve?
5. What do tertiary economic activities involve?
6. What are examples of tertiary activities?
7. What is the basic unit of currency in the USA?
8. What does the Federal Reserve issue?
9. What does the Treasury issue?
10. Who is most domestic commerce in the United States carried on by?
11. What does international trade enable the United States to specialize in?
12. What are the leading categories of exports?
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на перевод следующих реалий:
Department of the Treasury, U.S. [dɪ'pɑːtməntəvðə'treʒərɪ ] = the Treasury - Министерство финансов США (Федеральное министерство, образованное в 1789 г. с целью разработки и претворения в жизнь национальной кредитно-финансовой, экономической и налоговой политики. Возглавляется министром финансов [Secretary of the Treasury], назначаемым Президентом США "по совету и с согласия" [advice and consent] Сената [Senate, U.S.] и являющимся вторым по значению и порядку наследования президентского поста членом кабинета министров [cabinet]. В состав Министерства входят Монетный двор США [Bureau of the Mint , United States Mint], Таможенная служба США [Customs Service, U.S.], Налоговая служба США [Internal Revenue Service], Секретная служба США [Secret Service, U.S.] и др. подразделения)
Federal Reserve [rɪ'zɜːv] System (FRS, Fed, Federal Reserve) - Федеральная резервная система, ФРС (независимое федеральное ведомство, созданное для выполнения функций центрального банка и осуществления централизованного контроля над коммерческой банковской системой страны; включает совет управляющих, 12 региональных резервных банков и их отделения, несколько тысяч коммерческих банков; ФРС создана в 1913 г.)
Federal Reserve Notes - Ноты Федеральной Резервной Системы (билеты ФРС), банкноты, выпускаемые федеральными резервными банками.
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES
The United States has been the world's leading industrial nation since early in the 20th century.
The U.S. economy consists of three main sectors—the primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary economic activities (4% of GDP) are those directly involving the natural environment, including agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining. Secondary economic activities (23% of GDP) involve processing or combining materials into new products, and include manufacturing and construction. Tertiary economic activities (73% of GDP) involve the output of services rather than goods. Examples of tertiary activities include wholesale and retail trade, banking, government, and transportation. The tertiary is the most important sector by far.
The basic unit of currency is the US dollar. The U.S. decimal currency consists of coins and paper money, issued by the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve issues paper money called Federal Reserve notes, which constitute almost all the paper money in the United States. The Treasury issues US notes, which come in $100 denominations, as well as all coins.
Most domestic commerce, or trade, in the United States is carried on by wholesalers and retailers. Wholesalers buy goods from producers and sell them mainly to retail business firms. Retailers sell goods to the final consumer. Wholesale and retail trade together account for about 16% of GDP of the US and employ about 20% of the labor force.
Foreign, or international, trade enables the United States to specialize in producing those goods it is best suited to make from its available resources. Nonagricultural products usually account for approximately 90% of the yearly value of exports and agricultural products for about 10%. Machinery and transportation equipment make up the leading categories of exports, amounting together to over 40% of the value of all exports. Other leading exports include manufactured goods, such as textiles and iron and steel; processed foods; inedible crude materials, such as cotton, soybeans, and metal ores; chemicals; and mineral fuels and lubricants.
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TEXT 4
ECONOMY OF CANADA
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова специальной направленности. Укажите, к какой части речи относится каждая группа слов, выделите характерные словообразовательные элементы представленных частей речи. Найдите и подчеркните данные слова в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Agricultural, domestic, provincial, principal;
highly, typically, increasingly,
manufacturing, manufactured, produced, leading, specialized;
sole right, circulation, trust company, mortgage loan company, savings bank, credit union, securities exchange, item, timber, grain, share, truck, motor-vehicle part, crude petroleum, lumber, newsprint, wood pulp, wheat, industrial machinery, natural gas, office machine, aluminum, general purpose and specialized machinery, chemicals, per capita;
to operate, to export, to decrease.
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие числительные.
One, 100, four-fifths, two-thirds.
3. Назовите, какое грамматическое явление представлено следующими примерами.
Manufacturing, produced, Canada's, to issue, their, the highest of, four-fifths, is decreasing.
4. Найдите в тексте и переведите причастия II.
5. Найдите в тексте слова с окончанием -ing. Назовите их (причастие I / герундий / отглагольное существительное). Переведите предложения с ними.
Обратите внимание, что правила образования причастия I, герундия и отглагольного существительного одинаковые, т.е. с помощью окончания -ing. В предложении их можно различить по ряду признаков.
Отглагольное существительное в отличие от причастия I и герундия может иметь перед собой артикль, принимать форму множественного числа, употребляться с указательным и неопределенным местоимением.
Герундий в отличие от причастия I употребляется после глаголов to avoid, to afford, to enjoy, to require, to give up, to mind, to mention, to suggest, to like, to prefer, to go, to come, to begin, to start, to go on, to continue, to stop, to finish, to intend, to remember, после предлогов on, after, before, by, without.
Причастие I в отличие от герундия и отглагольного существительного употребляется для образования сложных глагольных форм: длительных времен (Continuous tense) (He is going to the football match. – Он идёт на футбольный матч.) и совершенных длительных времен (Perfect Continuous tense) (He has been reading the book since Monday. - Он с понедельника читает книгу.), а также в оборотах «Сложное дополнение» (I saw him going to the football match. – Я видел, как он шёл на футбольный матч.) и независимый причастный оборот (My friend going to the football match, we couldn’t meet. – Так как мой друг пошёл на футбольный матч, мы не смогли встретиться).
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. What nation was Canada until the early 20th century?
2. What raw materials are the manufacturing industries supplied with?
3. What is the unit of currency in Canada?
4. What right has the Bank of Canada?
5. Where have most foreign-owned and major domestic banks got their head offices?
6. What provide banking services?
7. Where do securities exchanges operate?
8. What are the leading products Canada sells abroad?
9. What are principal imports?
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение следующих имён собственных:
Canada ['kænədə], Canadian [kə'neɪdɪən], Toronto [tə'rɔntəu], Montréal [ˌmɔntrɪ'ɔːl], Winnipeg ['wɪnɪpeg], Calgary ['kælg(ə)rɪ], Vancouver [væn'kuːvə].
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
ECONOMY OF CANADA
Until the early 20th century, Canada was primarily an agricultural nation. Since then it has become one of the most highly industrialized countries in the world. To a large extent the manufacturing industries are supplied with raw materials produced by the agricultural, mining, forestry, and fishing sectors of the Canadian economy.
The unit of currency in Canada is the Canadian dollar, which consists of 100 cents. The Bank of Canada has the sole right to issue paper money for circulation. Most foreign-owned and major domestic banks have their head offices in Toronto; a few are based in Montréal. Trust and mortgage loan companies, provincial savings banks, and credit unions also provide banking services. Securities exchanges operate in Toronto, Montréal, Winnipeg, Calgary, and Vancouver.
The per capita foreign trade of Canada ranks among the highest of any nation in the world.
Most of Canada's foreign trade is with the United States, which typically takes about four-fifths of Canada's exports and supplies more than two-thirds of its imports. Components of Canadian exports are increasingly manufactured items; while resource exports such as minerals, timber, and grains are still important, their share of total export volume is decreasing.
The leading products Canada sells abroad include automobiles, trucks, motor-vehicle parts, crude petroleum, lumber, newsprint, wood pulp, wheat, industrial machinery, natural gas, office machines, and aluminum. Principal imports are motor-vehicle parts, automobiles, general purpose and specialized machinery, chemicals, computers, crude petroleum, telecommunications equipment, and fruit and vegetables.
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TEXT 5
ECONOMY OF AUSTRALIA
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова специальной направленности. Укажите, к какой части речи относится каждая группа слов, выделите характерные словообразовательные элементы представленных частей речи. Найдите и подчеркните данные слова в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Prosperous, rich, various, severe, comparative, contiguous, relative, huge, significant, representational, key;
literally, slightly, particularly, statistically;
to dominate, to continue, to occupy, to decline, to lock, to maintain, to define, to double, to describe, to commence, to float;
exporter, downturn, commodity, competition, advantage, reflection, wealth, size, expansion, fluctuation, increase, growth, population, standard of living, emphasis on, strength, modernization, deregulation.
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие числительные:
8%, 65%, 68%, 80%, 20.3 million, 12 per cent, the 1970s, 1974.
3. Назовите, какое грамматическое явление представлено следующими примерами:
Higher, can, is pushing, Australia's, manufacturing, manufactured, is known, increases, the 1980s, led, by floating.
4. Найдите в тексте и переведите герундии.
Вспомните отличия герундия от других слов с окончанием –ing.
|
Отглагольное существительное |
Герундий |
Причастие I |
|
The meeting began in time. – Собрание началось вовремя. |
We prefer meeting in the evening. - Мы предпочитаем собираться вечером. |
We saw many girls meeting the soldiers. – Мы видели много девушек, встречающих солдат. |
5. Найдите в тексте слова с предлогом per латинского происхождения. Переведите предложения с этими словосочетаниями. Прочитайте и запишите в свой словарик следующие латинские выражения:
per cent [pə'sent] (сокращ. от percentage) - процент, со ста, на сотню
per head [pə ' hed] - с человека.
per month - в месяц
per annum [pə(r)'ænəm] - в год, ежегодно
per capita [pə'kæpɪtə] - 1) на человека, на душу населения 2) в равных долях (о наследовании)
per contra [ˌpɜː'kɔntrə] - на другой стороне счета; с другой стороны
per diem [ˌpɜː'diːem] - 1. каждый день, ежедневно 2. суточные
per mensem [ˌpɜː'men(t)səm] - ежемесячно
per se [ˌpɜː'seɪ] - сам по себе, по существу
per express - экспрессом
per post - по почте
per rail - по железной дороге
as per usual - по обыкновению
as per - согласно
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:
1. What kind of economy has Australia got?
2. What sector is the Australian economy dominated by?
3. What exporter is Australia?
4. What can have a large impact on the Australian economy?
5. What is the government pushing for?
6. What is Australia's advantage in primary products?
7. Has the size of the manufacturing sector been decreasing or increasing for several decades?
8. What was the “long boom” period marked by?
9. What was statistically significant in this period?
10. What year is the end of the “long boom”?
11. What did the Australian Labor Party commence the economy modernization by?
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
Australia [ɔs'treɪlɪə] – 1) Австралия (материк в Южном полушарии) 2) = Commonwealth of Australia - Австралия (государство, включающее в себя материк Австралия, о-в Тасмания и ряд о-вов в Тихом и Индийском океанах; столица - Канберра).
Australian [ɔs'treɪlɪən] - 1. австралийский 2. австралиец; австралийка.
France [frɑːns] – Франция (государство в Западной Европе; столица - Париж).
Germany ['ʤɜːmənɪ] - Германия (государство в Западной Европе; столица - Берлин).
Prime Minister [,praɪm'mɪnɪstə] - премьер-министр (глава правительства).
Treasurer ['trɛʒərə] – казначей (должностное лицо Министерства финансов).
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
ECONOMY OF AUSTRALIA
Australia has a prosperous, Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP slightly higher than those of the UK, France and Germany. The Australian economy is dominated by its services sector (68% of GDP), yet it is the agricultural and mining sectors (8% of GDP combined) that account for 65% of its exports.
Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly grains and wool, and minerals, including various metals, coal, and natural gas. A downturn in world commodity prices can thus have a large impact on the economy.
The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. Australia's comparative advantage in primary products is a reflection of the natural wealth of the Australian Continent and its small domestic market; 20.3 million people occupy a continent the size of the contiguous United States. The relative size of the manufacturing sector has been declining for several decades, and now accounts for just under 12 percent of GDP.
In the beginning of the Second World War till the 1970s, Australia was locked in a period of high maintained economic expansion which is now known as the “long boom”. This period is marked by large increases in the Australian population (by 80%), and little if any economic fluctuations. Despite the huge increases in the Australian population, economic growth, defined by increase in GDP per head, was still growing. It is statistically significant that in this period, the standard of living as representational of increases of GDP per capita, literally doubled. 1974 was the year which is described as the end of the ‘long boom’.
Australia's emphasis on reforms is key factor behind the continuing strength of the economy. In the 1980s, the Australian Labor Party, led by Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Treasurer Paul Keating, commenced the modernization of the Australian economy by floating the Australian dollar in 1983, leading to full financial deregulation.
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TEXT 6
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Economic security, employment security, national security, financial security, security, to have stable income, a standard of living, foreseeable future, cash flow, economic entity, non-working citizens, multi-national agreements, mutual inter-dependence, availability of natural resources, international relations, military policy, probable continued solvency, job monetary support, national economy, economic opportunity.
2. Запишите прописью следующие числительные.
1921 (год), 1992, 1999, 2002, 2014, 2025, 16.2%, 70%, 8.4 million, 34 089 665, 123 086 008, 86 680 200, 35-ый, 181-ый, 75 973-ий, 732 003 632-ой.
3. Найдите в тексте, прочитайте и переведите все наречия.
Вспомните, для наречий характерен словообразующий суффикс -ly.
4. Запишите в словарик и переведите следующие словосочетания со словом security. Составьте с любыми словосочетаниями 5 предложений.
Сollective security, food security, internal security, national security — национальная безопасность, to ensure / provide security, to compromise security, to undermine security, financial security, job security, security measures, tight security, security services, Mutual Security Agency (MSA).
5. Найдите в тексте следующие причастия. Назовите их (причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
Continued, desired, made, enlarged, controlling, conquered, characterized.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
economic [ˌiːkə'nɔmɪk]
economy [ɪ'kɔnəmɪ]
economist [ɪ'kɔnəmɪst]
financial [faɪ'nænʃ(ə)l]
finance ['faɪnæn(t)s]
foreseeable [fɔː'siːəbl]
solvency ['sɔlv(ə)n(t)sɪ]
predictability [prɪdɪktə'bɪlɪtɪ]
to refer [rɪ'fɜː]
to desire [dɪ'zaɪə]
conquest ['kɔŋkwest]
conqueror ['kɔŋk(ə)rə]
conquer ['kɔŋkə]
mutual ['mjuːʧuəl]
arguably ['ɑːgjuəblɪ]
particularly [pə'tɪkjələlɪ]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
Economic security or financial security is the condition of having stable income or other resources to support a standard of living now and in the foreseeable future.
It includes:
Financial security more often refers to individual and family money management and savings. Economic security tends to include the broader effect of a society's production levels and monetary support for non-working citizens.
Economic security, in the context of politics and international relations, is the ability of a nation-state to follow its choice of policies to develop the national economy in the manner desired. Historically, conquest of nations have made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources and enlarged trade through controlling of the conquered nations' economy. In today's complex system of international trade, characterized by multi-national agreements, mutual inter-dependence and availability of natural resources, economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military policy.
Economic security has been proposed as a key determinant of international relations, particularly in geopolitics.
It is widely believed that there is a tradeoff between economic security and economic opportunity.
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TEXT 7
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
The US administration, protective tariffs, the world markets, nation’s prosperity, economic fundamentals, natural resources, domestic resources, self-sufficiency, free enterprise, domestic market, a policy of protection, manufacturing enterprises, the nation’s total trade, foreign trade, to secure the power, to restrain trade, to meet domestic demand, in favour of, in accordance with.
2. Запишите прописью следующие числительные.
1783 (год), 1840, 1891, 1918, 1997, 2004, 94.7%, 20%, 17.7 million, 98 546 879, 905 034 870, 400 656 002, 188-ой, 209-ый, 80 003-ий, 654 324 091-ый.
3. Прочитайте и переведите следующие словосочетания с прилагательным domestic. Составьте с любыми словосочетаниями 5 предложений.
domestic trade
domestic industry
domestic bank
domestic manufacture
domestic market
domestic policy
domestic brand
domestic concern
domestic currency
domestic economy
domestic financing
4. Подчеркните в тексте все модальные глаголы. Переведите предложения с ними.
5. Найдите в тексте следующие причастия. Назовите их (причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
Maintained, manufacturing, called, done, ensured, exhausted, known, provided, restrained, followed.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
self-sufficiency [ˌselfsə'fɪʃ(ə)n(t)sɪ]
maintain [meɪn'teɪn]
fundamentals [fʌndəme̱ntəlz]
natural ['næʧ(ə)r(ə)l]
manufacturing [ˌmænjə'fækʧ(ə)rɪŋ]
enterprise ['entəpraɪz]
relatively ['relətɪvlɪ]
firmly [fɜːmlɪ]
exhausted [ɪg'zɔːstɪd]
ensured [ɪn'ʃuəd]
achieved [ə'ʧiːvt]
various ['veərɪəs]
variety [və'raɪətɪ]
policies ['pɔləsɪz]
particular [pə'tɪkjələ]
participate [pɑː'tɪsɪpeɪt]
characteristics [ˌkærəktə'rɪstɪks]
resources [rɪ'zɔːsɪz]
sought [sɔːt]
although [ɔːl'ðəu]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
ECONOMIC SECURITY OF LARGE NATIONS
Economic security of large nations, like the United States and the Russian Federation, can be firmly maintained, which means their small dependence on the world markets. Nowadays these large nations are provided with such economic fundamentals as natural resources, good agricultural land, and effective manufacturing enterprises relatively well, although in the future gas, oil, mineral resources will be exhausted and these nations will have to export them.
Their self-sufficiency can be ensured by the government of large nations, but it is close to impossible for more dependent nations. Self-sufficiency may also be achieved by various policies in accordance with particular economic characteristics of nation. Although large and rich nations are less self-sufficient today than they were 30 years ago, they are still able to secure their power, but today it is mainly possible through their domestic resources and production for nation’s prosperity.
The USA is an example of a country with a free market economy and strong economic fundamentals. It is also known as an economy of free enterprise. American government (usually called the US administration) does not participate directly in foreign trade, but it often uses protective tariffs to support domestic producers.
However, with its large territory, which includes about six percent of the land surface of the earth, the United States has always been more interested in the development of domestic market. More than 90 percent of the nation’s total trade has recently been done within its territory. Thus, the United States have sought to maintain its economic security through a policy of protection that has restrained trade with other nations in favour of a domestic market, where industry and agriculture have been free to develop and expend to meet domestic demand.
At present, a variety of policies are being followed by different countries in the world economy. However, all these policies are being used in order to provide a certain degree of economic security for a nation.
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TEXT 8
ENSURING ECONOMIC SECURITY
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Administrative measures, counteracting measures, legislative measures, penal measures, preventive measures, social measures, to undermine, to intervene, to reside, to betaken, to combat, to be subject to, to identify vulnerability, line authorities, energy security, security of strategic branches, banking security, emergency situation, legality, decision-making power, economic attributes, financial sovereignty, cross-border crime, by means of, of vital importance.
2. Запишите прописью следующие числительные.
1380 (год), 1446, 1593, 1670, 1861, 1948, 73.1%, 83%, 31.3 million, 73 062 574, 593 052 820, 275 005 432, 642-ой, 961-ый, 65 075-ый, 863 863 064-ый.
3. Найдите в тексте герундии и причастия I. Определите их роль в предложении. Переведите эти предложения.
4. Найдите в тексте предложения, содержащие инфинитив цели. переведите предложения.
Обратите внимание, что инфинитив в сочетании с другими словами может выступать в функции вводного члена предложения!
|
Например, |
|
|
to tell the truth to say the least to make a long story short to come to closer quarters with to put it mildly to put it briefly to put it simply to put it another way to begin with, to start with to judge from (by) с to return to to sum up to take an example suffice it to say needless to say to say nothing of so to speak to name (only a few) to quote (a simple example) |
пo правде говоря мягко выражаясь короче говоря если перейти непосредственно к мягко выражаясь короче говоря попросту говоря иначе говоря прежде всего, начать с того, что cудя по, если судить по если возвратиться, возвращаясь к если подвести итог, подводя итог если привести пример достаточно сказать нет надобности говорить не говоря уже о так сказать если упомянуть (лишь несколько) если привести (один пример) |
Составьте 5 предложений с этими словосочетаниями, используя информацию из текста. Например,
Suffice it to say that the USA is a country with a free market economy and strong economic fundamentals.
5. Найдите в тексте следующие причастия. Назовите их (причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
Counteracting, depending, carried out, conducted, expressed, identified, monitored, protected.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
to reside [rɪ'zaɪd]
to identify [aɪ'dentɪfaɪ]
to intervene [ˌɪntə'viːn]
vital ['vaɪt(ə)l]
legality [liː'gælətɪ]
legislative ['leʤɪslətɪv]
investigation [ɪnˌvestɪ'geɪʃ(ə)n]
strategic [strə'tiːʤɪk]
emergency [ɪ'mɜːʤ(ə)n(t)sɪ]
target ['tɑːgɪt]
vulnerability [ˌvʌln(ə)rə'bɪlətɪ]
sovereignty ['sɔvr(ə)ntɪ]
authority [ɔː'θɔrɪtɪ]
counteracting [ˌkaunt(ə)'rækt]
measure ['meʒə]
decision-making [dɪ'sɪʒn'meɪkɪŋ]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
ENSURING ECONOMIC SECURITY
Economic security is a component of national security and resides in a state of economy, expressed through legality, balance and development. The Service identifies vulnerabilities and causes that can undermine or / and affect the economic security of the state; intervenes by informing the line authorities, depending on the case, situation or threat, in order to betaken preventive or counteracting measures. The information is mainly used by institutions with decision-making power in the country, through administrative, legislative, penal and administrative, economic, political and social measures.
Activities shall be conducted to obtain useful and necessary information to secure the country's basic economic attributes, such as economic and financial sovereignty, as well as protection and promotion of national economic interests in the country and abroad. To this end, by means of investigations and special measures, preventive factors are identified within the country and abroad, which appear to have targets and effects of a destructive nature.
The main segments of monitored and protected economic security are the energy security, financial, banking and non-banking security, the security of strategic branches of the national economy and companies of vital importance, including by prevention of emergency situations.
At the same time, activities to prevent and combat cross-border crime and the financing of extremist-terrorist movements shall be carried out. Manifestations of corruption can also be subject to investigation if they directly or indirectly affect the national security
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TEXT 9
FEATURES OF ECONOMIC SECURITY
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Appropriate menace, well-being of society, unfavorable impact, successful implementation, methodical assessment approaches, regional system analysis, government officials’ expertise, due to.
Обратите внимание, что в текстах научного характера нередко встречаются словосочетания, состоящие из существительных. Перевод таких словосочетаний осуществляется по цепочки от главного слова. Например, the regional economic security research – исследование экономической безопасности области.
2. Запишите прописью следующие числительные.
1241 (год), 1394, 1420, 1983, 1936, 2017, 8.9%, 89%, 92.1 million, 951 963 010, 40 123 850, 262 642 863, 370-ой, 941-ый, 90 862-ой, 405 070 003-ий.
3. Преобразуйте данные существительные в глаголы, переведите слова. Какой можно сделать вывод.
Например, security (безопасность) – secure (охранять, защищать).
Development, improvement, assessment, management, preparation, regulation, implementation, reaction, transformation, intensification.
4. Передайте следующие предложения в Active Voice.
The level of economic security is influenced not only by the market but also by the ability of appropriate state institutions to regulate the social and economic process of particular areas and the whole country.
In economic sphere management of the region new approaches to objective assessment of economic security level are synthesized.
The old approaches are being improved.
5. Найдите в тексте все неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
implementation [ˌɪmplɪmen'teɪʃ(ə)n]
intensification [ɪnˌten(t)sɪfɪ'keɪʃ(ə)n]
expertise [ˌekspɜː'tiːz]
mechanism ['mekənɪz(ə)m]
comprehensive [ˌkɔmprɪ'hen(t)sɪv]
methodical [mə'θɔdɪk(ə)l]
appropriate [ə'prəuprɪət]
particular [pə'tɪkjələ]
assessment [ə'sesmənt]
to synthesize ['sɪnθəsaɪz]
to analyze ['æn(ə)laɪz]
analysis [ə'næləsɪs]
crisis ['kraɪsɪs]
criterion [kraɪ'tɪərɪən]
sphere [sfɪə]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
FEATURES OF ECONOMIC SECURITY
The successful implementation of economic security policy and civil social and economic development of the country depends on the level of government officials’ expertise and on their methodical preparation in development and implementation of comprehensive programs of building economic security.
The necessity of reformation of the regulation mechanism of the social and economic development process demands the attention towards the improvement of methodical assessment approaches to the dynamics of economic and social significant of development of the region and the whole country.
The level of economic security is influenced not only by the market but also by the ability of appropriate state institutions to regulate the social and economic process of particular areas and the whole country. As for the crisis analysis, it is considered to be one of the elements of the regional system analysis.
The regional economic security research demands an accountant of the environment of state and inter-regional level. So, there is a chance to analyze the system reaction of change of the environment.
Modeling the possible transformations of structure components became very important due to appropriate menace and ability intensification to resist unfavorable impacts.
The most important criterion of economic security of the region is the level of well-being of society.
In economic sphere management of the region new approaches to objective assessment of economic security level are synthesized and the old ones are being improved.
********************
TEXT 10
THE AGENCY OF ECONOMIC SECURITY AND RISK MANAGEMENT
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
The Agency of Economic Security and Risk Management, Chamber of Commerce and Industry, Register of enterprises and entrepreneurs, Register of reliable partners, only non-state organization, economic agents, entrepreneurship community, entrepreneurship activity partners, form of incorporation, law enforcement bodies, to carry purposes, to ensure security.
2. Запишите прописью следующие числительные.
1711 (год), 1812, 1930, 1987, 2002, 2014, 0.2%, 42%, 16.5 million, 80 753 085, 465 850 456, 18 863 800, 219-ой, 643-ий, 75 402-ой, 405 070 003-ий.
3. Определите, чем в следующих словах является флексия –(e)s: окончанием существительного во множественном числе или окончанием глагола в 3 л. ед.ч. в Present Simple tense .
Agents, rights, risks, bodies, carries, purposes, enterprises, powers, proves, regions.
4. Передайте следующие предложения в Passive Voice.
The Agency carries out independent examination of finance position, business reputation and reliability of enterprises and organizations.
The Agency keeps the Russian Register of enterprises and entrepreneurs.
The Agency creates favourable conditions for adequate business decision making.
The Agency assists development of civilized relationships in the entrepreneurship community.
The Agency of Economic Security and Risk Management, law enforcement bodies and authorized non-state law enforcement organizations ensure entrepreneurship security and investors rights protection.
5. Найдите в тексте все неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
agency ['eɪʤ(ə)n(t)sɪ]
chamber ['ʧeɪmbə]
industry ['ɪndəstrɪ]
register ['reʤɪstə]
reliability [rɪˌlaɪə'bɪlətɪ]
incorporation [ɪnˌkɔːp(ə)'reɪʃ(ə)n]
enterprise ['entəpraɪz]
entrepreneur [ˌɔntrəprə'nɜː]
entrepreneurship [ɒ̱ntrəprənɜ͟ːʃɪp]
adequate ['ædɪkwət]
civilized ['sɪv(ə)laɪzd]
to ensure [ɪn'ʃuə]
Проанализируйте и сделайте выводы об изменении ударения в словах при конверсии (глагол-существительное):
|
1. to com'merce - торговать 2. to con'trast — противопоставлять 3. to ex'port — экспортировать 4. to im'port — импортировать 5. to in'crease — увеличивать 6. to in'sult — оскорблять 7. to pre'sent — дарить 8. to protest — протестовать 9. to permit — разрешать, допускать 10. to ге'bеl — восставать, протестовать 11. to sub'ject — подчинять, подвергать 12. to trans'fer — переносить, передавать 13. to tran'sport — перевозить 14. to con'duct — вести себя; вести (дело) |
'commerce – торговля, коммерция 'contrast — контраст 'export — экспорт 'import — импорт 'increase — увеличение 'insult — оскорбление 'present — подарок 'protest — протест 'permit — разрешение, допуск 'rebel — повстанец, бунтовщик 'subject — субъект, подверженный 'transfer — перенос, передача 'transport — транспорт 'conduct — поведение, ведение (дела) |
Обратите внимание на одинаковое ударение при конверсии (глагол — существительное):
|
1. to dis'pute — дискутировать |
dis'pute — диспут, спор |
|
2. to con'sent to smth. (smb.) — уступать, соглашаться |
con'sent — уступка, согласие |
|
3. to 'comment on smth. — комментировать, толковать |
'comment — комментарий, толкование |
Отработайте произношение данных слов.
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
THE AGENCY OF ECONOMIC SECURITY AND RISK MANAGEMENT
The Agency of Economic Security and Risk Management is the only non-state organization in Russia whose powers in the field of evaluation of business reputation and reliability of economic agents are defined by law («On Chambers of Commerce and Industry of the Russian Federation», Articles 12 and 15).
The Agency carries out the following purposes:
********************
TEXT 11
THE PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC SECURITY
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Brain-drain, threats to economic security, national policy, stability of economy, living conditions, middle class, shadow economy, analytical computation, triad, in connection with, for the realization of.
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на числительные.
3. Определите, чем в следующих словах является флексия –(e)s: показателем притяжательного падежа существительного, окончанием существительного во множественном числе или окончанием глагола в 3 л. ед.ч. в Present Simple tense.
Countries, priorities, theses, depends, directions, population’s, forecasts, interests, threats, today’s, ways.
4. Передайте следующие предложения в Active Voice (введите любые подлежащие).
1. To avoid any problems a system of economic security should be based on the worked out results of the monitoring, analytical computations, forecasts, etc.
2. A conception of economic security must be worked out, every year it will neatly define priority directions in providing security.
3. Of course, for the realization of these theses legal basis of economic security must also be provided.
5. Найдите в тексте все неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
governing ['gʌv(ə)nɪŋ]
triad ['traɪæd]
maintenance ['meɪnt(ə)nən(t)s]
strategy ['strætəʤɪ]
mechanism ['mekənɪz(ə)m]
priority [praɪ'ɔrətɪ]
structural ['strʌkʧ(ə)r(ə)l]
major ['meɪʤə]
threat [θret]
computation [ˌkɔmpju'teɪʃ(ə)n]
forecast ['fɔːkɑːst]
realization [ˌrɪəlaɪ'zeɪʃ(ə)n]
theses ['θiːsiːz] мн.ч. от thesis ['θiːsɪs]
legal ['liːg(ə)l]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
THE PROBLEMS OF ECONOMIC SECURITY
The fundamental role of national security in today’s world in formation of national policy and national development is stressed up. While governing their political system many countries pay special attention to its security considering it to be the main component in the triad of security-stability-development.
The maintenance of national security much depends on the development and stability of economy. In connection with it the speaker pointed out the importance of strategy in economic security, estimations, ways and mechanisms of its realization, ensuring the economic interests of the country and the region.
The component parts of economic security are economic independence, the stability of economy and ensuring its development.
The priorities of the government to ensure economic security are stimulation of the expend in export, structural reorganization of economy, the improvement of the major population’s living conditions and the formation of the middle class.
The most important threats to economic security are the permanent brain-drain, shadow economy and corruption.
To avoid any problems a system of economic security should be based on the worked out results of the monitoring, analytical computations, forecasts, etc. A conception of economic security must be worked out, every year it will neatly define priority directions in providing security. Of course, for the realization of these theses legal basis of economic security must also be provided.
********************
TEXT 12
WELFARE
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Elderly, charity, donation, subsidies, vouchers, welfare, welfare state, public aid, refer to, in addition to, bring acclaim from, inter-governmental organizations, universal healthcare, unemployment insurance, monetary payments, general government revenue, recipients.
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на числительные.
1. The third largest source of government revenues is value added tax (VAT), charged at the standard rate of 17.5% (temporarily cut to 15% between December 2008 and December 2009) on supplies of goods and services.
2. This pared with tax structures found in some areas, such as Utah, where the poor pay more of their income as a total percentage on taxes, i.e. those making below $16,000 annually pay 11.4% of their income on taxes while those earning at least $280,000 pay 5.5% (because citizens reach the top tax bracket at $4,313 for a single person), has led to growing number of poor and a wider gap between the rich.
3. Nationally, as of 2005, the top federal tax bracket for a single person is 35% and reached at an income of $326,451.
4. For someone with the full number of qualifying years (years in which NI contribution was paid - typically 44 for a man and 39 for a woman, although this reduces to 30 years on 6 April 2010), it is payable at a flat rate of £90.70 per week (2008/09).
5. The enhancement is actually 1% per 5 weeks the pension is not claimed, and the lump sum is the amount not claimed plus interest at 2% over the Bank of England's base rate.
3. Объясните употребление или отсутствие артиклей в следующих предложениях.
1. In ___ most developed countries, welfare is largely provided by the government, in addition to charities, informal social groups, religious groups, and inter-governmental organizations.
2. In the Roman Empire, the first emperor Augustus provided the 'congiaria' or corn dole for citizens who could not afford to buy food.
3. Some countries run conditional cash transfer welfare programs where payment is conditional on behaviour of the recipients.
4. Передайте следующие предложения в Active Voice (введите любые подлежащие).
1. In most developed countries, welfare is largely provided by the government.
2. Social welfare was enlarged by the Emperor Trajan.
3. When dealing with charities or non-governmental organizations, donations may be used.
5. Найдите в тексте все неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
referred [rɪ'fɜːd]
eligibility [ˌelɪʤə'bɪlətɪ]
charities ['ʧærɪtɪz]
subsidies ['sʌbsɪdɪz]
vouchers ['vauʧəz]
citizens ['sɪtɪznz]
religious [rɪ'lɪʤəs]
unemployment [ˌʌnɪm'plɔɪmənt]
emperor ['emp(ə)rə]
recipient [rɪ'sɪpɪənt]
revenue ['rev(ə)njuː]
insurance [ɪn'ʃuər(ə)n(t)s]
the Roman Empire ['rəumən 'empaɪə]
Emperor Trajan ['emp(ə)rə ˈtreɪdʒ(ə)n]
Augustus [ɔː'gʌstəs]
Pliny the Younger [ˈplɪni ðiː 'jʌŋgə]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
WELFARE
Welfare is the provision of a minimal level of well-being and social support for all citizens, sometimes referred to as public aid. In most developed countries, welfare is largely provided by the government, in addition to charities, informal social groups, religious groups, and inter-governmental organizations.
The welfare state expands on this concept to include services such as universal healthcare and unemployment insurance.
In the Roman Empire, the first emperor Augustus provided the 'congiaria' or corn dole for citizens who could not afford to buy food. Social welfare was enlarged by the Emperor Trajan. Trajan's program brought acclaim from many, including Pliny the Younger.
Welfare can take a variety of forms, such as monetary payments, subsidies and vouchers, or housing assistance. Welfare systems differ from country to country, but welfare is commonly provided to individuals who are unemployed, those with illness or disability, the elderly, those with dependent children, and veterans. A person's eligibility for welfare may also be constrained by means testing or other conditions.
Welfare is provided by governments or their agencies, by private organizations, or a combination of both. Funding for welfare usually comes from general government revenue, but when dealing with charities or non-governmental organizations, donations may be used. Some countries run conditional cash transfer welfare programs where payment is conditional on behaviour of the recipients.
********************
TEXT 13
WELFARE STATE
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Social well-being, equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, income gap, public responsibility, redistributionist taxation, a progressive tax, a transfer of funds.
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на числительные.
1. Since 2005 automotive sector jobs have experienced very low job security, and since 2007, real estate and mortgage related jobs have seen a big decrease in job security.
2. In 1960 5% of men ages 30–55 were unemployed whereas roughly 13% were unemployed in 2006.
3. According to data from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey, 32% of all of current workers experienced job insecurity, defined as being worried about becoming unemployed.
4. Job insecurity was higher for men than women, workers aged 30-64 compared with other age groups, divorced or separated workers compared with other relationship statuses, and workers having less than a high school diploma compared to workers having more education.
5. Workers in the construction industry had the highest prevalence rate of job insecurity (55%).
3. Переведите данные словосочетания. Составьте с ними предложения.
welfare agency
welfare aid
welfare benefit
welfare criterion
welfare economics
employee welfare manager
4. Подчеркните в тексте все местоимения, переведите их и определите их разряд.
5. Найдите в тексте все неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
Nordic ['nɔːdɪk]
Iceland ['aɪslənd]
Sweden ['swiːd(ə)n]
Norway ['nɔːweɪ]
Denmark ['denmɑːk]
Finland ['fɪnlənd]
democracy [dɪ'mɔkrəsɪ]
equality [ɪ'kwɔlətɪ]
equitable ['ekwɪtəbl]
healthcare [ˈ helθˌke(ə)r]
key [kiː]
provision [prə'vɪʒ(ə)n]
sociologist [ˌsəuʃɪ'ɔləʤɪst]
to classify ['klæsɪfaɪ]
to identify [aɪ'dentɪfaɪ]
variety [və'raɪətɪ]
T.H. Marshall ['mɑːʃ(ə)l]
redistributionist taxation [ˌriːdɪstrɪ'bjuːʃ(ə)nist tæk'seɪʃ(ə)n]
progressive tax [prə'gresɪv tæks]
Thomas Humphrey Marshall - Маршалл, Томас Хамфри (1893-1981; британский социолог и историк; в книге Citizenship and Class (1950) сформулировал вопросы в области гражданских прав, которые стали началом многих современных дискуссий).
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
WELFARE STATE
A welfare state is a "concept of government in which the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life. The general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization." The sociologist T.H. Marshall identified the welfare state as a distinctive combination of democracy, welfare, and capitalism.
Modern welfare states include the Nordic countries, such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland which employ a system known as the Nordic model. The welfare state involves a transfer of funds from the state, to the services provided (i.e. healthcare, education) as well as directly to individuals ("benefits"). Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories: Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal.
The welfare state is funded through redistributionist taxation and is often referred to as a type of "mixed economy". Such taxation usually includes a larger income tax for people with higher incomes, called a progressive tax. This helps to reduce the income gap between the rich and poor.
********************
TEXT 14
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Continental Europe, economic expansion, employer, to fire employees, government officials, in turn, indefinite, individual's personal skills, law enforcement, statutory employment contract, temporary, tenure, times of a recession, to be dependent on, to some extent, unemployed, unemployment rate, work experience.
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на числительные.
1. It takes two days, two bureaucratic procedures, and $280 to open a business in Canada while an entrepreneur in Bolivia must pay $2,696 in fees, wait 82 business days, and go through 20 procedures to do the same.
2. The Tax Year in the UK, which applies to income tax and other personal taxes, runs from 6 April in one year to 5 April the next (for income tax purposes).
3. Hence the 2008-09 tax year runs from 6 April 2008 to 5 April 2009.
4. The odd dates are due to events in the mid-18th century.
5. When the Gregorian calendar was adopted in the UK in September 1752 in place of the Julian calendar, the two were out of step by 11 days.
6. However, it was felt unacceptable for the tax authorities to lose out on 11 days' tax revenues, so the start of the tax year was moved, firstly to 5 April and then, in 1800, to 6 April.
7. Financial Year 2008 runs from 1 April 2008 to 31 March 2009.
3. Распределите данные слова по группам, выявите наиболее употребительные словообразовательные суффиксы, характерные для каждой части речи. Дайте перевод слов.
|
существительное |
прилагательное |
глагол |
наречие |
Probability, security, dependent, condition, personal, economic, expansion, recession, illegal, indicator, economist, government, typically, education, enforcement, generally, usually, location, occupation, functional, important, necessary, employer, environment, higher, worker, employment, virtually.
4. Выпишите из словаря с переводом и транскрипцией однокоренные слова к слову employ.
5. Найдите в тексте все неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
Economist [ɪ'kɔnəmɪst]
employee [ˌɪmplɔɪ'iː]
employer [ɪm'plɔɪə]
employment [ɪm'plɔɪmənt]
unemployed [ˌʌnɪm'plɔɪd]
unemployment [ˌʌnɪm'plɔɪmənt]
enforcement [ɪn'fɔːsmənt]
environment [ɪn'vaɪər(ə)nmənt]
equivalent [ɪ'kwɪv(ə)lənt]
expansion [ɪk'spæn(t)ʃ(ə)n]
functional ['fʌŋkʃ(ə)n(ə)l]
generally ['ʤen(ə)r(ə)lɪ]
industry ['ɪndəstrɪ]
lower ['ləuə]
necessary ['nesəs(ə)rɪ]
official [ə'fɪʃ(ə)l]
private ['praɪvɪt]
probability [ˌprɔbə'bɪlətɪ]
ranging [reɪnʤɪŋ]
recession [rɪ'seʃ(ə)n]
since [sɪns]
statutory ['stætjət(ə)rɪ]
temporary ['temp(ə)r(ə)rɪ]
tenure ['tenjuə]
to fire ['faɪə]
to prevail [prɪ'veɪl]
to secure [sɪ'kjuə]
to vary ['veərɪ]
virtually ['vɜːʧuəlɪ]
whole [həul]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
Job security is the probability that an individual will keep his or her job; a job with a high level of job security is such that a person with the job would have a small chance of becoming unemployed.
Job security is dependent on economy, prevailing business conditions, and the individual's personal skills. It has been found that people have more job security in times of economic expansion and less in times of a recession. Also, some laws bolster job security by making it illegal to fire employees for certain reasons. Unemployment rate is a good indicator of job security and the state of the economy and is tracked by economists, government officials, and banks.
Typically, government jobs and jobs in education, healthcare and law enforcement are considered very secure while private sector jobs are generally believed to offer lower job security and it usually varies by industry, location, occupation and other factors.
Personal factors such as education, work experience, job functional area, work industry, work location, etc., play an important role in determining the need for an individual's services, and impacts their personal job security. Since job security depends on having the necessary skills and experience that are in demand by employers, which in turn depend on the prevailing economic condition and business environment, individuals whose services are in demand by employers will tend to enjoy higher job security.
To some extent, job security also varies by employment laws of each country. A worker in Continental Europe, if asked about his job security, would reply by naming the type of statutory employment contract he has, ranging from temporary (no job security) to indefinite (virtually equivalent to 'tenure' in US universities but across the whole economy).
********************
TEXT 15
NATIONAL SECURITY
1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите следующие слова и словосочетания. Найдите и подчеркните их в тексте. Отработайте чтение этих слов.
Authorities, conventional foe, cartel, diplomacy, espionage, requirement, emergency preparedness measures, intelligence services, counterintelligence services, economic power, power projection, political power, initially, military might, in order to, natural disasters, severe environmental damage, to compel cooperation, to ensure resilience and redundancy, to encompass, to espouse, to facilitate cooperation, to impinge, to implement civil defense, to marshal economic power, to rally allies.
2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на числительные.
1. In 1974 the top-rate of income tax increased to its highest rate since the war, 83%.
2. This applied to incomes over £20,000, and combined with a 15% surcharge on 'un-earned' income (investments and dividends) could add to a 98% marginal rate of personal income tax.
3. In 1974, just 750,000 people were eligible to pay the top-rate of income tax.
4. Margaret Thatcher, who favoured indirect taxation reduced personal income tax rates during the 1980s.
5. In the first budget after her election victory in 1979, the top-rate was reduced from 83% to 60% and the basic rate from 33% to 30%.
6. The basic rate was also cut for three successive budgets - to 29% in the 1986 budget, 27% in 1987 and to 25% in 1988.
7. The top-rate of income tax was cut to 40% in the 1988 budget.
3. Распределите данные слова по группам, выявите наиболее употребительные словообразовательные суффиксы, характерные для каждой части речи. Дайте перевод слов.
|
существительное |
прилагательное |
глагол |
наречие |
Requirement, economic, projection, political, mostly, initially, military, accordingly, national, conventional, actor, organization, natural, diplomacy, isolate, facilitate, effective, preparedness, legislation, redundancy, critical, information, internal.
4. Переведите следующие словосочетания на русский язык.
Abuse of power, assume power, bargaining power, be in power, calculated power, come to power, commercial power, concentration of economic power, constitutional power, discretionary power, earning power, exercise one's power, financial power, foreign power, hold power, inherent powers, labour power, large powers, power to sign, reserved powers, sole voting power, supreme power, take the power, the Great Powers, voting power.
5. Найдите в тексте все неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, герундий, причастие I / причастие II). Переведите предложения с ними.
6. Определите и укажите время и залог выделенных сказуемых, переведите их, учитывая временную отнесенность.
7. Поставьте к тексту 5 вопросов (общий, специальный, вопрос к подлежащему, альтернативный и разделительный):
8. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем. Отработайте чтение текста.
Обратите внимание на произношение и значение следующих слов:
requirement [rɪ'kwaɪəmənt]
survival [sə'vaɪv(ə)l]
through [θruː]
diplomacy [dɪ'pləuməsɪ]
projection [prə'ʤekʃ(ə)n]
initially [ɪ'nɪʃ(ə)lɪ]
might [maɪt]
to encompass [ɪn'kʌmpəs]
facet ['fæsɪt]
violent ['vaɪəl(ə)nt]
cartel [kɑː'tel]
authority [ɔː'θɔrɪtɪ]
disaster [dɪ'zɑːstə]
severe [sɪ'vɪə]
allies ['ælaɪz]
to facilitate [fə'sɪlɪteɪt]
to compel [kəm'pel]
preparedness [prɪ'peədnəs]
measure ['meʒə]
legislation [ˌleʤɪ'sleɪʃ(ə)n]
resilience [rɪ'zɪlɪən(t)s]
redundancy [rɪ'dʌndən(t)sɪ]
espionage ['espɪənɑːʒ]
counterintelligence [ˌkauntə(r)ɪn'telɪʤən(t)s]
police [pə'liːs]
threat [θret]
9. Передайте содержание текста на русском языке.
*10. Перескажите текст на английском языке.
NATIONAL SECURITY
National security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the state through the use of economic power, diplomacy, power projection and political power. The concept developed mostly in the United States after World War II. Initially focusing on military might, it now encompasses a broad range of facets, all of which impinge on the non military or economic security of the nation and the values espoused by the national society. Accordingly, in order to possess national security, a nation needs to possess economic security, security, environmental security, etc. Security threats involve not only conventional foes such as other nation-states but also non-state actors such as violent non-state actors, narcotic cartels, multinational corporations and non-governmental organisations; some authorities include natural disasters and events causing severe environmental damage in this category.
Measures taken to ensure national security include:
PART B
1. Переведите текст на русский язык со словарем. Подготовьте аннотацию данного текста на английском языке.
BEYOND DEFENSE, GULF COUNTRIES MUST MIND ITS ECONOMIC SECURITY (1)
Economic security is quickly becoming one of the main issues in an increasingly interactive world. Like the evolution of technology over time, the concept of security has changed dramatically over the last few decades. Historically, security was highly related to defence policy - the development and use of military force - and the idea that states need to protect their national borders from invasion.
The importance of economic security is that it ensures the security of not only borders, but also the safety and well being of citizens, economic viability and way of life. In the case of the Gulf countries, their economic security challenges are especially related to their dependence on oil and lack of food security. It is important for Gulf states to define their position in the international system.
There are several challenges that appear to shape economic security issues. First, there are less inter-state military conflicts and more attacks perpetrated by small groups of individuals of which some are nationals. Second, economic and technological globalisation has increased interdependence among countries to the extent that actions taken in one country may spill over internationally. Lastly, the emergence of rising economic powers, the growth of the world's population, the depletion of clean water and arable land, and pressure on mineral resources, resulted in increased risks and vulnerabilities in the global commons.
Economic security also requires an economic system that is environmentally sustainable. We run into a problem when we look at developing nations who use up their natural resources to sustain current populations, at the expense of their future. Ensuring economic security and creating more resilient societies in developed and developing nations requires several shifts to occur or strengthen.
Countries need to shift from a fragmented approach to security towards an integrated approach. Security is more than just physical survival (food, shelter and satisfaction of other basic needs). There should be a move from that basic idea of security to one that acknowledges the ability to provide an increase in the standard of living of a population through education, employment, justice, freedom of expression and political participation, among other factors.
The national approach to security also needs to shift towards regional and international approaches.
BEYOND DEFENSE, GULF COUNTRIES MUST MIND ITS ECONOMIC SECURITY (2)
The globalisation of markets and free flows of capital, information and to some extent labour has brought tremendous opportunities but also created new forms of threats to economic security, including systemic risk in international financial markets, cross-border money laundering, piracy of intellectual property rights and illegal migration. Economic security is contingent on the ability to strike a balance between economic openness and economic sovereignty.
The global financial crisis was an example of how a problem emerged in a single country and ended up affecting the entire global economy. The crisis showed that actions of a few individuals can have detrimental global effects: Russia's decision to ban exports of wheat last summer led to a price hike in international markets and created economic security concerns around the world; the absence of social safety nets in China stimulates excessive saving and generates negative effects on the US economy.
Short-sighted views of security have to adopt a more pro-active approach. Fragile and poor states are not only a danger for themselves but also for their neighbours and often for the whole world as seen with the Somali pirates. Taking initiatives to solve conflicts but also promoting political stability and economic development are key ingredients of any pro-active strategy to economic security.
There are several things the Gulf countries can do to promote their economic security. At the international level, they should enhance their trade and cooperation with countries from within and outside the region and work as constructive partners in international organisations such as the WTO and the UN.
Gulf nations should focus on strengthening education and building human capital. This results in higher productivity and more innovation for sustainable growth and development; ensuring social security through solidarity systems that reinforce identity and create a sense of belonging to a community; and diversifying national product and foreign trade and investment.
This can be done by strengthening regional integration such as Qatar's role as mediator in Lebanon and Sudan or the Afro-Arab cooperation which focuses on subjects such as peace and security, investment and trade, agriculture and food security, and cultural cooperation.
Globalisation and resource scarcity mean that countries can no longer be indifferent to each other. This calls for a broader view of economic security at a multilateral level.
Job security in the United States depends more upon the economy and business conditions than in most countries because of the capitalist system and the minimal government intervention in businesses. Job security in the United States can vary a lot since the supply and demand for jobs depends on the economy. If the economy is good, companies experience more demand for their products and create more jobs, which increases job security. However, in periods of economic slowdown or recession, companies try to cut costs and layoff workers which decreases job security. Importantly, employment in the United States is at will, meaning that apart from certain limited exceptions, an employee's job security is generally at the mercy of the employer.
In the aftermath of the dot com boom, computer related jobs experienced low job security whereas the situation was just the opposite prior to that. Since 2005 automotive sector jobs have experienced very low job security, and since 2007, real estate and mortgage related jobs have seen a big decrease in job security.
A growing number of American men have dealt with their unemployment and feelings of job insecurity by not returning to work. In 1960 5% of men ages 30–55 were unemployed whereas roughly 13% were unemployed in 2006. The New York Times attributes a large portion of this to blue collar and professional men refusing to work in jobs that they are overqualified for or do not provide adequate benefits in contrast to their previous jobs.
According to data from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey, 32% of all of current workers experienced job insecurity, defined as being worried about becoming unemployed. Job insecurity was higher for men than women, workers aged 30-64 compared with other age groups, divorced or separated workers compared with other relationship statuses, and workers having less than a high school diploma compared to workers having more education. Workers in the construction industry had the highest prevalence rate of job insecurity (55%).
Immigration and overseas outsourcing may decrease job security for people in certain occupations. For example, telephone call center positions in the information technology sector are increasingly being outsourced to India where the same roles can be filled at a lower cost.
The main difference vis-à-vis the United States is the system of indefinite contracts. In most European countries many employees have indefinite contracts which, whilst not guaranteeing a job for life, make it very difficult for the employer to terminate a contract. Employees who have legally acquired these rights, for example because they have been with a company for two years continuously, can only be dismissed for disciplinary reasons (after a number of formal warnings and subject to independent appeal) or in the case of a company undergoing restructuring (subject to generous laws on redundancy payments and often with retraining paid for by the company). In Spain, for example, such employees are entitled to 45 days redundancy pay per year worked. The high cost of redundancy payments is in practice what gives employees job security.
Whilst employees who have such legally-binding, indefinite contracts are in the enviable position of knowing that they (and their family) have complete financial security for the rest of their lives, it is important to realise that these obligations work both ways. In some countries such as Germany a company may prevent an employee (whose occupational training they have paid for) from leaving to take up a better post elsewhere until compensation is agreed. Even an employee of a company which is known to be about to fold may find himself compelled to stay with the company until the end even if he is offered work with a different firm.
Every company will have a mix of employees on different types of contract. Indefinite contracts can also exist for seasonal work. These so-called discontinuous contracts mean that a hotel, for example, may dismiss its staff in the autumn, but it must take the same people back on again the following spring.
The proportion of the workforce on indefinite contracts has fallen across Europe in response to increased competition and globalization. Companies may dismiss an employee just before he reaches the two-year mark and then re-hire him as a new employee. Many economists argue that greater labour market flexibility is necessary. Economics professors argue that the threat of unemployment is necessary to maintain incentives to high productivity. Jobs which are not backed by an indefinite contract are still poorly-regarded in many European societies, often disparagingly described as "precarious" or "McJobs", even when the company has good prospects.
Geopolitics is the study of the effects of geography (both human and physical) on international politics and international relations. Geopolitics is a method of foreign policy analysis which seeks to understand, explain, and predict international political behaviour primarily in terms of geographical variables. Typical geographical variables are the physical location, size, climate, topography, demography, natural resources, and technological advances of the state being evaluated. Traditionally, the term has applied primarily to the impact of geography on politics, but its usage has evolved over the past century to encompass wider connotations.
Geopolitics traditionally studies the links between political power and geographic space, and examines strategic prescriptions based on the relative importance of land power and sea power in world history. The geopolitical tradition had some consistent concerns with geopolitical correlations of power in world politics, the identification of international core areas, and the relationships between naval and terrestrial capabilities. Academically, the study of geopolitics analyses geography, history, and social science with reference to spatial politics and patterns at various scales. Also, the study of geopolitics includes the study of the ensemble of relations between the interests of international political actors, interests focused to an area, space, geographical element or ways, relations which create a geopolitical system. 4 Geopolitics is multidisciplinary in scope, and includes all aspects of the social sciences—with particular emphasis on political geography, international relations, the territorial aspects of political science and international law.
The term "Geopolitics" was coined at the beginning of the twentieth century by Rudolf Kjellén, a Swedish political scientist, who was inspired by the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel. Ratzel published Politische Geographie (political geography) in 1897; that book was later popularized in English by the Hungarian historian Emile Reich and the American diplomat Robert Strausz-Hupé (a faculty member of the University of Pennsylvania). Although Halford Mackinder had a pioneering role in the field, he never used the term geopolitics himself.
ECONOMIC LIBERALIZATION
Extending property rights protection to the poor is one of the most important poverty reduction strategies a nation can implement. Securing property rights to land, the largest asset for most societies, is vital to their economic freedom. The World Bank concludes that increasing land rights is ‘the key to reducing poverty’ citing that land rights greatly increase poor people’s wealth, in some cases doubling it. It is estimated that state recognition of the property of the poor would give them assets worth 40 times all the foreign aid since 1945. Although approaches varied, the World Bank said the key issues were security of tenure and ensuring land transactions were low cost. In China and India, noted reductions in poverty in recent decades have occurred mostly as a result of the abandonment of collective farming in China and the cutting of government red tape in India.
New enterprises and foreign investment can be driven away by the results of inefficient institutions, corruption, the weak rule of law and excessive bureaucratic burdens. It takes two days, two bureaucratic procedures, and $280 to open a business in Canada while an entrepreneur in Bolivia must pay $2,696 in fees, wait 82 business days, and go through 20 procedures to do the same. Such costly barriers favor big firms at the expense of small enterprises where most jobs are created. In India before economic reforms, businesses had to bribe government officials even for routine activities, which was in effect a tax on business.
However, ending government sponsorship of social programs is sometimes advocated as a free market principle with tragic consequences. For example, the World Bank presses poor nations to eliminate subsidies for fertilizer that many farmers cannot afford at market prices. The reconfiguration of public financing in former Soviet states during their transition to a market economy called for reduced spending on health and education, sharply increasing poverty.
There is no single universally accepted definition of national security. The variety of definitions provides an overview of the many usages of this concept. The concept still remains ambiguous, having originated from simpler definitions which initially emphasized the freedom from military threat and political coercion to later increase in sophistication and include other forms of non-military security as suited the circumstances of the time.
A typical dictionary definition, in this case from the Macmillan Dictionary, defines the term as "the protection or the safety of a country’s secrets and its citizens" emphasizing the overall security of a nation and a nation state.
The 1996 definition propagated by the National Defence College of India accretes the elements of national power: "National security is an appropriate and aggressive blend of political resilience and maturity, human resources, economic structure and capacity, technological competence, industrial base and availability of natural resources and finally the military might."
Harold Brown, U.S. Secretary of Defense from 1977 to 1981 in the Carter administration, enlarged the definition of national security by including elements such as economic and environmental security: "National security then is the ability to preserve the nation's physical integrity and territory; to maintain its economic relations with the rest of the world on reasonable terms; to preserve its nature, institution, and governance from disruption from outside; and to control its borders."
In Harvard University history professor Charles Maier's definition of 1990, national security is defined through the lens of national power: "National security... is best described as a capacity to control those domestic and foreign conditions that the public opinion of a given community believes necessary to enjoy its own self-determination or autonomy, prosperity and wellbeing."
According to Prabhakaran Paleri, author of National Security, Imperatives and Challenges, national security may be defined as: The measurable state of the capability of a nation to overcome the multi-dimensional threats to the apparent well-being of its people and its survival as a nation-state at any given time, by balancing all instruments of state policy through governance, that can be indexed by computation, empirically or otherwise, and is extendable to global security by variables external to it."
ELEMENTS OF NATIONAL SECURITY
As in the case of national power, the military aspect of security is an important, but not the sole, component of national security. To be truly secure, a nation needs other forms of security. Authorities differ in their choice of nation security elements. Besides the military aspect of security, the aspects of diplomacy or politics; society; environment; energy and natural resources; and economics are commonly listed. The elements of national security correlate closely to the concept of the elements of national power. Romm (1993) lists security from economic security, environmental security and energy security as the non-military elements of national security.
Military security. This is traditionally, the earliest recognised form of national security. Military security implies the capability of a nation to defend itself, and/or deter military aggression. Alternatively, military security implies the capability of a nation to enforce its policy choices by use of military force. The term "military security" is considered synonymous with "security" in much of its usage. One of the definitions of security given in the Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, may be considered a definition of "military security":
Political security. The political aspect of security has been offered by Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver, Jaap de Wilde as an important component of national security. Political security is about the stability of the social order. Closely allied to military security and societal security, other components proposed in a framework for national security in their book "Security: a new framework for analysis", it specifically addresses threats to sovereignty. System referent objects are defined, such as nation-states, nations, transnational groups of political importance including tribes, minorities, some religious organisations, systems of states such as the European Union and the United Nations, besides others. Diplomacy, negotiation and other interactions form the means of interaction between the objects.
Economic security. Historically, conquest of nations have made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources and enlarged trade through controlling of the conquered nations' economy. In today's complex system of international trade, characterised by multi-national agreements, mutual inter-dependence and availability of natural resources etc., the freedom to follow choice of policies to develop a nation's economy in the manner desired, forms the essence of economic security. Economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military security. The protection of jobs also makes it possible for a country to be well secured economically. Third world countries are less secured due to lack of employment for its citizens.
TAXATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM (1)
Taxation in the United Kingdom may involve payments to a minimum of two different levels of government: The central government (Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs) and local government. Central government revenues come primarily from income tax, National Insurance contributions, value added tax, corporation tax and fuel duty. Local government revenues come primarily from grants from central government funds, business rates in England and Wales, Council Tax and increasingly from fees and charges such as those from on-street parking. In the fiscal year 2007-08, total government revenue was 39.2 per cent of GDP, with net taxes and National Insurance contributions standing at 36.9 per cent of GDP.
Residence and domicile. UK source income is generally subject to UK taxation no matter the citizenship nor the place of residence of the individual nor the place of registration of the company.
For individuals this means the UK income tax liability of one who is neither resident nor ordinarily resident in the UK is limited to any tax deducted at source on UK income, together with tax on income from a trade or profession carried on through a permanent establishment in the UK and tax on rental income from UK real estate.
Individuals who are both resident and domiciled in the UK are additionally liable to taxation on their worldwide income and gains. For individuals resident but not domiciled in the UK (a "non-dom"), foreign income and gains have historically been taxed on the remittance basis, that is to say, only income and gains remitted to the UK are taxed (for such people the UK is sometimes called a tax haven). However from 6 April 2008, a non-dom wishing to retain the remittance basis is required to pay an annual tax of £30,000.
Domicile here is a term with a technical meaning. Very roughly (and this is a considerable simplification) an individual is domiciled in the UK if it is his or her permanent home.
A company is resident in the UK if it is UK-incorporated or if its central management and control are in the UK (although in the former case a company could be resident in another jurisdiction in certain circumstances where a tax treaty applies).
Double taxation of income and gains may be avoided by an applicable double tax treaty - the UK has one of the largest networks of treaties of any country.
TAXATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM (2)
Capital gains tax. Capital gains are subject to tax at the 18% (for individuals) or at the applicable marginal rate of corporation tax (for companies).
The basic principle is the same for individuals and companies - the tax applies only on the disposal of a capital asset, and the amount of the gain is calculated as the difference between the disposal proceeds and the "base cost", being the original purchase price plus allowable related expenditure. However, from 6 April 2008, the rate and reliefs applicable to the chargeable gain differ between individuals and companies. Companies apply "indexation relief" to the base cost, increasing it in accordance with the Retail Prices Index so that (broadly speaking) the gain is calculated on a post-inflation basis (with different rules apply for gains accrued prior to March 1982). The gain is then subject to tax at the applicable marginal rate of corporation tax. Individuals are taxed at a flat rate of 18%, with no indexation relief (but subject to a limited relief for the first £1m of gains for "entrepreneurs").
The tax year. The Tax Year in the UK, which applies to income tax and other personal taxes, runs from 6 April in one year to 5 April the next (for income tax purposes). Hence the 2008-09 tax year runs from 6 April 2008 to 5 April 2009.
The odd dates are due to events in the mid-18th century. The English quarter days are traditionally used as the dates for collecting rents (on, for example, agricultural properties). The tax system was also based on a tax year ending on Lady Day (25 March). When the Gregorian calendar was adopted in the UK in September 1752 in place of the Julian calendar, the two were out of step by 11 days. However, it was felt unacceptable for the tax authorities to lose out on 11 days' tax revenues, so the start of the tax year was moved, firstly to 5 April and then, in 1800, to 6 April.
The tax year is sometimes also called the Fiscal Year. The Financial Year, used mainly for corporation tax purposes, runs from 1 April to 31 March. Financial Year 2008 runs from 1 April 2008 to 31 March 2009, as Financial Years are named according to the calendar year in which they start.
TAXATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM (3)
History. The income tax was first implemented in Britain by William Pitt the Younger in his budget of December 1798 to pay for weapons and equipment in preparation for the Napoleonic Wars. Income tax was levied under five schedules—income not falling within those schedules was not taxed. Pitt's income tax was levied from 1799 to 1802, when it was abolished by Henry Addington during the Peace of Amiens. Addington had taken over as prime minister in 1801, after Pitt's resignation over Catholic Emancipation.
The income tax was reintroduced by Addington in 1803 when hostilities recommenced, but it was again abolished in 1816, one year after the Battle of Waterloo. The UK income tax was reintroduced by Sir Robert Peel in the Income Tax Act 1842. Peel, as a Conservative, had opposed income tax in the 1841 general election, but a growing budget deficit required a new source of funds. The new income tax, based on Addington's model, was imposed on incomes above £150.
UK income tax has changed over the years. Originally it taxed a person's income regardless of who was beneficially entitled to that income, but now a person only owes tax on income to which he or she is beneficially entitled. Most companies were taken out of the income tax net in 1965 when corporation tax was introduced. Also the Schedules under which tax is levied have changed. Schedule B was abolished in 1988, Schedule C in 1996 and Schedule E in 2003. For income tax purposes, the remaining schedules were superseded by the Income Tax Act 2005, which also repealed Schedule F completely. The Schedular system and Schedules A and D still remain in force for corporation tax. The highest rate peaked in the Second World War at 99.25% and remained at about 95% till the late 1970s.]
In 1974 the top-rate of income tax increased to its highest rate since the war, 83%. This applied to incomes over £20,000, and combined with a 15% surcharge on 'un-earned' income (investments and dividends) could add to a 98% marginal rate of personal income tax. In 1974, just 750,000 people were eligible to pay the top-rate of income tax. Margaret Thatcher, who favoured indirect taxation reduced personal income tax rates during the 1980s. In the first budget after her election victory in 1979, the top-rate was reduced from 83% to 60% and the basic rate from 33% to 30%. The basic rate was also cut for three successive budgets - to 29% in the 1986 budget, 27% in 1987 and to 25% in 1988. The top-rate of income tax was cut to 40% in the 1988 budget.
The Finance Act 2004 introduced an income tax regime known as "pre-owned asset tax" which aims to reduce the use of common methods of inheritance tax avoidance.
TAXATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM (4)
Value added tax
The third largest source of government revenues is value added tax (VAT), charged at the standard rate of 17.5% (temporarily cut to 15% between December 2008 and December 2009) on supplies of goods and services. It is therefore a tax on consumer expenditure. A document posted on the Parliament website on November 25 2008 suggested that the government was planning a higher 18.5% VAT after this time elapsed, but the Treasury has said this was "an option that was considered and rejected."
Certain goods and services are exempt from VAT, and others are subject to VAT at a lower rate of 5% (the reduced rate, such as domestic gas supplies) or 0% ("zero-rated", such as most food and children's clothing). Exemptions are intended to relieve the tax burden on essentials while placing the full tax on luxuries, but disputes based on fine distinctions arise, such as the notorious "Jaffa Cake Case" which hinged on whether Jaffa Cakes were classed as (zero-rated) cakes—as was eventually decided—or (fully-taxed) chocolate-covered biscuits. Until 2001, VAT was charged at the full rate on women's sanitary towels, presumably because they were considered luxury or non-essential articles.
Corporation tax
The fourth largest source of government revenues is corporation tax, charged on the profits and chargeable gains of companies. The main rate is 30%, which is levied on taxable income above £1.5m. In 2005-06, income below this level was taxed at 0% and 19%, but with marginal reliefs in between the bands. The 0% starting rate has been abolished with effect from 1 April 2006.
There is also a Supplementary charge to Corporation Tax for companies involved in petroleum exploration (for example in the North Sea) which is levied at a rate of 20% for profits arising from 1 January 2006 (previously the rate was 10%).
Excise duties. Excise duties are charged on, amongst other things, motor fuel, alcohol, tobacco, betting and vehicles.
Stamp duty. Stamp duty is charged on the transfer of shares and certain securities at a rate of 0.5%. Modernised versions of stamp duty, stamp duty land tax and stamp duty reserve tax, are charged respectively on the transfer of real estate and shares and securities, at rates of up to 4% and 0.5% respectively.
UK Pension Provision falls into seven major divisions; Basic State Pension, State Second Pension (S2P), Occupational Pensions, Stakeholder Pensions, Group Personal Pensions and Personal or Individual Pensions. Personal Accounts, automatic enrolment and the minimum employer contribution will be new policies joining these from 2012.
The state provides basic pension provision intended to prevent poverty in old age. Men over the age of 65 and women over the age of 60 are entitled to claim state pension, although from 2010 the state pension age will start to be equalised and for women will rise, eventually reaching the age of 65 by 2020.
The basic state pension, then known as the "Old Age Pension" was introduced in the United Kingdom (including Ireland) in January 1909. A pension of 5 shillings per week (25p, equivalent to £19 in present day terms), or 7s.6d per week (equivalent to £28 today) for a married couple, was payable to a person with an income below £21 per annum (equivalent to £1,600 today), following the passage of the Old Age Pensions Act 1908. The qualifying age was 70, and the pensions were subject to a means test.
State Pensions. State pension comprises three main elements - the basic pension, additional pensions, and pension guarantee. These are described in the following sections.
Basic State Pension (BSP) or State Retirement Pension (SRP). Qualification for Basic State Pension is a "contribution based" benefit, and depends on an individual's National Insurance (NI) contribution history. For someone with the full number of qualifying years (years in which NI contribution was paid - typically 44 for a man and 39 for a woman, although this reduces to 30 years on 6 April 2010), it is payable at a flat rate of £90.70 per week (2008/09). Less pension is paid for someone with fewer qualifying years. An "Age Addition" was introduced in 1971, with 25p per week added to the State Pension for people aged 80 or over. It remains at this level.
State Pension can be claimed from State Pension age: currently 65 for men and 60 for women (rising to 65 by 2020). It is also possible to defer claiming the SRP at pension age. Deferring claiming in this way currently (2008) gives an enhancement of approximately 10.4% to the pension per year deferred, or a lump sum and an unenhanced pension. The enhancement is actually 1% per 5 weeks the pension is not claimed, and the lump sum is the amount not claimed plus interest at 2% over the Bank of England's base rate.
UK Pension Provision falls into seven major divisions; Basic State Pension, State Second Pension (S2P), Occupational Pensions, Stakeholder Pensions, Group Personal Pensions and Personal or Individual Pensions. Personal Accounts, automatic enrolment and the minimum employer contribution will be new policies joining these from 2012.
Political pensions. These are type sui generis as they either reward a career in domestic politics or are awarded in the colonial context not on grounds of justice, contract or socio-economic merits, but as a political decision, in order to take a politically significant person (often deemed a potential political danger) out of the picture by paying him or her off, regardless of seniority.
Civil list pensions. These are pensions granted by the sovereign from the civil list upon the recommendation of the first lord of the treasury. By I & 2 Vict. c. 2 they are to be granted to such persons only as have just claims on the royal beneficence or who by their personal services to the Crown, or by the performance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science and attainments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country. As of 1911, a sum of £1200 was allotted each year from the civil list, in addition to the pensions already in force. From a Return issued in 1908, the total of civil list pensions payable in that year amounted to 24,665.
Judicial, municipal, etc. There are certain offices of the executive whose pensions are regulated by particular acts of parliament. Judges of the Supreme Court, on completing fifteen years services or becoming permanently incapacitated for duty, whatever their length of service, may be granted a pension equal to two-thirds of their salary (Judicature Act 5873).
The Lord Chancellor of England however short a time he may have held office, receives a pension of £45,000, but he usually continues to sit as a Law Lord in the House of Lords so also does the Lord Chancellor of Northern Ireland, who receives a pension of 3,692.6s. A considerable number of local authorities have obtained special parliamentary powers for the purpose of superannuating their officials and workmen who have reached the age of 65. Poor law officers receive superannuation allowances under the Poor Law Officers Superannuation Act 1864–1897.
Taxation in the United Kingdom may involve payments to a minimum of two different levels of government: the central government (Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs) and local government. Central government revenues come primarily from income tax, National Insurance contributions, value added tax, corporation tax and fuel duty. Local government revenues come primarily from grants from central government funds, business rates in England and Wales, Council Tax and increasingly from fees and charges such as those from on-street parking. In the fiscal year 2007-08, total government revenue was 39.2 per cent of GDP, with net taxes and National Insurance contributions standing at 36.9 per cent of GDP.
The second largest source of government revenues is National Insurance contributions (NIC), payable by employees, employers and the self-employed. Unlike income tax, Class 1 (non self-employed persons) NIC is paid between lower and upper thresholds, or between £105 and £770 per week for 2008-09. A zero rate of NIC applies to earnings between the lower earnings limit of £90 per week and the earnings threshold of £105 per week (in 2008-09) to protect employees' contributory benefit entitlements. National Insurance is levied at 11% (that is, 11p in the £), but can be contracted-out for persons with a qualifying pension scheme with a reduction of 1.6%. There has also been the addition of a 1% rate on income above the upper threshold in recent years. Employers pay an additional 12.8% on earnings over the lower earnings threshold (£105 per week), but without the upper threshold, so total earnings are taxed at 12.8% per employee.
Employers are additionally liable to Class 1A NIC at 12.8% on most benefits-in-kind provided to employees which are subject to income tax in the hands of the employee, and to Class 1B NIC (also at 12.8%) on the value of the tax and on certain benefits paid via a "PAYE Settlement Agreement".
There are also separate arrangements for self-employed persons (who are normally liable to Class 2 flat rate NIC and Class 4 earnings-related NIC), married women, and voluntary sector workers.
The third largest source of government revenues is value added tax (VAT), charged at the standard rate of 17.5% (temporarily cut to 15% between December 2008 and December 2009) on supplies of goods and services.
Since the 1980s, the U.S. has increased the use of neoliberal economic policies that reduce government intervention and reduce the size of the welfare state, backing away from the more interventionist Keynsian economic policies that had been in favor since the Great Depression. As a result, the United States provides fewer government-delivered social welfare services than most industrialized nations, choosing instead to keep its tax burden lower and relying more heavily on the free market and private charities.
The United States's minimum wage is among the lowest in the industrialized world relative to similar per capita economies. Beginning in the latter part of the 20th century this led to a "living wage" movement; this has met success primarily in urban centers, along with a minority of states that have passed legislation increasing wages. When adjusted for inflation median wages in some states have decreased since 1979.
This pared with tax structures found in some areas, such as Utah, where the poor pay more of their income as a total percentage on taxes, i.e. those making below $16,000 annually pay 11.4% of their income on taxes while those earning at least $280,000 pay 5.5% (because citizens reach the top tax bracket at $4,313 for a single person), has led to growing number of poor and a wider gap between the rich. Tax systems constructed along these lines have been called "regressive".
Nationally, as of 2005, the top federal tax bracket for a single person is 35% and reached at an income of $326,451. When compared to other countries, especially in Europe, America's economy has a high level of social inequality.
The United States is said to have a mixed economy because privately owned businesses and government both play important roles. Indeed, some of the most enduring debates of American economic history focus on the relative roles of the public and private sectors.
The American free enterprise system emphasizes private ownership. Private businesses produce most goods and services, and almost two-thirds of the nation's total economic output goes to individuals for personal use (the remaining one-third is bought by government and business). The consumer role is so great, in fact, that the nation is sometimes characterized as having a "consumer economy."
While consumers and producers make most decisions that mold the economy, government activities have a powerful effect on the U.S. economy in at least four areas. Strong government regulation in the U.S. economy started in the early 1900s; before that date, it was a nearly pure free market economy.
Perhaps most importantly, the federal government guides the overall pace of economic activity, attempting to maintain steady growth, high levels of employment, and price stability. By adjusting spending and tax rates (fiscal policy) or managing the money supply and controlling the use of credit (monetary policy), it can slow down or speed up the economy's rate of growth—in the process, affecting the level of prices and employment.
For many years following the Great Depression of the 1930s, recessions—periods of slow economic growth and high unemployment—were viewed as the greatest of economic threats. When the danger of recession appeared most serious, government sought to strengthen the economy by spending heavily itself or cutting taxes so that consumers would spend more, and by fostering rapid growth in the money supply, which also encouraged more spending. In the 1970s, major price increases, particularly for energy, created a strong fear of inflation—increases in the overall level of prices. As a result, government leaders came to concentrate more on controlling inflation than on combating recession by limiting spending, resisting tax cuts, and reining in growth in the money supply.
Ideas about the best tools for stabilizing the economy changed substantially between the 1960s and the 1990s. In the 1960s, government had great faith in fiscal policy—manipulation of government revenues to influence the economy. Since spending and taxes are controlled by the president and the U.S. Congress, these elected officials played a leading role in directing the economy. A period of high inflation, high unemployment, and huge government deficits weakened confidence in fiscal policy as a tool for regulating the overall pace of economic activity. Instead, monetary policy—controlling the nation's money supply through such devices as interest rates—assumed growing prominence.
In the 1960s, government had great faith in fiscal policy—manipulation of government revenues to influence the economy. Since spending and taxes are controlled by the president and the U.S. Congress, these elected officials played a leading role in directing the economy. A period of high inflation, high unemployment, and huge government deficits weakened confidence in fiscal policy as a tool for regulating the overall pace of economic activity. Instead, monetary policy assumed growing prominence. Monetary policy is directed by the nation's central bank, known as the Federal Reserve Board, with considerable independence from the president and the Congress.
The U.S. federal government regulates private enterprise in numerous ways. Regulation falls into two general categories. Economic regulation seeks, either directly or indirectly, to control prices. Traditionally, the government has sought to prevent monopolies such as electric utilities from raising prices beyond the level that would ensure them reasonable profits. At times, the government has extended economic control to other kinds of industries as well. In the years following the Great Depression, it devised a complex system to stabilize prices for agricultural goods, which tend to fluctuate wildly in response to rapidly changing supply and demand. A number of other industries—trucking and, later, airlines—successfully sought regulation themselves to limit what they considered harmful price cutting.
Another form of economic regulation, antitrust law, seeks to strengthen market forces so that direct regulation is unnecessary. The government—and, sometimes, private parties—have used antitrust law to prohibit practices or mergers that would unduly limit competition.
Since the 1970s, government has also exercised control over private companies to achieve social goals, such as protecting the public's health and safety or maintaining a clean and healthy environment. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration tightly regulates what drugs may reach the market, for example; the Occupational Safety and Health Administration protects workers from hazards they may encounter in their jobs; and the Environmental Protection Agency seeks to control water and air pollution.
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Federal Reserve Board (FRB) - Совет (управляющих) Федеральной резервной системы [ФРС] (управляющий орган Федеральной резервной системы США, семь членов которого назначаются президентом и утверждаются Сенатом).
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) - Управление по санитарному надзору за качеством пищевых продуктов и медикаментов (агентство Министерства здравоохранения и социальных услуг США; систематически обновляет перечень требований к качеству тех или иных продуктов)/
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) - Управление охраны труда (агентство Министерства труда США; создано на основе закона "Об охране труда", 1970 г.; правомочно издавать правила безопасности рабочего места, обязательные для компаний федерального уровня, инспектировать рабочие места на предмет проверки их безопасности и наказывать компании, нарушающие правила)/
Environmental Protection Agency - Управление по охране окружающей среды (в США)/
Since the 1970s, government has also exercised control over private companies to achieve social goals, such as protecting the public's health and safety or maintaining a clean and healthy environment. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration tightly regulates what drugs may reach the market, for example; the Occupational Safety and Health Administration protects workers from hazards they may encounter in their jobs; and the Environmental Protection Agency seeks to control water and air pollution. Such agencies draw heavy criticism from conservatives, who question the agencies' efficiency and necessity.
American attitudes about regulation changed substantially during the final three decades of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1970s, policy makers grew increasingly concerned that economic regulation protected inefficient companies at the expense of consumers in industries such as airlines and trucking. At the same time, technological changes spawned new competitors in some industries, such as telecommunications, that once were considered natural monopolies. Both developments led to a succession of laws easing regulation.
While leaders of America's two most influential political parties generally favored economic deregulation during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, there was less agreement concerning regulations designed to achieve social goals. Social regulation had assumed growing importance in the years following the Depression and World War II, and again in the 1960s and 1970s. But during the presidency of Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, the government relaxed rules intended to protect workers, consumers, and the environment, arguing that regulation interfered with free enterprise, increased the costs of doing business, and thus contributed to inflation. Still, many Americans continued to voice concerns about specific events or trends, prompting the government to issue new regulations in some areas, including environmental protection. As of March 2004, it is estimated that compliance with government regulation costs the U.S. economy $1.3 trillion a year.
Some citizens, meanwhile, have turned to the courts when they feel their elected officials are not addressing certain issues quickly or strongly enough.
Some citizens, meanwhile, have turned to the courts when they feel their elected officials are not addressing certain issues quickly or strongly enough. For instance, in the 1990s, individuals, and eventually government itself, sued tobacco companies over the health risks of cigarette smoking. A large financial settlement provided states with long-term payments to cover medical costs to treat smoking-related illnesses. The money is mostly spent for other purposes.
Each level of government provides many direct services. The federal government, for example, is responsible for national defense, backs research that often leads to the development of new products, conducts space exploration, and runs numerous programs designed to help workers develop workplace skills and find jobs. Government spending has a significant effect on local and regional economies—and even on the overall pace of economic activity.
State governments, meanwhile, are responsible for the construction and maintenance of most highways. State, county, or city governments play the leading role in financing and operating public schools. Local governments are primarily responsible for police and fire protection. Government spending in each of these areas can also affect local and regional economies, although federal decisions generally have the greatest economic impact. Overall, federal, state, and local spending accounted for almost 18% of gross domestic product in 1997.
Government also provides many kinds of help to businesses and individuals. It offers low-interest loans and technical assistance to small businesses, and it provides loans to help students attend college. Government-sponsored enterprises buy home mortgages from lenders and turn them into securities that can be bought and sold by investors, thereby encouraging home lending. Government also actively promotes exports and seeks to prevent foreign countries from maintaining trade barriers that restrict imports.
Government supports individuals who cannot or will not adequately care for themselves. Social Security, which is financed by a tax on employers and employees, accounts for the largest portion of Americans' retirement income. The Medicare program pays for many of the medical costs of the elderly. The Medicaid program finances medical care for low-income families.
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Medicare - "Медикэр" (действующая с 1965 г. в США федеральная программа льготного медицинского страхования лиц старше шестидесяти пяти лет, некоторых категорий инвалидов и лиц, страдающих тяжелыми поражениями почек; программа частично финансируется за счет государственных средств, в частности за счет налога для медицинского обеспечения престарелых, входящего в систему пенсионных налогов, частично — за счет взносов работодателей и работников; слово образовано путем слияния "medical" и "care").
Medicaid - "Медикэйд" (в США государственная программа бесплатной или льготной медицинской помощи малоимущим и членам их семей; осуществляется на основе компенсации затрат на лечение).
Many social programs, including Social Security, trace their roots to the "New Deal" programs of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933 – 1945). Key to Roosevelt's reforms was a belief that poverty usually resulted from social and economic causes rather than from failed personal morals. This view repudiated a common notion whose roots lay in New England Puritanism that success was a sign of God's favor and failure a sign of God's displeasure. This was an important transformation in American social and economic thought. Even today echoes of the older notions are still heard in debates around certain issues, especially welfare.
Many other assistance programs for individuals and families, including Medicare and Medicaid, were begun in the 1960s during President Lyndon Johnson's (1963–1969) "War on Poverty." Although some of these programs encountered financial difficulties in the 1990s and various reforms were proposed, they continued to have strong support from both of the United States' major political parties. Critics argued, however, that providing welfare to unemployed but healthy individuals actually created dependency rather than solving problems. Welfare reform legislation enacted in 1996 under President Bill Clinton (1993–2001) requires people to work as a condition of receiving benefits and imposes limits on how long individuals may receive payments.
The national debt, more properly known as the federal debt, is one of the most controversial issues in the United States. It is usually expressed as an absolute number, but a more accurate measurement is the ratio of the debt to gross domestic product. Most citizens favor paying off the national debt, though the minority feel this could have negative economic consequences.
The borrowing cap debt ceiling as of 2004 stood at 8.2 trillion. At the current rate of growing indebtedness, this level will be reached sometime in 2005. It is expected that Senate will approve further increase of the cap, sometime before the ceiling is reached.
The size of the debt is in the trillions and consequently it has been part of popular culture to parody the growing debt with some type of doomsday clock, graphically showing the growing indebtedness every second.