Будь умным!


У вас вопросы?
У нас ответы:) SamZan.net

Нова Книга 2001 448 с

Работа добавлена на сайт samzan.net: 2016-03-13

Поможем написать учебную работу

Если у вас возникли сложности с курсовой, контрольной, дипломной, рефератом, отчетом по практике, научно-исследовательской и любой другой работой - мы готовы помочь.

Предоплата всего

от 25%

Подписываем

договор

Выберите тип работы:

Скидка 25% при заказе до 21.5.2024

ББК 81.432.1-7

К68

УДК 802.0 (075)

ISBN 966-95804-0-4

Редактор: O.I. Tepex

Корунець І.В.

Теорія і практика перекладу (аспектний переклад): Підручник. -Вінниця. «Нова Книга», 2001 -448 с.

У пропонованому підручнику висвітлюється широке коло питань теорії та практики відтворення мовних одиниць і явищ лексикологічного і граматичного аспектів англійської й української мов. У теоретичній частині дохідливе англійською мовою викладаються короткі відомості про існуючі типи і види перекладу,|про історію розвитку принципів перекладу в Західній Європі та в Україні впродовж останнього тисячоліття^ Проте основна частина підручника відведена способам відтворення лексикологічних та граматичних труднощів англійської мови українською і навпаки. Зокрема: вірному/адекватному відтворенню різних типів власних назв людей, географічних назв і назв установ, компаній, корпорацій, назв газет і журналів, профспілок, політичних, спортивних, гуманітарних організацій, назв газет, журналів, тощо. Пропонуються вивірені способи відтворення ідіомів, значень реалій суспільного життя, класів інтернаціональної лексики, а також асиндетичних іменникових словосполучень і віддієслівних предикативних комплексів тощо. Підручник містить багато різноманітних вправ на закріплення теоретичного матеріалу.

ISBN 966-95804-0-4

©Корунець І.В.

© Вінниця, «Нова Книга», 2001


І.В.Корунець

ТЕОРІЯ І ПРАКТИКА ПЕРЕКЛАДУ

(аспектний переклад)

ПІДРУЧНИК

За редакцією Тереха О.І.

Затверджено Міністерством освіти України

НОВА КНИГА

ВИДА.ВИШДТВО


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Передмова 8

I. Theoretical and Methodological Aspects of

Translation 10

Translation as a Notion and Subject 10

Significance of Translating/Interpreting 13

Translation in Teaching of Foreign Languages 15

Ways of Translating 16

Machine Translation 26

Kinds of Translating/Interpreting 28

Suggested Topics for Self-Control and Class Discussion 32

II. A Short Historical Outline of European and

Ukrainian Translation 34

Translation and Interpretation during the Middle Ages 38

Translation during the Renaissance Period 41

Translation during the Period of Classicism and

Enlightenment 42

The Epoch of Romanticism and Establishment of the

Principles of Faithful Translation in Europe 44

Translation in Kyivan Rus' during the 10th -13th Centuries

and in Ukraine during the 14th-16th Centuries 47

The Kyiv Mohyla Academy and Revival of Translation

Activities in Ukraine 52

Kotlyarevskyi's Free Adaptation of Virgil's Aeneid and the

Beginning of a New Era in Ukrainian Translation 54

Translation and Translators during the Late

19th - Early 20th Centuries 57

Translation during the Years of Ukraine's Independence

(1917-1921) and Soviet Rule 63

Translation and Translators in Post-War Ukraine. The

Development of the Principles of Faithful Translation 72

Translation in Ukraine during the Last Decade of the 20th

Century and the Role of the Vsesvit Journal 86

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 89


///. Lexicological Aspects of Translation 91

Methods and Ways of Translating Various Proper Names 92

Conveying the Names of Companies, Corporations, Firms 104

Topics for Self-Control and Class/Home Reviewing 113

Texts for Independent Oral and Written Translation 126

Units of International Lexicon and Ways of Rendering

Their Meaning and Lingual Form 128

Ways of Conveying the Lexical Meaning of Genuine

Internationalisms 135

Translating of Loan Internationalisms 140

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 141

Exercises for Class and Homework 142

Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation 146

News Items for Class Translation at Sight (in Viva Voce) 148

Units of Nationally Biased Lexicon and Ways of

Their Translation 151

Ways of Rendering the Meaning of Nationally

Biased Units of Lexicon 157

Exercises for Class and Homework 169

Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation 177

Translating of Idiomatic/Phraseological and Stable

Expressions 182

Transformations of Some Idioms in the Process of

Translating 196

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 198

Exercises for Class and Homework 198

IV. Lexico-Grammatical Aspects of Translation 208

Rendering of the Contextual Meanings of the Definite and

Indefinite Articles 208

Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Definite Article 210

Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Indefinite Article 215

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 221

Exercises for Class and Homework 221

Asyndetic Noun Clusters and Rendering Their

Meaning into Ukrainian 225

Approaches to Translating Asyndetic Substantival Clusters 226


Translation of Two-Componental Asyndetic Substantival

Clusters 227

Translation of Three-Componental Asyndetic Substantival

Clusters 232

Translation of Four-Componental Asyndetic Substantival

Clusters 237

Translation of Five-, Six- and Seven-Componental Asyndetic

Substantival Clusters 240

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 243

Exercises for Class and Home Translation 244

Translating of English Verbals and Verbal

Constructions/Complexes 252

Ways of Rendering the Lexico-Grammatical Meanings

and Function of the English Infinitive 253

Ways of Translating Infinitival Complexes 256

Ways of Translating the Objective with the Infinitive

Constructions/Predicative Complexes 259

Ways of Rendering the Meaning of the Subjective with the

Infinitive Constructions 263

Ways of Translating the Participles and Participial

Constructions 269

Ways of Translating Participial Constructions/Complexes 273

A. Ways of Translating the Objective with the Participle
Constructions/Complexes
274

B. Ways of Translating the Subjective with the Participle
Constructions/Complexes
276

C. Ways of Translating the Nominative Absolute Participial
Constructions/Complexes
280

D. Ways of Identification of Implicit Meanings in the Nominative

Absolute Participial Constructions 283

Structural Types of Ukrainian Language Units Conveying the Meaning of the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions... 285

Translation of the Gerund and Gerundial Complexes 295

Ways of Translating Gerundial Complexes/Constructions 299

Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 302


Ways and Means of Expressing Modality in English and

Ukrainian 308

The Lexico-Grammatical Expression of Modality

through Modal Verbs 310

English Modal Verbs Having not Always Modal Verbs

Equivalents in Ukrainian 334

Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 343

Exercises for Class and Homework 343

Transformations in the Process of Translation 361

Grammatically and Stylistically Prearranged

Transformations 367

Stylistically/Subjectively Predetermined Transformations 369

Ways of Conveying the Passive Voice Constructions 370

Objectively Required and Subjectively Introduced/Contextual

Transformations of Language Units 376

Objectively and Subjectively Conditioned Transformations

of Lexical Units in the Process of Translation 382

Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 387

Exercises for Class and Homework 387

V. Semantic Aspects of Translation 391

Language Units and Levels of Their Faithful Translation 391

Ways of Conveying the Meanings of Polysemantic

Language Units 394

Conveying the Meanings of Language Units at

Passage/Text Level 398

Lexico-Semantic, Stylistic and Structural Analysis of

Language Units/Sense Units of the Excerpt 405

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 419

Exercises for Class and Homework 420

Publicistic and Newspaper Style Texts and Ways of

Their Translation 423

New Items for Class and Home Written or Oral Translation 437

A List of Literature Used and Recommended 445


ПЕРЕДМОВА

Підручник «Теорія і практика перекладу» розрахований на студентів перекладацьких відділень університетів та інститутів. Однак поаспектний виклад навчального матеріалу та система різноманітних вправ для його вивчення й інтенсивного закріплення дозволяє ефективно використовувати підручник в усіх гуманітарних і технічних вузах, де викладається переклад, а також у коледжах і гімназіях та в старших класах загальноосвітніх шкіл. Стане він у пригоді і всім бажаючим самостійно опановувати лінгвістичні основи письмового та усного перекладу з англійської мови на українську та навпаки. Цьому сприятиме і розподіл та виклад навчального матеріалу, а також пропоновані способи подолання багатьох лексикологічних, лексико-граматичних, семантичних і синтаксичних/структурних труднощів перекладу різних мовних одиниць.

У першому розділі розглядаються загальнотеоретичні й почасти методологічні питання перекладу, зокрема роль і значення перекладу для здійснення багатосторонніх зв'язків на різних рівнях розповсюдження ідей, при обміні інформацією та збагаченні національних мов, літератур і культур, при навчанні та вивченні іноземних мов тощо. В цьому розділі пояснюються також деякі перекладацькі терміни й поняття.

У другому розділі подається коротка історія розвитку євро-пеййБкого і зокрема українського перекладу від давнини до сучасності, що може зацікавити не тільки істориків.

Засоби вірного/адекватного перекладу різних мовних одиниць, понять і явищ англійської мови українською і почасти української англійською розглядаються в наступних розділах підручника. Так, у третьому розділі обґрунтовуються правила відтворення/перекладу різних назв, зокрема й географічних, інтернаціо-налізмів, реалій суспільно-політичного життя, усталених та ідіоматичних виразів англійської й української мов.

Лексико-граматичні питання перекладу є об'єктом розгляду в четвертому розділі, де прослідковуються засоби вираження й відтворення можливих контекстуальних значень означеного й неозначеного артиклів, об'єктивної (граматичної) та суб'єктивної модальності, англійських асиндетичних іменникових словосполучень і конструкцій/комплексів з віддієслівними формами а також різні види перекладацьких трансформацій.

8


Семантичні й почасти стильові аспекти перекладу подаються в підручникові безпосередньо через практику письмового й усного відтворення специфічних особливостей на відповідно підібраних для цієї мети текстових вправах у четвертому розділі. Окремі з цих вправ доцільно використовувати відповідно для письмового й усного підсумкового контролю знань і вмінь студентів. Проте головною метою введення тематичних текстових вправ є навчити й перевірити засвоєння теоретичних знань та їх реалізацію через навички письмового й усного перекладу різних типів тексту (зокрема й художнього та науково-технічного). Матеріали вправ можуть бути використані і на лекціях чи семінарських заняттях як наочний/ілюстративний матеріал до відповідних теоретичних тем аспектного перекладу та для тренувань письмового та усного перекладу з аркуша.

Оскільки теоретичні положення кожної теми розраховані на інтенсивне їх вивчення, закріплення і практичне застосування, всі правила перекладу в кожному розділі формулюються лаконічно доступною англійською мовою та ілюструються достатньою кількістю прикладів. Це дає викладачеві змогу виносити окремі теми на самостійне опрацювання студентами. Корисним для свідомого засвоєння найважливіших теоретичних положень можуть бути індивідуальні чи групові завдання студентам на самостійне відшукання ілюстративного матеріалу до окремих тем з відповідних англійських чи українських першоджерел.

Виклад переважної більшості теоретичних питань і положень у підручникові широко ілюструється різними словниковими прикладами і реченнями оригіналу та їх перекладу. Зважаючи на зміни й уточнення/синонімічні заміни й ін., внесені в окремі українські й англійські переклади з метою повнішої ілюстрації певних мовних одиниць/явищ, імена перекладачів не скрізь наводяться.

Автор із вдячністю прийме всі критичні зауваження та пропозиції спрямовані на поліпшення в подальшому пропонованого підручника.


I. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

TRANSLATION AS A NOTION AND SUBJECT

Translation as a term and notion is of polysemantic nature, its common and most general meaning being mostly associated with the action or process of rendering/expressing the meaning/content of a source language word, word-group, sentence or passage (larger text) in the target language or with the result of the process/action of rendering. In other words with the work performed by the translator (cf. this is my translation). «Translation» is also used to denote the subject taught or studied, the examination in the subject (cf. we have translation in the time-table today; I have to pass translation tomorrow). «Translation» may refer to the title of the manual/ theoretical work on the subject (cf. I bought Translation by Ivanenko). Besides, the Romanization of proper nouns, geographical names, different internationalisms, etc., when Latin letters are used to convey the Ukrainian nouns, verbs, adverbs is «translation» too: Київ Kyiv, Бровари Brovary, Львів Lviv, Біла Церква Bila Tserkva, Полтава Poltava, Згурівка Zghurivka, Медвин Medvyn, algebra алгебра, geographerreorpadp, computer комп'ютер, opera опера, telephone (v) телефонувати, mechanically механічно, ignore ігнорувати, historically історично. «Translated» in this way, i.e., transliterated with the help of Cyrillic letters are many English and other foreign names and different terms. Cf.: Archibald Cronin Арчібальд Кронін, RobertFrosf Роберт Фрост, Ottawa Оттава, Mc/сНік, Susar/Сюзан, Helmut /<оп/Гельмут Коль, shilling шилінґ, pizza піцца, therapeutic терапевтичний, etc.

No less ambiguous is also the term «interpretation» which is synonymous to «translation» and is used to denote the way or manner of presenting the idea of the work in translation orally (as well as its aesthetic, religious, political, pragmatic background and other qualitative characteristics of the work under translation). These may be artistic, genre and stylistic peculiarities rendered by the translator in his particular way, which is somewhat different from that of the author's. The thing is that «interpretation», unlike «translation», admits some more freedom of the translator in his treatment (at least in certain places or cases) of the matter under translation. Hence,

10


the existence of free versifications (переспіви) and free adaptation (перелицювання) which are rightly treated as new creations (when they are of high artistic value). To the latter belong the famous free interpretations of Virgil's Aeneid in Ukrainian by I. Kotlyarevskyi or I. Franko's free adaptation of the German work Reineke Fuchs under the Ukrainian title «Фарбований лис», and many others both in our national literature and in world literature. Practically «adapted» (thought in a peculiar way and with the highest degree of faithfulness, i.e. interpreted according to our national literary tradition), are also Shakespearean masterpieces, Byronean writings and many other poetic and prose works. Consequently, «interpretation» may denote apart from the oral method of translation also a peculiar, pertained to a master of the pen and characteristic of him, as well as the only way of presenting a prose or poetic work in translation. («Interpretation» may also denote the style of a peculiar translator and his way of presenting a particular literary work).

Apart from the two mentioned above, there are some other terms in the theory of translation which may seen ambiguous to the inexperienced student. These usually common terms are: accurate or exact (to what degree?) translation точний переклад; faithful (or realistic) translation, адекватний/вірний переклад; faithfulness of translation/interpretation, адекватність/вірність перекладу/ тлумачення; fidelity (or faithfulness) of translation/interpretation вірність, адекватність перекладу; equivalent translation/interpretation еквівалентний переклад; free interpretation вільний переклад, перелицювання; free adaptation вільний переклад, переробка; free interpretation вільний переспів, перелицювання; free/loose translation вільний переклад, переказ; consecutive interpretation послідовний переклад, усне тлумачення; off-hand translation/ interpretation переклад/тлумачення без попередньої підготовки (з голосу чи з аркуша); rehash вільна переробка (вдала чи невдала) твору; sight translation/interpretation (translation at sight) переклад/ усне тлумачення з аркуша/тексту; simultaneous translation/ interpretation синхронний переклад; rough translation робочий варіант перекладу, чорновий переклад and some others.

Each of the above-mentioned terms may be understood and interpreted differently. Thus, «free interpretation» may mean both «free translation», «free adaptation» and sometimes even «loose translation». Similarly with the terms and notions as «faithful translation» and «equivalent translation» which are synonymous if

11


not identical by their general meaning thought not without some difference between them. The term «faithful translation» (адекватний, вірний переклад) is used to denote the highest level/degree of rendering the denotative or connotative meanings of words, the sense of word-groups and sentences, the content, the expressiveness, picturesqueness and the pragmatic subtext/intention of passages or works of the source language with the help of the available means of the target language. The term «equivalent translation» is nowadays practically used in the same meaning as «faithful translation» with one exception only: it also includes the necessity of quantitative and qualitative representation of all constitutive parts or elements of the source language units in the target language. Consequently, a «faithful translation» very often means the same as «equivalent translation» which can be best illustrated on single words, word-groups or sentences as the following: acre акр, democracy демократія, work праця, professors and students професори й студенти, fo work hard важко працювати, take part брати участь, throw light проливати світло, between Scilla and Charybdis між Сціллою і Харібдою, Ukraine celebrated her fifth anniversary in August 1996 Україна святкувала п'яту річницю своєї незалежності в серпні 1996 року.

Equivalent can also be considered the translation of the following English sentence which maintains in Ukrainian its main constituent parts, its content, expressiveness and picturesqueness: There was Penelope flying after me like mad. (W.Collins) За мною гналась, мов навіжена, Пенелопа.

In regard to the afore-said, there can be no equivalence but only faithfulness in the translation of such and the like English language units as: complexion колір обличчя, to take measures вживати заходів, little bird донощик («стукач»), live in the street рідко бувати вдома, one's sands are running out (idiom) тонко пряде/йому недовго ряст топтати, same here (colloq.) це ж саме (так само) і в мене (зі мною), те/це ж саме можу сказати і про себе or: це так само стосується і мене. In a large number of cases «translation» is traditionally applied to various substitutions of the source language constituents/images for the explicatory constituents and images of the target language, which helps achieve the necessary faithfulness in conveying their meaning. Cl: penny-in-the slot прилад/ пристрій-автомат для розрахунків за товари (торгівля); the land of golden fleece Австралія; red blood мужність, відвага, хоробрість

12


(когось); let George do it Іван киває на Петра (один спихає відповідальність на другого); agonic (геометрія) що не утворює кута, etc. Therefore, «faithfull» is not always «equivalent».

The term «translation» is used even to denote purely functional substitutions which have absolutely nothing in common with any expression/rendering of meaning of the source language sense units in the target language. A graphic example of this kind of «translation» can be the following passage: «There's the tree in the middle... It could bark... It says «Bough-wough»... «That's why its branches are called boughs». (L.Carrol, Alice in Wonderland). In Ukrainian: Он Фікус стоїть!.. Ми тому й прозвали його Фі-Кус, що він кусається. It goes without saying that the lexical meaning of «tree» is not «Фікус» and «Bough-wough» or «boughs» do not correlate with «кусатись» which they were substituted for in this Ukrainian translation by H.Bushyna.

Similarly «translated» i.e. functionally substituted are different English and Ukrainian metaphorically used nouns, verbs and set expressions as in the examples knight of the pencil журналіст/ кореспондент, baby-snatcher стара жінка, що одружилася з молодим чоловіком, the Square Mile Лондонське Сіті (фінансовий центр Лондона), the Square Mile of Vice (Сою, район нічних розваг міста Лондона), soft head недоумкувата людина (дурник), etc.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING

The importance of translating and interpreting in modern society has long been recognized. Practically not a single contact at the international level or even between any two foreign persons speaking different languages can be established or maintained without the help of translators or interpreters.

Equally important is translating and interpreting for uninterrupted functioning of different international bodies (conferences, symposia, congresses, etc.) to say nothing about the bodies like the E.E.C.(European Economic Council), the I.M.F.(lnternational Monetary Fund) or the United Nations Organization with its numerous councils, assemblies, commissions, committees and sub-committees. These can function smoothly only thanks to an army of translators and interpreters representing different states and working in many different national languages.

Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up

13


with the up-to-date development and progress in the modern world thanks to the everyday translating/interpreting of scientific and technical matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. The latter comprise nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecological environment, plastics, mining, chemistry, biology, medicine, machine building, electronics, linguistics, etc. In the present days translation of scientific and technical matter has become a most significant and reliable source of obtaining all-round and up-to-date information on the progress in various fields of science and technology in all countries of the world.

The social and political role of translation/interpretation has probably been most strongly felt in the 20th century when it provided the dissemination of political (doctrinal) ideas, of social and political knowledge in different fields of sciences.

Translating is also a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching national languages, literatures and cultures (operas, artistic films). The many translations of the prose, poetry and drama works of the world's famous authors into different national languages provide a vivid illustration of this permanent process. Due to masterly translations of the works by W.Shakespeare, W.Scott, G.G.Byron, P.B.Shelley, C.Dickens, W.Thackeray, O.Wilde, W.S.Maugham, A.Christie, H.W.Longfellow, Mark Twain, J.London, T.Dreiser, R.Frost, E.Hemingway, F.C.Fitzgerald and many other authors their works have become part and parcel of many national literatures. The works by Ukrainian authors have also been translated into English and some other languages, the process being increasingly intensified after Ukraine's gaining independence in 1991. Hitherto only the works of Ukrainian classics had mainly been published in some foreign languages. Among them are first of all T.Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, M.Kotsyubynskyi, V.Stephanyk, V.Vynnychenko, I. Bahryanyi, O.Honchar, O.Dovzhenko. Now the works of V.Symonenko, L.Kostenko, I. Drach, HryhirTyutyunnyk, V.Stus and others are also translated into various foreign languages and have become available for many readers abroad.

Whatever the type of matter is translated (belles-lettres, scientific or didactic, social or political, etc.) and irrespective of the form in which it is performed (written or oral) the linguistic and social or cultural significance of translation/interpretation remains always unchanged. It promotes the enrichment of lexicon and of the means of expression in the target language. Due to the unceasing everyday

14


political, economic, cultural and other contacts between different nations the lexicon of all languages constantly increases. Thousands of words and phrases, which were unknown in national languages before, become an integral part of their lexicon. Among them are units like steppe, Cossack/Kozak, Verkhovna Rada, hryvnia, different scientific/technical and other terms (кібернетика, комп'ютер, дискета, аудит, бартер, менеджмент, спонсор, моніторинґ, екологія, etc.). Consequently, translation/interpretation is a very effective means of enriching the national and international lexicon of all languages. But, as has been said, it is not only the word-stock (or rather the vocabulary) of languages that is constantly enriched. And it is not only separate words that are borrowed by national languages as a result of translating/interpreting; a lot of expressions and regular sentence idioms have come to national languages in this way as well. For example: the first/second, third reading (Parliament) перше/ друге читання, Olympic calmness олімпійський спокій, the Ten Commandments десять заповідей, to see a mot in one's eye бачити порошинку в чужому оці, to take part брати участь, time is money час - гроші, black ingratitude чорна невдячність, the Trojan horse троянський кінь, Judah's kiss поцілунок Іуди, and many others.

Among the adopted sentence structures are, for instance, the idioms God defend me from my friends; from my enemies I will defend myself захисти мене, Боже, від друзів, а з ворогами я сам упораюсь; an old dog will learn no new tricks на старості важко перевчатися; he laughs best who laughs last той сміється найкраще, хто сміється останнім, to be or not to be бути чи не бути, the game is not worth the candlerpa не варта свічок, etc.

These few out of many more sentence idioms are a testimony to the versatile influence of translators' activities upon the enrichment of languages through translation. The idiomatic word-groups and sentences of the source language almost always partly influence the placement of their component parts in the Ukrainian target language and thus facilitated their memorazing as well.

TRANSLATION IN TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Translating as a means of teaching foreign languages has no independent value of its own for it is impossible to teach all aspects of a language in their complexity by means of translation only. Nev-

15


ertheless translation in foreign language teaching (and learning) can not and should not be ignored altogether since in many a case it remains not only the most effective but also the only possible teaching means in achieving the necessary aim. That is why translation is often resorted to in the process of teaching and presenting some important aspects of a foreign language.

Translation in teaching is employed by the teacher both at the initial, at the intermediary and at the advanced stage of learning/ teaching foreign languages. But irrespective of the level at which the foreign language is studied or taught, translation is both helpful and indispensable in the following cases:

  1.  When introducing even simple abstract lexemes or notions,
    which can not easily be explained in a descriptive way or by actions
    (gestures):
    think, hate, love, actual, invincible, generally, peace, turn,
    friendship, image, dream, consider, feeling, firstly, immensely, at last,
    gray, immense, strongly, beautifully, haggis, lordship, ladyship,
    etc.
  2.  In order to save time and avoid diverting the attention of
    students by lengthy explications of the meaning of words, different,
    word-combinations or sentences in the process of reading or listening
    to an unfamiliar passage.
  3.  When checking up the comprehension of the lexical material
    (new words, expressions) and in order to avoid the unnecessary
    ambiguity which may arise in the process of teaching through «pic
    tures», since a picture of a tree, for example, may be understood as
    «a tree» or as a kind of tree (oak-tree, birch-tree, pine-tree, etc.).
  4.  While introducing at the lesson (usually at the initial stage
    of teaching/learning) the new grammar/phonetical material, espe
    cially the phenomena which do not exist in the native tongue
    (e.g. the continuous or the perfect forms of the verb, different passive
    constructions, infinitival, gerundial, and participal constructions (sec
    ondary predication complexes).
  5.  When revising the lexical or grammar material studied at
    the lesson/at previous lessons or answering questions like: 'What is
    the Ukrainian for the «gerund», sequence of tenses, the «progressive/
    perfect form» of the verb?' etc.
  6.  While discriminating the meaning of synonyms or antonyms
    of the foreign language, for example: explain the difference between
    great and large, small and tiny, tall and high, clever and foolish, etc.
  7.  When checking up the knowledge of students in written and
    oral tests on lexical or grammar material.

16


  1.  When introducing idiomatic expressions which is mostly im
    possible to teach and learn otherwise than on the basis of translating
    (cf.
    Hobson's choice, to play hooky, look before you leap; when at
    Rome; do as the Romans do: the game is worth the candle,
    etc.).
  2.  Before learning any text by heart (poems, excerpts of prose
    or the roles of characters in plays).

  1.  When dealing with characteristic national figures of speech
    (metaphors, epithets, similes, hyperboles, etc.) in the process of read
    ing or translating the belles-lettres passages even at the advanced
    stage of studying a foreign language.
  2.  When comparing the expressive means in the system of
    the source language to those in the target language, etc.

Translation helps the student to master the expressive means in the source and in the target language. In the process of translating the student establishes sets of equivalent substitutes in the target language for the correspondent lexical, grammatical or stylistic phenomena of the source language. No wonder that the student at any stage of learning a foreign language, when not understanding some word, word-combination or sentence always resorts to intuitive translating of it into his native language.

WAYS OF TRANSLATING

Translating is unseparable from understanding and it goes along with conveying content and sometimes even the form of language units. As a result, the process of translation, provided it is not performed at the level of separate simple words, involves simultaneously some aspects of the source language and those of the target language. These are morphology (word-building and word forms), the lexicon (words, phraseologisms, mots), syntax (the means of connection and the structure of syntaxemes), stylistics (peculiarities of speech styles, tropes, etc.).

The level or the degree of faithfulness of translation is mostly predetermined by some factors, which may be both of objective and of subjective nature. The main of them are the purpose of the translation to be performed, the skill of the translator/interpreter, the type of the matter selected for translation, etc. Depending on these and some other factors, the following methods of translating are traditionally recognized in the theory and practice of translation:

1. Literal translating, which is to be employed when dealing

17


with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by original morphemes, lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some other languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning: administrator адміністратор, director директор, region регіон, hotel/motelготель/мотель, hydrometer гідрометр, Tom Том, etc.

It is easy to notice that in some words thus translated not only the morphemic but also the syllabic structure can sometimes be fully conveyed (cf. an-f/ан-ти, es-cort ес-корт, d/recf-огдирект-ор, ex-pres/d-enfeKC-прези-дент).

In many a case, however, the lingual form of the source language words is only partly conveyed in the target language. This happens when the common word is borrowed by each of the two languages in question from different source languages or when its lingual form is predetermined by the orthographic peculiarities of the target language: anti-alcoholic протиалкогольний, music музика, constitution конституція, zoology зоологія, atomic weight атомна вага, chemical process хімічний процес, national opera theatre національний оперний театр.

The literal translation in all the examples above provides an equivalent rendering of the lexical meaning of each language unit despite the augmentation in the number of morphemes/syllables in the target language (cf. atom/сатом-н-а, а/сопо//салкоголь-н-ий).

Close to the literal method of translating or rather reproduction is the so-called way of translator's transcription by means of which partly the orthographic and partly the sounding form of the source language lexemes/words is conveyed: archbishop архієпископ, card картка/карта, European європейський, Muscovite москвич/москвичка, organized організований, stylized стилізований, fnerapeuf/стерапевтичний.

Literal translating, however, can pervert the sense of the source language lexemes or sentences when their lingual form accidentally coincides with some other target language lexemes having quite different meanings: artist митець, художник (rarer артист); decoration відзнака, нагорода (and not декорація); matrass колба (and not матрац); replica точна копія (and not репліка), etc. Hence, literal translating has some restrictions in its employment and does not always help to render the lexical meaning of words or even morphemes

18


having often even an identical lingual form (spelling) in the source language and in the target language.

2. Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative meaning only: fearful страшний, fearless безстрашний, helpless безпорадний, incorrect неправильний, mistrust недовір'я (недовіра), superprofit надприбуток, non-interference невтручання, weightlessness невагомість etc.

All the words above are practically translated at the lexico-morphological level, as their lexical meanings and morphological stems are identical to those of the English words (cf. help-less без-порадний, mis-trust не-довір'я, super-profit над-прибуток, etc.).

The overwhelming majority of other words, when translated verbally do not preserve their structure in the target language. That is explained by the differences in the morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages: abundantly рясно, bank берег (береговий), cliff бескид (скеля, круча), myself я, я сам/сама; автомат automatic machine/rifle, заввишки high/tall, письменник writer (author), череон/muto get/grow red, etc..

Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically impossible in literal translating, which aims only at maintaining the literal form.

Thus, the Ukrainian word автомат can have the following equivalent variants in English: 1. automatic machine; 2. slot-machine; 3. automatic telephone; 4. submachine gun (tommy gun). Similarly, the Englsih word ban/cwhen out of a definite context may have the following equivalent variants in Ukrainian: 1. берег (річки); 2. банк; 3. вал/насип; 4. мілина; 5. замет; 6. крен, віраж(авіац.); 1. поклади (корисних копалин). The literal variant/equivalent of the noun bank in Ukrainian can be, naturally, «банк» only.

Verbal translating, however, does not and can not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal translation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense, cf: / am reading now is not я є читаючий зараз but я читаю зараз; never say die is not ніколи не кажи помираю but не падай духом; to grow strong is not рости міцним but ставати дужим; to take measures is not брати міри but вживати заходів; first night is not перша ніч but прем'єра, etc.

19


Despite this, verbal translation is widely employed first of all at language level, i.e., when the lexical meaning of separate words is to be identified. A graphic example of verbal translation is presented in dictionaries which list the lexical meanings of thousands of separate words. Verbal translation is also employed for the sake of discriminating the meanings of some words at the lessons, with the aim of identifying the meaning of the unknown words (when translating sentences or passages). The student like any other person eager to know the name of an object or action/quality of the object, etc., employs verbal translation too when asking: What is the English for сніп/ відлига? What is the English for нікчемна людина/нікчема, хвалити Бога? What is the Ukrainian for cranberry/mistletoe? etc.

3. Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences. This way of translation is often employed both consciously and subconsciously by students in the process of translating alien grammatical constructions/word forms. Sometimes students at the initial stage of learning a foreign language may employ this way of translation even when dealing with seemingly common phrases or sentences, which are structurally different from their equivalents in the native tongue. Usually the students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of connection quite different from those in the target language. To achieve faithfulness various grammtical in translation, word-for-word variants are to be corrected to avoid various grammatical violations made by the inexperienced students. Cf. You are right to begin with*BU маєте рацію, щоб почати з instead of Почнемо з того/припустимо, що ви маєте рацію/що ви праві.

3. The interlinear1 way/method of translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units(sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often achieved through various transformations of structure of many sense units. For example, the sentence Who

1 «Interlinear» (from Latin interlineare) i.e., written/printed between the lines.

20


took my book? admits only one word-for-word variant, namely: Хто взяв мою книжку?

In interlinear translation, however, the full content of this sentence can be faithfully rendered with the help of two and sometimes even three equivalent variants: У кого моя книжка? Хто брав/узяв мою книжку? The choice of any of the transformed variants is predetermined by the aim of the translation, by the circumstances under which the translating/interpreting is performed or by the requirements of style (for example, in order to avoid the unnecessary repetition of the same form of expression/structure close to each other).

Interlinear translating is neither bound to nor in any way restricted by the particularities of word forms, by the word order or by the structural form of the source language units, which are usually word-combinations or sentences in the passage/work under translation.

As can be seen, the Ukrainian variants of the English sentence above (Who took my book?) bear no traces of interference on the part of the English language with its rigid word order in each paradigmatic kind of sentences. Neither is there any peculiar English word-combination transplanted to the Ukrainian sentences, as it often occurs in word-for-word translations. Hence, various transformations in interlinear translations, like in literary translations, are inevitable and they are called forth by grammatical/structural, stylistic and other divergences in the source language and in the target language. This can be seen from the following examples: The student is being asked now студента зараз запитують. She said she would come вона казала, що прийде. It will have been done by then на той час / до того часу це буде зроблено. His having been decorated is unknown to me мені невідомо про його нагородження (що його нагородили).

Transformations are also inevitable when there exists no identity in the form of expressing the same notion in the source language and in the target language: a trip коротка подорож; їздити на лижах to ski; to participate брати участь; овдовіти to become a widow/ widower, знесилитися to become/grow weak (feeble).

Very often transformations become also necessary in order to overcome divergences in the structural form of English syntaxemes which are predominantly analytical by their structural form, whereas their Ukrainian word-groups of the same meaning are mostly synthetic and analytico-synthetic by structure: books of my father книжки мого батька; Kyivstreet traffic regulations правила дорожнього руху

21


міста Києва; but: a task for next week завдання на наступний тиждень.1

Interlinear translating is widely practised at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language. It is helpful when checking up the students' understanding of certain structurally peculiar English sense units in the passage under translation. Interlinear translations of literary works, when perfected by regular masters of the pen, may become good literary variants of the original. But interlinear translations do not convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original. While performing the interlinear translation the student tries to convey completely the content of a source language sentence, stanza or passage. He quite subconsciously analyses the passage, selects in the target language the necessary means of expression for the allomorphic and isomorphic phenomena/sense units unknown to him and only after this he performs the translation. The interlinear method of translating helps the student to obtain the necessary training in rendering the main aspects of the foreign language. Thus, he masters the means of expression pertained to the source/target language. In the example below, taken from P.B.Shelley's poem The Masque of Anarchy, the interlinear translation conveys only the main content of the poetic stanza:

Men of England, Heirs of Glory, Люди Англії, спадкоємці слави,

Heroes of unwritten story, Герої (ще) не написаної історії,

Nurslings of one mighty mother, Сини однієї могутньої матері-вітчизни,

Hopes of her and one another! її надії і надії кожного з вас!

From this interlinear translation the reader can obtain a fairly correct notion of what the poet wanted to say in the stanza as a whole. But this translation does not in any way reflect the artistic beauty of Shelley's poem, i.e., the variety of its tropes, the rhythm and the rhyme, the musical sounding of the original work. Despite all that it still ranks much higher than any word-for-word translation might ever be, as it faithfully conveys not only the meaning of all notional words but also the content of different sense units, which have no structural equivalents in Ukrainian. Due to this the method of interlinear translation is practically employed when rendering some passages or works for internal office use in scientific/research centres

See more about transformations of the kind on pages 376-387 of this book.

22


and laboratories, in trade and other organizations and by students in their translation practice.

4. Literary Translating represents the highest level of a translator's activity. Any type of matter skilfully turned into the target language, especially by a regular master of the pen may acquire the faithfulness and the literary (or artistic) standard equal to that of the source language.

Depending on the type of the matter under translation, this method of performance may be either literary proper or literary artistic.

Literary artistic translation presents a faithful conveying of content and of the artistic merits only of a fiction/belles-lettres passage or work. The latter may be either of a prose or a poetic genre (verse).

Literary proper translation is performed on any other than fiction/belles-lettres passages/works. These may include scientific or technical matter, didactic matter (different text-books), business correspondence, the language of documents, epistolary texts, etc. In short, any printed or recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors, etc.). But whether literary proper or literary artistic, this translation provides an equivalent rendering not only of complete content but also of the stylistic peculiarities of the passage/ work and its artistic merits/beauty, as in belles-lettres style texts.

Literary translations are always performed in literary all-nation languages and with many transformations which help achieve the ease and beauty of the original composition. The number of phrases and sentences in a literary translation is never the same as in the source language passage/work, neither are the same means of expression or the number and quality of stylistic devices per paragraph/ syntactic superstructure. All these transformations are made in order to achieve faithfulness in rendering content and expressiveness of the passage/work under translation. Transformations are also used to convey the features of style and in still greater measure the genre peculiarities of the works/passages under translation.

Literary proper/literary artistic translation of a larger passage/ work often requires linguistic, historical and other inquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, notions of specific national lexicon, neologisms, archaisms, etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philologic or historic inquiry. So, «Слово о полку Ігоревім» in a verbal or word-for-word translation would be "A Word about Ihor's Regiment which does not in any way correspond to the real meaning of this title, since the author meant under «Слово»

23


story, tale, saga, song. The word полк did not mean the military unit of today's armies (regiment) but troop, host, army. Therefore, the meaning of полк would be in Ukrainian дружина and the whole title would sound in contemporary translation as The Tale of the Host of Ihor, which corresponds to the real meaning of the title (оповідь, повість, пісня про Ігореве військо, i.e. дружину). That is why there exist today different translations of the title of this brilliant work. Among them are the following: 1) The Tale of the Armament of Igor. Edited and translated by Leonard Magnus. Oxford University Press, 1915.2) The Tale of Igor. Adapted by Helen de Verde. London, 1918.3) Prince Igor's Raid Against the Polovtsi. Translated by Paul Crath. Versified by Watson Kirkonnell. Saskatoon. Canada, 1947. 4) The Song of Igor's Campaign. Translated by Vladimir Nabokov. New York 1960. As can be seen, none of these titles conveys the meaning of the title fully, completely equivalently and faithfully, though some are close to it, especially that one suggested by Paul Crath (Prince Igor's Raid against the Polovtsi) and the V.Nabokov's variant The Song of Igor's Campaign.

In Soviet times this old Ukrainian literature masterpiece had an unchanged title The Lay of Igor's Host (suggested by a Georgian linguist). This translation does not differ greatly from the two mentioned above for «lay» is the Middle English poetic word for «song».

A similar approach aimed at a possibly fullest expression of the poetic content, i.e., flavour of the title can be seen in S.Garry's translation of M.Sholokhov's novel «Тихий Дон» sounding in English as rhythmic lines of a song - And Quiet Flows the Don or The Don Flows home to the Sea. The former title was used in the New York publication of the novel (1944) and the latter in its London publication that same year. It goes without saying that a verbal or word-for-word translation of the title as *The Quiet Don or *The Still Don would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title, which is strongly felt in its source language variant.

This poetic subtext of the Russian title is really expressed only in each of the two S.Garry's variants which could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel's content, into its main idea, and into the whole system of literary images of Sholokhov's work (as with the work mentioned before). It is no less difficult to convey the meaning and functions of colloquial, conversational, dialectal and other kinds of lexical units often used by many authors in their belles-lettres works. To translate them faith-

24


fully, one must consult reference books, dictionaries and often even the native speakers of the language, e.g.: dabster - dialectal for знавець/фахівець; daisy-slang for something or somebody nice, beautiful, first-rate (першосортне); put up (adj.) is colloquial for задуманий зазделегідь; спланований; ab ovo- Latin for від самого початку (Горацій), букв, «від яйця». Constant inquiries of all kinds are also necessary fo convey the expression side of the source language matter. It becomes especially imperative in versification which is explained by the condensed nature of poetic works in which thoughts and ideas are often expressed through literary means. To achieve the necessary level of faithfulness the translator has to render fully the picturesqueness, the literary images, the rhythm and the rhyme (vocalic or consorantal), the beauty of sounding of the original poem, etc. An illustration of this may be D.Palamarchuk's versified translation of W.Shakespeare's sonet CXV:

Those lines that I before have write do lie, (10) Even those that said I could not love you dearer: (11) Yet then my judgement knew no reason why (10) My most full flame should afterwards burn clearer. (11) Збрехав мій вірш, колись тобі сказавши: (11) «Моїй любові нікуди рости». (10) Я думав - ріст її спинивсь назавше, (11) Найбільшої сягнувши висоти. (10) The Ukrainian variant of the stanza reveals its almost complete identity with the original in the rhythmic and rhyme organization and in the number of syllables in each line. Though in the original their number alternates in reverse order (from 10 to 11) and in the translation - from 11 to 10. But this is in no way a rude violation, since the interchange takes place within the same stanza, though the translator could not fully reproduce the alternate (acbd) rhyme, which is feminine in the first (a) and third (c) lines and masculine in the second (b), and in the fourth (d) lines.

Most striking, however, are the syntactic alternations, there being no single line structurally similar to that of the original verse. All that becomes necessary because of the predominantly polysyllabic structure of Ukrainian words the number of which in the translation is only 19 as compared with 35 words in the source language. Besides, the Ukrainian stanza consists of notional words only, whereas in the original work there are also functionals (have, do, that, most, not, etc.). The notionalsform the artistic images and ideas

25


the number of which is somewhat larger in English. Since it was next to impossible to overcome the «resistance» of the source language verse, some losses in translation became inevitable. They are the result of the existing divergences in the grammatical structure or in the means of expression in the two languages, first of all in the greater number of syllables in the same words in Ukrainian, which is a tangible obstacle for the translators of poetry. That is why in order to maintain the poetic metre of the lines in the original stanza above the translator had to transform them. As a result, the number of inevitable losses in versifications is always larger than in prose translations. Nevertheless, D.Palamarchuk's versification is considered to be highly faithful and artistic, because it conveys, in the main, the following aspects of this Shakespearian sonet: its content, partly its types of rhythm and rhyme, its artistic images and tropes, as well as its picturesqueness and the pragmatic orientation/toning of the original sonet, nothing to say about its main content.

MACHINE TRANSLATION

Rendering of information from a foreign language with the help of electronic devices represents the latest development in modern translation practice. Due to the fundamental research in the systems of algorithms and in the establishment of lexical equivalence in different layers of lexicon, machine translating has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains restricted in the main to scientific and technological information and to the sphere of lexicographic work. That is because machine translation can be performed only on the basis of programmes elaborated by linguistically trained operators. Besides, preparing programmes for any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time, whereas the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level, i.e., at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the target language. Considerably greater difficulties, which are insurmountable for machine translators, present morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes, etc.). No smaller obstacles for machine translation are also syntactic units (word-combinations and sentences) with various means of connection between their components/parts. Besides, no present-day electronic devices performing translation possess the necessary lexical, grammatical and stylistic memory to provide the required stand-

26


ard of correct literary translation. Hence, the frequent violations of syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and sentences in the target language. As a result, any machine translation of present days needs a thorough proof reading and editing. Very often it takes no less time and effort and may be as tiresome as the usual hand-made translation of the same passage/work.1 A vivid illustration to the above-said may be the machine translated passage below. It was accomplished most recently in an electronic translation centre and reflects the latest achievement in this sphere of «mental» activity. The attentive student will not fail to notice in the italicized components of Ukrainian sentences several lexical, morphological and syntactic/structural irregularities, which have naturally to be corrected in the process of the final elaboration of the passage by the editing translator. Compare the texts below and find the inexactitudes in all sentences of the Ukrainian translation.

  1.  Communications and the EC
  2.  Public relations and telecom
    munications must work
    hand in
    hand to
    enable Europe really to
    become
    one community. Martin
    Bangemann
    looks to the 21st
    century.
  3.  «Communications have been
    the driving force behind the
    creation and
    growth of global
    companies.»
  4.  The European Commission
    (EC) has expressed one
    vision
    for the future of Europe in its
    White Paper on Growth Com
    petitiveness and
    Employment-
    the Challenges and Ways
    forward
    into the 21 st Century.
  5.  This document addresses

 

  1.  Повідомлення і EC
  2.  Суспільна інформація і
    телекомунікація повинні
    працювати
    рука в руці, щоб
    дозволити
    Европу дійсно
    стати одною співдружністю.
    Мартін Бангеман
    дивиться до
    21st століття.
  3.  «Комунікації були рушійна
    сила
    ззаду створення і ріст
    глобальних
    компаній».
  4.  Европейська Комісія (EC)
    висловила одне бачення на
    майбутній час Европи в Білій
    Книзі
    наріст, конкурентно-
    здатності й
    Занятість
    Виклики і Шляхи Вперед
    у
    21-го століття.
  5.  Цей документ адресує
  6.  

1 Марчук Ю.Н. Проблеми машинного перевода. - М.: Наука, 1983.

27


the facts that, in the last 20 years, the European economy's rate of growth has declined from 4% to 2,5 % per year; unemployment has steadily risen; the investment ratio has fallen by 5%; and Europe's competitive position in relation to USA and Japan has worsened in regard to employment, export market share, research and development innovation and development of new products.

 факти, що в останні 20 років норма (розряд) Европейської економіки (економії) росту знизилося від 4% до 2,5% за рік; безробіття постійно зросла; інвестиційне відношення впало на 5%; і конкурентно-здатне становище (позиція) Европи відносно США і Японії погіршувалося у відношенні зайнятості, експортної ринкової частки, дослідження і нововведення розвитку і розвитку нових виробів.

KINDS OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING

As has been noted, the sense of a language unit (the content of a whole matter) can be conveyed in the target language either in writing or in viva voce (orally). Depending on the form of conveying the sense/content, the following kinds or types of translating/interpreting are to be distinguished:

  1.  The written from a written matter translating, which rep
    resents a literary/literary artistic or any other faithful sense-to-sense
    translating from or into a foreign language. It may also be a free
    interpreting performed in writing. The matter under translation may
    be a belles-lettres passage (prose or poetry work), a scientific or
    technical/newspaper passage
    / article, etc.
  2.  The oral from an oral matter interpreting, which is a regu
    lar oral sense-to-sense rendering of a speech/radio or TV interview, or
    recording which can proceed either in succession (after the whole
    matter or part of it is heard) or simultaneously with its sounding. This
    consecutive interpreting is a piecemeal performance and the inter
    preter can make use of the time, while the speech/recording is pro
    ceeding, for grasping its content and selecting the necessary means
    of expression for some language units of the original matter. There
    is also a possibility to interrupt (stop) the speaker/recording in order
    to clarify some obscure place. As a result, consecutive interpreting
    can take more or a little less time than the source language speech/

28


recording lasts. When it takes quite the same amount of time as the source language matter flows and the interpreter faithfully conveys its content, it is referred to as simultaneous interpreting/translating. Otherwise it remains only a consecutive interpreting. That can be well observed when interpreting a film, each still of which in the process of the simultaneous interpretation takes the time, allotted to it in the source language. In Ukrainian this kind of interpreting is called синхронний переклад. Therefore, simultaneous interpreting is performed within the same time limit, i.e., takes the same amount of time or a little more/less, than the source matter lasts.

  1.  The oral from a written matter interpreting is nothing
    else than interpreting at sight. It can also proceed either simultane
    ously with the process of getting acquainted with the content of the
    written matter, or in succession (after each part of it is first read through
    and comprehended). The former way of interpreting, if carried out
    faithfully and exactly on time with the consecutive conveying of the
    matter, may be considered simultaneous too. Usually, however, it is
    a regular prepared beforehand kind of interpreting.
  2.  The written translating from an orally presented matter is,
    as L.S.Barkhudarov points out
    1, a rare occurrence. This is because
    a natural speech flow is too fast for putting it down in the target lan
    guage (except for a shorthand presentation, which would be then a
    regular translation, i.e. interpretation from a written matter). Translat
    ing from an oral speech/recording is now and then resorted to for
    training practices. When the matter to be rendered is produced at a
    slower speed than the written translation, can naturally be performed
    (and put down) in the target language.

DESCRIPTIVE AND ANTONYMIC TRANSLATING

Descriptive translating. One must bear in mind that it is the notional meaning of the source language unit and not always its morphological nature or structural form that is to be rendered in the target language. As a result, the target language unit, which equiva-lently/faithfully conveys the denotative/connotative meaning of the corresponding source language unit may not necessarily belong to the same language stratification level. Depending on the notion expressed by the source language word/lexeme, it may be conveyed in

1 See: Бархударов Л.С. Язьік й перевод. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1975, р. 46-48.

29


the target language sometimes through a word-combination or even through a sentence, i.e., descriptively: indulge робити собі приємність у чомусь, віддаватися втіхам; infamous той (та, те), що має ганебну славу; inessentials предмети не першої необхідності, предмети розкошів; вщерть up to the brim, full to the brim; в'язи the nape of one's head, the back of the head; окраєць crust of a loaf, hunk of a bread; окривіти (осліпнути) to become lame (grow blind). Therefore, the descriptive way of conveying the sense of language units implies their structural transformation which is necessary to explicate their meaning with the help of hierarchically different target language units.

Descriptive translating/interpreting is very often employed to render the sense/meaning of idioms/phraseologisms, which have no equivalents in the target language. Cf. in English: (as) mad as a hatter цілком/геть божевільний; all my eye and Betty Martin! нісенітниці! (дурниці!); like one (twelve) o'clock миттю, вмить, прожогом. In Ukrainian: зуб на зуб не попадати to feel very cold (to feel freezing); навчить біда коржі з маком їсти hard times make one inventive; наговорити сім кіп/мішків гречаної вовни to say much nonsense.

No less often is descriptive translation employed when dealing with the notions of specific national lexicon: haggis геґґіс (зварений у жирі овечий кендюх, начинений вівсяними крупами і спеціями впереміш із січеним овечим потрухом); porridge порідж (густа вівсяна каша зварена на воді чи молоці); Senate сенат (рада університету в Англії, складається переважно з професорів); sweet-meat солодка страва, приготовлена на цукрі чи медові.

Alongside the literal translating some explications of the meaning of specific national notions becomes sometimes necessary: вареники varenyky, middle-sized dumplings filled with curd, cherries, etc.; дума duma, Ukrainian historic epic song; кобзар kobzar, a performer of dumas to the accompaniment of the kobza (a mandoline-like four string musical instrument), the bandore (a flat multistringed Ukrainian musical instrument).

Descriptive translation is also employed in foot-notes to explain obscure places in narration. Cf. midland мідленд, діалект центральної Англії, a spiritual релігійна пісня америк. негрів.

Antonymic translation is employed for the sake of achieving

30


faithfulness in conveying content or the necessary expressiveness of sense units. It represents a way of rendering when an affirmative in structure language unit (word, word-combination or sentence) is conveyed via a negative in sense or structure but identical in content language unit, or vice versa: a negative in sense or structure sense unit is translated via an affirmative sense unit. Cf.: to have quite a few friends мати багато (немало) друзів; mind your own business не втручайся не в свої справи; take it easy не хвилюйся, не переживай; not infrequently часто; по time like the present лови момент (використовуй нагоду); я не нездужую нівроку (Т.Ш.) І feel/am perfectly well; не спитавши броду не лізь у воду look before you leap; немає лиха без добра, every dark cloud has a silver lining, etc.

The antonymic device is empolyed in the following cases:

1) when in the target language there is no direct equivalent for
the sense unit of the source language. For example, the noun «infe
riority» and the adjective «inferior» (like the verb phrase «to be infe
rior») have no single-word equivalents in Ukrainian. So their lexical
meaning can be conveyed either in a descriptive way or with the help
of their antonyms «superiority», «superior»:
The defeat of the Notts
in last season's cup semi-finals was certainly the result of their physical
and tactical inferiority...
(The Kyiv Post) Поразка клубу «Ноттінгем
Форест» у торішньому півфінальному матчі на кубок країни була •
наслідком
переваги їхніх супротивників у фізичній і тактичній
підготовці (...була наслідком того, що гравці поступалися
супротивникові у фізичній і тактичній підготовці).
1

The meaning of some English word-groups can also be conveyed in Ukrainian antonymically only: Baines was reading a newspaper in his shirt-sleeves. (Gr. Greene) Бейнз сидів без піджака і читав газету. Do you mind this? (M.Wilson) Ви не заперечуєте?

2) When the sense unit of the source language has two
negations of its own which create an affirmation:
In those clothes
she was by no means non-elegant.
(S.Maugham) У цьому вбранні
вона була досить елеґантна.

3. In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness in narration: I don't think it will hurt you, baby. (E.Hemingway) Думаю, вам воно не зашкодить, люба. A shell fell close. (Ibid.) Неподалік вибухнув снаряд. Не lurched away like a frightened horse barely

1 See more about transformations of the kind in part IV of this work.

31


missing the piano stool. (J.London) Він сахнувся вбік, мов сполоханий кінь, мало не перекинувши стільця коло піаніно (ледь обминаючи стільця біля піаніно).

4. In order to avoid the use of the same or identical structures close to each other in a text (stylistic aim and means):

Mrs. Strickland was a woman of character. (S.Maugham) Місіс Стрікленд була жінкою не без характеру (тобто, була жінка з характером). Most of the staff is not away. (M.Wilson) Більшість співробітників ще на роботі (ще не розійшлися). Savina said nothing. (Ibid.) Савіна промовчала (тобто нічого не відповіла).

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-CONTROL AND CLASS DISCUSSION

  1.  The main terms and notions of the theory of translation/
    interpretation.
  2.  Ambiguity of some terms concerning translation (free trans
    lation vs. free adaptation/free interpretation, etc.).

Social and political significance of translating/interpreting.

  1.  Translating as a successful means of enriching national lan
    guages, literatures, and cultures.
  2.  Translating/interpreting in establishing, maintaining, and
    strengthening diplomatic, political, economic, scientific, cultural and
    other relations between different nations in the world.
  3.  The role of translating/interpreting in providing the success
    ful proceedings of international conferences, congresses, sympo
    sia, meetings, etc.
  4.  Translating/interpreting and the progress of world science,
    technology and dissemination of new ideas/doctrines.
  5.  Translating/interpreting while teaching and learning foreign
    languages.
  6.  Literal, verbal, word-for-word translation and restrictions in
    their use out of a contextual environment (cf.
    revolution оберт but
    not
    революція).

10. The main difference between the interlinear and literary/
literary artistic kinds of translating.

11 The requirements to faithful prose and poetic translation/ versification.

12. The machine translation, its progress, present-day poten-

32


tialities and spheres of employment.

13.Kinds of translating/interpreting: a) the written from a written matter translating; b) the oral from an oral matter interpreting; c) the oral from a written matter interpreting; d) the written translating from an orally presented matter.

14. Ways and devices of translating (descriptive and antonymic translating).

Ш. LEXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION      

As it has been pointed out in chapter I, the process of written or oral translating presents in reality different forms of decoding or transformation which the source language units undergo at the phonetic, morphological or syntactic levels: Cf.: ambition [aembijn] амбіція, geologist геолог, metaphor метафора, participate брати участь, пеgоtiаblе те (той), що піддається погодженню; рученьки beautiful little hands, лісовик (mythology) forest demon, etc. No lingual, i.e., structural or semantic identity have in the target language many English and Ukrainian specifically national notions of lexicon (culturally biased words), which are also to be decoded, i.e., transformed Cf.: Number 10 Downing Street Даунінґ Стріт №10 (резиденція прем'єр-міністра Великої Британії), haggis зварений у жирі овечий кендюх, начинений вівсяною кашею впереміш із посіченими потрохами; кутя cooked peeled wheat, barley or rice mixed with ground poppy seeds, raisins and parceled kernels of nuts, honey and a little boiled water, etc.

Neither are there in the target language direct semantic or structural equivalents for many idioms and stable expressions of the source language. Hence, they must be decoded, i.e., transformed, Cf.: Tom, Dick and Harry перший-ліпший (з), будь-хто (з), to go to the altar одружуватися, виходити заміж; клепки не вистачає nobody home, he has got a screw loose, etc.

A considerable number of other source language units, however, may maintain their lingual form little changed or unchanged in the target language, as in many proper names and genuine internationalisms: Alfred Альфред/Ельфред, Robert Frost Роберт Фрост, Boston Бостон, president президент, affiх афікс, phoneme фонема, motor мотор, cybernetics кібернетика, export експортувати, soc/a/соціальний, nationally національно, etc. Such and the like words are, in fact, not translated in the true sense of the word but turned into the target language in their phonemic (sometimes also in their orthographic) form/structure. These and some other problems, which are of academic interest not only for the beginning translator but also for the teacher constitute the subject-matter of the succeeding chapters of this work.

91


METHODS AND WAYS OF TRANSLATING VARIOUS PROPER NAMES

There are no finally established rules yet as to how different kinds and types of English proper names should be translated into Ukrainian, though Ukrainian proper names of people and family names are mostly conveyed on the basis of their phonemic structure, i.e., are transliterated in English. E.g.: Антоніна Antonina; Віра Vira; Лаврін Lavrin; Роман Roman; Авраменко Avramenko; Лавріненко Lavrinenko; Панібрат Panibrat; Іван Ivan; Тамара Tamara; Семен Semen; Петро Petro, Саливон Salyvon, etc.

Far from all Ukrainian proper names can be conveyed by way of literal translating, however. This is because some of our vowels and consonants have no equivalent sounds/phonemes in English and must be substituted for approximately similar sounds. Among these Ukrainian sounds and sound combinations are first of all those ones, which are rendered with the help of the letters or letter combinations и, й, ий, ій, я, ю, є, Ї, or partly through the letters ж, щ, х, ч, ц and palatalized consonants.

Ukraine as a newly independent state makes efforts to get rid of her former colonial past. One of the ways to assure this internationally was the adoption of the Romanization System which enabled the conveying of our personal names, family names (onomastics) and also all Ukrainian geographical names (toponymy) in accordance with some rules. Their system practically does not contain diacritics, i.e., different signs over or under the letters. The only sign of the kind being the sign ' for palatalization (cf. Щербань Shcherban', Львів L'viv) which is not difficult to add after a letter. This makes the system convenient and assured for direct and unambiguous reconstruction of any Ukrainian name form or word standing for a specifically national notion (реалія). E.g.: kutya or kutia, kobzar, varenyky, etc. The adopted Romanization System will also serve well as an aid to correct pronunciation of Ukrainian proper names by the foreigners, capable of reading the Roman letters, which more or less correctly convey the sounding forms of any Ukrainian name. The adopted Romanization System is internally consistent and based on sound linguistic principles. It is to be strictly observed by the students of foreign languages and the people responsible for its absolute implementation in this country and abroad. This is how the system is presented:

Ukrainian

1. A a

2. Б б

3. В в

4. Г г

5. Ґ Ґ

6. Д д

7. Е е

8. Є є

9. Ж ж

10. З з

11.И и

12. І і

13. Ї ї

14. Й й

15. К к

16. Л л

17. М м

18. Н h

19. O o

20. П п

21. P p

22. С с

23. Т т

24. У у

25. Ф ф

26. Х х

27. Ц ц

28.Ч ч

29. Ш ш

30. Щ щ

31. Ю ю

32. Я я

33. Ь

Romanization

А а

В Ь

V/v W/w

H h 

G g 

D d 

Е е

Ye ye

Zh zh

Z z

Y y

li

Уі/li yi/ii

Y y 

K k 

L I 

M м

N п

О о

Р р

R r

S s

T t

U u

F f

Kh kh

Ts ts

Ch/Tch ch/tch

Sh sh

Shch shch

Yu yu

Ya ya

`


A practical realization of this system can be illustrated on many Ukrainian names with the following substitution of Ukrainian letters (and sounds) for the completely, approximately or similarly corresponding English letters or letter combinations:

/и/ as у: Кирило Kyrylo, Марина Maryna, Микита Mykyta, Бобрик Bobryk, Бровари Brovary, Бобир Bobyr, Винник Vynnyk, Микитенко Mykytenko, Суми Sumy.

/и/ as ii, і or yi. The choice of a letter/letter combination in English to Romanize the sound is predetermined by its environment and position in the Ukrainian name/surname. When preceded by a vowel, the sound /j/ is to be conveyed by the letter і (as in «naive»): Заїка Zaika, Мисаїл Mysail, Українка Ukrainka, Зінаїда Zinaida, Турбаї Turbayi /or Turbaii.

When the Ukrainian letter Ї initiates the proper name/surname, the sound expressed by it has to be conveyed through the yi letter combination: Ївга Yivha, їздець Yizdets, їжакевич Yizhakevych.

The voiced /й/ sound is also to be conveyed through the letter у: Йосип Yosyp, Йовенко Yovenko.

Very often the /й/ sound in Ukrainian is used with the preceding /i/ or /и/ sound. When preceded by the /i/ sound it is conveyed in English as ii or iy: Андрій Andrii/Andriy, Гулій Hulii/Huliy, Гафійка Hafiika/Hafiyka, Матвійчук Matviichuk/Matviychuk, Павлійчук Pavliichuk/Pavliychuk, etc. When the /й/ sound is preceded by /и/ it is to be conveyed as yi: Горовий Horovyi, Гулий Hulyi, Сірий Siryi, Коломийченко Kolomyichenko, Гнідий Hnidyi.

As to the sounds expressed by the Ukrainian letters я, ю, є they are to be conveyed through the English letter combinations ya, yu, ye respectively or through ia, iu, ie Cf.: ya: Яким Yakym, Ярема Yarema, but: Забіяка Zabiyaka/Zabiaka, Мусіяка Musiyaka/Musiiaka.

The sound expressed through the Ukrainian letter я in the final position of a word or traditional proper name can sometimes be conveyed in English by the ia rarely ya letter combinations. It is mostly observed in traditional proper names like Марія, Софія, Maria, Sofia, Юлія Yulia, Югославія Yugoslavia, Малазія Malasia, but: Кенія Kenya. Some common in English and Ukrainian proper names and also foreign place names may have йа for the ia letter combinations as well: Maria Марія/Мерайя, Malaya Малайя.

It is common knowledge that present-day English despite the existence of some less hard consonants like the /I/ after the IiI, /i:/ and /ai/ sounds (cf. little, leave, like, controlling, etc.) is practically devoid of palatalization. As a result, all Ukrainian palatalized consonants usually obtain a hard pronunciation in English: Альвіна Alvina, Бенедь Bened, Василь Vasyl', Близько Vlyzko, Гринь Hryn, Кость Kost; Кусько Kusko, Луцьк Lutsk, Редько Redko. In linguistic papers these and the like proper names, however, may have a sign for palatalization ('): Al'vina, Kost', Red'ko, Bened', Vlyz'ko, Luts'k, Lots', Kozlovs'kyi, Koval', Mel'nyk, etc.

As to the Ukrainian consonant phonemes, which have no direct equivalents in the English language, they can mostly be conveyed through analogous English sounds, sometimes formed by different letter combinations. Thus, the Ukrainian /г/ sound is to be conveyed through the similar though not identical voiceless English /h/ phoneme: Гаврило Havrylo, Григір Hryhir, Гайдай Haidai, Григораш Hryhorash, Громак Hromak, Гмиря Hmyrya. This sound is also observed in such nouns/proper names as hobby гоббі, maharajah магараджа, Hyderabad Гайдерабад, Huxley Гакслі, etc.

The Ukrainian /ж/ phoneme is conveyed with the help of the zh letter combination: Жук Zhuk, Жанна Zhanna, Божій Bozhiy, Журавель, Zhuravel', Жуйхліб Zhuikhlib, Женченко Zhenchenko, Журба Zhurba, Неїжмак Neyizhmak, Вражливий Vrazhlyvyi.

The Ukrainian /x/ sound is conveyed in English through the kh letter combination: Лахно Lakhno, Остахів Ostakhiv, Хома Khoma, Химии Khymych, Харків Kharkiv, Ховрах Khovrakh, Охрімчук Okhrimchuk.

As to the similar in the Ukrainian and English languages /ч/ sound it may be conveyed in two ways. Traditionally the letter combinations ch or tch always were and are still used for the purpose: Качанів Kachaniv, Клочко Klochko/Klotchko, Костюченко Kostyuchenko/Kostiutchenko, Кочур Kochur/Kotchur, Чернушенко Chernushenko/Tchernushenko, Чорний Chornyi/Tchornyi. Though the letter combination tch is less and less often used at present.

Similarly with the Ukrainian /шч/ sound which has no equivalent in English. Traditionally it was conveyed in English through the letter combination shch (sh+ch). The Ukrainian proper nouns and especially geographical names and names of public bodies containing щ can be conveyed as follows: Щаденко as Shchadenko, Щербак as Shcherbak, Щедрій as Shchedrii, Безпощадний as Bezposhchadnyi etc.

For all other Ukrainian consonant phonemes there are corresponding letters and letter combinations in English which convey more or less similar sounds, though they may belong in both the languages to the same articulatory zones (labial, dental, alveolar, etc.). For example, the Ukrainian /б/ and /п/ phonemes are substituted for the English plosives /b/ and /p/: Борис Borys, Бойчук Boichuk, Петро Petro, Панібудьласка Panibud'laska. The consonant phonemes /д/,/т/,/н/, In/, Id, Iu/ and their palatalized variants /д'/, /т'/, /н7, /л'/, /с'/, /ц1/ are substituted respectively for the English alveolar Id/, /t/, /n/, /I/, Is/, /is/, though the latter, which is common knowledge to everybody, differ greatly by their articulatory characteristics from the Ukrainian phonemes. Cf.: Дорош Dorosh, Ткаченко Tkachenko, Німенко Nimenko, Льольо Lyolyo, Ціпко Tsipko, Цвіркун Ts'virkun, Циба Tsyba, Гороть Horot', Ковальчук Koval'chuk, Гаврись Havrys', etc.

Only approximate similarity can also be observed in most cases between the Ukrainian /в/ phoneme which is much closer when used in the initial position to the English /w/ than to its traditional substitute (in translations from the Ukrainian) /v/ phoneme as in the proper nouns like: Володимир Volodymyr, Вовчок Vovchok, Добривечір Dobryvechir, Убийвовк Ubyivovk. But Віль, of course, must be only Will. Consequently Вовченко, Вареник may also be Wowchenko, Warenyk and Вовчок also Wowchok.

When in the position between two vowels or between a vowel and a palatalized consonant, the Ukrainian /в/ sound somewhat resembles the English/v/ phoneme, however: Сиваченко Syvachenko, Винниченко Vynnychenko, Яворівський Yavorivskyi, Швайка Shvaika, Швидюк Shvydiuk/ Shvydyuk.

Undoubtedly the closest to the English consonant phonemes are the Ukrainian /к/, /ґ/ and /з/ phonemes. Cf.: Кавун Kavun, Зінаїда Zinaida, Зайченко Zaichenko, Ґудзій Gudziy/Gudzii. But there are no similar substitutes in English for our palatalized /дз'/ sound which will be read by the English native speakers as /dz/ only as in Ґедзь Gedz', Ґудзь Gudz', and others.

There is very little similarity, however, between the Ukrainian vibrant /p/ and the English /r/ phoneme belonging in both these languages to different articulatory zones. Nevertheless the English /r/ is always used in translations of proper names to substitute the Ukrainian /p/ and vice versa: Barbara Барбара, Robert Роберт, Rupert Руперт, Роман Roman, Новодворський Novodvors'kyi, Черкасенко Cherkasenko.

The methods of conveying English vowels in Ukrainian are also different. The choice of them and the sphere of their use may be predetermined by some lingual as well as extralingual factors. These are as follows: a) the position of the phoneme in the English word/ proper name; b) the environment of the phoneme; c) the origin of the proper name; d) the tradition (if any) of conveying the name in Ukrainian, when the name is common in the two languages e.g. of Biblical origin e.g.: Elias /і'Іаіжз/, Elijah, /I'laid'je/ Ілля (Ілія).

As to the possible substitutes for similar and divergent English vowel phonemes, some variants may be suggested in Ukrainian for short monophthongs formed at different tongue positions. The most common/traditional substitutes for English short monophthongs in Ukrainian the following vowel phonemes have to be investigated:

/ж/ for /a/ and lei: Angela Анджела/Енджела, Andy Енді/Анді, Amanda Аманда/Еманда, Patrick Патрік/ Петрік, Allison Еллісон, Аллісон; /Л/ for /а/, /у/ or even /о/: Ulrica Алріка (Ул/ь)ріка, Doug Даг, " Justin Джастін, Sudbury Садбері/Судбері, Ulster Ольстер;

/a/ standing in English for any vowel phoneme in unstressed position can be substituted in Ukrainian for the corresponding vowels too: Ada Ада, Alaska Аляска, Virginia Вірджінія, Rebekka Ребекка, Theodore Теодор, Salisbury Солзбері;

/о/ for lot: Dolly Доллі, Olive Олів, Oskar Оскар, Oxford Оксфорд;

/і/ for /і/: Iraq Ірак, Isabel Ізабел(а), Isolda/e Ізольда, Islam іслам;

/e/for/e/: Ebrington Ебрінґтон, Eckersl(e)y Екерслі, Edinburgh Едінбург, Eleonora Елеонора, Ellis Ел(л)іс.

It is common knowledge that either of these sounds may also convey other sounds in seemingly the same sounds environment. Cf.: Iden Айден, Ikey Айкі, or: Ede Ід, Eden Іден, English (family name) Інґліш or Енгліш.

Long vowel phonemes in all English proper names like in other words are substituted in Ukrainian for their corresponding short vowel phonemes:

/a:/ for /a/: Art Арт, Bart Барт, Clerke Кларк, Mark Марк, Carnegie Карнеґї, Gaby Габі; but Derby /da:bi/ Дербі;

/о:/for/о/: Allcorn Олкорн, Aubrey Обрі, Austin Остін, Paola Пола, Cornell Корнелл;

/u:/ and sometimes /ju:/ for /у/ю/: Cooper Купер, Judy Джуді, Muriel М'юріел(ь), Oona Уна, Ouse p. Уз, Hecuba Гекуба Purim Пюрім, Rubens Рубенс Uniat Уніат, UNESCO ЮНЕСКО;

/і:/for/і/: Aberdeen Абердін, Celia Сілія, Easton Істон, Eton Ітон, Deakin Дікін;

/э:/ for /e/ or even for /i/: Earl Ерл, Herbert Герберт, Irvin Ервін/ Ірвін; but: Pearl Harbor Перл-Гарбор/Пірл-Гарбор, Burton Бертон, Burma Бірма, Bert Берт, Burch Берч.

English diphthongs are usually substituted for corresponding Ukrainian vowel combinations, though not without exceptions:

/ai/ for /ай/: Brighton Брайтон, Idaho Айдаго, Ike Айк, Mike Майк, Pyke Пайк; but Miami Майамі;

/au / for /ay/: Down Даун, Howard Гауерд, Howell Гауел, Mowgli Мауґлі;

/ei/for/ей/, /a/: Ada Ейда, Mabel Мейбл, Mamei Меймі, Paisley Пейзлі;

/oi/for/ой/: Croydon Кройдон, Joyce Джойс, Roy Рой but: Troy Троя, Тоуе Той;

/эй/ for /oy/: Mo Moy, Owen Оуен, Rose Роуз, Snow Сноу, Sofia(Bulgaria) Софія.

Several English proper names containing the diphthong /ou/ have no /oy/ substitution for it in Ukrainian, however: Bruno Бруно, Buffalo Буффало, Toronto Т.оронто, Longfellow Лонгфелло, Рое По, Sophia Софія;

/еэ/ is substituted for/ea/: Ayrshire Ершір, Dalaware Делавар, Fairbanks м.Фербенкс, Gary м. Ґері, but: Ontario Онтаріо, Bulgaria Болгарія;

/ia/ for /і/, /ей/, /ія/: Cheshire Чешір, Madeira о-в Мадейра, Nigeria Нігерія, Victoria Вікторія, Virginia Вірджінія, Julie Джулія, Juliet Джулієт.

It is not always easy to select appropriate Ukrainian substitutes for some English consonant phonemes either. That is partly because some consonants may realize their meanings depending on their environment or position in the word (proper name). Besides, the selections of a substitute for an English consonant phoneme, may sometimes be predetermined in Ukrainian by the established tradition: so /p/ is substituted for /т/, /д/ or the sound /з/: Carmarthenshire Кармартеншір, Caruthers Карудерс/Карузерс, Brothers Брад(з)ерс;

/T/ for /т/ or /c/ sometimes /ф/ (in Greek names): Bath м. Бат, Faith Феіт/Феіс, Dartmouth Дартмут, but: Athos Афон, Carthage Карфаген/Картаґен, Korinth Коринф(т).

/N/ for /нг/: Arlington Арлінґтон, Bundung Бандунг", sterling стерлінг", Darlington Дарлінґтон, Long Лонґ, Goulding Ґоулдінґ, Springpark Спрінґпарк;

/Nk/ for /hk/: Bronx Бронкс, Sinclair Сінклер, SprinkCnpiHK, Winkie Вінкі;

/I/ for In/ or In'/: Larry Ла/еррі, Lotta Лотта, Noll Нолл, Percival Персівал(ь), Charles Чарльз, William Вільям, Clinton Клінтон, Underhill Андергіл.

Some componental phonemes may have traditionally established substitution in separate nouns. Thus,

/w/ may be ib/ or /y/: Washington Вашингтон, Wales Уельс, Westminster Вестминстер, Wilde Вайльд, Bowyear Бов'єр, Bristow Брістоу, Shaw Шоу, Snow Сноу, Mark Twain Марк Твен.

When used in various combinations, these and other English vowel and consonant phonemes are mostly conveyed in Ukrainian in accordance with the above-given reading rules. As a result, English proper names are either transcribed or transliterated (or partly anscribed and partly transliterated) in Ukrainian. Mostly transcribed names/surnames containing specific English vowel phonemes тісії are usually formed by different sound/letter combinations: Abe

уйб, Aileen Ейлін, Bab Беб, Chauncey Чонсі, Dwight Двайт, Eli

\ Ілай, Lewie Луї/Льюї, Queenie Квіні, Raiph Рейф, Russel Расл, Theobald Тіобольд/Теобальд, Uriah Юрайя/Урія.

Irrespective of the considerable divergences existing between the phonemic systems of the two languages, a number of English proper names are rendered into Ukrainian by way of transliteration only: Barbara Барбара, Norman Норман, Rita Ріта, Tristram Трістрам, Victor Віктор, Adams Адаме, Barker Баркер, Collins Коллінс/з, Clark Кларк, Cronin Кронін, Wilson Вільсон, Nelson Нельсон, Robert Frost Роберт Фрост etc.

A few English proper names are transliterated with the omission or addition of a letter or two in Ukrainian. This kind of rendering becomes necessary when dealing with specifically English spelling forms of proper names and to avoid the violation of the traditionally established spelling rules of the Ukrainian language: McDonald Макдональд, Macintosh Макінтош, McEnroe Макенро, Dinah Діна, Jupiter Юпітер, Judah Юда, Longfellow Лонгфелло, Williamson Вільямсон.

Some other English proper names of people and geographical names are rendered into Ukrainian partly through transcription: Brooking Брукінґ, Huntington Гантінґтон, Liverpool Ліверпуль, Newton Ньютон, Jackson Джексон, Aberdeen Абердін, Melbourne Мельбурн, Valentine Валентайн.

Besides, the exactitude of conveying English proper names in Ukrainian may be predetermined by some lingual and extralingual factors. The main of them are: absence in Ukrainian of corresponding phonemes and orthographic means to substitute some particular English sounds/letter combinations or the established tradition according to which some names are translated. It can already be seen on the following examples: Thorne Торн, Ethan Ітан, Faith Фейс/ Фейт, Fitzclarence Фіцкларенс, Graham Гре(йе)м, Galsworthy Ґолсуорсі, Goorka Ґурка, Hugon Гюґон, Hutchinson Гачінсон/ Гатчінсон, Ptolemy Птолемей, Whistler Віс(т)лер, Wriothesley Райетслі, and sevral others.

The bulk of all other English proper names, however, are also rendered into Ukrainian with the help of phonetical/phonological level units, i.e., either transcribed or transliterated. The degree of exactitude of their rendering depends on the existence/non-existence of appropriate or similar sounds in the target language. Care should be taken in order to avoid the influence of both the lingual and extralingual factors. For example, the well-known names as Adam, David can be translated into Ukrainian as Адам and Давид (Biblical or historical) or as Едем and Девід (common people's names). Similarly with Matthew, Paul, Rachel and some others which can be correspondingly rendered either as Матфей/Матвій, Павло, Рахіль or as Метью, Пол, Ре(й)чел, Pope John Paul II Папа Іван Павло Другий, etc.

Mostly translated, however, are the names of kings, queens, princes, princesses, tsars and tsarinas. These exceptions from the general rule are observed in the following names: King Charles/ George, Henry Король Карл/Георг, Генріх; Queen Elisabeth/Mary Stewart королева Єлизавета/Марія Стюарт; King James I (John, William) король Яків І (Іоанн, Вільгельм); Princess Ann/Margaret принцеса Анна/Маргарита; цар Олексадр/Микола/Павло Tsar Alexander/Nicolas/Paul.

Among the names of kings, queens, tsars, etc. are also some which are transliterated in the target language. These are mostly peculiar national names with no corresponding equivalents in other languages: King Horn король Горн; Prince Robert принц Роберт; цар Борис/Іван Tsar Boris/Ivan; король Болеслав King Boleslav, князь Мстислав Prince Mstyslav.

Nicknames of people are almost always translated irrespective of the language they come from: King Charles the Great король Карл Великий; King Edward the Confessor король Едуард Сповідник; King Richard the Lionheart/Lionhearted король Річард Левине Серце; Prince William of Orange принц Вільгельм Оранський; князь Мстислав/Святослав Хоробрий Prince Mstyslav/ Svyatoslav the Brave; князь Ярослав Мудрий Prince Yaroslav the Wise; цар Василь Темний Tsar Basil the Blind; цар Іван Грозний Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Contrary to this rule is the wrong translation in our mass media of Prince Charles of Wales as принц Чарльз, instead of принц Карл (according to the historically established tradition).

Indian chiefs' names and family names of American Indians, which became known mainly from J.F.Cooper's novels are translated, as a rule, too: (the) Arrowhead Гостряк Стріли; Dew of June, Червнева Роса; Chingachgook the Big Serpent Чінгачгук Великий Змій; the Deerslayer (the Pathfinger) Звіробій (Знайдислід, «Слідопит»); the Leather Stocking, Hawk's Eye Шкіряна Панчоха, Соколине Око; John Running Deer, Джон Тікаючий Олень; Pete Brown Feather, Піт Руда Пір'їна. But: князь Осмомисл Prince Osmomysl, Олександр Невський Alexander Nevskii.

The so-called generalizing or characterizing names used by many authors in their belles-lettres works to point out some determinant (usually negative) feature of their characters are mostly not translated but only transcribed or transliterated. Such are the characters, for example, from Ch. Dickens' works: Mrs. Porkenham (cf. pork and ham ласа/любителька добре поїсти, гурманка пані Поркенгем); Doctor Slammer (cf. to slam the door грюкати/грюкнути дверима лікар Слеммер); Тгасу Tupman (cf. tup-male sheep, ram баран, тупоголовий) Трейсі Тапмен; Nathaniel Winkle (cf. winkle sea snail used as food) морський равлик Натаніель Вінкель; Miss Witherfield (cf. wither, fade) в'янути, сохнути (в'януча стара діва) Міс Візерфільд

Some nicknames of this kind may naturally be translated, especially when used in humorous stories as, for instance, in Stephan Leacock's Guide the Gimlet of Ghent: A Romance of Chivalry: Carlo the Corkscrew Карло Штопор, Beowulf the Bradawl Беовульф Шило, Conrad the Coconut Конрад Кокосовий Горіх. But: Mrs. Afterthought місіс Афтерсот and not пані Розумна Заднім Розумом.

It must be emphasized that in recent decades there has been a general tendency in translation practice to transcribe or transliterate foreign proper names and not to translate them. In conformity with the tendency some proper names of people and place names which had hitherto been translated are now transcribed or transliterated. So Michael Faraday is no more Михайло Фарадей but Майкл Фарадей; George Washington is Джорж (and not Георг) Вашінгтон; Alessandro Volta is no more Олександр but Алессандро Вольта; Salt Lake City is no more місто Солоного Озера but місто Солт Лейк-Сіті; Leicester and Worcester are no more Лейсестер and Ворчестер but Лестер and Вустер; Hull is no more Ґуль but Галл, etc. This tendency should also be observed when dealing with some other proper names, including geographical ones. The latter, as may have been noticed, are conveyed in Ukrainian/English in the same way as the proper names of people, i.e., they are traditionally transliterated or transcribed: Arkansas Арканзас (ріка) but Аркенсо (штат США); Belfast/Chicago Белфаст/Чикаго, Dublin/Ottawa Дублін/ Оттава, San-Francisco Сан-Франциско, Бахмач Bakhmach, Бровари Brovary, Горлівка Horlivka, Ізмаїл/Канів Ismail/Kaniv, Лисянка Lysianka/Lysyanka, Суми Sumy, etc.

A considerable number of English geographical names are also rendered into Ukrainian by way of transcription only: Buckinghamshire Бакінгемшир, Capetown/Ohio Кейптаун/Огайо, Dashwood Дешвуд, Dundee-Данді, Freetown Фрітаун, Newfoundland Ньюфаундленд, Seattle Сіетл, Sutherland Сазерленд, Greenfield Ґрінфілд.

Many English place names, along with other geographical and proper names, are conveyed in Ukrainian partly with the help of transcription and partly via transliteration. This can be observed in the two-syllable names in the examples below. The first (1) group of the geographical names has the initial syllables transliterated and the closing syllables transcribed, whereas the second group (2) contains geographical names with the initial syllables transcribed and the closing syllables transliterated:

(1) (2)

Birmingham   Бірмінгем Brighton         Брайтон

Kingstown      Кінгстаун Greensboro    Ґрінзборо

Midway          Мідвей  Houston         Г'юстон

Sheffield         Шеффілд Wyoming        Вайоминґ (штат США)

A few geographical names and some proper names of people have a traditionally established orthographical form which does not reflect in any way their pronunciation or their real orthographic form in the English language: the Arctic Ocean Північний Льодовитий океан; Maine Мен (штат США); Mexico Мехіко; New Orleans Новий Орлеан; Ulster Ольстер; Texas Техас (штат США), Lake Superior Озеро Верхнє.

Names of seas, oceans, bays, archipelagos, isthmuses, straits, channels, administrative territories and compound names of countries having the structure of word-combinations are always translated: the Atlantic/Pacific/Indian Ocean Атлантичний/Тихий/ Індійський океан; the Grampians (Appalachians) Грампіанські (Аппалацькі) гори; the Gulf of Mexico (Salonika) Мексиканська (Салонікська) затока; the Isthmus of Suez/Panama Суецький (Панамський) перешийок; New South Wales Новий Південний Уельс (Австралія); Strait of Magellan/Gibraltar Магелланова/ Ґібралтарська протока; Карпати/Карпатські гори the Carpathians/ Carpathian Mts.); Закарпаття Transcarpathia (Transcarpathian Region of Ukraine); Краснодарський/Ставропольський край Krasnodar/Stavropol Territory; Південо-український зрошувальний канал the South Ukrainian Irrigation Canal; Азовське/Каспійське море Sea of Azov, the Caspian Sea; Керченська Протока/Карські Ворота Strait of Kerch/Kara Strait; Курільські/Оркнейські о-ви Kuril(e) Islands/Orkney Islands, Stratford-on-Avon Стратфорд-на-Ейвоні, Ростов-на-Дону Rostov-on-Don.

The geographical names formed on the basis of common nouns which acquired the status of proper names are generally translated from English into Ukrainian and vice versa: Cape of Good Hope/ Cape May мис Доброї Надії/мис Кейп-Мей, Саре Verde Islands O-ви Зеленого Мису; Golden Gate Золоті Ворота (протока поблизу м.Сан-Франциско); Grand Bank(s) Велика Мілина (поблизу о-ва Ньюфаундленд); Great Slave Lake Велике Невільничне озеро; Northern Highlands Північне-шотландське нагір'я; the Rocky Mountains/the Appalachians Скелясті гори/Аппалачі/Аппалацькі гори.

Still other geographical names having single word and word-combination structures require some identifying element in the target language (an appositional noun, an adjective, etc.). These elements explain the nature and the real meaning of the geographical name in the target language: the Azores/the Seychelles Азорські/ Сейшельські о-ви; Idaho Falls місто Айдаго-Фолз; New England Нова Англія, Maine штат Мен, Massachusetts штат Массачузетс, Connecticut штат Коннектіка(у)т, Rhode Island (штат) Род-Айленд, Vermont штат Вермонт; Saint Vincent/Saint Helena Island о-ви Сент-Вінсент/Святої Єлени; the Saint Lawrence p. Святого Лаврентія; Sutherland Сазерленд (графство Шотландії); Буг/ Десна/Рось the Buh/the Desna/the Ros' (rivers in Ukraine); Верховина Verkhovyna (upland pastures in the Carpathians); Донбас Donets Basin/Donets coal field(s); Поділ Podil (lower part of Kyjy city, a city district); Херсонщина/Львівщина/Полтавщина Kherson/ Lviv/Poltava region/ oblast.

Foreign geographical names as well as many proper names of people are often reproduced in English not in the spelling form of the source language but in the traditionally established spelling form of the target language: Аахен (Germ. Aachen) Aix-la-Chapelle; Антверпен (Dutch Antwerpen) Antwerp; Варшава (Pol. Warszawa) Warsaw; Венеція (Ital. Venezia) Venice; Вогняна Земля (Span.) Tierra del Fuego; Гаага (Dutch den Haag) the Hague; Генуя (Ital. Geneva) Genoa; Італія (Ital. Italia) Italy; Кельн (Germ. Кціп) Cologne; Ліворно (Ital. Livorno) Leghorn; Лотарінгія (Fr. Lorraine) Lorraine; Майнц (Germ. Mainz) Mayence; Maas (Germ. Maas) Meuse; Мюнхен (Germ. Мьпспеп) Munich.

Ukrainian geographical names should be translated into English as close to their source language form as possible unless other of their forms are historically or traditionally established: Ананьїв Ananiiv/Ananyiv; Богуслав Bohuslav; Виноград Vynohrad; Моринці Moryntsi; Запоріжжя Zaporizhia/Zaporizhya; Кам'яний Брід Kamianyi/Kamyanyi Brid; Жуляни Zhuliany/Zhulyany; Чернігів Chernihiv; Щигри Shchyhry/Scyhry; Київ/Одеса Kyiv/Odesa; Хутір Михайлівський Khutir Mykhailivskyi.

The students must bear it in mind that some geographical names have in English their historically established forms/variants too: Кольський півострів Kola Peninsula, Ладозьке озеро Ladoga, Онезьке озеро Onega, Мала Азія Asia Minor, Середня Азія Central Asia, Неаполь (It. Napoh) Naples, Hebrides Гібриди/Гібридські острови (also Western Isles), etc.

of their forms are historically or traditionally established: Ананьїв Ananiiv/Ananyiv; Богуслав Bohuslav; Виноград Vynohrad; Моринці Moryntsi; Запоріжжя Zaporizhia/Zaporizhya; Кам'яний Брід Kamianyi/Kamyanyi Brid; Жуляни Zhuliany/Zhulyany; Чернігів Chernihiv; Щигри Shchyhry orScyhry; Київ/Одеса Kyiv/Odesa; Хутір Михайлівський Khutir Mykhailivskyi.

The students must bear it in mind that some geographical names have in English their historically established forms/variants too: Кольський півострів Kola Peninsula, Ладозьке озеро Ladoga, Онезьке озеро Onega, Мала Азія Asia Minor, Середня Азія Central Asia, Неаполь (It. Napoli) Naples, Hebrides Гібриди/Гібридські острови (also Western Isles), etc.

CONVEYING THE NAMES OF COMPANIES, CORPORATIONS, FIRMS

1. Traditionally, most names of companies (corporations, firms, etc.) are transcribed or transliterated and shortly explicated at the same time. This method is also employed when rendering the names of publishing houses, titles of most newspapers and magazines or journals, and of some public bodies. The translation may be performed either with the employment of a shorter or more extended explication. The former is practised when the name of the company (corporation, firm) is well-known or when translating at language level; the latter is resorted to when translating at speech/text level: Associated Biscuit Manufacturers англійська компанія по випуску хрустких коржиків «Ессошіейтед біскіт менюфекчерерз; T.Wall & Sons Co. Ltd. англійська компанія по виробництву м'ясомолочних продуктів і морозива «Т. Волл енд санз компані лімітед», but: General Motors/Standard Oil корпорація «Дженерал Моторз/Стандард Ойл».

It is much easier to translate the names of companies/corporations when their product is indicated as in the following examples: British-American Tobacco Co. об'єднана англо-американська компанія тютюнових виробів «Брітіш-американ тобекко компані»; British and Commonwealth Shipping компанія по забезпеченню морських перевезень між Великою Британією та її колишніми колоніями «Брітіш енд коммонвелс шіппінґ»; Campbell Soups Co. компанія по виробництву консервованих страв «Кемпбелл супе компані»; Coca-Cola Co. Inc. об'єднана компанія по виробництву безалкогольних напоїв «Кока-кола компані інкорпорейтід»; China Ventretech Investment Corp. китайська інвестиційна корпорація

104


«Вентретек інвестмент корпорейшин»; West Texas Intermediate Co. американська нафтова компанія «Вест Тексаз Інтермідіат Компані»; Volkswagen (VW) AG німецька акціонерна компанія по випуску легкових автомобілів «Фольксваґен Акціонер Ґезельшафт».

Ukrainian companies, firms and other state and private bodies performing the same or similar functions are translated according to the same rule (they are transliterated or transcribed and explicated at the same time). For example: Київська фірма «Світанок» Kyiv Svitanok civil services firm; виробниче об'єднання «Краснодонвугілля» «Krasnodonvuhillya Coal Production Amalgamation; Укргазпром Ukrainian Ukrhazprom natural gas importing and extracting body; «Київоблпобутрадіотехніка» Kyiv region Kyivoblpobutradiotekhnika home radio engineering services body (firm); акціонерне товариство «Білицька меблева фабрика» Bilychi Joint-Stock Furniture Factory Association; CD «Вента» (парфуми та косметика з Болгари) Bulgarian Venta Joint Venture (perfumes, makeup); Львівська взуттєва фірма «Прогрес» Lviv Prohres footwear firm.

2. Translation of the names of British/American publishing houses is performed according to the same rules: Associated Book Publishers лондонська книжково-видавнича фірма «Ассошіейтід бук паблішерз»; Cambridge University Press англійське видавництво наукової та довідкової літератури при Кембріджському університеті «Кембрідж юніверсіті прес»; Edward Arnolds (Publishers) Ltd. лондонське видавництво навчально-педагогічної та наукової літератури «Едвард Арнольдз (паблішерз) лімітед»; Harper & Row (USA) видавництво різної літератури «Гарпер енд Роу» (США).

Not infrequently, however, the names of British (American, etc.) publishing houses are scarcely indicated or not mentioned at all. Nevertheless in Ukrainian translation the identifying noun видавництво should necessarily be added: Penguin Books лондонське видавництво «Пенґвін букс»; Raphael Tuck & Sons Ltd. лондонське видавництво літератури з образотворчого мистецтва «Рафаель Так енд санз лімітед»; J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd. видавництво підручникової та довідкової літератури «Дж. М. Дент енд санз лімітед»; Slavic Gospel Press (USA) американське видавництво Біблій слав'янськими мовами «Славік Ґоспел Прес»; Randon House (USA) видавництво художньої літератури «Рендом Гаус» (США); Rand McNelly {USA) видавництво шкільних підручників

105


«Ренд Макнеллі» (США) ; Beacon Press (USA) американське видавництво підручників «Бікон Прес».

Names of Ukrainian publishing houses are rendered into English similarly: with the corresponding identifying noun Publishers or Publishing House added to it: видавництво «Український письменник»/»Дніпро» Kyiv/ Ukrains'kyi Pysmennyk/Dnipro Publishers (Publishing House): видавництво «Музична Україна» Muzychna Ukraina (musical works and notes) Publishers/Publishing House; видавництво «Школа» Shkola/Skola Publishers/Publishing House (primary and secondary school manuals, reference books, dictionaries); видавництво «Либідь» Kyiv Shevchenko University Lybid' Publishers (scientific literature and higher school manuals).

  1.  Transcribed or transliterated and mostly shortly explicated
    in the target language are also the names of news agencies: (the
    British) Reuters (News Agency) англійське інформаційне аґентство
    «Рейтер»;
    UPl/France Presse інформаційне агентство ЮПІ (США),
    Франс-Прес (Франція); інформаційне агентство Дінау Укрінформ
    Ukrainian Dinau Ukrinform News Agency; інформаційне аґентство
    Тарс/Новості
    Russian TASS/Novosti News Agency; but китайське
    інформаційне аґентство Сінь-Хуа
    Chinese Communist New China
    News Agency.
  2.  Names of theatres, cinemas, hotels are also mostly repro
    duced through transcription or transliteration and explication at the
    same time: Comedy Theatre театр «Комеді»; Dairy Lane музичний
    театр «Драрі/Друрі-Лейн»;
    Commercial Theatre «Комерційний
    театр» (розрахований виключно на касовий збір);
    the Continental
    «Континенталь» (назва кількох лондонських кінотеатрів, у яких
    демонструються переважно зарубіжні фільми);
    the Empire
    кінотеатр «Емпайер» (великий лондонський кінотеатр); Большой
    театр
    the Bolshoi Theatre or: the Moscow Bolshoi Opera and Ballet
    Theatre; Київський державний український драматичний театр ім.
    Івана Франка
    the Kyiv State Ivan Franko Ukrainian Drama Theatre;
    (Київський) театр музкомедії
    the (Kyiv) Musical Comedy Theatre;
    (Київський) театр юного глядача
    the (Kyiv) Young Spectators Thea
    tre; кінотеатр «Київ»/ «Славутич» the Kyiv city Kyiv/Slavutych Cin
    ema Hall.
  3.  Names of hotels are translated in the same way as the names
    of cinema halls. When the names originate from common nouns (or
    word-combinations) they may be transcribed, transliterated and expli
    cated or translated: the Royal Court Hotel
    готель «Роял корт»; the
    Mitre Hotel
    лондонський готель «Майтер» (Митра); готель «Київ»/

106


«Русь»/ «Україна» the Kyiv/ RusV Ukraina Hotel; the Opryland Hotel/ Restaurant (Nashville, Tennessee) готель/ресторан «Опріленд» (CLLJA, м. Нешвіл, штат Теннессі); the Westin Hotel (Calgary, Canada) Калґерський готель «Вестін» (Канада), готель «Колос»/ «Берізка»/ «Затишок» the Kolos, Birch Tree (Cosy Nook), Hotel; Лисянський готель «Колос» the Lysyanka Kolos Hotel.

The same way of translating is employed when dealing with the names of restaurants: the Banff Springs Restaurant (ab. Calgary) ресторан «Бенф Спрінґс», the Anatole Restaurant (Dallas) ресторан «Анатоль»; ресторан «Москва»/ «Дніпро»/ «Київ» the Moskva/ Dnipro/ Kyiv restaurant; ресторан «Вітряк»/«Мислівський» the Vitryak (Windmill)/Myslyvskyi (Hunter's) restaurant.

6. Names of newspapers, journals, and magazines require a special approach on the part of the translator. The thing is that in English some more extended explication may be needed for a particular foreign newspaper (magazine, journal) than in Ukrainian: газета «Голос України» the Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada Holos Ukrainy newspaper; «Народна Армія» the Ukrainian army Narodna Armiya/Armia paper/newspaper; «Независимость» a Ukrainian Russian language Nezavisimost newspaper/paper, «Молодь України» the Ukrainian youth Molod' Ukramy newspaper; «Буковина» the Bukovyna region(al) Bukovyna newspaper/daily; «Вечірній Київ» the Kyiv city Verchirniy Kyiv evening newspaper, but газета «День» The Ukrainian Day newspaper (published also in English).

Very often the body to which the paper belongs or which sponsors its publication may be indicated too: орган міністерства народної освіти України газета «Освіта» Ukraine's Ministry of Public Education and Culture Osvita weekly; газета Спілки українських письменників «Літературна Україна» the Ukrainian writers Union Literaturna Ukraina weekly.

Names of Ukrainian journals (magazines) are translated in the same way as the titles of newspapers: журнал «Вітчизна» Ukrainian writers' Vitchyzna/Vitcyzna (Fatherland) literary journal; журнал «Перець» Ukrainian humorous and satirical Perets (Pepper) weekly magazine; журнал «Жінка» Ukrainian Zhinka (woman) monthly/magazine журнал «Мовознавство» Ukrainian linguistic Movoznavstvo journal or: Ukrainian linguists' Movoznavstvo journal; журнал «Іноземні мови» Ukrainian teachers of foreign languages Inozemni Movy journal; журнал «Сучасність» Ukrainian Suchasnists' (modern literature and politics) journal.

The titles of English newspapers, journals and magazines are

107


traditionally less explicated in Ukrainian (like in Russian) translation: the New York Times газета «Нью-Йорк тайме»; Observer англійський соціально-політичний тижневик «Обсервер»; Washington Post газета «Вашингтон пост»; Business Week (орган ділових кіл США) журнал «Бізнес вік». The definite/indefinite article used before the titles of English newspapers/journals is mostly omitted in Ukrainian translation: The Teacher «Тічер» (щотижнева газета вчителів Великобританії); The Seaman «Сімен» (альманах профспілки моряків Великобританії); but: News of the World «Ньюс оф зе ворлд» (англійська недільна бульварна газета).

Several titles of foreign newspapers and journals may also be translated into English. Among them are the following: «Новое время» the Russian New Times English language journal; «Красная звезда» The Russian Army paper The Red Star (in Russia's English press, however, only Krasnaya Zvesda); «Полярная звезда» the Decembrists journal The North Star; but «Женьмінь-жібао» the Chinese Communist/ Peijing People's Daily.

7. Translation of the names of streets, avenues and squares is predetermined by several factors. Alongside the established tradition, the most important of these factors is the meaning of the component parts making up the name. When used in contextul environment, the names of streets, avenues, roads, and squares may often be simply transcribed or transliterated, since the nouns «street», «avenue», «road» or «square» are familiar to many Ukrainians: Dean Street Дін-Стріт; Milton Street/Oxford Street Мільтон Стріт/Оксфорд-Стріт; Wall Street/Fleet Street Волл-Стріт/Фліт-Стріт; Farringdon Road Фаррінгдон-Роуд.

When used out of context, however, the names of streets, avenues and roads require in Ukrainian an additional explanatory noun вулиця (бульвар, провулок): Midland Park Road вул. Мідланд-парк роуд; Narrow Lane вул. (пров.) Нерроу-лейн; Portobello Road вул. Портобелло-Роуд; Threadneedle Street вул. Треднідл-Стріт (центр Сіті), but Wall Street Вол-Стріт.

The streets (avenues) with numbers instead of the proper names always have the number translated and not given in figures: Sixth/Seventh Street Шоста/Сьома вулиця (Нью-Йорк); First (Third, Ninth) Avenue Перша (Третя, Дев'ята) авеню. The names of streets with no appositional «street/avenue» nouns in English must be added вулиця in Ukrainian translation: Cheyne Walk вул. Чейні-вок (у районі Челсі); the Mall/Pall Mall вул. Мел/Пел Мел (у центрі Лондона); Unwin Place/Portland Place вул. Анвін-Плейс/вул.

108


Портленд-Плейс.

Ukrainian names of streets (roads, avenues) are translated according to the common rule, the proper name being transliterated (rarely transcribed) and the explaining common noun вулиця, бульвар, провулок is translated: Андріївська/Польова вулиця Andriivska/ Polyova Street; бульвар Лесі Українки/Шевченка Lesya Ukrainka/ Shevchenko Avenue. In recent years, however, especially in the local English press more and more often our вулиця, бульвар, etc. are transliterated in English: vulyts'a/vulytsia Kostel'na, vulytsia Bohdana Khmelnyts'koho, ploshcha Peremohy, ploshcha Tolstoho, but майдан Незалежності Maidan Nezalezhnosti, etc.

When the noun вулиця, бульвар, провулокіз not used in Ukrainian, it should naturally be added in the English translation: Андріївський Узвіз Andriivskyi Uzviz Road/vulytsia; Лиса Гора/ Ярославів Вал Lysa Hora/Yaroslaviv Val Street/vulytsia; Нижній/ Верхній Вал Nyzhniy/Verkhniy Val Street (Road) or vulytsia.

The names of streets and squares given in honour of social, political or historical events/personalities, along with the names formed from regular common nouns, qualitative or relative adjectives, are mostly translated. This way of translating is especially common in written language when it is not connected directly with oral communication: бульвар Дружби народів The Friendship of Nations (Peoples' Friendship) Avenue/Bulvar; вулиця Верховної Ради/ Грушевського Verkhovna Rada/Hrushevs'koho Street/vulytsia (in English newspapers published in Ukraine).

The names of English squares are also mostly transcribed and explicated (by adding площа) whether the noun «square» is mentioned or not: Clerkenwell Green/Percy Circus пл. Кларкенвел-Ґрін/Персі-серкус; Elephant and Castle пл. Елефант енд Касл; Grosvenor Square (Hanover Square) пл. Ґросвенор-Сквер (Геновер-Сквер).

Some names of squares may be either transcribed/transliterated or translated from the English language as well: Parliament Square пл. Парлемент-Сквер/ Парламентська площа; Trafalgar Square пл. ТрафальІ'ар-Сквер/Трафальґ'арська площа; George Washington Square пл. Джорджа Вашингтона/Майдан Джорджа Вашингтона.

Names of Ukrainian squares are rendered in a similar way though they are more often translated into English. It happens when the name of the square originates from a common noun or is a stable word-combination denoting some historical or revolutionary event:

109


площа Богдана Хмельницького/Толстого Bohdan Khmel'nytskyi/ Tolstoi Square/Ploshcha; Контрактова площа Kontraktova Square/ Ploshcha; Голосіївська пл. Holosiivska Square/Ploshcha and also: Bohdana Khmel'nytskoho Square/Ploshcha.

Sometimes in oral and written practice both transliteration or transcription as well as regular translation may be employed. This becomes inevitable when the name of the square/street originates from a common noun or when it is necessary to avoid some misunderstanding. Besides, there may arise a need to clarify the lexical meaning of a proper name (or a component part of it) in the target language: пл. Перемоги (Київ) Peremoha (Victory) Square/Ploshcha; пл. Возз'єднання (Київ) Vozyednannya (Reunification) Square/ Ploshcha; Музейний провулок Muzeinyi Provulok (by-street).

Certainly of interest for our students may be the rule of translating such peculiar notions as житловий масив and адміністративний район in a city. Thus, Васильківський/Яготинський район is Vasyl'kivs'kyi/Yahotyns'kyi district/rayon, Шевченківський район м. Києва is Shevchenkivs'kyi district of Kyiv. Any житловий район in any city is always a residential area: (the) Syrets/Nyvky residential area in Kyiv Shevchenkivs'kyi district, the Oleksiyivka residential area in Kharkiv, the Kharkivs'kyi Masyv residential area (in Kyiv).

8. Names of public bodies, however, are mostly translated. These include political parties, trade unions, national and international bodies of different rank and functions: the British Conservative party консервативна партія Великої Британії; the Democratic (Republican) party демократична (республіканська) партія, the Labour (Liberal) party лейбористська (ліберальна) партія; Християнсько-демократична партія України the Christian Democratic Party of Ukraine orthe Ukrainian Christian Democratic Party/Ukrainian Christian Democrats; українська селянська партія the Ukrainian Farmer's Party, спортивне товариство «Динамо» Dynamo sports society, Асоціація легкоатлетів України Ukrainian Light Athletics Association. Similarly treated are also various names of English/American trade unions which may sometimes go under the names «association», «society», «organization», «brotherhood» or simply «union», which should always be translated as профспілка: the AFL-CIO (American Federation of Labour- Congress of Industrial Organizations) АФП-КВП (Американська Федерація Праці - Конгрес Виробничих Профспілок); Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers об'єднана профспілка робітників машинобудівної промисловості Великої Британії; British Transport and General

110


Workers Union профспілка робітників транспорту і некваліфікованих працівників Великої Британії; United Mine Workers Association/United Miners об'єднана профспілка шахтарів (США).

Some trade unions of the USA are amalgamated with those of Canada. This is always indicated by the word «International» which should not erroneously be taken for міжнародний/міжнародна and consequently has to be translated as об'єднана профспілка США і Канади: International Ladies Garment Workers Об'єднана профспілка робітників по пошиттю жіночого верхнього одягу США і Канади: International Longshoremen Association об'єднана профспілка портових вантажників (докерів) США і Канади.

Names of Ukrainian trade unions are translated in the same way as the English (or American) ones. They may also be rendered in their full official wording or somewhat shortened (without using the words «trade union»): профспілка робітників гірничорудної промисловості України Ukrainian Mines Workers Union or Ukrainian Miners; профспілка машинобудівників України Ukrainian Engineering Workers Union/ Ukrainian Engineers; профспілка працівників освіти, вищої школи і наукових установ Ukrainian Public Education, Higher School and Scientific Institutions Workers (Trade) Union. Similarly translated are also names of international organizations as International Monetary Fund (IMF) Міжнародний Валютний Фонд; ЄЕС (European Economic Council) Економічна Рада Європи (Рада Європи); Дніпровський Центр українсько-польських культурних, наукових і ділових зв'язків The Dnieper area Center for Ukrainian and Polish Cultural, Scientific and Business Relations, etc.

9. Special attention should be paid to the translation of the names of institutions, enterprises, geographical objects, etc., bearing honorary names. In English the honorary name precedes the enterprise/body which bears it, whereas in Ukrainian/Russian it always follows the name of the enterprise/body: Humboldt State College Державний коледж ім. Гумбольдта; George Washington Library Бібліотека ім. Джорджа Вашинґтона; Lafayette/Longfellow College Коледж ім. Лафаєтта/Лонґфеллло; but: Cape Kennedy/ Vandenberg мис Кеннеді/Ванденберга, бібліотека ім. Котляревського the Kotlyarevskyi library; Національна бібліотека України ім. академіка Вернадського Ukrainian Academician Vernadskyi National Library.

Note. Names of literary and scientific/peace prizes are mainly

111


translated in two ways - with the preservation of the name which the prize bears or with the transformation of the noun into a corresponding relative adjective: Nobel Prize Нобелівська премія (премія імені Нобеля); Pulitzer Prize Пулітцерівска премія (премія ім. Пулітцера); Taras Shevchenko Prize Шевченківська премія (премія ім. Т.Г. Шевченка); Rylskyi Translation Prize перекладацька премія ім. Максима Рильського.

English honorary names, therefore, are mostly transformed into relative adjectives in Ukrainian, whereas Ukrainian relative adjectives must be translated, where possible, as corresponding English nouns. This rule should also be observed when translating the names which contain the often used adjective державний. The latter, however, may sometimes be omitted in English, which should not be treated as a translator's mistake. The thing is that belonging of important institutions to state property in all countries is considered self-evident. As a result, two faithful translations of this kind of names are possible: Київська державна кіностудія ім. О.Довженка, Kyiv State Dovzhenko Film Studio, 2. the Kyiv Dovzhenko Film Studio; Львівський державний університет ім. Івана Франка. 1. Lviv I.Franko State University, 2. Lviv I.Franko University or: 1. Kyiv State Taras Schevchenko National University 2. Kyiv Taras Schevchenko National University.

The honorary names originating from common nouns or from those denoting historical/revolutionary events may be conveyed in two ways: 1) translated only or 2) transliterated/transcribed and explicated in brackets at the same time. Especially often this kind of names were used in Soviet times. Cf. Дзвонковецький колгосп «Смерть капіталізму»/ «Тихе життя» (Корнійчук) the Dzvonkove Smert' Capitalizmu (Death to capitallizm /Tykhe Zhyttia (Quiet Life) collective farm; Львівська фірма кондитерських виробів «Світоч» Lviv Svitoch (Torchlight) Confectionery Firm. Some names of our institutions which have recently changed their official status may be used with the definite article in the English translated variant1: Горлівський державний педагогічний інститут іноземних мов The Horlivka Foreign Languages Teachers' Training Institute (now University); Київський медичний університет ім. Богомольця Kyiv Bohomolets Medical University; Музична школа ім. М.Лисенка The M.Lysenko Musical School. It should be emphasized that the NNN-.NNNN-, etc. asyndetic word-groups are preferred in newspaper style

1 See: Povey J., Walshs I. An English Teacher's Handbook of Educational Terms. 2nd Rev. Ed - M : Vyssaja Skola, 1982.

112


whereas in spoken language or in belles-lettres works prepositional phrases are used to convey such and the like names of institutions: колишній Києво-Святошинський радгосп «Шляхом перемог» (the) former Kyiv Svyatoshyn Shlyakhom Peremoh (On the Road to Victories) state farm (newspaper style), but (the) Shlyakhom Peremoh (On the Road to Victories) state farm in Kyiv Svyatoshyn district (spoken English or belles-lettres style). When translating such and the like often used today complicated names of different institutions, the student should strictly stick to the rule: in English the honorary name, functioning as a relative adjective, follows the place name substituting the Ukrainian possessive and relative adjective formed from the place name. For example: Київський державний педагогічний університет імені М.Драгоманова Kyiv State M.Drahomanov Teachers Training University.

Similarly translated are also names of newly formed on the basis of former collective/state farms enterprises. Cf. Семенівське КСП (колективне сільськогосподарське підприємство) Semenivs'ke Cooperative Agricultural Enterprise; Рідкодубське приватне с/г Товариство The Ridkodub Private Farmers' Association/Joint Stock Agricultural Association, etc.

Any other approach to translation of such and the like word-group structures, including the descriptive translation, which is sometimes employed by inexperienced translators, will be stylistically incompatible and therefore wrong. Care should be taken to avoid the stylistically unjustified expression «the named after» which is to be used only in explanatory versions, as in the sentence «After Ukraine's gaining independence many state institutions were named after our most prominent patriots Hrushevskyi, Vynnychenko, The Heroes of Kruty, Petlyura, and many others.» Hence, the Lviv V.Stefanyk library, the Symyrenko Horticultural Research Centre and never «the named after» Symyrenko Horticultural Research Centre or «the named after» V.Stefanyk Lviv library. It must be repeatedly emphasized that the placement of the honorary name in English translations is strictly predetermined and can not be changed deliberately unless required by the speech situation (style) and content.

Topics for Self-Control and Class/Home Reviewing

  1.  The main rules of conveying different English sounds in
    Ukrainian translations of proper nouns.

Rules and methods of Romanization of different Ukrainian

113


proper nouns in English (names/family names of people, place names, etc.).

  1.  Methods of conveying the nicknames of people in English
    and Ukrainian (the general rule and exceptions).
  2.  Methods of translating the nationally generalizing names of
    people as Mr.Knowall,
    Панібудьласка, etc.
  3.  Rules of translating the names of companies, corporations,
    firms and their equivalent bodies in English and Ukrainian.
  4.  The rule of translating the names of institutions bearing hon
    orary names in English and Ukrainian.
  5.  The rule of translating the names of hotels, guest houses,
    hostels in English and Ukrainian.
  6.  Rules of translating the names of streets, squares, and resi
    dential areas from Ukrainian into English.
  7.  The rule of translating the names of English/Ukrainian pub
    lishing houses, news agencies, etc.

10. Rules of translating the names of public bodies into Eng
lish and Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Translate the following English proper names and surnames into Ukrainian. Substantiate your way of translation. Model: John Джон (common name), Іван/Іоан (Biblical name, name of the Pope, king or prince).

  1.  Abel, Adrian, Albert, Aloysius, Alvin, Ambrose, Ananias,
    Anthony, Athelstan(e), Augustus, Aurelius, Balthas(z)ar, Barnard,
    Bartholomew, Basil, Caleb, Christopher, Clarence, Cyril, Cyrus, Doug
    las, Duncan, Edmund, Elijah, Emil(e), Enoch, Erasmus, Eugene,
    Evan, Evelyn, Gabriel, Gaylord, Gerald, Giles, Griffith, Gustavus,
    Harold, Hilary, Hugh, Ian, Ivor, Jacob, James, Joachim, Job, Jonathan,
    Joshua, Lawrence, Leigh, Leonard, Luke, Mark, Matthew, Meredith,
    Miles, Moses, Nicolas, Noah, Orville, Paul, Peter, Philenion, Ralf,
    Sam(p)son, Silas, Simon, Solomon, Stewart, Timothy, Titus, Van,
    Virgil, Vivian, Walter, Zachariah, Zeke.
  2.  Abigail, Adaline, Alberta, Agnes, Alexandra, Angelica,
    Annabella, Aurora, Beryl, Camilla, Caroline, Charity, Daisy, Delia,
    Eileen, Eleanor, Enid, Eudora, Eva (Eve), Georgia, Grace, Hannah,
    Helen(a), Honey, Hope, Ida, Irene, Ivy, Jacqueline, Janet, Julia,
    Katherina(e), Leonora, Una, Lolita, Lucia, Lydia, Marianne, Martha,
    Mina, Myra, Nabby, Nadine, Orrie, Pamela, Patience, Paula, Pheny,

114


Regina, Rita, Sandra, Sawnie, Serena, Tabitha, Theresa, Una, Vera, Vida, Viola, Virginia, Wilhelmina, Winifred, Zenobia, Zoe.

c). Adams, Ade, Bamber, Seattle, Bingham, Bloye, Caldocot, Carliie, Cheeseman, Cohen, Cowie, Dalglish, Disney, Dooling, Eaton, Ellsworth, Evans, Fawley, Foche, Fowler, Gaulit, Gifford, Greaves, Gilmour, Hare, Hawley, Hooligan, Horrocks, Hurstwood, Irving, Julian, Kane, Keyworth, Knighton, Knickerbaker, Layman, Mathews, Maw, McEnrol, Methuselah, Meno, Merriweather, Nawrat, Ockham, O'Connor, Ogle, O'Grady, Otway, Palmer, Paisley, Plowdon, Pooley, Priscott, Quaker, Ramsay, Reeve, Rotthwell, Rushworth, Sounders, Sivers, Sowers, Statham, Teall, Thorndike, Drey, Uriah, Urduahart, Van Allen, Van Buren, Vane, Wainwright, Wallace, Warwick, Watt, Yaspan.Zangwill.

Exercise II. Translate the following Ukrainian proper names and surnames into English. Define the way they are rendered (transcribed, transliterated, partly transliterated or partly transcribed, etc.).

  1.  Амросій, Аркадь, Архип, Богдан, Валентин, Валерій,
    Василь, Володимир, В'ячеслав, Георгій, Дем'ян, Дорофій, Йосип,
    Мар'ян, Михайло, Олексій, Охрім, Пантелеймон, Пилип, Тиміш,
    Филимон, Хома, Юрій, Юхим, Яким.
  2.  Анастасія, Борислава, Василина, Віра, Галина, Ганна,
    Євпраксія, Жанна, Зінаїда, Іванна, Катерина, Ксенія, Лариса/Леся,
    Лепестина, Люба, Людмила, Марися, Надія, Оксана, Онисія,
    Павлина, Раїса, Соломія, Таїсія, Уляна, Фросина, Юлія,
    Юхимина, Явдоха, Ярослава,
  3.  Андрійчук, Архипенко, Богданець, Вирвикишка,
    Віталієнко, Горпищенко, Григораш, Де, Дем'янчук, Дерипаско,
    Добридень, Дорожченко, Жлуктенко, Жуйхліб, Іллюк, Кирп'юк,
    Марущак, Неїжмак, Непийпиво, Нетреба, Нетудихата, Охрім'кж,
    Ольжич, Павлюченко, Печиборщ, Панібудьласка, Підкуймуха,
    Підопригора, Реп'ях, Тягнирядно, Убийвовк, Федюнишин, Ховрах,
    Цьох, Юрчишин, Янченко.
  4.  Suggest possible methods of translation into Ukrainian for
    the following English generalizing/characterizing names:

Mrs. Bundle, Mr. Gila Bend, the Giggler, Mr. Happness, Curly Bull, Run Bill Pilgrim, Whistling Dick, Shark Dodson, Lord Rubudub, Lady Singsung, Pennifeather (from K.Vonnegut's works), Mr. Knowall (Maugham), Gimlet of Ghent, Beowulf the Bradawl, Mr. Sparrow, Don Back, farmer Meadowlark, philosophical Philip, Tom Lackford Promoter, Mr. Beanhead, Mr. Newrich, Lord Oxhead, Rollothe Rumbottle

115


(from S.Leacock's works). Mrs. Trotter, Mrs. Struggles, Alfred Jingle, Mr. Mallard, Mr.Walker, Mr.Copperfield, Mr.Gradgrind (from C.Dickens's works); Mr. Crabtree/Backbite, Mrs. Sneerwell (Sheridan).

e) Suggest your versions for the nicknames of the U.S. and Canadian sports clubs and translate the sentences into Ukrainian: 1) In sports many victories were never enjoyed for long and the losses lingered. 2) The New York Yankees sprayed champagne after John Wetteland closed out the World Series, but he soon departed to the Texas Rangers as a $24 million free agent. 3) Jimmy Key took the Baltimore Orioles' money. Jim Leyritz, whose home run fumed the Series, was traded to the Anaheim Angels. 4) Michael Jordan lifted the Chicago Bulls to a fourth National Basketball Association title. 5) John LeClair scored twice as the Philadelphia Flyers stretched the National Hockey League's longest current unbeaten run to 13 games with a 4-2 victory over the slumping Calgary Flames. 6) Tommy Albelin and Sandy McCarthy, with his first goal of the season, led the Flames. 7) The loss left the Panthers in a first-place tie with Philadelphia in the Atlantic Division. 8) The Blues had not beaten the Bruins since 1994. 9) NBA Roundup: Shaquille O'Neal scored 28 points in 28 minutes and Eddie Jones had 20 points and seven steals as the Los Angeles Lakers beat the Philadelphia 76ers. 10) Isaiah Rider scored 19 points while playing less than three quarters as the host Trail Blazers routed the Spurs.

Exercise III. Identify the methods of translation of the following holy names, festivities, and remembrance days of the Orthodox Church into Ukrainian. Use the English-Ukrainian dictionaries or part В of this exercise for the purpose.

A.Nativity Vigil, Nativity of Christ, Mother of God, First Martyr Stephan, St.Basil the Great/New Year, Jordan Dinner, Theophany, John the Baptist, Three Hierarchs, Meeting of the Lord, Meat Fare Sunday, All Souls Saturday, Cheese Fare Sunday, Great Fast, Sunday of Orthodoxy, Cross Veneration, Sunday Great Fast, Annunciation, Great Thursday/Friday, Easter Sunday/Monday, Saint Thomas, Ascension, Peter's Fast, Pentacost, Holy Spirit, Apostles Peter and Paul, Blessed Olha, Patron Saint Day, Saint Volodymyr, Prophet Elijah, Baptism of Ukraine (August 14, 988), Transfiguration, Dormition, Beheading of St. John the Baptist, Cross Elevation, Protection Mother of God, Remembrance Day, Synaxis of Archangel Michael, Autumn Nativity Fast, Entry Mother of God, Apostle Andrew, Saint Nicholas the Thaumaturgist, Conception of Mother of God.

116


В. Святий Вечір, Різдво Христове, Первомученика Стефана, Пресвята Богородиця, Святого Василя Великого/Новий Рік, Йорданська Вечеря, Богоявлення, Іоан Хреститель, Трьох Святителів, Стрітення Господнє, М'ясопусна Неділя, Поминальна Субота, Сиропусна Неділя, Неділя Православ'я, Великий Піст/ Хрестопоклоніння, Благовіщення, Страсний Четвер/П'ятниця, Великодня Неділя, Світлий Понеділок, Провідна Неділя/Проводи, Вознесіння, Петрівка, Трійця /День Св.Трійці, День Св. Духа, Св. апостолів Петра і Павла, Блаженної Ольги, Храмове Свято, Св. Володимира, Пророка Іллі /Спасівка, Хрещення України, Преображення, Успіння Пресвятої Богородиці, Усічення глави Св.Іоана Хрестителя, Воздвиження (Чесного) Хреста, Покрова (Св.Богородиці), Поминки, Собор Архангела Михаїла, Пилипівка, Введення Пресвятої Богородиці, Св. Апостола Андрія Первозванного, Св. Миколая Чудотворця, Зачаття Пресвятої Богородиці.

Exercise IV. Translate the following geographical names into Ukrainian and define the method each of them is rendered in part a) and part b):

  1.  the Channel Islands, the Cheviot Hills, Christmas Island,
    the Commander Islands, the Crocodile River, Everglades National
    Park (USA), the Grand Falls, Grand Falls (town), the Great Slave
    River, the Great Sandy Desert (Australia), the Great Victoria Desert,
    Hudson Bay, Idaho Falls, Kerch Strait, Maritime Territory (Russia),
    Near Islands, the Niagara Falls, the White Nile, the White Mountains,
    the Yellow River.
  2.  1. The Rocky Mountains (the Rockies) are considered young
    mountains: of the same age as the Alps in Europe, the Himalayas in
    Asia, and the Andes in South America.
    2. There are 48 areas in the
    Rocky Mountains set aside by state and federal governments for
    national parks. Among the world-wide known are Yellowstone Na
    tional Park, Rocky Mountain National Park, Mesa Verde National Park,
    and, of course, Grand Canyon National Park. In the Sierra Nevada
    Mountains area best-known is the Yosemite National Park.
    3. The
    Appalachians are old mountains with many coal-rich valleys among
    them.
    4. The Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada Mountains
    catch the largest share of rain off the Pacific Ocean.
    5. At the border
    of the Pacific Ocean lie the Coast Ranges, relatively low mountains.
    6. The Grand Canyon cut by the Colorado River in the high Colorado
    Plateau, is
    1.6 kilometers in depth. 7. North of the Central Lowland
    are the five Great Lakes and West of the Central Lowland are the

117


Great Plains. 8. The Mississippi is one of the world's great continental rivers, like the Amazon in South America, the Congo in Africa, or the Ganges, Amur, and Yangtze in Asia. 9. The winding Mississippi River and its various branches drain a great basin extending from the Appalachians to the Rockies about one-third the land of the United States. 10. Curving through the heart of the whole western half of the Central Basin is the Missouri River, chief western branch of the Mississippi, once the most destructive river in the United States. 11. The Missouri rises high among the snows of the Rocky Mountains. 12. Like the Mississippi all rivers - east of the Rockies finally arrive at the Atlantic. For this reason the crests of the Rocky Mountains are known as the Continental Divide. 13. The Rio Grande is the foremost river of the Southwest between Mexico and the United States. 14. The skyscrapers of New York, the steel mills of Pittsburg and the automobile assembly lines of Detroit which are symbols of industrial America form the «melting pot» of the country. 15. Detroit, heart of automobile industry, began as a waggon-making town, using wood from the forests that covered the peninsula between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. 16. The cargo tonnage which passes between Lake Superior and Lake Huron about equals the combined capacity of the Panama and Suez Canals. 17. From the eastern end of Lake Erie all the way across New York State flows the Hudson River which falls to New York harbour. 18. Great Salt Lake to the north of Salt Lake City in the State of Utah, contains an estimated six thousand millions of tons of soda.

Exercise V. Define the methods in which the following geographical names below have to be translated into English.

Алабама (p.), Алабама (штат США), Азорські острови, Апандські острови, Алжир (країна і столиця), Альпи, Амазонка, Азовське море, Аральське море, р.Буг, Говерла, Арктика, Атлантика, Багамські о-ви, Бенґальська затока, оз. Верхнє, Гавайські о-ви, Ґобі (пустеля), Ґрампіанські гори, оз. Гурон, м. Данді/Дербі, р. Дунай, Кривбас, м.Едінбурґ, оз. Ейре, м. Житомир/Запоріжжя, Ірландське море, м. Кельн, Лестер, Ліворно, Лідс, Маґелланова протока, гори Маккензі, острів Мен, р. Міссурі, р. Прип'ять, м. Мюнхен, м. Новий Орлеан, р. Огайо, оз. Онтаріо, Оркнейські о-ви, Піренеї, м. Ростов-на-Дону, Сахара (пустеля), Невада (пустеля і штат), Керченська протока, Кримський перешийок, ос. Святої Єлени, Сейшельські о-ви, Соломонові о-ви, р. Темза, м. Ворик, м. Франкфурт-на-Майні, м.Аахен.

118


Exercise VI. Translate the names of the following English and American trade unions into Ukrainian:

1. ACTW, Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers (USA).

2. AUEW, Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers (USA).

3. AAEE, American Association of Electrical Engineers. 4. AAA, Ameri
can Automobile Association.
5. ASLEF, Associated Society of Loco
motive Engineers and Firemen.
6. NUT, National Union of Teachers
(Gr. Br.).
7. SE, Scottish Electricals. 8. TGWU, Transport and General
Workers Union (Gr. Britain
). 9. UPOW, Union of Post Office Workers
(Gr.  Br.).  
10.  UMWA,  United Mine Workers of America.
11. UAWU, United Auto Workers Union. 12. USWA, United Shoe Work
ers of America.
13. UTWA, United Textile Workers of America. 14. The
AFL
- CIO, the American Federation of Labour - the Congress of In
dustrial Organizations.
15. UPS, United Parcel Service (USA).

Exercise VII. Translate the following names of Ukrainian trade unions into English. Define the method they are to be rendered:

1. Профспілка працівників будівельної промисловості України. 2. Профспілка працівників енергетичної промисловості України. 3. Профспілка працівників гірнично-рудної промисловості України. 4. Профспілка працівників м'ясо-молочної промисловості України. 5. Профспілка працівників машинобудівної промисловості України. 6. Профспілка працівників охорони здоров'я України. 7. Профспілка працівників освіти, вищої школи та наукових установ України. 8. Профспілка працівників суднобудівної промисловості України. 10. Профспілка працівників хімічної промисловості України.

Exercise VIII. Translate the names of the following English public bodies into Ukrainian:

a) 1. Amateur Athletic Association. 2. The British Field Sports Society. 3. Royal Geographical Society. 4. New Economic Foundation. 5. Greenpeace. 6. The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. 7. Boy Scouts Association. 8. British Association for the Security and Cooperation in Europe. 9. British Institute of Public Opinion (Gullop Poll). 10. British Medical Association. 11. CPDS, Centre for Political and Diplomatic Studies (Oxford). 12. IATEFL International Association for Teaching English as a Foreign Language 13. Central Office of Information. 14. Department of Education and Science. 14. Department of Employment. 15. Duke of Humphrey's Library (Oxford Univ.) 16. Inner London Education Authority. 17. London County Council. 18. London Stock Exchange. 19. (Public) Record Office.

119


20. Royal Exchange. 21. Royal Mint. 22. Royal National Institute for the Blind/Deaf. 23. Joint Nature Conservation Committee environmental protection (Gr. Br.) 24. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. 25. UN Security Council. 26. CBIE Canadian Bureau for International Education. 27. The Democratic Party. 28. The Republican Party (USA). 29. The Royalist Party. 30. The Christian Democratic Party of Ukraine. 31. The Lovers of Beer Party (Ukraine). 32. The Women Admirers Party (Ukraine).

b) Find Ukrainian equivalents for the English public bodies below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian:

1. There is a broad consensus that the Social Security system needs reform, but little agreement on what should be done, and many of the important organizations in the debate are formulating their strategies. 2. The AFL-CIO, which has focused on Wall Street as an adversary in the campaign ahead, is seeking to protect a financial safety net for low-income workers, as well as to maintain a central role for government in public benefit programmes. 3. Even the AFL-CIO, however, favours investing Social Security money in the stock and bond markets, although it wants the money controlled by the government, and not put in the hands of private investors. 4. The Hong Kong Aircrew Officers' Association said pilots had been complaining of a loud buzzing in their ears that forced them to quickly change to another frequency to maintain contact with air-traffic control. 5. The strike was called by the Histadrut Trade Union Federation to protest tax increases, budget cuts and privatization plans of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's government. 6. The meeting of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) ended Friday in Copenhagen. 7. The Ukrainian Union of Businessmen became a member of the International Organization of Employers (ЮЕ). 8. Abraham Katz, president of the U.S.Council for International Business and deputy chairman of the ЮЕ executive committee, noted at the meeting that the success of reforms in Ukraine is defined by the level and speed of investments, both domestic and foreign. 9. Residents of the Bukit Gombak public housing estate in the central part of the main island of Singapore have a powerful inducement to end their support for the opposition and vote for the candidate of the governing People's Action Party. 10. Janice Shields of the U.S.Public Interest Research Group and Chris Privett of the American Society of Travel Agents, blamed airline pricing policies for the wide range of prices, saying «there may be up to 100,000 fare changes a day». 11. Mr. Rajavi married Maryam,

120


a metallurgical engineer who had been a student leader in Tehran, and together they established the National Liberation Army, the military wing of the National Council of Resistance, a coalition of Iranian opposition groups abroad. 12. The International Monetary Fund's 2nd European Department mission to Ukraine yesterday conducted meetings with the government officials. 13. The European Union - Ukraine joint committee ended its four-day meeting in Brussels. The Ukrainian delegation was led by Roman Shpek, the head of National Agency for Reconstruction and Development (NARD). 14. 86 percent of the apartments in the high-rise blocks of Bukit Batok are being built and sold at much less than free-market rates by the government's Housing and Development Board. 15. Vancouver International Airport operated at only 10 per cent capacity Sunday and was struggling to get planes moving Monday. 16. National Railway trains were at a standstill, according to the Canadian Wheat Board, which sends most of its grain by train to the port of Vancouver.

Exercise (/.Translate the names of companies (corporations) below and define the method they are to be rendered:

  1.  1. Allied Breweries. 2. British Aircraft Corporation. 3. British
    Leyland Motor Corporation.
    4. British National Oil Corporation.
    5. British Overseas Airways Corporation. 6. British Shoe Corporation.
    7. Educational Supply Association. 8. Elswick-Hopper Cycle & Motor
    Co.
    9. General Electric Co. Ltd. 10. Ashanti Goldfields Company Ltd.
    (Ghana)
    11. Philips Records Co. 12. Radio and Allied Industries Co.
    13 Rugby Portland Cement. 14. Standard Telephones and Cables.
    15 Triplex Safety Glass Co. 16. Typhoo Tea Ltd. Co. 17. ABC (Ameri
    can Broadcasting Company).
    18. CBC (Columbia Broadcasting Sys
    tem).
    19. NPR (National Public Radio).
  2.  Suggest the methods of translation into Ukrainian of
    the names of English and foreign companies in the sentences
    below.

1. Ask a middle-aged working man in the north of England what he and his friends contemplated doing when they left school 20 years ago and you get only two answers: They would work in the shipyards or the coal pits, for companies with names like Swan Hunter, British Shipbuilders, Cammell Laird and British Cod. 2. Ask a secondary-school graduate now where he or she is likely to wind up working and you will hear very different-sounding names: companies called Samsung, Daewoo, LG Electronics, Chunghwa Picture Tubes, Woo One, Tatung or maybe Poong Jeon or Sung Kwang. 3. It is a sign of one of the most dramatic changes in modern industrial

121


history: the growing dependence of Britain, a rich country that once ruled a great empire, on South Korea and Taiwan, once poor, developing countries, to solve the chronic problems of unemployment left behind when the coal mines and the shipyards closed.

Exercise X. Suggest all possible ways of approach to translating into Ukrainian the following titles of newspapers, magazines (journals):

1. Contemporary Review (literary-political monthly, Lnd.). 2. Contemporary Life (British farmer's weekly). 3. Daily Express, Daily Mail, The Daily Telegraph (and Morning Post), The Economist (all of conservative orientation). 4. Daily Mirror, Daily Sketch. 5. The Evening News, The Star, Evening Standard (Conservative dailies, Lnd.)., Scotsman (Edingb.), Yorkshire Post, Financial Times (Conservative), The Times (Lnd.). 6. Punch (satirical and humorous weekly), 8. The Guardian International. 9. Mainichi Shimbun (Japan). 10. Hong Kong Standard. 11. Korea Times (South Korea). 12. Ottawa Citizen (Canada). 13. Australia News. 14. USAToday. 15. Kyiv Post (Ukraine).

Exercise XI. Translate the following sentences containing the titles of American news media into Ukrainian:

1. American newspapers get much of their news from two news agencies - AP (Associated Press ) and UPI (United Press International). 2. The record for a Sunday paper in the United States is held by The New York Times. One issue on a Sunday in 1965 contained 946 pages, weighed 36 pounds, and cost 50 cents. 3. In 1986 a total of 9,144 newspapers (daily, Sunday, weekly, etc.) appeared in 6.516 towns in the United states. 4. Most of the daily newspapers are published, rain or shine, on Christmas, Thanksgiving, or the Fourth of July (Independence Day). 5. Among the twenty newspapers with the largest circulation only two or three regularly feature crime, sex, and scandal. 6. The paper with the largest circulation, The Wall Street Journal, is a very serious newspaper indeed. 7. The Wall Street Journal can be found throughout the country. Yet, one wouldn't expect The Milwaukee Journal to be read in Boston, or The Boston Globe in Houston. 8. Three of the better- known American newspapers The New York Times, The Washington Post and the Los Angeles Times not only collect but also sell news, news features, and photographs to hundreds of other papers in the U.S.and abroad. 9. In one famous example, an expose of the CIA in The New York Times, also appeared in 400 other American newspapers and was picked up or used in some way by hundreds more overseas. 10. «Picked up» is not quite right. Such stories are copyrighted and other newspapers

122


must pay for their use. 11. Some American papers are of international excellence, namely: The Christian Science Monitor, The (Baltimore) Sun, the St. Louis Dispatch, The Milwaukee Journal. 12. In a large international survey of newspaper editors, The New York Times was ranked by most as world's top daily. 13. Among the largest daily U.S.newspapers (1986) also are: (New York) Daily News, USA Today, The Washington Post, The Chicago Tribune, The New York Post, The Detroit News, The Detroit Free Press, The Chicago Sun Times, (The Long Island) Newsday, The San Francisco Chronicle, The Boston Globe. 14. There are more than 4,000 monthly, and over 1,300 weekly magazines in the USA.15. Quite a few of them have international editions, are translated into other languages or have «daughter editions» as National Geographic, Reader's Digest, Cosmopolitan, Vogue, Time, Newsweek, Scientific American, and Psychology Today. 16. Some American periodicals treat serious educational, political, and cultural topics at length. The best-known of these include The Atlantic Monthly, Harvard Educational Review, Saturday Review, Consumer Reports, The New Republic, National Review, Foreign Affairs, Smithsonian (published by the Smithonian Institution in Washington, D.C.), and, of course, Family Circle, Woman's Day, or National Enquirer.

Exercise XII. Translate the titles of the following Ukrainian and foreign newspapers, magazines and journals into English:

A. «Народна газета», «Українське слово», «Слово
Просвіти», «Освіта» «Голос України», «Урядовий Кур'єр»,
«Київська правда», «Літературна Україна», «Комерсант»,
«Молодь України», «Демократична Україна», «Сільські вісті»,
«Народна армія», «Київські Відомості», «Независимость»,
«Чорноморський моряк», «Шевченків край» (Звенигородська
райгаз.), журнали: «Дзвін», «Березіль», «Україна», «Вітчизна»,
«Дніпро», «Київ», «Всесвіт», «Слобожанщина» (письм. журнал,
Харків), «Холодний Яр» (письм. журнал, Черкаси), «Сучасність»
(літ.-політ. журнал), «Мовознавство», «Іноземні мови», «Слово і
час», «Іноземна філологія» (Львівський університет), «Теорія і
практика перекладу» (КНУ-т ім.Т.Шевченка).

B. Foreign Newpapers: «Жіцє Варшави»; «Парі Суар»
(Франція), «Франкфуртер Альґемайне», «Зюддойче Цайтунґ»
(Німеччина), «Паезесера», «Ґазеттаделло спорт», «Ла Републіка»
(Італія), «Известия», «АргументьІ й фактьі»» (Росія), «Борба»
(Югославія), «Правда» (Словаччина).

123


Translate the following names of news agencies into English: Агентство Великої Британії Рейтер (Ройтер), агентство Франс-Прес, Новості/АПН, Укрінформ, ДІНАУ Укрінформ, «Карпати» (Україна), агентство ПАП (Польща), агентство Ніппон судзін (Японія), агентство Сіньхуа (Китайська Нар. Респ.), Дойче Нахріхтена^ентур (Німеччина), С1-ЕН-ЕН, Ассошіейтед Прес (США).

Exercise XIII. Translate the names of the publishing houses into Ukrainian and define the method of translation employed in each case.

  1.  1. A.& Black (Ltd.). 2. Andre Deutsch (soc. and polit. lit.,
    Indep.).
    3. J.Bartholomew & Son Ltd. (geogr. maps, atlases, Edinbr.).
    4. Chapman & Hall (sci. and techn. lit., Lnd.). 5. W.& R.Chambers
    Ltd. (dictionaries, manuals, reference books, Scotl.).
    6. J.M.Dent &
    Sons Ltd. (manuals reference books, guides', etc.) 7. William Collins
    Sons&Co Ltd. (Dictionares, Lond).
    8. Lund Humphries (dictionaries
    manuals, etc,. Lnd.).
    10. University of London Press. 11. Oxford Uni
    versity Press.
    12. The World Publishing Company (diet., sci. works.
    USA).
    13. Inter Vasity Press (sci. works, Illin. Univ. USA). 14. Macmillan
    (sci. and hist, works, USA).
    15. University of Oklahoma Press (USA).
    16. Academic International Press (USA). 17. Harward University Press
    (USA).
    18. University of Wisconsin Press. (USA). 19. Longman (sci.
    works, fiction, Ind.).
    20. Foreign languages Publishing House (Mosc.).
    21. Oxford University Press, Penguin Books (G.Brit.).
  2.  Suggest the way of translating into English the following
    names of Ukrainian publishing houses:
    «Будівельник», «Веселка»,
    «Вища школа», «Наука», «Дніпро», «Глобус», «Каменяр»,
    «Карпати», «Музична Україна», «Смолоскип», «Феміна»,
    «Український письменник», «Лан», «Знання», «Школа»,
    «Україна», «Молодь», «Либідь» (Київський у-т), «Наукова думка»
    (Акад. наук),
    «Баба Ґаламага» (прив. худ. літерат., Київ).

Exercise XIV.Translate the following sentences containing the names of well-known international corporations into Ukrainian:

1. Sony Corp. and Toyota Motor Corp. will invest 50 billion yen ($412.2 million) in a venture to make liquid-crystal-display panels. 2. Bankers Trust New York Corp. agreed to buy call options on 15 billion yen of Nippon Credit Bank Ltd. stock over the next three years. The options, if exercised, would raise the U.S.company's equity stake in Nippon Credit to nearly 4 per cent. 3. Japan's vehicle exports rose 42 per cent in August from a year earlier to 369,659

124


helped by a combination of a weaker yen and strong demand for sport-utility vehicles. It was the 15th consecutive monthly increase. 4. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corp. and Hong Kong Telecommunications Ltd. plan to extend their newly launched experimental high-speed line to Thailand in November. 5. Matsushita Electric Philippines Corp. will begin increasing the local content of US products because of concerns over the weakness of the Philippines peso. 6. Fletcher Challenge Ltd. of New Zealand's Canadian subsidiary sold its U.S.paper mill, Blandin Paper Co., to UPM-Kymmene Corp. of Finland for $650 million. 7. Cable and Wireless PLC bought an additional 5.75 percent stake in Asia Satellite Telecommunications Holdings Ltd. from Hutchison Whampoa Ltd. for 458.6 million Hong Kong dollars ($59.3 million).

Exercise XV.Translate the following Ukrainian names of enterprises and public bodies into English:

1. виробниче об'єднання «Закарпатліс»; 2. виробниче об'єднання «Донбас-антрацит»; 3. київська фірма побутових послуг «Світанок», 7. виробниче об'єднання «Укрмеблі»; 5. Укргазпром; 6. Укрмашинекспорт; 7. Виробниче об'єднання «Київукркабель»; 8. Фонд державного майна України; 9. творче виробниче об'єднання УТН; 10. Петровський машинобудівний завод (Донецьк); 11. Дніпропетровська фірма «Взуття»; 12. Нікопольський завод молочних продуктів; 13. виробничо-закупівельне підприємство «Хміль» (Житомир); 14. Ґенеральне аґентство з туризму Закарпатської області; 15. державне підприємство Туристичний комплекс «Пролісок»; 16. «Нафтохімік Прикарпаття»; 17. Івано-Франківське спеціалізоване управління механізації будівництва; 18. Білоцерківське виробничо-торгівельне трикотажне підприємство; 19. Ізмаїльська виробничо-комерційна фірма «Істр»; 20. Керченський металургійний комбінат; 21. «Львівоблплодоовоч»; 22. Акціонерне товариство «Глиноземний завод» (Миколаїв); 23. «Львівелектромаш»; 24. «Донецькнафтопродукт»; 25. «Будмаш» (Прилуки); 26. фірма матеріально-технічного забезпечення і збуту продукції «Донецьквугілля»; 27. державне підприємство роздрібної торгівлі «Вишенька» (Донецьк); 28. Українсько-російське спільне підприємство «Донецьковоч»; 29. туристична фірма «Гамалія»; ЗО. фірма по виробництву побутової техніки «Домогосподарка»; Лисичанське КСП; 31. Семенівське с/г товариство «Добробут», 32. КТТУ, Київське трамвайно-тролейбусне управління.

125


Exercise XVI. Translate the names of London hotels, hostels, inns and accomodation campuses into Ukrainian. Model:

Central House hotel сімейний готель «Сентрал гаус»; Acton Grange guest house пансіон «Ектон Ґрендж».

1. Lincoln House hotel, Glynne Court hotel, Duke of Leicester (hotel), Royal Adelpphi hotel, Olympic House hotel, Atlantic Hostel, Prince William hotel; 2. Hyde Park Rooms hotel, The Victoria inn, Green Court hotel, Half Moon hotel; 3. Pearl hotel, Fife Kings guest house, Forest View hotel, Sleeping Beauty motel, Elm Hotel, Fountain House hotel, High Trees Gatwick guest house; 4. Wembley Park hotel, International students house, Oxford Street Youth hostel; 5. University of Westminster (hotel), Cartwright University halls, Allen Hall summer hostel, International student residence, Hotel Saint Simeon, Holland House youth hostel, Hampstead Heath Youth hostel; 6. King's College London Hamstead campus, Ralf West Hall of residence.

Exercise XVII. Translate the following names of Ukrainian hotels, halls of residence, and guest houses into English.

1. Готель «Золотий колос», готель «Київ»/«Україна», готель «Дніпро»/«Славутич», готель «Київська Русь»/«Турист», готель «Братислава»/«Мир» (всі київські), готель Київського державного технічного університету будівництва й архітектури, готель Академії праці й соціальних відносин. 2. Будинок відпочинку «Берегове» (Закарпаття), пансіонат «Перемога» (Ворзель), будинок відпочинку «Будівельник» (Саки, Крим), будинок відпочинку «Водоспад» (Яремче, Закарпаття). 3. Пансіонат «Колос» (Пуща Водиця), пансіонат «Водник», пансіонат «Кооператор» (Закарпаття), пансіонат «Маяк» (Київський політехнічний інститут), пансіонат «Верховина» (Закарпаття), пансіонат «Аркадія» (Одеса), пансіонат «Джерело» (Пуща Озерна).

Texts for Independent Oral and Written Translation

Exercise XVIII. Translate the passages А, В, С, D in viva voce into English. Suggest appropriate ways of Romanization of different Ukrainian proper nouns in them.

А. Козацькому роду нема переводу.

Нізащо б не впізнали сьогодні запорожці серед димогарних труб заводів і фабрик та териконів, що нагадують віддалік єгипетські піраміди, свою Луганщину і землі, які вони

126


обживали 300 з гаком років тому вздовж берегів Сіверського Дінця, Лугані, Айдару, Деркула, Кам'янки. Саме вони заснували багатотисячний зимівник Кам'яний Брід - звідки й пішов у ріст Луганськ. Можна назвати й інші козацькі поселення: Рубіж (нині Рубіжне), Сватова Лучка (Сватове), Новий Псков (Новопсков), Білолуцьк, Щастя, Макарів Яр. Прямих нащадків запорозьких козаків на Луганщині тисячі, їх легко впізнати, наприклад, за прізвищами, про які дізнаємося в обласному адресному бюро. Між нас живуть: Нейздіймишапка і Покиньборода, Непийпиво і Святодух, Небийпідколіно і Молибога, Сороксобак... Донедавна був і носій такого чудернацького прізвища, що одразу й не вимовиш (прямо хоч до книги Гіннесса подавай) -Нашвидкоручтягнирядно!

B. Острог. Це місто древнє, одне із перших міст Південно-
Західної Руси-України. Вперше в історичних джерелах він
згадується під 1100 роком в Іпатіївському літописі. Основне
визначне місце Острога - княжий замок, зразок давньоруського
оборонного зодчества. Ансамбль замку зберіг основні будівлі.
Зараз у залах цієї унікальної архітектурної пам'ятки краєзнавчий
музей. У 30-ті роки заблищали позолотою всі п'ять бань величної
Богоявленської церкви. Оновлене і перше опорядження споруди.
У затишному сквері стоїть стела у вигляді розгорнутої книги, яка
встановлена 1978 року, до 400-річчя з часу заснування
Острозької слов'яно-греко-латинської академії і друкарні. Тут наш
першодрукар Іван Федоров випустив п'ять видань книг, у тому
числі унікальну «Острозьку Біблію», яка вийшла в світ 12 серпня
1581 року і стала великою подією у вітчизняній культурі. За
художнім оформленням Острозьку Біблію відносять до
книжкового мистецтва епохи Відродження.

C. Літопис Григорія Граб'янки. «Велика війна Богдана
Хмельницького» видано в Українському науковому інституті
Гарвадського університету. Це одна з найвідоміших козацьких
хронік, свідчення розвитку української свідомості та культури в
минулому. Твір, написаний 1710 року, вперше опубліковано в
Петербурзі наприкінці
XVIII століття. Нинішнє видання містить
вступ англійською та українською мовами, фотоілюстрації й
велику бібліографію.

D. Поліглоти. Німець Шютце, що помер перед другою
світовою війною, говорив аж... 270 мовами. 230 мов знав
даньський учений минулого століття РасмусХрістіян Раск, 140-
професор Львівського університету Анджей Гавронський, близько

127

100 - академік М. Марр, 80 - видатний археолог Генріх Шліман, понад 60 - український науковець і письменник Агатангел Кримський.

Знання іноземних мов здавна вважалося за невід'ємну ознаку духовної культури. Київський князь Володимир Мономах писав у своєму «Поученні»: «Що знаєте доброго, того не забувайте, а чого не знаєте, того навчайтесь - як батько мій, перебуваючи вдома, знав п'ять мов, від того бо честь в інших країнах». Кількома іноземними мовами володіли видатний полководець і державний діяч України Богдан Хмельницький і гетьман Іван Виговський.

Чимало поліґлотів (від грецького «полі» - багато, глотта» - мова) є і в наш час. У Римському університеті працює професор Карло Тальїавіні, який досконало володіє 35 мовами, викладає 25-ма, а всього знає їх понад 120. «Батько» кібернетики Норберт Вінер вивчив 13 мов, професор Тартуського університету Пауль Арісте та викладач Московського Андрій Залізняк, родом з Чернігівщини, знають десь по 40 мов. До двох десятків знав їх український письменник-перекладач Микола Лукаш. Він автор чудових перекладів «Фауста» Ґете, «Декамерона» Боккаччо, «Дон Кіхота» Сервантеса та інших шедеврів світової літератури. Поліглоти визнають, що процес вивчення іноземних мов дуже складний, і в кожного з них свої власні методи.

UNITS OF INTERNATIONAL LEXICON AND WAYS OF RENDERING THEIR MEANING AND LINGUAL FORM

By internationalisms are meant such language units which are borrowed from one and the same source language by at least three genealogically different languages in the same or similar lingual form and identical meaning (cf. долар, атом, інтерес, директор, база, стадіон, театр, фізика, etc.). International, however, may be not only words and phrases/word-groups, but also morphemes - prefixes, suffixes and even inflexions, nothing to say about root morphemes as the English or Ukrainian words fund фонд, gas ґаз, lord лорд, ohm ом, park парк, pound фунт, smog смоґ and many others.

These morphemes are conveyed with the help of the translator's transcription (i.e. either transliterated or transcribed) sometimes, through, the combination of boh these methods may be and is employed.

Among the most often occurring international affixes in English

128


and Ukrainian are the following:

  1.  Prefixes: апІі-/анти-, ех-/екс-, inter-Днтер-, tгапs-/транс-, ul-
    Іга-/ультра-;
    as in antibody антитіло, export (v. експортувати,
    international інтернаціональний, transmission трансмісія,
    ultraviolet ультрафіолетовий.
  2.  Suffixes: -ar/-ap, -er/-ep, -ізt/-ист/-іст, -ззіоп/-сія, -йоп/-ція,
    etc. as in quasar/квазар, actor/актор, volunteer/волонтер,
    humanist/гуманіст, constitution/конституція, agression/
    агресія,
    humorist/гуморисі, etc.
  3.  Inflexions: -ит/-ум, (memorandum меморандум). -us/-yc, (ra
    dius радіус), -а/-а (formula формула), etc.

The lexicon of each developed language comprises a very large layer of foreign by origin words, word-groups/phrases and even a small number of sentences. These lexical and syntactic level units have been acquired by the borrowing languages to designate notions hitherto unknown in them. The bulk of these borrowed morphemes, lexemes and syntaxymes are found in many languages of a culturally, historically, and often geographically common area as Europe, the Middle East or the Far East. They are used to designate notions belonging to different domains of human knowledge or activity.

Hence, there is distinguished: a) the social and political terminology comprising the most commonly used political, economic, philosophical, historical, sociological units of lexicon (audit, bank, constitution, parliament, party, president, barter, sophism, etc.). Here also belong terms designating international law, diplomacy, numerous literary terms (cf. drama, poet, metaphor, epithet, hyperbole, etc.); b) natural history/sciences terminology (physics, mathematics, genetics, chemistry) used not only in special but also in scientific and popular works and in mass media (chemical/physical reaction, genes, pneumonia, etc.); c) numerous technical terms (names of machines and their parts: motor, carter, starter, accelerator, battery), as well as names of different means of transport (bus, metro, taxi) and communication (fax, telegraph, telex, radio, e-mail), etc.

These and other words and phrases of the kind are referred to as internationalisms, or more precisely genuine internationalisms. The latter never considerably change their lingual (orthographic or sounding) form nor their internationally established meaning. (Cf.: motor мотор, audit аудит, therapeutic терапевтичний).

The main characteristic feature of genuine internationalisms, whether single words or words-combinations, is their semantic singularity. It means that their lexical identity and orthographic similarity

129


in the source language and in all target languages remains unchanged both at language level (when taken separate) and at speech level, i.e., when used in texts/speech.

Apart from many thousands of genuine international words and word-combinations, which retain in several languages an identical or similar lingual form and identical meaning, there exists one more group of international lexis called translation loan units of lexicon. These have also a generally common structural form (of word, word-combination) but rarely a similarity in their orthographic form or sounding. Loan internationalisms are mostly different terms designating scientific and technological notions, in the main: brake гальмо, citric add лимонна кислота', lead oxide окис свинцю; specific gravity питома вага; surplus value додана вартість; nonconducting непровідність; agreement узгодження; government керування, juxtaposition прилягання (gram.), etc.

Along with these two groups of word internationalisms there also exist many stable international phraseological/idiomatic expressions in each language's lexicon. Their fund is constituted by the so-called absolute and near equivalents having a common language of origin - Greek, Latin or modern. Absolute and near international equivalents of this subgroup retain in different languages of a geographical area the same (or nearly the same) denotative and connotative meaning, the same expressive force and picturesqueness: Heel of Achilles ахіллесова п'ята; sword of Damocles дамоклів меч; to cross/pass the Rubicon перейти Рубікон; the die is cast жереб кинуто; after us the deluge після нас хоч потоп; the fair sex прекрасна стать; tilt at windmills «воювати з вітряками» («донкіхотствувати»); the tree of knowledge дерево пізнання, etc.

The use of international idioms is restricted in all languages to belles-lettres, partly to social and political texts and to conversational speech style. These idioms are also occasionally used in didactic style and are practically not used in scientific and technical matter texts.

A separate subgroup of genuine internationalisms constitute proverbs, sayings and set expressions which are used in their foreign/original lingual form (they are predominantly of Latin, French, English, German origin). Due to centuries long usage they have become regular mots often referred to as barbarisms: sine qua non неодмінна умова; status in statu держава у державі; repetitio est mater studiorum (Lat.) повторення - мати навчання; sotto voce

130


тихо (впівголоса); finita la commedia (Ital.) настав кінець, крах (справі кінець); da ist der Hund begraben! (Germ.) ось де собака закопаний! O.K., all right (Engl.) усе гаразд; c'est la vie (Fr.) таке життя.

The number of these idiomatic/stable word-combinations unlike the fund of genuine internationalisms and translation loans remains practically unchanged. That is mainly because idioms/phraseological expressions penetrate into different languages through scholastic, literary and cultural channels, as a rule. This may be conditioned by some extralingual factors, which may facilitate in some important political situations their spontaneous appearance and penetration into several languages during a short period of time. For the last half a century there have appeared few stable expressions of this kind, e.g.: «the fifth column» (1936, Spain), «Iron Curtain» (1947), «peaceful coexistence» (1950's), «cold war» (1946, USA), «permissive society» (1967, Gr. Br.) and a few others.

The structural form of international idioms in most languages is identical or similar. The occasional absence of identity in their structural form is explained by the divergences in the grammatical systems and forms of expression in the source language and in the target language (cf. the heel of Achilles/Achilles' heel ахіллесова п'ята, the Pillars of Hercules/Hercules' Pillars (Herculean Pillars) геркулесові стовпи or стовпи Геркулеса).

Identification of International Lexicon Units

As has been noted, the units of genuine international lexicon are identified on the basis of their common in different languages lexical meaning and identical or only similar lingual form. Loan internationalisms, on the other hand, are identified mainly on the basis of their common sphere of use, their lexical meaning, functional significance and party - structural form.

The identification of genuine or loan internationalisms presents no difficulty so far as the monosemantic language units are concerned. That is explained by the terminological nature of the signs, which are used to signify social, political, scientific, technological, cultural and other notions (cf. parliament, theatre, theory, poet, arithmetic, artillery, botany, phoneme, suffix, theorem, proton, volt, decimal fractions, space probe, management, motor, computer, internet, electricity, etc.). These and many other internationalisms are monosemantic words or word-combinations.which constitute a peculiar layer of lexicon in quite different languages. They are characterized by a similarity of their lexical meaning, by an identity or similarity

131


in their orphographic and sounding form, by their denotative meaning and sometimes by their motivation. The meaning of these and a lot of other international words and phrases/word-groups of the kind does not change in any other contextual environment. Consequently, their nature is constantly monolithic.

The identification of the international meaning of some lexemes becomes much more difficult, however, when dealing with polysemantic language signs, which are a common feature in present-day English but less common in Ukrainian. That is because in English a lot of lexemes may often have one and the same lingual form for several notions, which is shown below in the vectorial representation of meanings pertained to the noun conductor:

Conductor

 кондуктор

провідник

провід

громовідвід

диригент

керівник1

 genuine internationalism international loan word international loan word international loan word pseudo-internationalism pseudo-internationalism

As can be seen, only one out of six lexemes above has a common lingual form and meaning in English and Ukrainian («кондуктор»). The same vectorial disposition of denotative meanings can be observed in several other polysemantic English words of the kind. Hence, in order to avoid mistakes in translation, one must carefully study the contextual environment of such and the like language signs. Though sometimes the corresponding vectorial meanings of polysemantic words can be identified already at word-combination level. Cf.: a fit of depression/depression fit приступ/припадок депресії: depression of trade занепад/застій у торгівлі; the structure of the sentence структура речення; a multi-storied structure багатоповерхова споруда (будова/будівля).

Naturally, not every adjunct (identifying word or word-group) forming a word-combination with a polysemantic word, can discriminate the real nature and meaning of the lexeme. Because of this care should be taken when translating such polysemantic words, which may have under the same lingual form either a genuine or a

1 An illustration of this pseudo-international meaning of the noun conductor can be seen in the following excerpt from The Economist journal (February 28, 1998): A spectacular example of Oxford Health Plans once fastest-growing HMO in America. The conductor Stephen Wiggins was forced to resign as chairman on February 24th.

132


pseudo-international, e.i., common, non-international meaning, the latter being realized in a definite context only. A few more examples of such words may be useful:

dramatic

industry

 

{

художній мистецький артистичний

театральний драматичний

хвилюючий яскравий раптовий непередбачений

індустрія

промисловість галузь промисловості старанність працьовитість

 

Civil

громадський цивільний

ввічливий чемний

практичний

Practical

доцільний фактичний

 революція переворот

Revolution < оберт (навколо осі)  сівозміна (с/г) кругообіг

Apart from the polysemantic words with several meanings, one of which is genuine international and the rest pseudo-international, i.e., non-international as in the examples above, there are also quite a few words in present-day English and Ukrainian which have an identical orthographic form but quite different lexical meaning: accu-rate точний, правильний, влучний but not акуратний: billet ордер на постій, приміщення для постою but not квиток; compositor складач (друк.) but not композитор; data дані but not дата; decade десятиріччя but not декада; decoration нагорода, прикраса but not декорація; Dutch голландський but not данський: fabulist байкар, вигадник but not фабуліст; intelligence розум, кмітливість but not інтелігенція: momentous важливий but not моментальний; matrass колба but not матрац (mattress): obligation зобов'язання but not облігація; potassium калій but not поташ; prospect перспектива but not проспект; production виробництво, випуск but not only продукція: replica точна копія but not репліка; spectre привид but not спектр, etc.

As can be ascertained, these English words quite accidentally coincide in their lingual form with some other borrowed words in Ukrainian. Thus, «replica», for example, has quite a different denotative meaning in Ukrainian than our репліка (cue, remark). So is the deno-

133


tative meaning of many other words, whose number by far exceeds that on the above-given list. These and the like pseudo-international words are often referred to as «false friends of the translator» (удавані друзі перекладача).

Unlike common lexical units, whose orthographic and sounding forms never coincide in the target language and in the source language, the lingual form of genuine international lexemes in all languages is always either identical or similar. It does not mean that the structural form of genuine internationalisms is necessarily always transplanted to the target language as it is observed in simple lexemes like drama, poet, opera, suffix, lord, kimono, sari, kiwi, motor, proton (драма, поет, опера, суфікс, лорд, кімоно, сарі, etc.).

More often the same genuine international lexemes in English and Ukrainian may have a different morphological structure. In Ukrainian they usually take derivational and often also inflexional affixes which is rarely observed in present-day English. As a result, most of genuine international words in Ukrainian are structurally more complicated than in English (cf. apathy-апат/я, dietic-дієтичний, form -форма, exploit - експлуатувати, economic-економічний), etc.

Some genuine international words, however, may be structurally more complicated in English than in Ukrainian: Cf.: Greek: analysis аналіз, diagnosis діагноз, sclerosis склероз, academician академік, geographer географ, mathematician математик, philosopher філософ, geologist геолог; Latin: appendicitis апендицит, tuberculosis туберкульоз, rheumatismus ревматизм, etc.

Hence, the structural models according to which different logico-grammatical classes of internationalisms are adopted in English and in Ukrainian mostly differ. On this ground relevant for the identification, as well as for the translation of any international word, remains its root morpheme, i.e., its sense bearing seme. Taking this into account, lexemes like anti-trade, arch-enemy, inventor consisting of international affixes and having common root morphemes are to be treated as non-internationalisms, i.e., as pseudo-internationalisms. The international nature/status of a source language lexeme is considered to be fully retained, when the root morpheme or at least the sense and lingual form (part of it) can be rendered in the target language. Consequently, the compounds consisting of a genuine international and a common root morpheme as school-male, coal-gas, washing-тасш'пе. etc. are to be defined in English as partly international, i.e., mixed-type lexical units. Similarly in Ukrainian: Газосховище, радіохвилі, водно-спиртовий.

134


WAYS OF CONVEYING THE LEXICAL MEANING OF GENUINE INTERNATIONALISMS

From what has been pointed out concerning the nature and componental structure of genuine internationalisms becomes clear, that a faithful rendering of their lexical meaning often requires considerable attention on the part of translators. At any rate, in the process of their translation several factors have to be taken into consideration both at language level and at speech level. These factors imply the lingual form, the lexical meaning, the structure, the source of origin and the orthographic presentation of internationalisms in both the languages. As a result, expresing of meaning of some internationalisms may not always be termed «translation» proper since it is a regular and complete transplantation of the source language units to the target language (cf. atom атом, plan план, professor професор, algebra алґебра, poetnoem, etc). Besides, translating of international lexemes may sometimes depend on the established model stereotype according to which they are generally adopted in the target language. Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of international lexemes, several ways of conveying their meaning can be suggested.

1. Literal Translating of Genuine Internationalisms. It should be pointed out that the lingual form of all componental parts in genuine international words and phrases is more often completely transplanted, when they originate from languages, whose orthographic systems have been arranged on phonetical principles. Hence, the authenticity of literal translating from languages as Latin, Greek, Italian, Ukrainian, partly Russian and Spanish will be always higher than that from the English or French languages, whose orthographic systems are based on the historical and etymological principles. It does not mean, however, that a less exact literal transplantation should be regarded as less faithful or inferior. Any of them is faithful enough when it conveys the form and meaning of internationalisms. In this view literal translating of genuine internationalisms should not be regarded as a mechanical substitution of each letter of the source language lexeme for a corresponding letter of the target language. In many a case a letter may be dropped or added (substituted for another) in the target language when it is not in full conformity with its sound or spelling systems. Nevertheless, there are many letter-to-letter transliterated genuine internationalisms in English and Ukrainian. Latin: angina анґіна, dentist дентист, symposium симпозіум,

135


gladiator гладіатор, microscope мікроскоп, rector ректор; Greek: poet поет, micron мікрон, electron електрон, stadium стадіон, drama драма, theatre театр; Italian: macaroni макарони, pizza піцца, concerto концерт, duet дует, solo соло; Spanish: armada армада, tango танґ'о, El Dorado ельдорадо, embargo ембарго, etc.

It would be wrong to assume that genuine internationalisms from other than the above-mentioned languages can not be fully or almost fully transliterated. Literal translating can faithfully convey the lexical meaning of many English, French, German and also other than European by origin lexemes: English: bulldog бульдог1, club клуб, mister містер, shelf шельф, shilling шилінґ, shrapnel шрапнель; French: chef шеф, festival фестиваль, chiffon шифон, franc франк; Germ.: Diktat диктат, Deutsche Mark дойч марк; Portugese: cobra кобра, flamingo фламінго; Czech: robot робот; Hindi: brahmin брамін, khaki хакі, sari сарі; Japanese: kimono кімоно, tsunami цунамі; Arabic: algebra алгебра, atlas атлас, harem гарем; African: banana банан, baobab баобаб, zebra зебра; Australian aboriginal: dingo дінго, kiwi ківі, etc.

Literal translation of some of these and other genuine internationalisms may not be fully trusted, perhaps, as it has been performed not directly from the original languages but through English, which is an intermediary language here. The existence of literal forms of genuine internationalisms from these languages, however, is beyond any doubt like those from Ukrainian (cf. steppe, Cos-sack/Kozak, hryvnia); or Russian (balalaika, samovar, vodka, etc.). Nevertheless, in many genuine internationalisms there is no absolute literal/orthographic coincidence in the source language and in the target language: basin басейн, monsoon мусон, waltz вальс, wine вино, salt сіль, степ steppe, devil диявол, muscle мускул, etc.

These divergences in the literal rendering are to be explained either by the influence of the intermediary languages or by the peculiarity of the target language admitting or not admitting the source language orthographic representation (cf. brahmin брамін, class клас, diet дієта, molecule молекула, etc.) or foreign signs by the target language.

2. Translating via Transcribing/Conveying the Sounding Structure

Many genuine internationalisms are also faithfully rendered into the target language in their sounding form. This kind of translating provides the rendition of the lexical meaning of a lot of internationalisms originating from English, French and some other languages, which have

136


their orthographic systems based on other than phonetical principles. Cf.: English: boom бум, box бокс, yeans джинси, knock-out нокаут, leader лідер, га/с/рейд, round раунд, frac/стрек; French: boulevard бульвар, bouquet букет, bourgeoisie буржуазія, bureau бюро, drape драп, prize приз, pince-nez пенсне, etc.

The English and French international lexemes above belong to the lexico-grammatical class of nouns. But the number of genuine internationalisms, whose lexical meaning is faithfully conveyed in their unchanged original lingual form is small. More units of the layer of lexicon in English and Ukrainian do not fully coincide in their orthographic, sounding and morphological (structural) form. This is to be explained by the differences in the phonetic and morphological systems of the two languages and also by the possible influence of a third language as an intermediary between the source/target language and the language from which the international lexeme originates. To render faithfully the denotative meaning and the lingual form of these genuine internationalisms other ways of translating are to be employed.

3. Translating by Practical Transcribing

International morphemes and lexemes are adopted in all languages according to the historically established traditions of their own. These find their expression in stereotype models for each lexico-grammatical class of words. As a result, any international word, whatever the language of its origin and irrespective of the source language, from which it is translated, will have one and the same lingual and structural form in the target language. Thus, whether it is bankruptcy in English, bankerott in German, banqueroute in French or bancarotta in Italian, it will always remain «банкрутство» in Ukrainian. Hence, only some degree of likeness is retained between the lingual form of bankruptcy and its Ukrainian equivalent «банкрутство». The adopted word has obtained in the target language an orthographic, sounding and morphological/structural form, which is only similar to that of English, French, German, or Italian. This kind of adopting internationalisms is traditionally called «practical transcribing» or translator's transcription.

Hense, some internationalisms may retain still less similarity/ likeness in their lingual form when they are translated from English into Ukrainian: bacne/огбакалавр, cocoa какао, crown корона/крона, dance танець, giant пїант, grade градус, nocus-росизфокус, mother-of-pearl перламутр, mosque мечеть, о/У олія, outpost аванпост, papa/папський, pound фунт (from German Pfund), etc.

137


The number of internationalisms making up this group is comparatively small in the two contrasted languages. The bulk of international lexemes, when conveyed by way of practical transcribing, still retain a considerable degree of lingual and structural similarity in the two languages. These are first of all nouns of Greek and Latin origin and also some adjectives, adverbs and verbs. They may often differ considerably in their morphological structure, mostly taking additional affixal morphemes in Ukrainian: ambition амбіція, apathy апатія, condenser конденсатщ, devil диявол, diplomacy дипломатія, hierarchy ієрархія, lecturer лектор., vegetarian вегетаріанський, condense конденсувати, criticize критикувати, stabilize стабілізувати, seriously серйозно, economic економічніш, etc.

Translating of genuine and mixed-type international compounds is performed on the basis of and in accordance with the lingual form and structure of their componental parts. As a result, English international compounds can be rendered in the following ways:

  1.  with the help of corresponding compounds having the same
    international root morphemes as in the source language:
    electro-
    biology
    електробіологія, f/Vm-acfor кіноактор, gas-meter газометр,
    motor-cyclist мотоцикліст, radio-active радіоактивний, six-footer
    шестифутовий, etc.
  2.  by word-combinations consisting of the same componental
    parts as in the international English compound words but of different
    than in the source language morphological structure and nature of a
    componental part of speech:
    dance-music (N+N) танцювальна (adj.)
    музика, gas-collector газовий (а.) колектор, nerve-centre нервовий
    (а.) центр,
    olive-coloured оливкового (а.) кольору, police-station
    поліційне (а.) відділення, radio-active element радіоактивний (а.)
    елемент,
    telegraph-line телеграфна (а.) лінія, etc. Thus, only ra
    dio-active and
    радіоактивний are adjectives in both languages.

Mixed-type compounds consisting of international and common Ukrainian root morphemes are translated in accordance with their complex nature. Their equivalents in Ukrainian, however, may be both compound words and word-combinations consisting of international and non-international (as in the original) component parts (or even simple words): gas-mask протигаз, taxi-cab таксі, river-basin басейн річки, toilet-table туалетний столик, torpedo-boat торпедний катер, turning-point поворотний пункт, etc.

4. Descriptive Translating of International Lexemes Many genuine international lexemes are semantically condensed and can be translated into the target language only in a de-

138


scriptive way. Depending on the nature of the lexemes, their translation may have two somewhat different realizations:

  1.  the lingual form of the source language lexeme/s can be
    retained as the main lexeme/s of the target language word-combina
    tion/sentence: civilizable той (та.те), що піддається цивілізуванню/
    цивілізації;
    classifiable той (та,те), що піддається класифікації;
    barony 1 .володіння барона; 2.титул барона; energize викликати
    (збуджувати) енергію;
    examinee той, що екзаменується/складає
    іспит;
    golf-club 1. клуб гравців з ґольфу; 2. ключка для гри в ґольф;
  2.  the lingual form of the internationalism is not or can not be
    retained in the target language. It happens when the internationalism
    has not been adopted yet by the target language. Thus, the noun
    epi
    logue
    is a genuine internationalism in many European languages but
    the adjective
    epilogic derived from it, though semantically quite pellu
    cid, is unknown in Ukrainian. Besides, some internationalisms can be
    substituted in the process of translation with the aim of achieving ex
    pressiveness (for the reasons of style) or for the sake of explaining
    their denotative meaning:    
    deputize (v)   виступати  (бути
    представником) від когось;
    epilogic заключний, кінцевий; park (park
    ing)
    ставити машину на стоянку; percenter лихвар («процентник»);
    twopenny нікчемний/копійчаний (вартий двох пенні).

5. Translating by Way of Synonymous Substitution An international lexeme of the target language can be often substituted in the process of translation for another international lexeme of synonymous or close to it (or of the same) meaning. The substitutions are mostly performed in larger context, though sometimes they may also be carried out at language level. This kind of substitution becomes possible due to the existence in the target language of internationalisms borrowed by it at different previous historical periods. Such international lexemes are of the same logico-grammatical/ lexico-grammatical class. The faithfulness of translation achieved through this kind of synonymous substitutions may be usually established in a text only, though it may partly be traced at the word-group level as well. This can be seen from the following examples: athletics гімнастика and not атлетика, diagram схема and not діаграма, phase період and not фаза, fashion paper журнал мод and not журнал фасонів, base фундамент and not база, committee комісія and not комітет, gangster бандит and not ґанґстер, standard еталон and not стандарт; ангар garage and not hanger, бульвар avenue and not boulevard, графік plan/diagram and not graph, естрада variety and not estrade, party line політичний курс and not партійна лінія, national

139


есопотународне господарство and not національна економіка. The use of such and the like forms of internationalisms is always predetermined, naturally, only by context.

Translating of Loan Internationalisms

Forming a common fund of lexicon in different languages of a geographical area, the loan units usually retain an identical/similar surface structure, i.e., form of a word, word-combination or sentence. Like genuine internationalisms, they are constantly appearing in different languages as a result of unceasing progress in various domains of science, technology and culture. A great many of international loans have long become an integral part of each language's lexicon. Despite all that, they preserve in each national language the unity of their componental parts, i.e., their structural peculiarly, an absolutely identical notional meaning and a common sphere of functioning: loud-speaker: Germ. Lautsprecher, Ital. altoparlante, Ukr. гучномовець, Russ. громкоговоритель; steam-engine: Germ. Dampfmaschine, Ital. macchina a vapore, Ukr. парова машина, Russ. паровая машина; long/short waves (radio), Germ, lange/kurze Wellen, Ital. onde lunge/corte, Ukr. довгі/короткі хвилі, Russ. длинньїе/короткие волньї, etc.

A bulk of international loan words and expressions are used to designate various grammatical, lexicological, stylistic and other notions. Depending on their nature, as well as on their denotative meaning and their sphere of functioning, international loan units can be rendered into Ukrainian in one of the following three ways:

a) by direct translation of the componental parts without changing considerably their structural form cf.: coefficient of efficiency коефіцієнт корисної дії, conjugation/declension дієвідмінювання/ відмінювання (слів); genitive/dative case родовий/давальний відмінок; personal/possessive pronouns особові/присвійні займенники; prepositional government прийменникове керування; compound nominal predicate складений іменний присудок; literal/ verbal translation буквальний/дослівний переклад, etc.

Note. It is worth mentioning that some Ukrainian or Russian loan internationalisms may be genuine internationalisms in other languages and vice versa. Thus, підмет, присудок and other parts of the sentence are genuine internationalisms in English, German, Italian and in some other West European languages. Cf.: the subject, the predicate, the object; German: der Subjekt, das Pradicat, das

140


Objekt; Italian: il soggetto, il predicate, etc. Consequently, these and other loan internationalisms are practically rendered only with the help of the phonological level units, i.e., they are transcribed or transliterated in these three languages.

  1.  with the help of componental translation and some replace
    ments, omissions or substitutions arising from the national peculiari
    ties of the target language, i.e, depending on its stylistic mode of
    usage. Thus, the equivalent of the English set expression
    foreign
    trade is not іноземна торгівля but зовнішня торгівля, and living
    standardis not життєвий стандарт but життєвийр/вень. Similarly
    in other cases with single loan internationalisms. Cf.: homogeneous
    parts of the sentence однорідні члени речення but not частини
    речення; structure of matter is будова матерії but not структура
    матерії, national anthem is державний гімн but not національний
    гімн. Similarly with national serviceman військовослужбовець а не
    національний службовець
    and parts of speech are частини мови,
    but not члени мови.
  2.  with the help of descriptive translation as in the examples
    like: digital computer цифрова обчислювальна машина; compound/
    complex sentence складносурядне/складнопідрядне речення; in
    volution (math.) піднесення до ступеня; pluralia tantum іменники,
    що вживаються тільки в множині;
    singularia tantum іменники, що
    вживаються тільки в однині;
    evolution (mathem.) винесення з-під
    радикала (витягнення кореня),
    common fraction (mathem.) простий
    дріб.

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion

  1.  Types and kinds of genuine internationalisms as to their
    form/structure and lexical meaning in English and Ukrainian.
  2.  The main way of distinguishing between the genuine
    internationalisms and loan internationalisms.
  3.  The lingual form (expression) and meaning of some words
    being the genuine internationalisms in one contextual environment
    and pseudo-internationalisms (non-internationalisms) in some other
    environment.
  4.  Express your point of view on the term and notion of «par
    tial» or «half-internationalism». Use some examples from Exercise
    III below to justify or reject the use of the suggested term.

5. Expand on the ways of translation of the genuine

141


internationalisms and exemplify: a) the method of their transliteration only; b) the method of their transcription only; c) the method of their transliteration and partial transcription or vice versa (as in compound words); d) the method of the translator's transcription; e) the descriptive method. Use the exercises below to illustrate the above-mentioned methods of conveying the meanings of internationalisms.

  1.  Identify and exemplify the pseudo-internationalisms referred
    to as «the false friends of the translator». Use the exercises on the
    forthcoming pages for the purpose.
  2.  Name the main criterion of distinguishing the genuine
    internationalisms from loan internationalisms. Exemplify the latter
    on simple lexemes/words and lexico-syntactic units (word-groups)
    from different domains of social sciences.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. State whether the words below are genuine or pseudo-international. Substantiate your judgements:

adressee, adequate, admiral, algebraic, allergy, Alpine, annulment, archive, bamboo, botanist, bronchitis, capillary, cockatoo, cybernetics, dissymetric, ellipsis, epochal, evacuee, fantasia, geometer, hierarchical, hypotaxis, iambus, inductor, lectureship, morphemic, morphologist, non-metal, parallelepiped, parataxis, professorate, quixotry, reduction, rhematic, sable, scenery, sonorant, stereometry, subcommittee, sublieutenant, substantival (gram.), synthetic, systemic (gram.), technologist, utilize, vacuum, voltameter, waffle, zinc, xylonite.

Exercise II. Identify the genuine international and the pseudo-international (non-international) meanings in the following lexemes:

accumulator, accuracy, ambition, analyst, autocrat, balance, barbarity, buffet; calendar, civil, code, colours, co-ordination; damask, desperation, diminutive, dramatic, dynamic; effective, elementary, expedition; faction, fiction, film, figure, front; gentleman; harmonious, humanity, hypothetical; imitation, instrument; juridical; liberal, locomotive; marshal, medicine, minister; nation, natural; objective, officer, original; pamphlet, paragraph, petition, press, pygmy; racing, record, revolution; scene, storm; tank, tattooing, terror, twist; vector, vulgar; wag(g)on; zodiacal; frigit zone.

Exercise III. Translate the following English compounds. Point out which of their lexical equivalents in Ukrainian are com-

142


pound/simple words or word-combinations and which are partially/fully international or pseudo-international:

  1.  air-mechanic, administer, arch (n), barman-club-law, cof
    fee-bean, dessert-knife, gas-main, lieutenant-colonel, mine-layer,
    motiveless, paper-cutter, phrase-book, soda-fountain, soda-water,
    submachine-gun, sugar-cane, tiger's-eye, cane-sugar, motoring,
    mythicize, narcotism, number, orchestric;
  2.  day-school, field-hospital, fire-bomb, fire-brigade, fish-tor
    pedo, hand-grenade, opium-eater, horsemaster, seeding-machine,
    stamp-album, steam-turbine, stock-farm, telegenic, teleshow, talk
    ing-film, tape-machine, travel-bureau, washing-machine, zenith-dis
    tance;
  3.  boxing-match, consul-general, electro-dynamic, figure-art
    ist, flag-captain, grammar-school, office-copy, orange-coloured, palm-
    oil, party-club, press-corrector, press-box, radio-controlled, station-
    master, sugar-refinery, tram-line, yacht-club.

Exercise IV. Translate the words and word-groups below into Ukrainian and identify which of them are genuine international or loan international, and which pseudo-international.

1. conjugation, co-ordination, subordination, the indicative (imperative, subjunctive) mood, syllabification (phonet.), proof-reader, spelling-book, versification; 2. The law of gravitation, the theory of relativity; addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, decimal fractions, equations, identity, root extraction (math.); 3. decontamination, engineering, hothouse effect, myopia, piston, storage-battery, traffic rules, welding; 4. horse power, income tax, black soil, land improvement, cereals, legumes; 5. growth rate, latitude, longitude, mass media, national economy, precipitation, weather forecast; 6. decathlon, pentathlon, fencing, penalty area, penalty kick, snow boarding, wrestling (sport); weightlessness, purification, traffic-light.

Exercise V. Translate the English words and word-groups below into Ukrainian. Point out which of them are loan internationalisms and which - pseudo-internationalisms (non-internationalisms):

a) abacus, actual, conductivity, corner-stone, copyright, decontaminate, equilibrium, ever-frost, refrigerator, hypersonic, ignition, jet-fighter, non-conductor, gymnasium, quadrilateral, ropedancer, sabre-rattling, second-class, self-preservation, shock-worker, self-defence, sleeping-bag, smoke-screen, smoking-carriage, sparking-plug, standard-bearer, subtitle, summarise, summation, superconductivity, supernatural, supersonic, superstructure, syndetic, thermostable,

143


thrashing-machine, tightrope-dancer, toolroom, turn-screw; argument, billet, bombard, buffet, brilliance, complexion, cream, cymbals, dispute, electric eye, ferment (v), genii, gastronome/r, implicitly, intelligence, liquor, locomotion, nocturnal, observation, occupant, officiant, partywall, replica, satin, satirize, technology, tripartite, unintelligible, zero-gravity, diesel locomotive, alternative current, .direct current, ionic rectifier, rate of exchange.

Exercise VI. Render the meaning of the English simple/ compound words below by substituting where possible the international lexemes for their synonymous international components in Ukrainian:

Model: jazz-band джаз(овий) оркестр, phrase-book словник ідіом.

1. athlete, school practice, cabin, configuration, debate, drawing-paper; 2. fashion-paper, gangster, guerrilla, idol; inch, jumper, lingo, motorist, music-case, music-hall, music-paper, navigation officer, new-fashion, occupational; 3. ration, saboteur, scenery, sound locator, storage-battery, symbol, tank, tank-truck, torpedo-boat, title-holder, training-college, variety, voluntaryism.

Exercise VII. Analyse and translate the international lexemes below. Define the possible ways of translating which help equivalently render the lexical meaning of the following genuine international words:

archaize, barbarize, blitzkrieg, cadet, caravanning, club (v), cocaine, compressible, congressional, corona, demonstrable, diagnose (v), disreputability, doctorate, electrifiable, epigrammatist, examinee, film (v), geologize, golf (v), incontrollable, landscaper, ladyship, lordship, mayoralty, monographer, monologize, navigable, outflank, overproduce, over-active, papery, pension (v), pulse (v), radio (v), robotics, realizable, schoolable, sportsmanship, studentship, syllabicate, teleview (v), uncivilizable, vandalize, verse (v), yacht (v).

Exercise VIII. Suggest corresponding Ukrainian variants for the following English sports terms which are genuine or loan internationalisms:

1. to feel fit; 2. modern pentathlon/decathlon, pantathlete/ decathlete; 3. aquatic sport, diving, sailing, rowing; 4. mountaineering; 5. cycling; 6. wrestling; 7. jumping; 8. tumbling; 9. weightlifting; 10. fencing; 11. skating, ski-jumping; 12. remedial (curative) gymnastics; 13. five-km event, to forge ahead, to move into the lead; 14. to win on points, to set up a record; 15. individual championship; 16. to make public the list of players; 17. track-and-field athletics,

144


medium/middle distance race, long-distance race, steeple-chase, relay-race, cross-country race, line-up, marathon race, high/Іоng jump, pole vault, discus/hammer throwing, javelin throwing, shot-put, trial run, running on the curve, joggling, final/speed race; 18. double game/ singles game, to deliver the ball, the right to serve, the toss/to toss, the racket; 19. left back/right back, right half-back/left half-back, outside right/outside left, right centre forward/left centre forward, left-centre back/right-centre back, goalie, to kick/hit the ball, to cheer for some team; 20. throw from running (the ball) at full speed, unhindered shooting, bouncing shot, two-hand overhead throw, a shot in the long/farther corner of the goal, a shooting for goals; 21. breast stroke/butterfly stroke, back stroke, front crawl stroke, to float/to float on back, competitive swimming, indoor/outdoor pool, inhalation/exhalation; 22. horizontal bar, sports gymnastics, callisthenics, tumbling, hoop, club, ribbon, skipping-rope; 23. to dodge the opponent, to keep the puck on the ice, to drop the puck, to work the puck, to pull out the goalie, face-off, to pull the opponent; 24. figure skating, speed skating, long-distance race, sprint, single skating, straight run, run in the curve, free skating, ice-dances; 25. giant slalom, downhill run, ski-jumping, relay race, ski-lift.

Exercise IX.Suggest possible ways of translation into English for each international word and proper name in the passage below.

ХТО ЩО ВИГАДАВ

1. Змивними туалетами користувалися ще за 2 тисячі років до нашої ери жителі острова Кріт. Каструлю-скороварку для швидкого приготування їжі під тиском винайшов француз Дені Папен (1679). Пневматичні шини, на яких їздять усі машини світу, були вперше застосовані для кінних екіпажів ще 1845 року в Англії Робертом Томпсоном. Для велосипеда такі шини вперше використав 1888 року ірландець Джон Данлоп. 2. Ручний фотоапарат веде свою історію від 1888 року, коли його винайшов у США Джордж Істмен (це прізвище залишилось у назві відомої фірми «Істмен-Кодак»), 3. Заслуга винаходу швейної машинки належить американцеві Еліасу Гоу (1846 рік), а не Ісааку Зінгеру, який лише вдосконалив її і пустив у масове виробництво (1851 року). 4. З початком ери електрики на межі нашого й минулого століть з'явилися і вентилятор (винайшов Ш.Вілер, США, 1882), пилосос - Гюберт Буг (Англія, 1891), пральна машина - Елва Фішер (США, 1906), електричний холодильник вперше виготовили

145


в Чикаго на фірмі «Домеле» (1913). Замок-блискавку вигадав 1891 року Вільям Джадсон, того ж року Кінґ Джіплет (США) запатентував безпечну бритву. Автором рецепту кока-коли є Джон Пелбертон (США, 1896), а мікрохвильової пічки- Персі Спенсер (1947). Понад 1000 винаходів належить Томасу Алва Едісонові: фонограф (1877), лампа розжарювання, удосконалений телеграф і телефон (1879), перша електростанція (1882) тощо. 5. Німець Ґабріель Фаренгайт вигадав 1714 року ртутний градусник. Норвежець Ерік Ротгаим-автор аерозольного балончика (1926). Відомий французький мандрівник і дослідник Жак-Ів Кусто разом з Емілем Каньяном мають патент на аквалані1 (1943). А таблеткою аспірину ми зобов'язані німецькому вченому Феліксові Гофманові. 6. Українці мають також світові винаходи. Прокопович П.І. придумав рамковий вулик (1828); Засядько О.Д. запровадив бойову порохову ракету (1817), а Кондраткж (Шангей) Ю.В. запропонував багатоступеневу космічну ракету (1929), В.Смакула (1936) - прилад нічного бачення.

TEXTS FOR INDEPENDENT CLASS AND HOME TRANSLATION

Exercise X. Identify the possible ways of faithful conveying the terms and units of international lexicon in the passages below and translate them into Ukrainian.

1.   Macroeconomic Policies

Macroeconomic policy management has a large impact on investor confidence in the reforming country. Economic volatility raises uncertainty for investors, who look for stability and predictability. The basic elements of macroeconomic policy management for effective reform are the following.

Fiscal Policies. An important indicator of prudent fiscal management is a low, predictable rate of inflation. A lack of control over inflation points to macroeconomic and fiscal unbalances. The most extreme manifestation of this problem, hyperinflation, leads to the introduction of shock programs as a basis for stabilization. When countries impose shock programs, recessions often result, posing difficulties for local workers and consumers. By bringing inflation under control, countries establish a necessary precondition for stability and growth. The stabilization programs implemented by the survey countries had this fundamental objective in mind. For example, Argentina endured many bouts of high inflation, followed by wage and price freezes to arrest them. The controls only halted inflation temporarily,

146


as the root cause - excessive spending by the public sector - was not addressed. Now that public spending has been brought under control with the Cavallo Plan, Argentine inflation has subsided. Real positive interest rates (i.e., interest rates higher than the rate of inflation) are important in maintaining stability in the balance of payments and are a key element of sound fiscal management.

Appropriate Exchange Rates. Appropriate exchange rate policy adjusts the value of the local currency on a steady, predictable basis, which, again, contributes to economic stability and investor confidence. Countries that experience high rates of inflation typically have overvalued exchange rates, because adjustments in the value of the local currency lag behind the rate of inflation. However, local currencies that are overvalued hurt exports, which are more expensive in international markets compared to the exports from countries with cheaper currencies. Exchange rate reform usually entails a devaluation of the local currency, making the country's export more competitive in terms of price and the country itself more attractive for private investment.

Prices and Wages. As noted earlier, price and wage controls are often used to control inflation. While they may have the desired effect in the short-term, they almost always unravel and end up creating more inflation. When governments repeatedly employ wage and price freezes, consumers and businesses adjust their behavior in anticipation of the next round of controls by hoarding goods, raising wage demands or raising prices, leading to yet higher inflation. In Poland, prices and wages were set by the government for many years under the system of central planning. One of the first steps of the Balcerowicz Plan was to free all wages and prices as of January 1, 1990. This step marked a major event in the Polish transition to a market-oriented economy.

Ukrainian Cosmonaut Aboard Space Shuttle

The historic first flight of a Ukrainian citizen aboard an American spacecraft was a major theme of recent consultation in Kyiv between officials of the Ukrainian National Space Agency (NSAU) and the U.S.space agency NASA.The visit was the fifth by a NASA delegation to Ukraine this year.

In press conference NSAU General Director Oleksandr Nehoda and NASA Deputy Administrator Arnold Nikogosyan outlined the program under which Kadenyuk personally conducted 12 of 16 biology experiments scheduled for the November mission. The experiments focused on the growth and reproduction of cells in space. Kadenyuk's

147


objective was to learn more about gravity's effect on life. The results of his work played an important role in the development of space technology, especially for long-term flights.

NEWS ITEMS FOR CLASS TRANSLATION AT SIGHT (IN VIVA VOCE)

Exercise XI. Translate the texts Into Ukrainian. Define the ways of conveying internationalisms and proper names in them. 1. Biometrics: Changing Face of Identity Methods

On a hot summer day recently, Johnny Johnson, a travelling salesman 100 miles from home, stopped at a Texaco station to cash a paycheck because someone here knew his face. Or rather, a certain machine knew his face. Mr. Johnson fed his check into a device that looked like an automated teller machine, and smiled for the pea-sized camera. The device, developed by a check-cashing chain called the Mr. Payroll Corp., compared Mr. Johnson's face with the picture it had on file. They matched and Mr. Johnson was given his cash. This machine is one of a new batch of devices that identify people through various bodily characteristics - faces, hands, fingers, eyes, voices, perhaps even smells - using a range of technologies known as biometrics, or the statistical measurement of biological phenomena. Biometrics has long been the province of spy thrillers and gee-whiz prophecies. But until recently it has rarely been used except to guard, say, the entrance to a nuclear plant or sensitive areas at the Central Intelligence Agency. This raises privacy concerns because these devices collect a lot of personal data. Already, there is a growing backlash against the use of fingerprints when issuing drivers licenses and cashing checks. But biometrics also has real potential to protect against thieves and impostors. One of the fastest growing financial crimes is the theft of identity, with a criminal stealing personal information - like a Social Security number - to tap into someone else's credit or bank account. «You can say that biometrics is inherently personal and therefore inherently violates my privacy,» said Ben Miller, editor of Personal Identification News, a leading trade magazine. «But biometrics can be a phenomenal enhancer of privacy.»

Exercise XII. Translating the texts into English, define the possible ways of conveying internationalisms and proper names in them.

148


A. Вік обчислювальної машини

Досі вважалося, що першу обчислювальну машину, яка вміла додавати й віднімати, сконструював 1642 року Блез Паскаль. Ця машина використовувалась у Франції для підрахунку податків. Однак недавно стало відомо, що першу обчислювальну машину побудував 1623 року Вільгельм Шикард, професор математики та астрономії університету міста Тюбінген поблизу Штутгарта. 20 вересня 1623 року (в рік народження Паскаля) Шикард повідомив свого друга Кеплера про створення обчислювальної машини, яку сам автор назвав «Обчислювальним годинником».

Б. 1901 року поблизу Пелопонеського півострова (Греція) на глибині 60 метрів виявлено уламки судна, яке затонуло близько 2000 років тому. Серед цих уламків було знайдено обчислювальну машину, в якій збереглося 20 зубчастих коліщат. Виявлення цієї обчислювальної машини, збудованої в І столітті до н.е., підказує, що дальші сліди обчислювальної машини треба шукати як у грецькій античній культурі, так і в арабській, звідки походить назва 'абак', що означає 'лічильник'.

B. Слова американських індіанців в українській мові
З Америки після відкриття її Христофором Колумбом 1492

року, хоч її, як тепер відомо, не раз відкривали й до того, вивозили не тільки золото. Завезено з Америки (головно іспанцями, які першими колонізували її) також низьку індіанських слів. Серед найбільш уживаних є: томат, шоколад, какао, які в мові мексиканських індіанців звучали так: таматль, чоколатль, какауатль. Дещо забуті нині слова табака (нюхальний тютюн) і табакерка походять від індіанського тобако. Слово ураган на перший погляд може здатися русизмом, але це не так. Воно походить від індіанськогохуракан (також імпортоване іспанцями). Однією з індіанських звичок, яку спостерігали європейці, було жування листя рослини під назвою кока. Звідси слово кокаїн -назва наркотичної речовини. Слова хіна, хінін (відомий засіб проти малярії з кори хінного дерева) походять від індіанського словак/на-'кора'.

Індіанського походження слово кураре - назва рослинної отрути, яка застосовувалась індіанцями для змазування стріл, а тепер використовується в медицині. Від перуанських індіанців запозичене відоме всім слово каучук - цей матеріал одержували з соку особливих рослин. Тваринний світ Америки представлений у нашій мові такими словами індіанського походження: пума,

149


яґуар, гагара, кайман, опосум (сумчастий ссавець), (уанако (тварина, схожа на верблюда), іґуана (велика ящірка). Запозичені індіанські назви птахів: кондор - американський гриф, ара - рід папуг, нанду-американський страус, колібрі. Є в українській мові і назви рослин індіанського походження: ананас (від нана), маїс (інша назва кукурудзи), їстівні рослини маніока, ямс. Від індіанців запозичене слово тотем (у перекладі - «його рід») - тварина, рослина, предмет або явище природи, що є релігійним символом роду. З пригодницьких романів нам відомі слова: томагавк -бойова палиця або сокира, пирога - вузький довгий човен, каное - також човен, пампа або пампаси - степ, вігвам - житло на зразок намету, кіпу- вузликове письмо. Як бачимо, наша мова увібрала в себе культурні здобутки багатьох народів і зберігає сліди опосередкованих контактів з багатьма мовами світу.

Г. Новий британський словник англійської мови

Найновіший і найповніший Оксфордський словник англійської мови, що побачив світ весною 1998 року, складається із 22 томів (кожен по одній тисячі сторінок) і важить 62,5 кілограми. Видавництво «Оксфорд Юніверсіті Прес», що засноване ще 1584 року, подає новий словник як свою «найґрунтовнішу» працю. Він містить 616.500 «словоформ», яким дано визначення, а також 2.412.400 цитат, що підказують, як англомовні автори використали ці форми і коли вперше вжили кожне слово.

Звичайно, при такому гігантському обсязі роботи по підготовці словника були використані найсучасніші методи й обладнання. Англійське відділення провідної в світі комп'ютерної фірми «Ай-Бі-Ем» і гігантська ЕОМ із США забезпечили технічні засоби, а науковий відділ обчислювальної техніки університету Ватерлоо в Онтаріо (Канада) допоміг у розробці проґрамного забезпечення. І все одно «перенесення» в пам'ять ЕОМ словникового запасу англійської мови з 1150 року до наших днів зайняло у редакторів Джона Сімпсона і Едмонда Вайнера цілих п'ять років.

Д. Історія виникнення Інтерполу

Хто знає, коли виник би Інтерпол, якби не випадок, що стався з правителем князівства Монако Альбертом І, який увійшов до анналів історії ще й як засновник знаменитого казино в Монте-Карло.

В останні роки свого життя монарх полюбляв посидіти в ігровому залі цього казино, стежачи за охопленими азартом людьми. Одного разу він побачив біля стола з рулеткою молоду

150


і вродливу жінку. Вони познайомились, і жінка, яка назвалася німецькою княгинею Софією, повідомила Альберту, що втекла з батьківського дому з коханим, але грошей у них немає, і своє майбутнє вони намагаються забезпечити великим виграшем в рулетку. Спочатку їм щастило, але потім фортуна відвернулась, і гроші знову закінчились. Розчулений цією невеселою розповіддю, монарх вирішив допомогти молодим людям. Його зустрічі з прекрасною німкенею ставали дедалі частішими, а прогулянки в стародавньому парку княжого замку - дедалі довшими. Але повернувшись одного разу після такої прогулянки, Альберт побачив, що його сейф з грішми і коштовностями відчинений і зовсім випотрошений. Зникла і чарівна Софія із своїм коханим.

Наступне поліцейське розслідування показало, що довірливий князь став жертвою міжнародного злочинного угрупування. Дуже розсердившись, старий монарх почав енергійно домагатися, щоб кримінальні служби різних країн об'єднали свої зусилля. Незабаром відбулася перша конференція поліцейських детективів європейських країн, а потім, 1923 року, виник і Інтерпол.

Е. Нові окуляри

Світове визнання здобули реабілітаційні окуляри, сконструйовані завідуючим кафедрою психіатрії Луганського медінституту, доктором медичних наук А.П. Чуприковим. Вони удостоєні диплома Міжнародної виставки винаходів і нових технологій у галузі медицини, що проходила в Женеві. Окуляри створюють кольорофотостимуляцію сітківки ока, а через неї заспокійливо діють на обидві півкулі головного мозку. Полегшуючи тим самим стан хворого, ці процедури з метою підняття настрою і здобуття душевної рівноваги після стресів, можуть приймати і здорові люди. Особливо корисні окуляри тим, чия діяльність пов'язана з великим емоційним напруженням.

UNITS OF NATIONALLY BIASED LEXICON AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

Each nation in the course of its historical development acquires a great number of features characteristic of the nation only and not pertained to any other, even to a genealogically related nation. The distinguishing features find their reflection in different aspects of material and spiritual life and are materialized in separate

151


UNITS OF NATIONALLY BIASED LEXICON AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

Each nation in the course of its historical development acquires a great number of features characteristic of the nation only and not pertained to any other, even to a genealogically related nation. The distinguishing features find their reflection in different aspects of material and spiritual life and are materialized in separate

151words and word-groups designating national customs, traditions, folk rites and feasts, administrative or political systems, etc. They may also designate peculiar geographical, geological or environmental conditions of a nation's life. No less peculiar may also be the cultural or religious traditions of a nation often expressed through certain proper names or names of saints(cf. Ukrainian Івана Купала, Маковія, or Ireland's St. Patrick, Scottish tartan, American Uncle Sam or the British John Bull, the British Lion).

Culturally biased, i.e., nationally specific are often elements in a governmental or election systems of a country (cf. the administration, secretaries and undersecretaries or primary elections in the

U.S.A.).

The monetary systems in most countries contain some nationally peculiar units as well (cf. shilling, penny, rouble, dollar, hryvnia). Culturally biased are mostly the titles of address and the ways of conduct, and, at last but not at least, some articles of clothing / footware (cf. the Scottish kilt, tartan, the Ukrainian вишиванка, кептар or the American Indians' moccasins).

Most peculiar are always national meals, beverages and even partaking of food, established as a result of a nation's agricultural traditions and consumption of peculiar products. The nationally biased notions as non-equivalent units of lexicon are also observed in some national systems of weights and measures (cf. English mile, ounce, Ukrainian верства, пуд). All in all, these notions are found in all languages, for example, in English: county, borough, butterscotch, custard, muffin, toffee, bushel, chain, furlong, inch, mile, pint, penny, shilling, pound, lady, mister, sir; lobby, speaker, teller (Parliament), Lord Chancellor, Number 10 Downing Street, Whitehall, etc. Ukrainian: кобзар, веснянка, коломийка, козак, запорожець, кептар, копа (яєць), пуд, січ, свитка, хата, лежанка, весільний батько, троїсті музики, вечорниці, борщ, вареники, галушки, кутя, медок, ряжанка, опришок, плахта, гривня; Russian: тройка, квас, щі, самовар, колхоз, совет (советский), спутник, Дума. The penetration of a nation's culturally biased specific notions into other national languages is realized in different historical periods through various channels and in most different conditions. The latter include first of all trade contacts in the process of which many notions are borrowed as designators for produce which they signify. The designators may be regular labels (or trade marks) like bacon, champagne, jam, jeans, Coca-Cola, corn-flakes, macaroni, vodka, spaghetti, sweater, tweed, whisky, pizza, etc.

Some other peculiar national notions /culturally biased notions can penetrate into the target language in the process of traditional bilateral economic and cultural contacts which may be maintained at different levels. The contacts in their turn may as well be multilateral which often facilitates an international circulation of some specific national notions pertaining to a certain language (or a number of languages). That was the way in which many a specific national term has become widely known (cf. Cossack/Kozak, steppe, bandoure/ pandore, hopak, polka, waltz, beefsteak, pudding, lunch, etc.).

Still other specific national notions become world-wide known through literary/historic works, through the press or by way of other mass media like the radio or television (cf. oasis, boycott, hryvnia, Labourist, pagoda, barter, management, picket, taboo, Tory, rickshaw, sauna, Soviet, etc.).

These and other specific national terms (and notions) found their way to different languages and in the course of some historical period many of them became internationalisms. Although some nationally specific notions signifying important or historical events or magnificent scientific/technological achievements may spread all over the world almost immediately, as it happened in 1825 with the Decembrists and later on with the Sovietisms like kolkhoz, kulak, collectivization, Gulag, cosmonaut and many others.

Therefore, the more important the specific notion is for a certain nation or the world as a whole and the more often it is used in everyday life of a community, the greater is the chance of its becoming an internationalism.

This is not the fate, however, of the overwhelming majority of other specific national notions in all languages, since the borders of a target language are open at any time only for the most important source language specific national notions. Hence, many specific notions referring to localisms i.e. being of exclusively local nature and circulation, remain within the boundaries of the national languages. They may sometimes be known even to a greater part of the national community. These may be archaic notions like the Ukrainian бунчук, виборний, осаул, тулумбас, сіряк or localisms like кулеша, плачинда, верета, пательня, бануш, etc. Besides, many other rather wide-spread and well-known specific notions within a national community may often be of minor importance for the target language communities, which live under different economic, social, cultural or geographical conditions. Our ordinary reader, for example, would pay little if any attention to the highly specific and unique for

153every Englishman notions like latkes, kedgerel (meals), proctor or whip (Parliament), the Eton and Harrow match, Charring Cross, the East End, or Bloomsbury. These culturally biased names are often mentioned in English fiction, especially in the works by the British authors as Conan Doyle, J.Galsworthy, A.Cronin and others. Hence, the names have to be explained to our readers in the footnotes or in commentaries to the novels, e.g.:

They were off immediately, Автомобіль зразу ж рушив, і without interference, swinging      вони без перешкод поїхали з out of the East End in the             Іст-Енду в напрямку до direction of Bloomsbury               центрального району (A.Cronin)                                    Лондона - Блумзбері.

When the war broke out he had    Коли вибухнула війна, він just left Eton... (J.Galsworthy)       щойно закінчив /тон (середня

школа для привілейованих).

The real meaning of the place names, having so much to say to any Londoner, is scarcely hinted to in the translations above. The East End, however, was and remains the workers' .part of London, whereas Bloomsbury as the central part of it was known during the late 19th - the beginning of the 20th century for the group of poets critical of bourgeois moral and aesthetics. Eton, the private secondary school for well-to-do families in Great Britain, is also well-known in the country, though it may be unfamiliar to our readers. Hence, an additional explanation of the proper names in the target language becomes necessary. Many other culturally biased English and Ukrainian national notions are also to be explicated in this way, e.g.: bingo б/нго   (азартна   гра   типу   лото,   популярна   серед пристаркуватих і одиноких людей, особливо жінок)', gin джин (ялівцева горілка, використовується для приготування коктейлів); mackintosh тканина «макінтош» (водонепроникна); Merseyside Мерсісайд (Ліверпуль з навколишніми містами й поселеннями обабіч гирла р. Мерсі); muesly, (food) «мюзлі» (страва на сніданок із подрібнених пшеничних та інших зерен з сухими фруктами, горіхами, родзинками тощо); пуд pood measure of weight equal to 16,38 kg; рушник rushnyk, embroidered towel used in every folk rite in Ukraine; суботник subotnyk, voluntary unpaid work for the public good in the former USSR on days off (usually on Saturday).

The proper meaning of some other specific national units of lexicon can be rendered without preserving their original lingual form: moonlighter підробітник - той, хто підробляє у вільний час, переважно вечорами (від moonlight місячне світло); teller - 1. уповноважений, що агітує в день виборів на виборничій дільниці голосувати за кандидата своєї партії 2. обліковець голосів в англійському парламенті чи на будь-яких зборах; whip організатор партійної фракції в англійському парламенті.

The meaning of the above-given English and Ukrainian specifically biased national notions has not been conveyed by way of translation proper. They have simply been explained in the target language. Sometimes each or some of the components, making up the unit of specific national lexicon, can also be directly translated. And yet it may turn insufficient for faithful rendering of their sense. Then an explanation of the specific national notion is added: alphabet soup «азбучний суп» (суп з макаронів, що мають форму літер абетки); bilateral school «двобічна школа» (поєднує в собі два типи шкіл: напр., технічну й сучасну середню); the upper sixth старший шостий (випускинй шостий клас у середніх школах Великої Британії}. Many specific national notions, which have to be explicated in English, exist in Ukrainian as well: виховна година educational lesson (on good behaviour and morality of students in school); учнівські правила school regulations/rules of pupils' conduct/behaviour at school; класний журнал register/form register and record book; студком students' committee in Ukrainian higher educational establishments.

Very often, however, it may be difficult for a foreign student to guess the genuine meaning of a specific national unit of lexicon even from the seemingly transparent lexical meaning of its component parts. To avoid misunderstanding or ambiguity a further explication becomes inevitable: Athens of the North Північні Афіни (Едінбурґ); bipartite system двотипова система освіти Великої Британії (передбачає існування шкіл двох типів: класичних і середніх сучасних); cubbing полювання на лисиць (у якому беруть участь початкуючі мисливці й молоді собаки-гончаки); question time день запитань (у палаті громад від 14.45до 15.30 щодня від понеділка по четвер; відповіді дають прем'єр-міністр і міністри); privy purse «приватний гаманець» (асигнування з державного бюджету на утримання монарха Великої Британії).

Not infrequently national specific units of the source language lexicon belonging to the social and political domain can be recognized by the target language speakers due to the existence of partly similar notions in their mother tongue. These kinds of notion are available in English and in Ukrainian as well: new penny/shilling новий пенні/шилінг, the Order of Merit орден «За заслуги»', Scout leader вожатий бойскаутів] медаль «За бойові заслуги» the Medal for Combat Valour; «Орден Ярослава Мудрого» the Order of Yaroslav the Wise; «Орден княгині Ольги» the Order of St. Princess Olha; класний керівник class tutor/form master; табель успішності й поведінки pupil's report/record card; залік з англійської мови an English (language) test; складати залік з чогось to take a test in/ on some subject.

Despite the fact that the referential meaning of such and the like units of specific national lexicon may be either similar or at least closely related in English and Ukrainian (cf. class tutor/form master and класний керівник, залік test), they are still far from identical in their particular meaning. As a result, they can scarcely be substituted for each other in the target language, which points to the notions being nationally biased by their nature.

This is not so with many other notions which only at first sight seem to be different in English and Ukrainian but in reality they are quite similar and can usually be substituted for each other: box (in Christmas box) різдвяний подарунок (cf. новорічний подарунок); Department of Education and Science (Gr.Britain) міністерство освіти (і науки); Department of Industry міністерство промисловості; Department of Energy міністерство енергетики; extension course курси підвищення кваліфікації; extramural education заочне/вечірнє навчання; distant education дистантне навчання.

Apart from these there are a lot more units of lexicon which have generally the same referential meaning in both the languages in question. For example: pancake, financial year, pie and many others can be fully substituted at language level for Ukrainian млинець/ оладок, фінансовий рік, пиріг, etc. The difference between the notions in the two language is confined to some insignificant details. Thus, the financial year in Gr.Britain begins on April 1 and ends on March 31 the next year; pies are stuffed with minced steak-and-kid-ney meat or with onions/sweet mincemeat (mixture of currants, raisins, sugar, candied peeled apples, suet, etc.) and not with peas, beans, ground poppy seeds, soft cheese/curds or boiled rice as in this country. But: pop-corn кукурудзяні баранці is practically identical in English and Ukrainian.

The details are, naturally, essential for our students to know and should not be ignored, as they reflect the peculiarities of each nation's customs, traditions or its way of life. The notions like these, on the other hand, may be common in the English and Ukrainian or some other languages exclusively, which finds its explanation in the bilateral or multilateral influences to which all languages are constantly exposed as a result of cultural, political and trade contacts between their nations. Hence, the similarity if not identity in some meanings of a number of English and Ukrainian specific units of lexicon can not be treated as culturally/nationally biased, i.e., specific. Though it is not excluded that some of these notions may become specifically national in reference to certain languages of other than the European area.

A considerable number of nationally specific/culturally biased units of national lexicon have found their way to other languages in the lexical meaning and lingual form of the source language. It has happened as a result of borrowings and a long use of the source language units in the target language. Among the borrowings of the kind are some Ukrainian units of culturally biased/specific national lexicon as well. The most well-known of them are the mentioned already Cossack/Kozak, steppe and also borshch, Kyiv chicken, oblast, vulytsia, hryvnia. The English/American units of specific national lexicon, which have become internationalisms are many more. Amongst them are such well-known notions as бойкот, віскі, джентльмен, джинси, клуб, леді, мотель, нокаут, пікнік, пінчер, раунд, рекордсмен, ринґ, смокінґ, спікер, тариф, фут, ярд, джаз, рок-ен-рол, гот доґ.кока кола, чіпси, миля, Скотланд Ярд, etc.

As it may be observed, the units of culturally biased/specific national lexicon are rarely similar by their nature and meaning in either of the two languages. Consequently, there must also exist various approaches to expressing their meanings in the target language.

WAYS OF RENDERING THE MEANING OF THE NATIONALLY BIASED UNITS OF LEXICON

The choice of the way of approach to expressing the denotative meanings of the units of specifically national lexicon is strictly predetermined by some definite factors, which may be both of a lingual and extralingual nature. To these belong first of all the semantic and structural complexity (or similarity) of the units of the culturally biased specific national lexicon of the source language. As a result,

157the methods of translating may also be predetermined by the specific notion being new and not yet quite known as well as by its long tradition of usage in the target language. The choice of the method of translating may partly be influenced by the sphere of circulation of the specific notion in the source language. Last but not least this choice can also depend on the translator himself and upon the aim or purpose of translating/interpreting. Hence, one may consequently assume the existence of several ways of conveying the lexical meanings of the culturally biased units of national lexicon. Each of these ways can be considered quite reliable, if it provides the faithful expression of the main and specific sense of the source language unit in the target language.

Since the nature, the structure, the sphere of employment and the denotative meaning of different culturally biased units of national lexicon are rarely of the same semantic «extension», their methods of translating can not be uniform either. Taking into account or rather depending on the afore-mentioned factors, the following methods of conveying the meaning of specifically national units of lexicon can be recognized as quite reliable:

I. By Transcription or Transliteration Exclusively

The units of the nationally specific lexicon, whose meanings

are rendered at the phonological level, usually belong to genuine

internationalisms and comprise social and political units of lexicon in

the main (cf. lord, lady, mister, shilling, kozak, hryvnia, etc.). This can

_.o be observed on the following examples: New classified rates per word       Нові тарифи на рекламу в for ads in hryvnias in the Kyiv       гривнях за слово в газеті Post. «Київ Пост»

«It's a poor coloured woman's place and you are a grand gentleman from Cape Town.» (RAbrahams) «You're a supercilious half-baked snob.» (Cronin) Andrew put out some bottled beer and asked Christine to prepare sandwiches. (Ibid.)

Це кімната для бідної

кольорової жінки, а ти ж

великий джентльмен із

Кейптауна.

Ти насправді зарозумілий і

обмежений сноб.

Ендрю дістав кілька пляшок

пива і попросив Крістін

приготувати йому сандвічі.

2. By Transcription or Transliteration and Explication of Their Genuine Nationally Specific Meaning

In many a case the lingual form of a unit of nationally specific lexicon conveyed through transcription or transliteration can not provide a full expression of its lexical meaning. Then an additional explication of its sense becomes necessary. It happens when the unit/ notion of the culturally biased lexicon is introduced in the target language for the first time or when it is not yet known to the broad public of the target language readers/listeners. The explanation may be given either in the translated passage/speech flow, where the culturally biased unit is used or in a footnote r- when a lengthy explication becomes necessary: They took her to the Tower of London. (Jerome K.Jerome) Downing Street is guarded outside by a single policeman. (London Illustrated) As the dawn was just breaking he found himself close to

Covent Garden. (O.Wilde) He said that Wall Street and Threadneedle Street between them could stop the universe. (R.AIdington)

Вони показали їй стародавню лондонську фортецю Тауер. Резиденцію прем'єр-міністра Великої Британії охороняє один полісмен. Щойно стало розвиднятися, а він уже був неподалік від ринку Ковент-Ґарден. Він сказав, що Волл-Стріт і Треднідл-Стріт1 удвох (об'єднавши сили) спроможні зупинити всесвіт.

It goes without saying that the transcribed or transliterated forms of Downing Street, Covent Garden or Threadneedle Street can not be sufficient for many foreign readers to obtain a fairly correct idea of what really each of them denotes. Hence, some explication of their specific connotative meaning in footnotes becomes inevitable. Footnotes or lengthy explications should always be used when the culturally biased notions are not yet well-known in the target language. For example, surfing when only transliterated/transcribed as серфінґ will not express its denotative meaning which it in reality is - «the sport of riding waves into shore on a surfboard». Hence, a combined translation must be resorted to: серфінґ (ковзання на широкій овальній дошці по високій морській хвилі до берега); similarly with snow boarding which denotes спуск із гори на широкій лижві.

The kind of explication, naturally, can be acceptable in a dictionary but scarcely acceptable in a broader text. That's why foot notes become helpful here, though a frequent usage of them should be avoided as well, since footnotes may divert the reader's attention from the content of the passage/work in which the specific national notions occur.

1 Треднідл-Стріт - вулиця в лондонському Сіті, де розташовані кілька головних банків Великої Британії.

A combined translation may often be resorted to when a short excerpt or sentence contains some specific notions of the kind: A number of restaurants and caf-    У Києві чимало ресторанів та eterias in Kyiv specialize in varenyky (dumplings), kulish (a thick meal stew) and other dishes. (News from Ukraine) No. 11 Downing Street is

guarded outside by a single policeman too. (London Illustrated)

кафетеріїв, що спеціалізуються на приготуванні вареників, кулішу та інших страв. Будинок N 11 на Даунінг стріт (резиденція міністра фінансів Великої Британії) охороняється знадвору також одним полісменом

Anybody in this country can see from the definition above that вареники are not simply dumplings, i.e., small balls of dough which can be cooked in soup or stew but a piece of flat dough wrapped around some salted/sweetish curd with fresh egg boiled and served hot with butter and sour cream. Varenyky can also be dumplings wrapped around mashed potatoes/stewed sauerkaut, etc. And also boiled and served hot with butter or small pieces of fried bacon and onions respectively1. Neither is куліш something like a thick meal stew. Besides, kulish apart from some other features, not reflected in the translation above, is not always and not in all regions of Ukraine prepared thick, it may also be thin (soup-like).

3. By Descriptive Explaining/Explication Only For some reason or other the orthographic form of a considerable number of sense units belonging to the nationally specific lexicon of the source language can not be rendered into the target language. That happens mostly when the transcription/transliteration can not be helpful in expressing the sense of the culturally biased national unit, or when it might bring about an unnecessary ambiguity in the target language narration/text cf.: matron завгосп у навчальному закладі (суміщає економку і медсестру); Pilgrim Fathers Батьки-прочани - перші колоністи з Англії, що прибули 1620 року до Північної Америки на вітрильнику «Мейфлауер»;

1 Note: in some American restaurants Ukrainian varenyky are called ravioli (Ital.).

prorogation офіційне розпорядження монарха про відновлення/ закінчення сесії парламенту Великої Британії; quartermaster старшина-стерновий у морській піхоті (and also квартирмейстер) в англ. армії.

It goes without saying that such lenthy explications of «матрона» or «Батьки прочани» as well as «квартирмейстер» may be considered superfluous, as their use in translation would aggravate to some extent the elucidation of their proper meanings.

There is no need to emphasize, however, that such lengthy explanations of specifically national notions are always required in the text of the translation/interpretation. And not are all culturally biased/specific units of national lexicon are so «heavily» loaded with information so that they have to be explicated in a footnote. Quite often an explanation within the target language text may be sufficient enough too, as in the following examples: 1 thought of Phuong who would Я думав про Фуонґ, яка зараз

be haggling over the price of fish in the third street down on the left before going for her elevenses to the milk-bar. (G.Greene)

No coffins were available, so they wrapped George in a blanket and in the Union Jack. (RAIdington)

The Tommies were numbered, formed fours, right turned and marched away. (Ibid.)

I've got some shepherd's pie for lunch today - that you used to like so much. (A.Cronin)

He's upset because we don't run Jim Crow buses. (B.Gerry)

Усі бачили, як ми у церкві на рушник стали. (П. Мирний) Пісок був теплий, як нагріта лежанка. (С. Руданський)

відчайдушне торгується за рибу на третій вулиці, в центрі лівої частини міста, перш ніж зайти до молочного бару біля одинадцятої і сяк-так/нашвидкоруч поснідати У них не було готових домовин, тож вони замотали Джорджа у ковдру та в прапор Великої Британії.

Рядових солдатів

порахували, вишикували по

чотири, повернули праворуч і

відвели геть.

Але ж я приготувала

картопляну запіканку з

м'ясом і цибулею, яку ти

колись так любив.

Він дуже засмутився,що в нас

не ходять автобуси тільки

для негрів.

Everybody saw me and you

being married in the church.

The sand was warm like a clay

stove of a country cottage.

161As can be seen, not all the details constituting the semantic structure of the translated above units of specific national lexicon have been fully conveyed in English and Ukrainian translations. Thus, the «clay stove» does not sufficiently explicate the proper role of лежанка, for any stove predominantly implies its being used for cooking. In reality, however, the «clay stove» was designed in Ukrainian country cottages (khata) for heating and wanning purposes only. Similarly with the former (historical) specific American racists' contemptuous unit «Jim Crow buses», which is not simply автобус для негрів because «Jim Crow» was a contemptuous name for a Negro. When translated into Ukrainian simply as негр (автобус для негрів) the collocation would loose its connotative (contemptuous) meaning which is inherent in it. The same uan be said about the Ukrainian culturally biased notion of рушник which is certainly not quite equivalent to the descriptive meaning of «embroidered in national colours towel», because it is an indispensable item in every folk rite like birthday, weddings or burials. Besides, рушник is used in Ukraine on any other solemn or ceremonial occasion. That is why its translation in the above sentence is not fully faithful. To convey the complexity of meaning contained by the national lexicon units of the kind, footnotes may be resorted to as well. That is one more proof of the difficulties which the student sometimes has while dealing with some specifically national units of lexicon, which are always culturally biased notions.

4. By Translation of Componental Parts and Additional Explication of the Units of the Nationally Biased Lexicon

The proper meaning of some specific units of the national lexicon can be faithfully rendered by way of regular translation of all or some of their componental parts and explication of the denotative meaning pertaining to the source language unit. The combined approach in the treatment of this group of specific national lexicon units is called forth by the complexity of meaning inherent in the source language units. It is also due to the inadequacy of componental translation, which does not reveal the essentials that are absolutely indispensable for correct comprehension of the real meaning of the culturally biased lexical units of the source language.

Due to this way of rendering the meanings of this kind of units practically involves two simultaneous performances. The first is a regular translation of the main, if not all, componental parts and the next, which follows it, is a more or less exhaustive explanation of the essence pertained to the specific national element of the source language. The extent of the explanation in the target language is predetermined by the nature of the specific unit of national lexicon, by the purpose of translation, and also by some characteristic possibilities of the text in which the unit is used. When translating at language level (out of context) the explanation may be practically unrestricted: Battle of Britain Битва за Англію (повітряні бої англійської авіації з гітлерівськими бомбардувальниками над територією Великої Британії, особливо в районі Лондона і Південної Англії 1940-1941рр.); bull's eye бичаче око (круглий великий різноколірний м'ятний льодяник); collective membership тимчасове колективне членство в лейбористській партії (наприклад, на час виборів) профспілок, кооперативних товариств; члени цих організацій автоматично стають членами лейбористської партії); ginger ale, імбірний ель/імбірне ситро (базолкогольний газований напій); inner Cabinet «внутрішній кабінет» (кабінет у вузькому складі) до якого входять керівники найважливіших міністерств на чолі з прем'єр-міністром.

Such and the like explanations can not, naturally, be made in the text of a translation, hence they are given usually in the footnotes:

«Well, I can tell you anything        «Ну, я тобі можу розповісти that is in an English bluebook,      все, що написано в англійській Harry.» (O.Wilde) «Синій книзі. »1 Labour Day was past, but            День Праці2 був позаду summer still pressed down on      (минув), а літня спека the city. (M.Wilson)                       продовжувала зморювати. Frances wanted very little: а         Франсіс хотіла зовсім небагато: salad, toast melba, no wine,         салат, грінки «мельба»3, без only ice water. (A.Cronin)              вина, а тільки воду з льодом.

When the lexical meaning of the unit of specific national lexicon is not so complex, it is usually explained in the target language text. The explanation, of course, is not always as exhaustive as it can be in a footnote:

Keep your fingers crossed for       Щоб мені була вдача, склади me! (M.Wilson) навхрест (хрестиком) _______                                пальці!.

1 «Синя книга» - збірник документів, що видається з санкції парламенту Великої Британії в синіх палітурках.

2 «День Праці» - офіційне свято в США (відзначається у перший понеділок вересня).

3 На ім'я австралійської співачки Н. Мельби.

163(I) Knew the Professor before he turned into a wooly West-Ender. (A.Cronin) Though veneered by his thirty years in the Civil Service - he had worked his way from boy clerk to principal - Gill was human underneath. (A.Cronin) I will be in the Ladies Gallery tomorrow night at half past eleven. (O.Wilde) Левкові чи не вперше за своє парубкування стало чомусь тоскно. (М. Стельмах) Згадав він поради свої... і сільські весілля, на яких він грав весільного батька. (М. Коцюбинський)

Я знав цього професора ще до того, як він став багатієм аристократичного Вест-Енда. Пройшовши за тридцять років служби в державному апараті від розсильного до завідуючого відділом, Джіл у душі і все ж залишався людиною. Завтра о пів на дванадцяту я буду на жіночій гальорці в палаті громад. It was probably for the first time in all his mature boyhood that Levko felt somewhat dull. He recollected the pieces of advice he had once given - and the rural weddings at which he would perform the honorary duty of the missing bridegroom's or bride's father.

A fuller and more detailed explanation of the kind of nationally specific notions as given above is not desirable, since it would considerably extend the text of the translation. That is why the student should be warned not to unnecessarily enlarge the explanation of the culturally biased notions, unless required for their exhaustive and correct comprehension. Laconism, therefore, should be the prevailing principle when dealing with the kind of specific national elements, but not to the detriment of explicitness/lucidity and faithfulness of translation.

5. By Ways of Word-for-Word or Loan Translation

When the componental parts making up the units of the nationally specific lexicon are at the same time the main transparent bearers of their proper sence expressed through their meaning, a faithful translation of such sense units may be achieved either by way of word-for-word translation or by way of loan translation. Each of these ways can be well exemplified in English and Ukrainian.

A.Translated word-for-word are the specific national units of lexicon as first (second, third) reading перше (друге, трете) читання (офіційне внесення законопроекту в англійський парламент); secondary grammar school (середня граматична школа); стінгазета wall newspaper; студентське наукове товариство Students' Scientific/Research Society; щоденник (учнівський) student's record book.

В. The denotative meaning of many units of the specific national lexicon may be rendered by way of loan translating as well: from English: Salvation Army (USA, Gr. Britain) Армія порятунку; the Order of the Garter/of the Bath орден Підв'зки/Лазні; the Order of St. Michael and St. George орден св.Михаїла і св.Георгія; fan club клуб прихильників/уболівальників (артиста, спортсмена тощо); from Ukrainian: орден Ярослава Мудрого the Order of Yaroslav the Wise/Yaroslav the Wise Order; орден св. княгині Ольги Київської the Order of St. Olga Princess of Kyivan Rus. The denotative meaning of these and many other English/Ukrainin specific units of national lexicon of the kind will undoubtedly be correctly understood by the target-language speakers. And yet neither of the two ways of translating can often provide an exhaustive expression of all the extralingual details of meaning inherent in most of the units in the source language. Thus, the aim and purpose of issuing our «wall newspaper», which was a regular practice in all state institutions of the former USSR as well as in this country today would scarcely be understood by the British or Americans. Neither do most of our people understand the whole complexity of meaningful semes pertained, for example, to the British Order of the Bath. Hence, such culturally biased notions are to be explicated more detailed in the target language. .

A considerable number of specific units of the national lexicon, both in English and in Ukrainian, consist of the component parts with seemingly transparent lexical meaning. But when conveyed verbally or word-for-word, however, they may lose their proper meaning together with their nationally specific nature. That happens, because the real connotative meaning inherent in the seems, bearing the national peculiarity can not be achieved via these methods of translation. For example, the «House of Lords» when translated as будинок лордів completely perverts the real meaning of the collocation as «House» here, like in the «Upper House» (or simply the «House» when capitalized) always preserves the connotative meaning of палата. Likewise with the «House of Commons» where both components are also endowed with a nationally peculiar meaning and can not be translated as будинок простих людей but only as «Палата громад».

This method of translating is also widely employed when dealing with former Sovietisms as «Герой Соціалістичної Праці», «соціалістичне змагання», etc. Here too the verbal translating of «праця», «змагання» like other notions of the kind would completely distort the proper sense of the collocations which they are components of. The variant *Hero of Socialist Work* would also be inadequate stylistically, because the componental part «work» belongs to the neutral style lexicon. Similarly in case with the former term «socialist competition» in which the noun component had nothing to do with the meaning or «competition» proper. Therefore, a faithful translation of the kind of units of lexicon is predetermined by the correct choice of equivalent units for the semes bearing the national peculiarity. The latter may be expressed both verbally/word-for-word and by means of translation loans, which should be resorted to when verbal translating ruins the national peculiarity of the source language culturally biased units. The number of English genuine translation loans in Ukrainian and Ukrainian in English is considerable. So is the number of verbal and word-for-word translations, as can be seen from some of the examples below: English: cornflakes кукурудзяні пластівці; English Industrial Revolution промисловий переворот в Англії (18-19 століть); skyscraper хмарочос;,supermarket універсальний магазин (універсам); brain washing промиваная мозку (ідеологічна обробка); oat-flakes вівсяні пластівці (геркулес). Ukrainian: карбованець karbovanets', гривня hryvnia, Верховна Рада Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's Parliament), Герой України Hero of Ukraine; заслужений діяч мистецтв України the Merited Worker of Arts/Ukraine's Merited Worker of Arts; голова районної/обласної Ради народних депутатів, Chairman of the District/Region Rada of People's Deputies; медаль за трудову доблесть the Medal for Labour Distinction; орден Богдана Хмельницького 1,11,111 ступеня the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi (First, Second, Third Degree).

It is worth mentioning that some of the above-given and other Ukrainian units of the kind may be translated into English either as asyndetic structures or as syndetic (prepositional) word-groups. The latter are absolutely predominant in conversational English, the former are more common in written (or official) language: заслужений учитель/артист України the Honoured Teacher/Artist of Ukraine or Ukraine's Honoured Teacher/Artist; медаль «За трудову відзнаку» the medal for Labour Distinction or the Labour Distinction Medal. But: герой України Hero of Ukraine.

6. Translating by Means of Semantic Analogies

Despite the differences in economic, social, political, cultural and in many cases also geographical/environmental conditions, under which the nation of the source language and that of the target language develop, some peculiar notions in both the languages may be identical or similar/analogous in their meaning and functioning. It happens due to the existence of common routine or habitual actions, common occupations, social services, food, etc., in these two language communities.

The appearance of analogous units in the national layer of lexicon of different languages may also be the result of bilateral or multilateral contacts and influences to which the nations may have been exposed for centuries. Consequently, similar/analogous national notions in different languages may appear as a result of direct or indirect (through an intermediary language) borrowings. No wonder that analogous units of national lexicon directly correlate in the source language and in the target language in their denotative meaning and mostly in the common sphere of their functioning - social, cultural, political, etc. Though far from all the analogies ever possess the absolute complexity of meanings inherent in the source language units. The connotative divergences and sometimes the spheres of use may not always fully coincide in the target language as can be seen from the following few examples. English: the City/Town Board of Education міський відділ освіти; pop com кукурудзяні баранці; gingerbread імбірний пряник, коврижка; shop-steward цеховий староста (голова профкому); stewed fruit узвар/компот; Well done! Well done! (sports) Мо-лод-ці! Мо-лод-ці!; come! come! Вгамуйся, заспокойся/ цить, цить, не плач. Ukrainian: залік preliminary/qualifying test/examination; дипломна робота graduation essay/project; курсова робота yearly essay/project; доцент principal lecturer/ reader, associate professor; курси вдосконалення refresher course; підвищення кваліфікації in-service training course; кватирка hinged window pane/pilot window; консультація tutorial.

No doubt some of the English /Ukrainian units in the list above are only functionally approximate analogies (cf. доцент principal reader/lecturer reader, associate professor, кватирка hinged window pane). Their complete denotative meaning can naturally be understood only from a larger context. Functionally analogous are also some nouns in the forms of address in both the languages as shown below:

Sir, she, being his wife will not,     Пане, їй, як дружині, згідно according to custom, mention      звичаю не можна називати ім'я his name. (M.R.Anand) свого чоловіка.

Грай, кобзарю] Лий, шинкарю] (Т. Шевченко) «То, прошу панів, наше пасовисько...» (І. Франко) «Oh, I beg your pardon. I'm terribly sorry, gentlemen» (Ibid.)

Innkeeper, pour! Play, minstrel, play!

Please, sirs, that's our pasture.

«Ax, перепрошую вас, дуже перепрошую, панове...»

As can be seen, the choice of an appropriate analogy in the target language is greatly influenced by the national/cultural traditions (cf. пани sirs/gentlemen; кобзар minstrel). The use of various analogiesin the target language is largely because of the existence of many translations and often repeated usage of them. Especially strong is the influence of translation of belles-lettres works and films, let alone the large scale Study of the source language at our schools as a foreign language. Under the influence of these and other factors the co-occurrence of some units of particular national lexicon in the target language may increase considerably. These units may soon become well-known to the majority of the target language speakers. It is in this way that many English and American culturally biased notions have become familiar in this country and some our culturally biased words (notions) have penetrated into the English and other languages. Many of these units of the specifically national lexicon have become regular internationalisms (cf. hryvnia, kozak, Kyiv chicken, borshch, etc.). Similarly the notions like долар, шилінґ, Торі, бренді, фунт, etc, and now also бартер, ваучер, дискета, транш, дефолт, аудит, саміт, комп'ютер, менеджмент, рокенрол, поп-музика and many others from the English/American culturally biased lexicon belong not only to our active vocabulary. They have penetrated into other languages as well despite the fact that they are still clearly recognized by the target language speakers as foreign borrowigns.

Sometimes a faithful translation of analogous units of the peculiar national lexicon can be achieved only with the help of an additional explications as in the examples like special school спеціальна школа (початкова або середня школа для дітей із психічними/ фізичними вадами); summer school літня школа (курс лекцій, семінарів, практичних занять для підвищення кваліфікації іноземних вчителів та студентів); caravanning проводити літній час/відпустку, подорожуючи в будиночку-причепі на колесах. - •

It is easy to notice that the denotative meaning of the first two of the above-given culturally biased units of national lexicon are practically identical in English and Ukrainian. The difference is in a few extralingual details only. Thus, «summer school» in Gr. Britain is not free of charge. Besides, it functions during the summer holidays when the rooms in schools and universities are not occupied by the students. One can assume, therefore, that the notions like these are only conventionally different . They are closer to regular semantic equivalents, though not devoid of some extralingual details in the source language. Our students must be aware of such differences when dealing with the kind of units of the specifically national lexicon of the source language. This can not be said, naturally, about caravanning, which is a purely American phenomenon as yet.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS-WORK AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Pick up the units of the English specifically national lexicon in the sentences below. Define their sphere of usage and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. You know as I do that some students are capable of making you, the teachers, look bad. These are atypical students. Some of our best lessons fall flat because of these students. (A.Dodding) 2. Some ignorant jackass on Fleet Street has got together a list of cures by Stillman. (A.Cronin) 3. Sir Robert was surprised and said that this Argentine scheme (Canal Company Scheme) was known to be a commonplace Stock Exchange swindle. (O.Wilde) 4. At this point of the story enters the Great Detective, specially sent by or through Scotland Yard. (St. Leacock) 5. You must certainly send it (the painting) next year to Grosvenor. (O.Wilde) 6. He himself had a job in Whitehall «of national importance». (R.AIdington) 7. Do you realize he's the first Distinguished Service Cross we've had in this town? (U.Gow, A.Dusseau) 8. The serious part of the dinner comprised roast beef and Yorkshire pudding, being served as sweet course before the meal. (Bennet) 9. Carrie established a little portable gas stove for the preparation of small lunches, oysters, Welsh rarebits, and the like... (T.Dreiser) 10.1 can't tell one tune from another. I don't know «Home Sweet Home» from «God save the King». (S.Leacock) 11. An alderman from Hampshire was reported as saying that «the recommended increase in school-joining age would possibly be raised to six years». (Herald Intern. Tribune) 12. «Come, come» he said, «you are flurried, Mr. Lockwood». (E.Bronte) 13. And potbellied little coloured children fought hunger and sleepness while Lanny tried to

169teach them the three R's. (P.Abrahams) 14. The lady looked somewhat surprised. His Lordship arrived first escorting Mrs. Mallaby. (A.Christie) 15. Down Whitehall, under the grey easterly sky, thelow-ers of Westminster came for a second in view. 16. And, removing their hats, they passed the Cenotaph. (J.Galsworthy) 17. She was busy loading the table with high tea. 18. He was afraid that as K.C.he would get no work. (S.Maugham) 19. Mr. Huges was on the Bench. (Gordon) 20. I can get you a seat in the Distinguished Strangers' Gallery. (.J.Galsworthy)

Exercise II. Definite the ways in which the Ukrainian units of the national lexicon are translated (or should be translated) intoEngflsh.

A. 1. President Leonid Kuchma issued a decree obliging college graduates to work in the State sector after graduation. 2. The Ukrainian Nuclear Power Industry Workers' Union addressed their demand to President Leonid Kuchma, Verkhovna Rada, and the Cabinet ol Ministers. 3. Resulting from the sale of 60 per cent of an emission of municipal loan bonds totalling 15.000 hryvnias, the Kharkiv municipality will purchase 20 used Mercedes minibuses. 4. She is one of the 20 top ballet stars who will take part in the Christmas season of international ballet at London Albert Hall, opening on Boxing Day. 5. Photo reproductions in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg show huge burial mounds of Chernihiv princes and boyars of the 11th-12th centuries. 6. The desire to create, invent and experiment leads schoolchildren of Lviv and the Lviv Region to the «Evrika» Junior Academy of Sciences». 7. In 1931 Arkadiy Filipenko was enrolled at the robitfak, worker's faculty, under the Lysenko Music and Drama School. 8. His first teacher - a kindly old herdsman - taught him to play on a simple reedpipe, sopilka, when he was only nine. 9. Then music and songs were performed by the Trio of Bandore Players. 10. Both families call the groom and the bride «knyaz and knyahynya» (prince and princess), the best men are «boyaryns», the bridesmaids are «druzhky». 11. The occasion was celebrated by Ukrainian-families with kutya (boiled peeled barley or wheat/rice with honey ar»d ground popy seeds). 12. There are several types of pysanky. one when the egg is painted in one colour; when with the aid of a special sharp tool one scratches the pictures on the painted egg (such-an egg is called «dryapanka» or «scrobanka»); when one puts thin fayers of wax on the egg while dipping the latter in paint, usually going from light colors to dark («krapanka»); when the egg is painted with oil paint («malyovanka»); and, finally, when with the help of a special instrument one draws a picture with wax, then fills it with different colours.

B. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following traditional folk rites, customs, and religious feasts of our people:

1. commemoration of ancestors; 2. Whitsuntide/Whitsunday, Pentacost; 3. the feast of Presentation; 4. to bless water; 5. stuffed cabbage (leafs); 6. Holy supper; 7. pious and righteous; 8. Epiphany; 9. the feast of the Annunciation; 10. Warm Alexis; 11. miracle-workers; 12. Willow Sunday/Palm Sunday; 13. «Passion Friday»; 14. Holy Shroud; 15. the Easter Matins; 16. the High mess; 17. unleavened bread; 18. Seeing off Sunday; 19. Forty Martyrs; 20. water nymphs; 21. Maccabees' Day; 22. the Feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord; 23. the Feast of the Assumption of the Holy Virgin; 24. Twelfth-day; 25. the pre-Christmas fast; 26. The Birthday of the most Holy Mother of God; 27. The Elevation of the Holy Cross; 28. The Feast of Intercession of the Most Holy Mother of God; 29. The Archangel Michael's Day; 30. St. John the Baptist.

C. Read the Ukrainian passage below, identify the culturally biased notions in it and translate it into English.

Іран живе за власним відліком часу і має свій календар (сонячна хиджра), яким встановлено новий рік 20 березня -дня переходу пророка Могаммада з Мекки в Медину 621 року. Хоча Іран є однією з мусульманських країн, проте святкування Нового року (Ноуруза) походить ще з доісламських часів. Ноуруз (в буквальному перекладі «новий день») припадає на період весняного рівнодення, що означає з давніх давен у багатьох народів пробудження природи. Наші пращури, дажбожителі, теж пов'язували з весною своє новолітування. За іранським звичаєм на святковому столі має бути сім речей, назви яких починаються з літери «с» (за перським правописом): часник, гроші (щоб наступний рік був багатий), яблука тощо. Обов'язково присутні дзеркало (аби в ньому було видно лише добро), живі рибки у воді (символ життя), Коран (священна книга мусульман) і миска з зеленими паростками пшениці. І у нас, в Україні, існує звичай до Великодня посеред столу разом із пасками ставити проросле збіжжя. Традиційними до Ноуруза вважаються також добре знайомі українцям писанки. Цей давній звичай фарбувати або розписувати яйця має глибокі корені, що беруть свій початок з дохристиянських та доісламських часів (в Ірані, як і в Україні, яйце є символом життя). І хоча техніка розпису яєць в Ірані відрізняється від виготовлення традиційних українських писанок,

171сам факт свідчить про спільне в культурі двох народів.

Exercise III. Read carefully the sentences containing some American/British nationally peculiar notions and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

A. 1. USAir has gone to «sporks», a combination of fork and spoon to cut down on the number of utensils used. The USA Today asked some Road Warriors who are best described as «grumpy gourmands» because they probably eat more meals on jets than at home. Here's what they say: «The scrambled eggs were OK, moist with decent flavour. The waffles were almost soggy. The coffee was good, but they always serve it in a Styrofoam cup, which drives me crazy.» (J.Y.Oakton) 2) «Breakfast was a Cheddar cheese omelette, it not only appeared to be stable - as compared to some that swim in unidentifiable liquid - but it also tasted like Cheddar cheese and eggs. It was enough cholesterol to have caused a block in my arteries, but it was good.» 3) «I had the grilled chicken, it was a good portion, but it was dry with a fake, smoked flavour. The salad was fresh and cresp. But it was served in a bowl, not on a plate. The wheat roll was moist and served with real butter. For dessert, I had chocolate cake. But, it was too sweet, which was good.» (K.W.) 4) «I had two choices for breakfast: cold cereal or an omelet. I had Quaker Oat Square, a small carton of 2 milk, low-flat peach yoghurt, orange juice and a banana.» 5) «This time, the plate had an ample amount of grapes, pineapple and orange slices, but only one strawberry. I didn't eat the yoghurt or the dry cereal, but I did have a warm blueberry muffin.» 6) «They served a health-food concoction that tasted like the cardboard box it came in. It was a sort of corn-flavored, crispy, chiplike thing, it had no flavour at all. We also had fruit. I like that they serve milk, but I hate that low-fat stuff, it insipid - all airline food is insipid.»

B. Translate the list of meals of a common American restaurant.

1. Traditional barbeque foods: smoked brisket and ham, or turkey; pig picking pork, smoked chicken wings, baby back ribs (half-slab, full slab), spare ribs (short ends, long ends); grilled chicken and greens; Texas chicken, a boneless breast grilled with spicy Texas sauce, topped with thinly sliced smoked brisket and melted Cheddar cheese; burnt ends, smoked apple sausage or brisket. Smoked ribs... tender meaty ribs basket with maple - mustard, glaze, slow roasted and then lightly grilled; hickory chicken... 1/2 chicken smoked and basted with the original BBQ (barbecue) sauce; burnt ends... tender chunks of twice-smoked brisket drenched in our famous sauce;

Texas-size beef ribs marinated, slow-smoked and flame-grilled. 2. Garnishes: BBQ baked beans, cole slaw and potato salad, whole wheat, white bread or buns, pickled and barbecue sauce. 3. Apetizers: cheese and assorted crackers, French onion soup, onion straws, corn fritters (hot and fresh long ends), a hickory-grinned chicken breast sliced and served atop, fresh veggies and greens, with our honey-mustard dressing; assorted relishes; vegetable tray with dip. 4. Accompaniments: dirty rice, tossed salads. 5. Desserts: creamy cheesecake, chocolate peanut butter, ice-cream pie; old fashioned cheesecake, apple fritters served hot with powdered sugar and sweet honey butter.

Exercise IV. Suggest appropriate English variants for the following units of Ukrainian specific national lexicon:

голова колгоспу/сільради, дружинник, суботник, січовик, січові стрільці, запорожець, герої Крутів, тризуб, універсали (Центр. Ради); залік, залікова книжка, відкритий урок, педрада, табель успішності, похвальна грамота/лист, курсова/дипломна робота; кобза, кобзар, бандурист, гопак, повзунець(танець), веснянки, коломийки, боярин, дружка, весільний батько, бублик, вареники, галушки, голубці, бабка, коржі з маком/шулики, борщ, куліш, ряжанка, узвар, грубка, лежанка, піч (у хаті), скриня, свитка, кожух, кептар, вишиванка, плахта, чобітки, льох, хата, гривня, карбованець, десятина, «бігунець», профорг студентської групи, крашанка, писанка, думи, «Ще не вмерла Україна».

Exercise V. Explain the proper meaning of the particular English national notions below and translate them into Ukrainian.

A. №10. Downing Street, Whitehall, the Upper House, the Commons, the woolsack, speaker, teller, whip (Parliament), division of Parliament, the White paper, the Stock Exchange; John Bull, the British Lion; lobby; ladyship, lordship, peerage, coroner, proctor, bacon, Yorkshire pudding, frankfurters, hot dogs; ale, gin; crown, farthing, guinea, sixpence, private/independent school, comprehensive (grammar, modern) school, the 6th form; jeans, jersey, pullover, leggings, stretches, tweed; calumet, wigwam; bushel, foot, inch, pint, sheriff.

B. Suggest possible ways for faithful conveying the meaning of peculiarly American government offices and their principal officials in the passage below. Identify the ways of translation which you employ for the purpose.

The United States, unlike most other countries of Europe, Asia

173and America has no «government» but only an «administration» or to be more precise, a «president's administration». The latter in its turn has no ministries and consequently no «ministers» but departments and secretaries performing the functions of ministries and ministers. Traditionally established in the USA are the following thirteen departments: Agricultural Department, Commerce Department, Defence Department, Educational Department, Energy Department, Health and Human Services Department, Housing and Urban Development Department, Interior Department, Justice Department, Treasury Department, and Veterans Affairs Department. Each of these government institutions is headed respectively by an appointed leader, as announced by the presidential secretary. The only exception is the Justice Department which is headed not by a secretary but by the Attorney General. Almost all Secretaries have their Assistant Secretaries performing the functions of deputy ministers in other European and American governments. Exceptions from the list include only four departments which have Deputy Secretaries instead. These are Commerce Department, Housing and Urban Development Department, Educational Department and Treasury Department. Still other departments in the U.S. administration government have Under Secretaries performing the duties of assistant secretaries which correspond to the government positions occupied by deputy ministers in other countries. To these departments belong the Commerce Department and Veterans Affairs Department. Secretary of the Interior Department, contrary to all others, has an Inspector General for the first assistant. But certainly the most peculiar are the duties of the Interior Department which include building roads, and overseeing the national park system, and not keeping law and order and fighting criminals, which the ministries of the interior are responsible for in other countries. These functions are performed in the U.S.A. by the F.B.I. (Federal Bureau of Investigation).

Exercise VI. Pick out the nationally specific English notions in the text below and then translate them in viva voce into Ukrainian.

The former Beatle Paul McCartney was awarded a knighthood in the New Year's honours list. Among other showbiz figures receiving honors. Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, the composer of «Evita», «Phantom of the Opera» and «Jesus Christ Superstar» becomes Lord Lloyd Webber allowing him to sit in the House of Lords. Among others recognized: The actress Joan Collins, best known for her role as Alexis in the television show «Dynasty», received an QBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire), white the playwright Alan Ayckbourn was knighted. Frederick Forsyth, whose best-sellers include «The Day of the Jackal», becomes a Commander of the Order of the.BriBsh Empire, which entitles him to add the initials CBE after his name. The racing driver Damon Hill, the current Formula One world champion, was given an QBE for services to auto racing, Exercise VII. Read through the text on the British Parliament below and translate it point by point in viva voce into Ukrainian.

The Glimpse of Great Britain and Its Parliament Life

1. Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland as the country is officially called ranks among the oldest constitutional monarchies in Europe. The country's first constitution, the Magna Charta, was signed under the pressure of her Parliament by the despotic King John Lackland, son of King Richard the Lion Hearted, as far back as June 10,1215. The Magna Charta had a great influence on the country's parliamentary life and traditions which have remained unchanged for centuries. Thus, the Palace of Westminster where Parliament is held and which was built anew and rebuilt for several times is in the same place for more than 1,000 years. Besides the Parliament consists of two Chambers or Houses - the Upper Chamber or the House of Lords and the lower Chamber or the House of Commons.

2. The Upper House consists of over 1,100 Members belonging to one of the three unequally represented groups of peers: 1. Hereditary Peers. Marquises, Earls, Viscounts, Barons (almost half of all peers), and Peeresses in their own right (ab 20); 2. Life Peers and Life Peeresses; 3. Archbishops (2) and Senior Bishops (20).

The House of Lords is headed by the Lord Chancellor who is also the minister of Justice and Head of the High Court.

3. The House of Commons consists of 659 elected MPs (1997 elections). The House is headed by the Speaker. The number of seats in the House, however, covers the need of only two-thirds of the elected MPs, the rest using the «front benches», the «cross benches» and the «back benches».

4. There are nine Royal British orders of Knighthood. The highest of them is the order of the Garter, which was founded by King Edward III in 1348. It consists of two parts - a collar gold chain worn around the neck with St. George killing the Dragon, and an eight-pointed star with the words Honi sort qui таї у pense (in French) meaning: Shame on them who think badly. The order is conferred to

175the members of the Royal family and 25 knights. The only commoner to have received the order was Sir Winston Churchill in 1957. This order gives the bearer the right to be buried in Westminster Abbey. The next important order is that of the Bath established during the reign of Henry IV (1399-1413). The name of the order comes from the ceremony of bathing (the symbol of purity) before being given. There are three different degrees of the order, the highest being the first: 1) G.C.B. (Grand Cross of the Bath); 2) K.C.B. (Knight Commander of the Bath), 3) C.B. (Commander of the Bath). The highest military award in Great Britain is the Victoria Cross instituted by Queen Victoria in 1856 to mark the victory in the Crimean War. It is a bronze Maltese Cross with a Lion in its centre and the inscription «For Valour» under it. The cross is made from the metal of the Russian guns captured in Sevastopol during the Crimean War in 1855. 5. Several traditional ceremonies are held in the capital of Great Britain attracting the attention of many Londoners and their numerous domestic and foreign quests. One of them observed every day is the changing of the Household Guards quartered in the Chelsea and Wellington Barracks near the Buckingham Palace. The Brigade of Guards of the Queen (and the Royal family body-guards) consists of two regiments representing the nationalities of the United Kingdom. The English Grenadiers wear the bear skin caps twenty inches high. The Scots Guards wear a wide black ribbon on the back of their uniform colour 15 cm wide and 25 cm long.

All the Guards wear scarlet or red tunics and black trousers except the Scots Guards wearing their traditional regimental cloth. The Irish Guards wear a triple row of brass buttons and distinctive plumes. The second ceremonial event which can be seen at 11 a.m. every weekday and at 10 a.m. on Sundays is Mounting the Guard. In this ceremony the Household Cavalry (the Royal .and Life Guards) take part. They wear breast and back shiny plates made of steel armour. The third ceremony is observed only once a year on the second Saturday in June at ab. 11.15a.m. and is called Trooping the Colour. The ceremony marks the «official» birthday of the Queen and presents an inspection parade of the Queen's own troops. This spectacular ceremony with the Queen riding side-saddle on a highly trained horse ahead of the Guards is watched by many hundreds of

people.

Among other old traditions the most prominent are the ceremony of the Keys which is over 700 years old (since 1215 when King John was forced to sign the Magna Charta) and Lord Mayor's Show. The latter goes back to the mayoralty of Richard (Dick) Whittington, who was mayor four times (1396,1397,1406 and 1419). The Lord Mayor rides from the City in a splendid six horses-spanned coach through the streets of London and stops at Law Courts where he is presented to the Lord Chief of Justice, who hands him his sword of office after receiving a solemn promise to carry out his duties faithfully. The procession4hen continues to Westminster, and then returns to the Mansion House, the official residence of the Lord Mayor.

TEXTS FOR INDEPENDENT CLASS AND HOME TRANSLATION

Exercise VIII. Read the stories A, B, C, D, E below, pick out the units of the English culturally biased lexicon and translate the stories into Ukrainian.

A. AN ENGLISHMAN'S DAY

An Englishman's day - and who better to describe it than an Englishman's wife? It begins when, ignoring me, he sits down to breakfast with his morning paper. As he scans the headlines (or the racing results) there is nothing he likes better than his favourite breakfast of cornflakes with milk and sugar (porridge if he lives in the North) followed by fried bacon and eggs, marmalade and toast, the whole accompanied by tea or coffee. But whether he in fact gets such a meal depends on the state of my housekeeping budget! After breakfast, except on Sundays and (in many cases) Saturdays which are holidays, he sets off to work by train, tube, car, motor scooter, motor bike or even on his own two feet. The time he sets out depends in large degree upon whether he is what might colloquially be termed a «striver» (one who works himself), a «driver» (one who sees..that others works) or a «thriver» (one who profits from others work). If he is a «striver», he will jostle along with thousands like him on the 7.20, probably still reading his paper (or somebody else's) and studying the successes (or otherwise) of his favourite team.

The «drivers» customarily depart about an hour later while the «thrivers» travel up to the City in great style about an hour later. But be he «striver», «driver» or «thriver»-, he will enjoy his tea or coffee break around about 11. The tea or coffee is usually brought to the factory bench or office desk.

Then, at mid-day, everything stops for lunch. Most offices and small shops close for an hour, say from 1 to 2, and the city pavements are thronged with people on their way to cafes. Factory workers usually eat in their canteens.

The usual mid-day meal usually consists of two courses - a meat course accompanied by plenty of vegetables, followed by a sweet dish, perhaps fruit pudding and custard with tea or coffee to finish. Most Englishmen like what they call «good plain food, not messed about with». They must be able to recognize what they are eating. Otherwise they are likely to refuse it. Usually they like beef steaks, chops, roast beef and Yorkshire pudding and fried fish and chipped potatoes.

They are in the main not overfond of soup, remarking that it fills them without leaving sufficient room for the more important meat course. Then back to work again, with another break in the middle of the afternoon, once again for tea or coffee, sometimes with a cake or biscuit.

The working day finishes at time between 4 and 6, with the «thrivers» usually first home and the «strivers» last. On arrival home, many Englishmen seem to like to inspect their gardens before their evening meal.

This goes under various names - tea, high tea, dinner or supper depending upon its size and also the social standing of those eating it. Usually a savoury meat course is followed by stewed fruit or cake and tea. His evening meal over, the Englishman might do a bit of gardening and then have a walk to the «local» for a «quick one». The «local» means the nearest beer house while a «quick one» means a drink (alcoholic, of course!) taking anything from half-an-hour to three hours to imbibe! There is plenty of lively, congenial company at the «local» and he can play darts, dominoes, billiards or discuss the weather or the current situation.

But if the Englishman stays at home, he might listen to the radio, watch television, talk, read or pursue his favourite hobby. Then at any time between 10 and 12 he will have his «nightcap» - a drink accompanied by a snack - and then off to bed ready for tomorrow. (S. Andrews)

B. You Say Pasta, We Say Noodle It's too soon to declare peace in the world's pasta wars. But the combatants finally sat down together at the table. U.S. pasta-makers have been angered over European Union subsidies, which sometimes made Italian pasta cheaper than American brands on U.S. grocery shelves. Afew months ago, the U.S. International Trade Commission decided there was merit to American pastamakers' com-

plaints about being hurt by Italian and Turkish imports. No settlement has been reached yet. Italy's MenconLwas quick to recall how national pride was pricked earlier this year by a claim from some U.S. experts that pasta could be bad for some people, especially the overweight. Focusing on the common goal of increasing pasta consumption, savvy spaghetti sellers aren't overlooking any market. C. Fast Food Burgers

Two quick service restaurants specializing in burgers are attracting locals and foreigners alike. If you're looking for a tasty, cheap meal in a convenient location, Kentucky Beirut Chicken and Boston Burger, both located in the center of Kyiv, measure up Kentucky Beirut Chicken wins on the burger front. Their Lebanese-seasoned burgers - it's a secret recipe, - are crave-indicing. They come on crisp buns with a variety of fixings that are in the plate option. A plate is like getting a full meal deal at McDonald's, only in Kyiv it includes a hamburger or cheesburger, French fries, pickles and coleslaw. KBC's drawback is Boston Burger's saving - French fries. While KBC's tend to be soggy and too cool, Boston Burger's are perfect, string-like morsels. Boston Burger's hamburgers are fine, but they're missing a special touch. They're simply a bland hunk of meat, with wilted lettuce and ketchup. KBC has an advantage in that it cooks as food is ordered, whereas Boston Burger premakes a bunch of sandwiches, which means they sometimes are served lukewarm and not-so-fresh. Until the Big Mac makes its way to Kyiv, Boston Burger and Kentucky Beirut Chicken will fill that fast-food burger whole in your stomach.

D. the Candymaker's Witness

A candymaker in Indiana wanted to make a candy that would be a witness, so he made the famous throughout America Christmas Candy Cane on which he incorporated several symbols for the birth, ministry and death of Jesus Christ.

He began with a hard candy stick of pure white, which symbolizes the Virgin Birth and the sinless nature of Jesus; and hard to symbolize the Solid Rock, the foundation of the Church, and the firmness of the promises of God. This candy cane was made in the form of the letter «J» to represent the name of Jesus, who came to earth as our Savior. It could also represent the staff of the «Good Shepherd» with which he reaches down into the ditches of the world to lift out the fallen lambs who, like all sheep, have gone astray.

Thinking that the only white candy was somewhat plain, the candymaker stained it with red stripes. He used three small stripes to show the stripes of the scourging Jesus and the large red stripe was for the blood that was shed by Christ on the cross so that we could have the promise of eternal life.

Unfortunately, in America the candy became known only as a sweet Candy Cane - a meaningless decoration seen at Christmas time. But the meaning is still there for those who «have eyes to see and ears to hear».

E. Scotland

It is one of those places where civilization has not tramped all before it. Scotland has uniqely combined the untouched beauty of nature with the kind of facilities that guarantee comfort.

Your impressions from Scotland very much depend on you, on how open you are to new cultures and traditions of this country. Start your trip with the cities and then go deep to the Highlands. Step by step you will be unweiling the quiet magic of this miraculous place and falling in love with its unforgettable authenticity, which gets smoothly with modernity. Tartan is no longer just an echo from the past. Any bank or football team has its own tartan. Any local family can have a tartan by just registering it at the Scottish tartan Society. And it is not only fashion that reflects a changing consciousness. Over the last 10-15 years Scots seem to have become more conscious of their national identity, just as we Ukrainians have. They do not only debate their more independent status, but wear kilts more often - for weddings and for parties, even for work. They feel proud and comfortable on these double-pleated skirts, even when they have to pay something in the region on of 600 USD for a full outfit.

Exercise IX. Translate the passage below into English. Explain the ways you employed to convey faithfully the notions of the specifically Ukrainian national lexicon. 1. Кобзар О.М. Вересай

Старий уже був Грицько Вересай. Він брав кобзу і простував на церковний майдан Калюжинців. Поводирем сліпого ставав малий онук Остапко, що мусив жербати, бо кріпацького хліба вистачало сім'ї лише до Різдва. У М'ясниці гуляли весілля, на які запрошували Остапкового батька Микиту Вересая, котрий гарно грав на скрипці. Після тяжкої хвороби 4-річний хлопчик осліп. Дід переконував онука, що для закріпаченої людини - то захист, хоч не бачитеме, що діється на нашій зболеній землі. А через десятиліття саме пісня «Про правду і неправду» понесла славу Кобзаря Остапа Вересая по Україні і за її межі. Коли влітку 1874 року в Києві відбувався визначний в історії кобзарства III

Археологічний з'їзд, на який з'іхалися учені з усієї Европи, французький професор Н. Рамбо назвав знаменитого виконавця народних дум і пісень «Гомером в українській свиті». Завдяки своєму мистецтву Остап Микитович побував у царському палаці в Петербурзі - прийшов зі скаргою на тяжку долю селянина, наївно думаючи, що цар допоможе.

Спливли роки. У Сокиринці на Чернігівщині, як до Канева на могилу великого Шевченка, приходять люди вклонитися співцеві..

2. Мандрики

Це печиво пекли у Петрівський піст або на Петра. На це свято годилося шанувати пастухів і підпасків, їх частували і дарували мандрики («мандриги») - сирні пампушки. Вірили: хто з'їсть їх у Петрівку, того весь рік минатиме лихоманка. Після Петра вже переставала кувати зозуля, що й породило приказку: «Зозуля мандрикою вдавилась». Особливо смачними були мандрики із сиру, відтопленого із сколотини (маслянки), тобто сироватки, яка залишилася після збитого із сметани масла.

3. Обряд з кашею

Щоб відзначити таку важливу для сім'ї подію, як хрещення дитини, у хаті влаштовували святковий обід, відомий у народі під назвою «христини». За північноукраїнською традицією баба-повитуха приносила круто зварену кашу, накривала її хлібом-сіллю або млинцем і пропонувала розбити горщик тому, хто покладе більше грошей. Гості скидали їх новородженому - «на мило», «на воза», «на коня», «на люльку», «на віночок». Дарували й полотно на пелюшки, хустинки.

Хрещений батько клав більші гроші і розбивав горщик качалкою або тричі підіймав його і за останнім разом ударяв об кут стола. Якщо каша 'ціла, не розвалилася, - це на достаток і щастя, її годилося скоро схопити і з'їсти, «щоб дитина говорила скоріше», «щоб дитя на ноги хваталося швидко». Частування кашею було насичене й іншими діями, супроводжувалося примовками, наприклад: «Роди, Боже, жито й пшеницю, а куму й кумі дітей копицю». Хлопчику бажали, «щоб орач був, щоб не злодій був». Дівчинці - «щоб хлопці поважали й любили» і т.ін. Обряд з кашею - багатозначний ритуал. У ньому реалізувалася ідея входження дитини в сім'ю.

181TRANSLATION OF IDIOMATIC/PHRASEOLOGICAL AND STABLE EXPRESSIONS

Idiomatic or phraseological expressions are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences having mostly the meaning, which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts1. An indispensable feature of idiomatic (phraseological) expressions is their figurative, i.e., metaphorical nature and usage. It is this nature that makes them distinguishable from structurally identical free combinations of words Cf.: red tape (free word-comb.) червона стрічка - red tape (idiom) канцелярський формалізм (бюрократизм); the tables are/were turned (free word-comb.) столи перекинуті/були перекинуті - the tables are turned (idiom) ситуація докорінно змінилася; супротивники помінялися ролями/місцями; play with fire гратися з вогнем (free word-comb.) гратися з вогнем (біля багаття) - наражатися на небезпеку (idiom).

On rare occasions the lexical meaning of idiomatically bound expressions can coincide with their direct, i.e., not transferred meaning, which facilitates their understanding as in the examples like: to make way дати дорогу; to die a dog's death здохнути як собака; to receive a hero's welcome зустрічати як героя; wait a minute/a moment зачекайте хвилинку/ один момент; to tell (you) the truth правду казати/правду кажучи; to dust one's coat/jacket витрусити пальто/ піджака - дати духопеликів.

Some proper names can also be endowed with figurative meaning and possess the necessary expressiveness which are the distinguishing features of idioms2: Croesus, Tommy (Tommy Atkins), Yankee, Mrs. Grundy, Jack Ketch, etc. These, proper names have acquired their constant meaning and can not be confused with usual (common) proper names of people. As a result their transferred meaning is conveyed in a descriptive way. So Mrs. Grundy means світ, люди, існуюча мораль; Jack Ketch кат; Croesus Крез, надзвичайно багата людина; Tommy Atkins англійський солдат; Yankee (in Europe) янкі/американець, etc.

Idiomatic/phraseological expressions should not be mixed up with different fixed/set prepositional, adjectival, verbal and adverbial

1 See: Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского язьїка. - М.: Международ. отношения, 1972. Martin H. Manser A Dictionary of Contemporary Idioms. - London, Pan Books Ltd, 1983.

2 See: CollinsV.N.ABook of English Idioms. -Л.:Учпедгиз, 1950. Англо-український фразеологічний словник Склав К.Т. Баранцев. - Київ: Рад. шк., 1969. phrases the meaning of which is not an actual sum of meanings made up by their constituent parts either: by George, by and by, for all of, for the sake of, cut short, make believe; or compounds like: topsy-turvy, higledy-piggledy; coordinate combinations like: high and dry, cut and run, touch and go; Tom, Dick and Harry, etc. These and a lot of other stable expressions can very often be treated as standardized collocations. Their meaning can be rendered in a descriptive way too, like that of genuine idiomatic expressions: fifty-fifty так собі; ні добре ні погано; О.Квсе гаразд, на належному рівні; cut short обірвати, присікти/припинити щось (поїздку), обірвати (розмову).

Such and the like stable expressions, like most of other standardized collocations, have usually a transparent meaning and are easier to translate than regular idioms (the so-called phraseological fusions). Meanwhile it is next to impossible to guess, for example, the meaning of the English idiom Hobson's choice from the seemingly transparent meanings of its componental parts. Only a philological inquiry helps establish the meaning of the name and the real sense of the idiom - «no choice whatsoever», «acceptance of what is offered» жодного вибору.

Similarly treated must also be many other English and Ukrainian picturesque idioms, proverbs and sayings, which have national literary images and reflect the traditions, customs, the way of conduct or the mode of life of a nation. Their meaning, due to absence of similar idioms in the target language, can be rendered descriptively, i.e. through a regular explication. The latter, depending on the semantic structure of the source language idiom, may be sometimes achieved in the target language with the help of a single word. Cf.: English: an odd/queer fish дивак; Canterbury tale небувальщина, вигадка; blue bonnet («синій берет») шотландець; ніде курці клюнути crammed; зубами тертяка вибивати to be chilled. Most often, however, the meaning of this kind of idioms is conveyed with the help of free word-combinations: to dine with Duke Humphrey залишитись без обіду (нічого не ївши); to cut off with a shilling позбавити когось спадщини. Similarly in Ukrainian: ноги на плечі to go quickly (or very quickly) on one's feet; зуби з'їсти на чомусь to have great experience in something; кивати/накивати п'ятами to run away quickly/hurriedly.

It goes without saying that none of the phraseologisms above can be translated word-for-word since their constituent images would lose their connotative, i.e., metaphorical meaning in the target language. So, пообідати з герцоґом Гамфрі or обрізати шилінґом

половина

in their

could be understood by the Ukrainian language spe& „u на плеч/ literal meaning. The same can be said about our idiom ^ ^/Ould never та й гайда, i.e., *with one's legs on the shoulders whid1 ^ language be understood, when translated literally, by the Eng'1   n mechani-native speakers. Therefore, the componental images ^ rjpg about a cally transplanted to the target language, may often " complete destruction of the idiomatic expression.        , jdioms may The choice of the way of translation of this kind ° у tne exist-be predetermined by the source language context of tjC/stable ex-ence/absence of contextual equivalents for the idiorn^ pelow units pression in the target language. Thus, in the exampl^ ^e ne|p of a of this kind can be translated into Ukrainian either witf1  jca| expres-single word or with the help of a standardized phrased0 sion: to give a start здригнутися; to give ft підбадьорювати, морально підтримувати когось; tf7 sel (facet) жінка (прекрасна стать; жіноцтво; слаб1^ людства), the Holy Mother Богоматір. 0|location af-Not infrequently the meaning of a standardized csynonymous ter V.V.Vinigradov like that of a regular idiom may hav^ ^Ojce Of ^ne single word equivalents in the target language. The ^e standard-equivalent is predetermined then by the meaning of ntence where ized collocation/phraseologism and by the style of the 5^0зпечувати; it is used: to make sure упевнитись (пеконатися), з& ^раплятися; to make comfort втішатися; to take place відбуватись-the world and his wife усі.                                           5 which have Similarly treated are also traditional combinatio11 equivalents in the target language several stylistically neutral fr0 дати, йти на (words or word-combinations) as: to run a risk ризи^У Op ризик, to apply the screw натиснути (на когось); to   .^, potato швидко позбутися когось, обірвати стосУ припинити знайомство.                                              ue idiomatic/ Faithful translating of a large number of picture5^cnjevec| on|y phraseological expressions, on the other hand, can be > language a by a thorough selection of variants having in the tar0 picturesque-similar to the original lexical meaning, and also th^1 j on common

jm_

the mean-gener-

a раптово

ness and expressiveness. This similarity can be in the source language and in the target language c° ages as well as on the structural form of them. As a f05 ing of such idioms is mostly guessed by the student5'

ally facilitates their translation.

A few examples will suffice to prove it. English

grass widow

(widower) солом'яна вдова (вдівець); not to see a step beyond one's nose далі свого носа нічого не бачити; measure twice and cut once сім раз одміряй, а раз відріж; not for love or money ні за які гроші/ ні за що в світі; Ukrainian: не знати/тямити ні бе, ні ме, ні кукуріку (not to know chalk from cheese); вночі що сіре, те й вовк all cats are grey in the dark, який батько, такий син, яка хата, такий тин (яблучко від яблуні далеко не відкочується) like father, like son; not a cat's/dog's chance жодних шансів/можливостей, etc.

It often happens that the target language has more than one semantically similar/analogous phraseological expression for one in the source language. The selection of the most fitting variant for the passage under translation should be based then not only on the semantic proximity of the idioms/phraseologisms but also on the similarity in their picturesqueness, expressiveness and possibly in their basic linages. The bulk of this kind of phraseological expressions belong to the so-called phraseological unities. (Vinogradov). Here are some Ukrainian variants of the kind of English phraselogisms: either win the saddle or loose the horse або пан, або пропав; або перемогу здобути, або вдома не бути; many hands make work light де згода, там і вигода; гуртом і чорта побореш; гуртом і батька добре бити; громада т великий чоловік; a man can die but once від смерті не втечеш; раз мати народила, раз і вмирати; раз козі смерть; двом смертям не бути, а одної не минути; hastle makes waste/the more haste, the less speed тихше їдеш - далі будеш, поспішиш -людей насмішиш, хто спішить-той людей смішить.

A number of phraseological units, due to their common source of origin, are characterized in English and Ukrainian by partial or complete identity of their syntactic structure, their componental images, picturesqueness and expressiveness (and consequently of their meaning). Such kind of idioms often preserve a similar or even identical word order in the source language and in the target language. Hence, they are understood and translated by our students without difficulties: to,cast pearls before swine кидати перла перед свиньми; to be 00/77 under a lucky star народилася під щасливою зіркою; to cherish/warm a viper in one's bosom пригріти гадюку в пазусі; to be/fall between Scilla and Charybdis бути між Сціллою і Харібдою/ між двох вогнів.

One of the peculiar features of this type of idiomatic expressions is their international nature. Only few of them have phraseological synonyms of national flavour, being thus restricted to corre-

185spending speech styles, whereas international idioms predominantly belong to the domain of higher stylistic level: Genuine Internationalisms National/Colloquial Variants

The apple of discord яблуко The bone of contention. The розбрату, яблуко чвар                 bone of discord Strike the iron while it is hot           make hay while the sun shines куй залізо, доки гаряче                 коси коса поки роса

neither fish nor flesh ні риба ні м'ясо to cross the Styx канути в Лету; піти в непам'ять

ні Богові свічка, ні чортові шпичка; ні пава, ні ґава to turn one's toes up простягти/витягнути ноги

National/colloquial variants of international idiomatic substitutes, therefore, always differ considerably by their picturesqueness, expressiveness and their lexical meaning. They are only semanti-cally analogous to genuine equivalents, which may sometimes lack absolute identity in the source language and in the target language (to cross the Styx канути в Лету; to drop from the clouds з неба впасти; neither fish nor flesh ні пава ні ґава).

As can be seen, some international idiomatic expressions slightly differ in English and Ukrainian either in their structural form and lexical idiomatic meaning or in the images making up the idioms. Thus, the idiomatic expression to fish in troubled waters has in English the plural of wafers whereas in its Ukrainian equivalent has a singular form, wheras the component to fish is detalized and extended to ловити рибку (рибу) в каламутній воді; the Society of Jesus is орден єзуїтів, (but not the Order of Jesus) and the Babel of tongues is вавілонське стовпотворіння and not *Вавілон мов.

Slight divergences are also observed in several other English and Ukrainian international equivalents: the game is (not) worth the candle (singular) варта гра св/чок (plural). The idiom a sound mind in a sound body, on the other hand, has a reverse position of its component parts: у здоровому тілі здоровий дух.

Therefore, each of the above-given idiomatic expressions has either a different form of a component/image, a different word order or a slightly different lexical meaning of a componental part. And yet despite the pointed out divergences such and the like idiomatic expressions/phraseological units do not cease to be absolute equivalents in either of the two languages.

Apart from the kinds of idiomatic expressions singled out on the foregoing pages, there exists in each language a specific national layer of idiomatic/phraseological expressions comprising also proverbs and sayings, which are formed on the basis of componenta! images pertaining solely to a concrete national language. Such idioms are first of all distinguished by their picturesqueness, their expressiveness and lexical meaning of their own. Due to their national particularity, these idioms/phraseologisms can not and do not have traditionally established literary variants in the target language. As a result, their structural form and wording in different translations may often lack absolute identity. In their rough/interlinear or word-for-word variants they mostly lose their aphoristic/idiomatic nature and thus are often subject to literary perfection: the moon is not seen when the sun shines місяця не видно, коли світить сонце/ місяця не помічають, коли світить сонце; it is a great victory that comes without blood велика та перемога, яку здобувають без пролиття крові or найбільша та перемога, яка здобувається без пролиття крові.

Similarly translated are some Ukrainian national phraseologisms into English: один дурень зіпсує, що й десять розумних не направять what is spoiled by one fool can not be mended by ten wisemen; малі дти - малий клопіт, великі діти -великий клопіт small children - smaller troubles, grown-up children - grave troubles.

Isomorphic is also the existence in both the languages of a number of idiomatic expressions which are of regular sentence-type structure containing some common componental parts. Hence, their lexical meaning, nothing to say about their componental images, their picturesqueness^nd their expressiveness are identical as well. This is predetermined by their common source of origin in English and in Ukrainian: if you run after two hares, you will catch neither якщо побіжиш за двома зайцями, не впіймаєш жодного; a drowning man will catch (snatch) at a straw потопаючий хапається за соломинку (і за соломинку вхопиться, хто топиться); Bacchus has drowned more men than Neptune Вакх утопив більше людей, ніж Нептун (вино загубило більше людей, ніж море) he who spares the rod spoils the child хто жаліє різку, той збавляє дитину.

As can be noticed from these examples, some English and Ukrainian idiomatic expressions are far from uniform lexically, structurally, and by their componental images, picturesqueness and expressiveness. They do not always spring from the same source of origin either. Because of this a faithful translation of phraseological/

187idiomatic expressions depends upon some factors the main of which

are as follows:

1) whether the idiomatic expression in the source language and in the target language is of the same/different source of origin;

2) whether the idiomatic expression has in the target language only one, more than one or all componental images in common;

3) whether the componental images, when translated, are perceived by the target language speakers;

4) whether the structural form of the idiomatic expressions can be retained in the target language without any transformations;

5) whether there exists an analogous/similar in sense idiomatic expression in the target language, etc.

All these and some other factors should not be neglected when translating idiomatic/phraseological expressions from and into English. In fact, here exists a regular interdependence between the lexical meaning, the origin, the picturesqueness and the expressiveness of idioms on the one hand and the method of their translating

on the other.

Taking into account these and some other factors, the following ways of faithful rendering the idiomatic/phraselogical expressions are to be identified:

1. By Choosing Absolute/Complete Equivalents This is the method of translating by which every componental part of the source language idiom is retained in the target language unchanged. The componental parts include all notionals and also the lexically charged functionals which contribute to the lexical meaning of the idiomatic/phraseological expression. The notional components also create the main images (the picturesqueness), the expressiveness and the figurative (connotative) meanings of idiomatic expressions. Translating with the help of equivalents is resorted to when deating with idioms which originate from the same source in both the languages in question. These sources may be:

1) Greek or other mythology: Augean stables авгієві стайні (занедбане, занехаяне місце); Cassandra warning застереження Кассандри (застереження, на які не звертають уваги, але які збуваються); Hercules' Pillars (the Pillars of Hercules) геркулесові стовпи (Ґібралтарська протока); a labour of Sisyphus сізіфова праця (важка і марна праця); Pandora's box скринька Пандори/ Пандорина скриня (джерело всіляких лих); the Trojan horse троянський кінь (прихована небезпека); Aladdin's'lamp Аладдінова лампа; between Scilla and Charybdis між Сціллою і Харібдою;

2) ancient history or literature: an ass in a lion's skin (назва однієї з байок Езопа) осел у левовій шкурі; to cross (pass) the Rubicon перейти Рубікон (прийняти важливе рішення); the die is thrown/cast жеребок кинуто (рішення прийнято); the golden age золотий вік (золоті часи); / came, I saw, I conquered прийшов, побачив, переміг;

3) the Bible or works based on a biblical plot: to cast the first stone at one першим кинути у когось каменем; to cast pearls before swine розсипати перла перед свиньми; the golden calf золотий телець/ідол; a lost sheep заблудла вівця; the massacre (slaughter) of innocents винищення немовлят; the ten commandments десять заповідей; the thirty pieces of silver тридцять срібняків; prodigal son блудний син.

A great many absolute equivalents originate from contemporary literary or historical sources relating to different languages (mainly to French, Spanish, Danish, German, Italian, Arabic). English: Time is money час - гроші; self made man людина, що сама проклала собі шлях у житті; my house is my castle мій дім - моя фортеця. French: after us the deluge після нас хоч потоп; the fair sex прекрасна стать; the game is worth the candle гра варта свічок; more royalist than the king більший монархіст ніж сам король; to pull the chestnuts out of the fire вигрібати каштани з вогню; one's place in the sun місце під сонцем; Spanish: blue blood блакитна кров; the fifth column (introduced by E. Hemingway) п'ята колона; to tilt at the windmills (introduced by Cervantes) воювати з вітряками; Italian: Dante's inferno Дантове пекло; finita la commedia ділу кінець; Arabic: Aladdin's lamp лампа Аладдіна; German: da 1st derHund begraben ось де собака зарита; Sturm und Drang буря і натиск.

Some mots belonging to prominent English and American authors have also turned into regular idiomatic expressions. Due to their constant use in belles-lettres they have become known in many languages. Especially considerable is the amount of Shakespear-ean mots: better a witty fool than a foolish wit краще дотепний дурень, ніж дурний дотеп; cowards die many times before their deaths боягузи вмирають багато разів; something is rotten in the state of Denmark, etc. не все гаразд у Данському королівстві; vanity fair (J. Bunyan) ярмарок марнославства/суєти; to reign in hell is better than to serve in heaven (J. Milton) краще панувати в пеклі, ніж слугувати в раю; the banana republic (O. Henry) бананова республіка; the last of the Mohicans останній з могікан; to bury a hatchet (F. Cooper) закопати томагавк (укласти мир); the almighty dollar (W. Irving) всемогутній долар; never put off till tomorrow what you can do today ніколи не відкладай на завтра те, що можна зробити сьогодні; the execution of the laws is more important than the making of them (T. Jefferson) закони виконувати важче, ніж їх створювати/писати; the iron nee/(J. London) залізна п'ята (ярмо); gone with the wind (M. Wilson) пішло за вітром/знесено вітром; the cold war (W. Lippamn) холодна війна; Iron Curtain (W. Churchill) залізна завіса, etc.

Translating with the help of monoequivalents, as the absolute equivalents are sometimes called, is very often made use of when dealing with the sentence idioms containing the subject, the predicate, and some other parts of the sentence, though some minor alterations in their structure/word order may not be excluded altogether. Such alterations, however, do not change either the denotative meaning or the componental images, the picturesqueness, expressiveness or connotative meaning of idioms: appetite comes while eating апетит приходить під час їжі; kings go mad and the people suffer from it королі божеволіють, а народ страждає (cf. пани скубуться, а в мужиків чуби тріщать); the last drop makes the cup run over остання краплина переповнює чашу; let the cock crow or not, the day will come співатиме півень, чи ні, а день настане; money is the sinews of war гроші - «м'язи» війни; of two evils choose the least із двох лих вибирай менше; out of the mouths of babies speaks the truth (wisdom) устами немовлят говорить істина/мудрість; the pen is mightier than the sword перо могутніше за меч; Caesar's wife must be beyond suspicion (Caesar) Цезарова дружина не повинна бути під підозрою/повинна бути поза підозрою; the invasion of armies is resisted, the invasion of ideas is not (Hugo) вторгненню армій можна чинити опір, вторгненню ідей – ніколи etc.

As has been said, the target language variants of phraseological monoequivalents may sometimes slightly differ in their structure or in the order of words from the source language idioms (cf. let the cock crow or not співатиме півень чи ні). These minor changes in the structural form, however, do not influence in any way the meaning and the expressiveness or picturesqueness of absolute equivalents in the target language.

Not only regular idioms but also many so-called standardized word-combinations, which may often originate in the two languages from a common source, can be translated by absolute equivalents.

Due to this, they retain in the target language the semantic identity and the componental structure of the source language units: fo give help подавати/надавати допомогу; fo win/gain a victory здобути/ здобувати перемогу; to make an attempt зробити спробу; to throw light проливати світло, etc.

Standardized word-combinations, as will be shown below, can also be translated in some other ways, which is an obvious testimony to the unchangeable inconsistency of the way identified as «translation by means of loans» («кальки», «калькування»).

2.Translation of Idioms by Choosing Near Equivalents

The meaning of a considerable number of phrase idioms and sentence idioms originating in both languages from a common source may sometimes have, unlike absolute equivalents, one or even most of their components different, than in the target language. Hence, the quality of their images is not identical either, though not necessarily their picturesqueness and expressiveness (if any): baker's/printer's dozen чортова дюжина; the devil is not so black as he is painted не такий дідько/чорт страшний, як його малюють; a lot of water had flown/run under the bridge багато води спливло відтоді; love is the mother of love любов породжує любов; too much knowledge makes the head bald від великих знань голова лисіє; in broad daylight серед білого дня; as snort as a dog's tale короткий, як осінній день; as pale as paper блідий мов стіна, measure twice cut once сім раз одміряй, один раз одріж.

The slight divergences in the near equivalents as compared with the source language idioms can manifest themselves also in some other aspects, as for example:

a) in the structure of the target language variant (cf. to make a long story short сказати коротко);

b) in the omission (or adding) of a componental part in the target language (cf. a lot of water had run under the bridge since then багато води спливло відтоді);

c) in the substitution of a feature (or image) of the source language phraseological/idiomatic expression for some other (more fitting or traditionally expected) in the target language: as pale as paper блідий мов стіна; baker's/printer's dozen чортова дюжина; everything is good in its season все добре в свій час (cf. добра ложка до обіду);

d) in the generalization of the features of the source language idiomatic expression: one's own flesh and bone рідна кровинка;

e) in the concretization of some features of the original: a voice in the wilderness глас волаючого в пустелі; you can nof eaten an old bird with chaff старого горобця на полові не впіймаєш; to follow like St. Anthony's рід ходити (за кимось) як тінь/переслідувати когось.

Similar componental substitutions, both semantic and structural, can be observed in regular standardized collocations and in comparative proverbs or saying as: to do harm завдати шкоди; to do one's duty виконувати свій обов'язок; to throw/shed light проливати світло; (asj busy as a bee працьовитий, мов бджола; (as) slippery as an eel слизький як в'юн; as cool as a cucumber холодний як крига (лід); golden opportunity чудова можливість, to shed crocodile's tears плакати крокодилячими слізьми.

Therefore, faithful translation may be achieved by different methods. Moreover, it must be evident now that «translating by means of loans» may refer to any method of rendering phraseologisms/idi-oms which are or may become regular loans in the target language.

Consequently, translation of idiomatic expressions «by means of loans» does not always fully justify the essence of the term as such.

3. Translation by Choosing Genuine Idiomatic Analogies

An overwhelming majority of English idiomatic expressions have similar in sense units in Ukrainian. Sometimes these lexically corresponding idiomatic expressions of the source language may also contain easily perceivable for the target language speakers combinations of images as well as similar or identical structural forms. These idiomatic expressions, naturally, are in most cases easily given corresponding analogies in the target language. As a matter of fact, such expressions are sometimes very close in their connotative (metaphorical) meaning in English and Ukrainian as well. Any common or similar traits of idiomatic expressions are the main proof of their being genuine analogies. The latter in each of the two languages comprise also proverbs and sayings as well as the so-called standardized and stable collocations: he that mischief hatches mischief catches хто іншим лиха бажає, сам лихо має/хто іншим яму копає, сам у неї потрапляє; to nave the ready tongue за словом у кишеню не лізти; to keep body and sole together жити надголодь/зводити кінці з кінцями; like mistress, like maid яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає; fnere is no use crying over spilt milk що з воза впало, те пропало; beaf a dead horse товкти воду в ступі.

Many of such and the like idiomatic expressions may often have two and more analogous by sense variants in the target language. The choice of an analogy rests then with the translator and is predetermined by the style of the text: not for love or money ні за що в світі/ні за які скарби в світі; don'f teacn your grandmother to suck eggs не вчи вченого; не вчи рибу плавати; яйця курку не вчать, etc.; ne that lies down with dogs must rise up with fleas з ким поведешся, того і наберешся; скажи мені, хто твій друг, і я скажу тобі, хто ти; a crooked stick throws a crooked shadow який Сава, така й слава/який батько, такий син, яка хата, такий тин; don't cross the bridges before you come to them не поспішай поперед батька в пекло; не кажи гоп, доки не перескочиш; first catch you hare then cook him не скуби, доки не зловиш; скажеш «гоп», як перескочиш. The number of analogous (similar by sense) expressions for an idiom in the target language may reach a regular row as it is the case with the Ukrainian phraseological expression і на сонці є плями/людини без вад не буває. This idiom may have the following substitutes in different contextual environments: every man nas a fool in his sleeve; every man has his faults; every bean has its black; every man has his weak side; Homer sometimes nods/sleeps; no man is wise at all times; it is a good horse that never stumbles; a horse stumbles that has four legs, etc.

4. Translating Idioms by Choosing Approximate Analogies

Some source language idiomatic and stable expressions may have a peculiar nature of their componental parts or a peculiar combination of them and thus form nationally peculiar expressiveness and picturesqueness of componental images. The latter constitute some hidden meaning, which is mostly not quite explicit and comprehensible, not transient enough for the foreigner.

As a result, there exist no genuine phraseological analogies for the units in the target language. Since it is so, their lexical meaning can be expressed by means of only approximate analogies or through explication, i.e., in a descriptive way. These analogies are only to a slight degree similar to the source language idioms, although they may be no less picturesque and expressive than the source language variants: Wnd words butter no parsnips годувати байками солов'я; to lose one's breath кидати слова на вітер; to make a cat's paw of something чужими руками жар вигрібати; а joint in one's armour ахіллесова п'ята (вразливе місце); fne sow loves bran better than roses кому що, а курці просо; more power to your elbow ні пуху, ні луски!; to come off scot free вийти сухим з води; to be finger and thumb водою не розлити (cf. нерозлийвода); to be from Missouri (Amer.) вірити тільки своїм очам; it is six and half a dozen не вмер Данило, так болячка задавила; what's Hecuba to me моя хата скраю; to get the blues місця собі не знаходити/ сумувати, etc.

No need to emphasize that selection of approximate analogies for a translator is no easy task, as the source languages idioms/ phraseologisms often bear some characteristics of a language's traits having no correspondence^ the target language. Cf.: The answer's a lemon так не буде, такне вийде.

Many idioms have obscure origin/etymology and selecting of approximate equivalents as any other corresponding semantic variants often requires a linguistic investigation on the part of the translator. For example: to be in the cart means to be closed in a cage as a convict (for some crime) and be exposed to general scorn of one's compatriots (as in old times in England). It may be translated into Ukrainian as бути в стані/ситуації хоч круть хоч верть, потрапити в безвихідь.

5. Descriptive Translating of Idiomatic and Set Expressions

The meaning of a considerable number of idiomatic as well as stable/set expressions can be rendered through explication only, i.e., in a descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of meaning contained in the source-language idiom, it can be expressed in the target language in some ways:

1) by a single word: out of a clear blue.of the sky раптом, зненацька; to pall and peel (to peel and pall) грабувати/оббирати; poor fish йолоп, бевзь, нікчема; red blood мужність, відвага, хоробрість; to sell smoke піддурювати, підманювати; to seta-limit to smth. обмежувати, стримувати; to set at large звільнювати (випустити на волю); to go aloft померти;

2) undoubtedly the most frequent is rendering the sense of idiomatic/phraseological expressions with the help of free combinations of words as in: to run amock нападати зненацька на першу-ліпшу людину; school miss школярка, соромлива, недосвідчена дівчина; to sell someone short недооцінювати когось; to sham Abraham удавати з себе хворого (прикидатися хворим); to shoot Niagara вдаватися до ризикованих дій, short odds майже рівні шанси; to sit above the salt сидіти на почесному місці; the sixty-four dollar question найважливіше, вирішальне питання; a stitch in time своєчасний захід/вчинок, своєчасна дія; to go to rack (wrack) ruin загинути; зовсім розоритися; to go west/West пропасти, зникнути, зійти зі сцени (переносно);

3) when the lexical meaning of an original idiomatic expression is condensed or when it is based on a nationally specific notion/ structural form alien to the target languages, the idiomatic expression may be conveyed by a sentence or a longer explanation: a wet blanket людина або обставина, що розхолоджує; well day (well-day) день, коли у хворого не погіршувався стан здоров'я (час між приступами гарячки, малярії тощо); wise behind млявий, що погано міркує; white elephant подарунок, якого важко позбутися (те, що приносить більше турбот, ніж користі); yes man (yes-man) людина, що з усіма згоджується, тільки підтакує (підтакувач); to cut off with a shilling залишити без спадщини; fight like Kilkenny cats битися до взаємного знищення; to accept (the Stewardship) of the Chiltern Hundreds (Parliament) скласти з себе обов'язки члена британського парламенту.

It must be added in conclusion that some English idiomatic/ set expressions have a rather transparent lexical meaning and are easy for our students to translate into Ukrainian: to treat one like a lord щедро частувати (як лорда) когось, цяцькатися з кимось; with all one's steam/with all speed щодуху, дуже швидко; with a founded air ображено, з виглядом ображеного; with flags flying/with flying colours тріумфально, переможно; with a good reason не без підстав, недаремно; to be half way between something посередені (бути на середині між чимсь), іти назустріч комусь/чомусь; not born yesterday досвідчений (у житті).

Depending on the speech style of the passage/work, in which the idiomatic/phraseological expressions are used, and taking into account the nature of them (literary, colloquial, historical) some modifications of the above-given methods of translations and even new variants of translation may be suggested by the translator. Nevertheless, the aim of translation will always remain the same, viz. to fully render in the target language the lexical meaning and where possible also the structural peculiarities, the picturesqueness, the expressiveness, and the connotative meaning (if any) of the source language idiomatic or stable expressions in the target language. How it may be achieved can be seen on the examples of rendering the meaning of some national idioms.

TRANSFORMATION OF SOME IDIOMS IN THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATING

As has already been pointed out some phraseological expressions singled out by the Acad. V. Vinogradov as unities and having mostly a transparent meaning may reflect various national features of the source language. The latter may be either of lingual or extralingual nature, involving the national images, their peculiar pic-turesqueness or means of expression with clear reference to traditions, customs or historical events, geographical position of the source language nation. Such phraseological expressions are often of a simple or composite sentence structure. Being nationally distinct, they can not have in the target language traditionally established equivalents or loan variants. As a result, most of them may have more than one translator's version in the target language. It may be either a regular sense-to-sense variant (an interlinear-type translation) or an artistic literary version rendering in which alongside the lexical meaning also the aphoristic nature, the expressiveness, the picturesqueness, the vividness, etc. of the source language phraseologism/idiom.

Taking into account the aims pursued and the contextual environment of the idiom, there must be acknowledged at least two main levels of translating the national idioms:

1) the level of the interlinear rendering, i.e., sense-to-sense translation only, which is quite sufficient to faithfully express the lexical meaning of most of these phraseologisms/idioms;

2) the literary/literary artistic level at which not only the sense but also the expressiveness, the vividness, the picturesqueness and the aphoristic nature (if any) of the idioms should possibly be conveyed as well.

Faithful translation of national idioms/phraseologisms is mostly achieved via deliberate transformations of all kinds performed by the translator. The transformations are aimed at making the national images, the sense and structure of these phraseologic expressions easier for the target language readers/listeners to comprehend .Such transformations, therefore, adjust in many a case the source language idiom as a sense unit to the requirements of the target language bearers. Here are some examples of translation with the help of transformations of particularly English phraseologisms performed first (1) at the interlinear (sense-to-sense rendering) level and then (2) at the literary/literary artistic level: the wind cannot be prevented from blowing 1. вітрові не перешкодиш віяти; 2. вітрові не скажеш не віяти/дути; вітру не затулиш; he that doesn't respect, isn't respected 1. хто інших не поважає, сам'поваги не має; 2. поважатимеш інших, поважатимуть і тебе; it's an equal failing to trust everybody and to trust nobody 1. однакова вада - довіряти всім і не довіряти нікому; 2. довіряти кожному і не довіряти нікому - однакова вада; the pleasures of the mighty are the tears of the poor 1. розваги всесильних/ багатих - то сльози бідних/ знедолених; 2. вельможні скачуть - убогі плачуть; що панські жарти, то людські сльози; they must hunger in winter that will not work in summer 1. той голодує взимку, хто не працює влітку; 2. шукаєш влітку холодок - знайдеш узимку голод, or: лежатимеш на печі - не їстимеш калачі.

No need to emphasize that some successful literary artistic translations/variants of specifically national idioms may in the end become regular translation loans of the target language.1

Transformations become absolutely inevitable when the English phraseologisms or mots contain a passive voice structure, the introductory it/there, or some other analytical constructions, as for instance, those with the auxiliary verbs (do, does, etc.). Cf.: there is no love lost between them вони недолюблюють одне одного/глек розбили; Does your mother know you are out? Молоко на губах ще не висохло/ще не доріс. Can the leopard change his spots? Горбатого могила виправить. Though sometimes transformations may become necessary to make the denotative and connotative meaning of idioms/phraseologisms easier for the target language bearers to comprehend. Thus, neither the sense-to-sense nor the literary variant of the proverb the moon is not seen when the sun shines (місяця не видно, коли світить сонце/сяє сонце - місяця не видно) can fully express its connotative (and denotative) meaning when the proverb stands for somebody or something eclipsing with his or its importance (fame, size, etc.) somebody or something meant by the «moon». All in all, however, there are few such sentence-type phraseological expressions which need some additional explication in Ukrainian. More often the content of the kind of phraseologisms/idioms is clear already at language level, i.e., out of context, which enables their literary translation. This can be observed from a few more examples below: what matters to a blind man that his father could see що з того сліпому, що його батько був зрячим; it is too late to shut the stable door when the horse is stolen пізно зачиняти конюшню, коли коня вкрали; when two ride on one horse

1 See more about translation loans in: Зорівчак Р.П. Фразеологічна одиниця як перекладацька категорія. -Львів: «Вища шк.» Вид-во при Львівському ун-ті, 1983.

one must sit behind коли двоє їдуть на одному коні, комусь/одному з них сидіти/їхати ззаду/двоє не можуть сидіти спереду..

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Comment on the main lingual and extralingual factors influencing the translation of phraseological/idiomatic and set expressions.

2. Define the nature of phraseological/idiomatic expressions translated by choosing absolute equivalents.

3. Point out the difference between the absolute and near idiomatic/phraseological equivalents. Illustrate it with some examples

of your own.

4. Comment on the genuine idiomatic/phraseological analogies. Give a few English and Ukrainian idiomatic expressions of the kind.

5. Comment on the nature and ways of translating approximate idiomatic/ phraseological analogies.

6. Comment on the possible ways of translating national idiomatic expressions. Say, whether the cast iron nature of such idiomatic expressions can ever be maintained in their sense-to-sense

translation.

7. Comment on the descriptive method of translating idioms. Give examples of some descriptively translated by you English/Ukrainian phraseological/idiomatic expressions.

8. What kind of idiomatic/phraseological expressions are the easiest/most difficult to translate and why? Give your own reasons for that and illustrate your judgement with some examples of your own.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS-WORK AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Define the nature of each idiom below depending on the way it is to be translated into Ukrainian:

1. an eye for an eye, and tooth for a tooth; 2. custom (habit, use) is a second nature; 3. he laughs best who laughs last; 4.. let bygons be bygons; 5. like two drops of water; 6. look before you leap; 7. my little finger told me that; 8. a new broom sweeps clean; 9. no bees, no honey; no work, no money; 10. (one) can't see before one's nose; 11. (one) can't say boh to the goose; 12. to pick one's chestnuts out of the fire; 13. a prodigal son; 14. (as) proud as a peacock; 15. to return like for like; 16. to see smth. with the corner of one's eye; 17. there is no smoke without fire; 18. a tree of knowledge; 19. a voice in the wilderness; 20. to wipe off the disgrace; 21. to wipe one/smth. off the face/surface of the earth; 22. with open arms; 23. with a rope round one's neck; 24. whom God would ruin, he first deprives of reason; 25. it is a bold mouse that nestles in the cat's ear; 26. fire and water are good servants but bad masters; 27. he who is born a fool is never cured; 28. beauty is a fading flower; 29. a bad beginning makes a bad ending (Greek); 30. a full belly makes a dull brain; 31. the belly is not filled with fair words; 32. bread and circus; 33. fair words fat few; 34. between the devil and the deep; 35. like water off the feathers of a duck; 36. what is writ is writ; 37. no sweet without sweat; 38. first come, first served; 39. eyes are bigger than the stomach; 40. not blink an eye; 41. work like a dog; 42. walk on air; 43. work one's fingers to the bone; 44. Alpha and Omega; 45. physician, heal thyself; 46. the salt of the earth.

Exercise II. Suggest Ukrainian near equivalents for the idiomatic expressions below. Use part b) of the exercise for the purpose:

a) 1. To kill two birds with a stone. 2. A good beginning makes a good ending (A good beginning is half the battle). 3. To kiss the post. 4. To know as one knows one's ten fingers/to have something at one's finger tips. 5. To laugh the wrong side of one's mouth. 6. To lay something for a rainy day. 7. He that diggeth a pit for another should look that he fall not into it himself. 8. To lick one's boots. 9. Lies have short legs. 10. Life is not a bed of roses. 11. To make one's blood run cold. 12. Measure twice and cut once. 13. More royalist than the king. 14. As naked as a worm. 15. Nobody home. 16. No sooner said than done. 17. Not to lift a finger. 18. An old dog will learn no new tricks. 19. Old foxes need no tutors. 20. To buy a pig in a poke. 21. To play one's game. 22. To pour water in (into, through) a sieve. 23. To praise smb. beyond the skies/the moon. 24. As pretty as a picture. 25. As handsome as a paint. 26. Not to have a penny/a sixpence/a dime to bless oneself. 27. Not to have a shirt (rag) to one's back. 28. Not to know A from B. 29. To put spokes in one's wheel 30. Pride goes (comes) before a fall/destruction. 31. To promise mountains and marvels. 32. One fool makes many. 33. The voice of one is the voice of none. 34. One step above the sublime makes the ridiculous. 35. On Monday morning don't be looking for Saturday night. 36. As pale as a corpse (as ashes, death). 37. Let George do it.

b) 1. Одним ударом (махом) двох зайців убити. 2. Добре

199розпочати - півділа зробити. 3. Поцілувати замок. 4. Знати, як свої п'ять пальців. 5. На кутні сміятися. 6. Відкладати щось на чорний день. 7. Хто іншому яму копає, той сам у неї потрапляє. 8. Лизати п'яти (комусь). 9. Брехнею далеко не заїдеш (весь світ пройдеш, та назад не вернешся). 10. Життя прожити - не поле перейти (на віку, як на довгій ниві). 11. Кров у жилах холоне. 12. Сім раз відміряй (одмір), а раз відріж (утни). 13. Більший католик, ніж папа римський. 14. Голий, як бубон. 15. Не всі вдома (однієї клепки не вистачає). 16. Сказав, як зав'язав (сказано-зроблено). 27. Пальцем не поворухне. 18. Старого не перевчиш (вченого вчити - тільки час марнувати). 19. Не вчи вченого. 20. Купити (купувати) кота в мішку. 21. Танцювати під чиюсь дудку. 22. Носити воду в решеті. 22. Підносити когось до небес. 24. Гарна, як квітка (як яблучко). 25. Гарний, як червінець. 26. Не мати шеляга/копійки за душею. 27. Сорочки на плечах не мати. 28. Ні бе, ні ме, ні кукуріку. 29, Вставляти палиці комусь в колеса. ЗО. Гордість (пиха) до добра не доводить. 31. Обіцяти золоті гори. 32. Дурість заразлива. 33. Один у полі не воїн. 34. Від великого до смішного-один крок. 35. Шукати вчорашнього дня. 36. Білий, як стіна (як крейда, як полотно). 37. Іван киває на Петра.

Exercise III. Suggest Ukrainian single word equivalents for the following English phraseological and set expressions: 1. all for naught; 2. a shot in the blue; 3. a simple innocent; 4. to sink to destitution; 5. the small of the night (the small hours of the night); 6. soft in the brain (head); 7. Before you can say Jack Robinson; 8. mother's strawberry/mark; 9. breathe one's last; 10. by word of mouth; 11. tender years; 12, to the end of time; 13. to the purpose; 14. white liver; 15. will and testament; 16. with a bold front; 17. with a faint heart; 18. with a good grace; 19. with one's tongue in one's cheek; 20. a young Tartar; 21. you try us; 22. as the crow flies.

Exercise IV. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Define the ways in which the idioms in them are to be translated. 1. «I feel on the top of the world. I feel like a million dollars.» (Maugham). 2. The sole object of their lives is to be always playing with fire. (O. Wilde) 4. Joe felt he wanted putting himself into George's shoes. (J. Brian) 5. Don't talk rot. (D. Cusak) 6. «Don't think I am trying to pry into your affairs», - went on the politician. (T. Dreiser). 7. «The other chap, Profond, is a queer fish. I think he's hanging round Soames' wife, if you ask me!» (J. Galsworthy) 8. Little Jolyon was born with a silver spoon in his mouth. (Ibid.) Keep your eye upon him in the meanwhile, and don't talk about it. He is as mad as a March hare. (Ch. Dickens) 10. The proof of the pudding is in its eating. (S.Maugham) 11. A bird in the hand was worth two in the bush. (Ibid.) 12. Walter knew which side his bread was buttered. (Ibid.) 13. Why not cure unemployment by a National Slum Clearance effort, and kill the two birds with one stone. (J.Galsworthy) 14. However, I must bear my cross as best as I may: least said is soonest mended. (B. Shaw) 15. Oh, well, it's no good crying over spilt milk. (S.Maugham) 16. Her absence had been a relief. Out of sight was out of mind! (J. Galsworthy) 17. «He'll never set the Thames on fire»,-said Soames. (Ibid.) 18. «Silly little thing to try to put a spoke into my wheel.» (S.Maugham) 19. The apple of discord had, indeed, been dropt into the house of Millbornes. (T. Hardy) 20. The poor man's alarm was pitiful. His bread and butter was at stake. (J. London) 21. «I shall let sleeping dogs lie, my child». (J. Galsworthy) 22. The boy is very dear and the apple of her eye. (Ibid.) 23. You've landed yourself in a helpless mess. And I wash my hands of you. (A.Cronin) 24. You know the expression: «She has made her bed, she must lie on tf.»(lbid.) 25. «After all, the proof of the pudding's in the eating». 26. «Yes, I couldn't make head or tail of it.» 27. «You can twist her round your little finger.» 28. «Oh, I don't care a hang about that.» 29. «He says you just eat out of his hand». 30. «By God, if you had, that old hag would have had you out of the play, you're in now before you could say knife». 31. «She almost wished he wasn't going tomorrow so that she could have the pleasure of turning him out bag and baggage». 32. And to dare to treat her like that, a twopenny halfpenny little man in the city.» 33. «Poor lamb, he must be as poor as a church mouse». 34. Oh, well, in for a penny, in for a pound.» 31. «I never slept a wink all night for thinking of you,» he said. 35. «It's quite obvious that you don't care two straws for me.» 36. «That was quite another pair of shoes». 37. «After all sh*e must be tolerant, he was only a boy, and if you must cross your t's, she was old enough to be his mother». 38. «Wish me luck», he whispered, as he turned from her to enter the lift. It's almost too good to be true.» 39. «She had never seen him in evening clothes before. He shone like a new pin». 40. «...she wanted him to have his money's worth». (S.Maugham) 41. Ask them - for pity's sake to stop the gramophone (A.Cronin)

Exercise V. Compare each English idiom with its corresponding Ukrainian equivalent below. Other all possible ways in which they can be translated.

1. like teacher, like pupil; 2. let the dead bury the dead; 3. he who keeps company with the wolves, will learn to howl; 4. the morning sun never lasts a day; 5. to keep a body and soul together; 6. murder will out; 7. of all birds give me mutton; 8. one could have heard a pin drop; 9. one today is worth two tomorrows; 10. one rotten apple decays the bushel; 11. people who are too sharp cut their own fingers; 12. pie in the sky; 13. pigs grunt about everything and nothing; 14. pitch darkness; 15. to play a dirty (mean, nasty) trick on one; 16. to point out a mote in one's eye; 17. to poison the fountains of trust; 18. a pretty penny; 19. a pretty little pig makes an ugly sow; 20. to keep one's tongue between one's teeth; 21. to make it hot for one; 22. to make mince meat/to make meat of smth.; 23. more power to your elbow; 24. to pull one's leg; 25. every dog has his day; 26. this is too thin; 27. to run with the hare and hunt with the hounds; 28. a saint's words and cat's claws; 29. one's sands are running out; 30. never bray at an ass; 31 .to find a mare's nest; 32. sounding brass; 33. to talk through one's hat; 34. to talk a dog's (horse's) hind leg off; 35. to touch bottom; 36. company in distress makes sorrow less; 37. tit for tat; 38. tomorrow come never; 39. weeds want no sowing; 40. we got the coach up the hill; 41. what's Hecuba to me/to you; 42. when bees are old they yield no honey; 43. the wind in a man's face makes him wise; 44. scratch my back and I'll scratch yours. 45. To kill the goose that laid the golden egg.

Exercise VI. Translate in viva voce the following phraseological/idiomatic expressions, proverbs and saying into English. Define the ways in which their meaning can be faithfully conveyed:

1. який Сава, така й слава; 2. що було, то загуло; 3. з ким поведешся, того й наберешся; 4. на світі нема нічого вічного; 5. ледве зводити кінці з кінцями; 6. шила в мішку не сховаєш; 7. найкраща риба -ковбаса /гарна птиця ковбаса; 8. тихо, яку вусі /чути,, як трава росте; 9. не відкладай на завтра те, що можна зробити сьогодні; 10. одна паршива вівця всю отару поганить; 11. хто сміється, тому не минеться; 12. краще жайворонок у руці, ніж журавель у небі; 13. людям язиків не зав'яжеш; 14. темно, хоч в око стрель; 15. підвезти воза /підкласти свиню; 16. чуже бачити аж під лісом, а свого й під носом не помічати; 17. підірвати довір'я до себе; 18. грошей добру копійку /грошей дай Боже; 19. всі дівчата, мов квітки, а звідки погані баби беруться; 20. тримати язик за зубами/ ні.пари з уст; 21. дати прочухана /нагріти чуба; 22. не лишити каменя на камені; 23. ні пуху, ні луски; 24. морочити комусь голову; 25. козак не без долі /і в наше віконце ще загляне сонце; 26. білими нитками шито; 27. служити і вашим, і нашим; 28. м'яко стеле, та твердо спати; 29. недовго (комусь) ряст топтати; ЗО. не водись з дурнем; 31. попасти пальцем у небо; 32. пусті слова /балачки; 33. верзти нісенітницю; 34. наговорити сім мішків /кіп гречаної вовни; 35. узнати/спізнати, по чім ківш лиха; 36. в гурті і смерть не страшна /поділене горе - півгоря; 37. око за око/зуб за зуб; 38. обіцянка-цяцянка, а дурному радість; 39. дурнів не орють, не сіють (а вони самі родяться); 40. знайте нас: ми кислиці - то з нас квас; 41. а яке мені діло/ моя хата з краю; 42. був кінь, та з'їздився; 43. біда вимучить, біда й навчить; 44. рука руку миє. 45. Зарізати курку, що несла золоті яйця.

Exercise VII. Choose in part B of the exercise below the corresponding English equivalents (відповідники) for the following Ukrainian idiomatic/phraseological expressions and substantiate the way in which you decided to translate them.

A. 1. виїденого яйця не вартий; 2. я не я, і хата не моя/ моя хата з краю; 3. купається /плаває, як вареник у маслі; 4. як тільки язик повертається; 5. як сніг на голову; 6. лупцювати, як Сидорову козу; 7. (дивитися) як цап /баран на нові ворота 8. спіймати облизня; 9. чув дзвін, та не знає, не він; 10. як чугуївська верства (високий); 11. чого я там не бачив; 12. спасти на думку; 13. отримати прочухана; 14. рости, як із води; 15. здоров'я -найдорожчий скарб; 16. розбити глек із кимсь; 17. розв'язувати руки комусь; 18. сім п'ятниць на тиждень; 19. кашу маслом не збавиш; 20. водити за ніс (когось); 21. морочити комусь голову / піддурювати когось; 22. від долі не втечеш/у всякого своя доля; 23. клепки не вистачає (комусь); 24. верзти нісенітницю; 25. справи йшли як по маслу; 26. з вірогідного джерела/ з вірогідних джерел, із свіжих рук; 27. буря в склянці води; 28. гроші /гаманець, або життя; 29. не їла душа часнику, не буде й смердіти.

В. 1. is not worth a straw; 2. it does not concern me/it is not business of mine; 3. one lives in luxury/on the fat of the land; 4) how dare(s) one say so; 5. to come plump upon one/ to come like a bolt from the blue; 6. to beat the life out of one; 7. to look/ be astounded, to be very surprised; 8. to fail face/be a complete failure; 9. that is mere hearsay/rumor; 10. (as) tall as a maypole; 11. I've nothing lost there; 12. to bring back (call) to memory; 13. to grow (take) one's gruel; 14. to overgrow; 15. good health is above wealth; 16. to have a quarrel with one/to break off with one; 17. to give rein/to give full scope (swing) to one; 18. to keep changing one's mind; 19. plenty is no plague; 20. to pull (one) by the nose; 21. to pull one's leg; 22. every bullet has its billet; 23. (one) has not all his buttons/one has a screw loose, one is a little wanting, one is not right up there; 24. to talk nonsense/bunkum; 25. things went swimmingly/without a hitch, work like butter; 26. straight from the horse's mouth/ straight from the tin; 27. a storm in a tea-pot/tea-cup (Am. a tea-cup/tea-pot tempest); 28. to stand and deliver; 29. people throw stones only at trees with fruit on them.

Exercise VIII. Suggest suitable Ukrainian versions for the following English proverbs, sayings and catchwords (крилаті слова та вирази):

1. actions speak louder than words; 2. all that glitters is not gold; 3. work and no play makes Jack a dull boy; 4. a bad workman always blames the tools; 5. barking dogs seldom bite; 6. beauty is only skin deep; 7, creaking gate hangs long; 8. don't cross the bridge until you come to it; 9. don't put the cart before the horse; 10. the early bird catches the worm; 11. every dog has his day; 12. forbidden fruit is sweetest; 13. if a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well; 14. its easy to be wise after the event; 15. it's never too late to mend; 16. it never rains but it pours; 17. more haste less speed; 18.no gain without pain; 19, necessity is the mother of invention; 20. never look a gift horse in the mouth; 21. no news (is) good news; 22. one swallow doesn't make a summer; 23. out of sight, out of mind; 24. paddle your own canoe; 25. the proof of the pudding is in the eating; 26. the road to hell is paved with good intentions; 27. the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak (The Bible); 28. still waters are deep; 29. time and tide wait for no man; 30. too many cooks spoil the broth; 31. when the cat's away the mice will play; 32. where there's a will, there's a way; 33. while there's life, there's hope; 34. you can't run with the hare and hunt with the hounds; 35. you may lead a horse to water, but you can not make him drink; 36. man proposes and God disposes; 37. give a man a fish and he eats all day. Teach him catch fish and he eats for a lifetime; 38. education makes people easy to lead but difficult to drive, easy to govern but impossible to enslave; 39. good advice comes from the aged; 40. an old man is like a child; 41. early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise; 42. there is no place like home; 43. one today is worth two tomorrows; 44. a man is old as he feels, a woman is old as she looks; 45. many a good cow has a bad/evil calf; 46. one's eyes drop millstones; 47, a forgetful head makes a weary pair of heels-; 48. great talkers are all little doers; 49. a great ship asks deep water/s; 50. great weeds grow apiece; 51. to have not a penny to one's name/ to have not a shirt to one's back; 52. keep your mouth shut and your ears open; 53. spare the rod and spoil the child; 54. a sparrow in the hand is better than the pigeon on the roof; 55. a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush; 56. birds of a feather flock together; 57. the ass is known by Its ears; 58. a bird is known by its note, and a man by its talk; 59. a bitten child dreads the dog; 60. a burnt child dreads the fire/a scalded cat/dog fears cold water; 61. the face is the index of the mind; 62. a fair'face may hide a foul heart; 63. far from eye, far from heart/seldom seen, soon forgotten; 64. to fear as the devil fears the holy water; 65. to fiddle while Rome is burning; 66. one's fingers are (all) thumbs; 67. fish begins to stink at the head; 68. fools will be fools; 69. a fool when he is silent is counted wise; 70. friends may meet but mountains never; 71. friends are thieves of time; 72. God helps those who help themselves; 73. man is known by the company he keeps; 74. a good Jack makes a good Jill; 75. every god has his way; 76. fine feathers make the bird; 77. don't have too many irons in the fire; 78. while there's life there's hope; 79. the wish is father to the thought; 80. a word is enough to the wise; 81. a rolling stone catches no moss; 82. Rain at seven, fine at eleven.

Exercise IX. Offer corresponding Ukrainian versions for the following English proverbs and sayings:

A. speak of devil and he will appear; to teach the dog to bark; you can not wash charcoal white; velvet paws hide sharp paws; he that will strive, must rise at five; life is not all cakes and ale; little thieves are hanged, but great ones escape; physician, heal thyself rule with the rod of iron; like teacher, like pupil; like master, like land; like father, like son; like master, like servant; like author, like book; like mistress, like maid; like priest, like people; as the tree, so the fruits; as old clock crows, so doth the young; like begets like; as is trie gardener so is the garden; like carpenter, like chips; as is the workman, so is the work; like likes like; like draws to like; like cures; like sayings.

B. Offer English semantic analogies/equivalents for the Ukrainian proverbs and sayings below. Use part A for the purpose where necessary.

Який учитель, такий і учень; який господар, таке й поле; яка хата, такий тин/ який батько, такий син; який автор, така й книжка; який, піп, така й парафія/ зі злої трави - лихе сіно; тернина грушок не родить; яке коріння, таке й насіння; яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає; яка пряжа, таке й полотно; по роботі пізнати майстра, який Яків - стільки й дяки; який пастух, така й череда, які сбмі, такі й сани; яка грушка, така й юшка; рибак рибака впізнає

205здалека; видно пана по халявах; який їхав, таку й здибав/стрів; малі злодії попадаються - великі вириваються.

Exercise X. Translate the story below into Ukrainian. Use the list of idioms below where necessary for the purpose.

Up, Up and Away

On Monday, out of the clear sky, the local travel agent telephoned Janice to tell her that she had won two tickets to the Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta in New Mexico.

Janice and John, her husband, had always wanted to go ballooning at the festival, but they thought that such a trip was beyond their reach. She was walking on air when she telephoned John to tell him the good news. At first, John thought that Janice was joking and full of hot air, but when he realized that she was not building castles in the air, his annoyance vanished into thin air. As soon as John came home from work, Janice and John eagerly talked about the trip. Soon their plans grew by leaps and bounds. Janice's head was in the clouds all the time because she was anticipating the trip and her first balloon ride.

Two weeks before the trip, Janice was rushed to the hospital. After examining her, the doctor burst her bubble when he said that she would need an operation. The doctor's decision went over like a lead ballon. Janice was devastated. Now their balloon vacation was up in the air. She knew that without the free tickets, the cost of the trip would be sky high. But Janice was lucky. The operation was not serious, and she begged the doctor to let her go on the trip. One week later, Janice and John took their dream trip. They were on cloud nine as their balloon rose into the blue sky. Janice smiled and thought: sometimes it pays to reach for the sky.

Idioms to the story:

1. The sky's the limit - there is upper limit;

2. Out of the clear blue sky - suddenly; without warning;

3. Go sky high - go very high;

4. Walk on air - be very happy; euphoric;

5. By leaps and bounds - rapidly;

6. Full of hot air - talking nonsense;

7. Go fly a kite - go away and stop bothering me;

8. Burst one's bubble - disillusion someone;

9. Have one's head in the clouds - be unaware of what is going on;

10. Up in the air- undecided; uncertain;

11. Out of thin air - out of nowhere; out of nothing; high;

12. Vanish into thin air - disappear leaving a trace;

13. On cloud nine - very happy;

14. Reach for the sky - aspire to something; set one's goals

15. Beyond one's reach - more than one can afford;

16. Under a cloud of suspicion - be suspected of something;

17. Go over like a lead balloon - not well received by

others;

18. As high as a kite - very happy;

19. Breath of fresh air - new, fresh, and imaginative approach;

20. Build castles in the air-daydream; make plans that never

come true.

IV. LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

RENDERING OF THE CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES

The article, both the definite and indefinite, is a functional word serving to identify or determine the noun (cf. to work-the work), the superlative degree of its quality (thetallesttree) or the order of nouns in a word-group (the first step) or in a row of similar nouns. In some prepositional phrases and word-combinations the definite and indefinite articles, however, may change their lexico-grammatical nature (become a particle), as in the expression the more, the better (чим більше, тим краще), or acquire some peculiar grammatical, functional and lexical meaning (the Browns/Petrenkos подружжя Браунів/ Петренків); the article may be lexicalized as in the Alps/the Carpathians Альпи/Карпати, at the baker's/butcher's у пекаря/ м'ясника (в хлібному /м'ясному магазині). Such and the like lexicalized articles, naturally, in no way weaken or lose their determining, i.e., grammatical function. As a result, their lexical meaning is inseparable in these cases from their functional meaning. The determining and lexicalizing nature of the definite and indefinite articles also manifests itself in several set expressions (cf. in the cart, in a word, what a pity, all of a sudden, etc.)

1). On several other occasions the definite/indefinite article may acquire some lexical meaning in contextual environment (only for a time) and thus serve as a peculiar means of «expressive connotation»1 . This kind of articles is each time endowed in different contextual environments with some quite different meaning, which may be, nevertheless, of implicitly different semantic and lexico-gram-matical/logically-grammatical type, as for instance, that of a demonstrative, possessive, identifying, indefinite or some other pronoun: Cf.: He lived more poorly than an artisan. (S. Maugham) Жив він бідніше за будь-якого ремісника. Carot never sold a picture. (Ibid) Каро не продав жодної картини/ні однієї картини.

2) That of an adjunctive/identifying adjective and a specifying or modal particle:... and she had acquired a reputation for neatness

1 See: Rayevska N.M. Modern English Grammar. - Київ, Вища школа, Головне вид-во, 1976, p. 86.

208


and accuracy (Maugham) і вона здобула за ретельно виконану роботу солідну репутацію. She would have called him a fish. (Carrol) Вона назвала б його просто карасем.

3) A distinctly nominal or rather nominalizing meaning. The latter can be explicitly illustrated in the following sentence. He (Mr. Gills) took it (the bottle) up and having surveyed and smelt it said with extraordinary expression: «The?» «The», returned the instrument maker. (C. Dickens)

The real meaning of thus emphasized article can be disclosed only in the sentence that follows, where Mr. Gills fills the glass with liquour and drinks it. Without the broader context it would certainly be impossible to guess what this definite nominalizing article stands for in the extract. Nor is it always easy for our students to identify in some sentences the rhematic and the thematic function of articles and to express their meaning. Therefore, the occurrence of lexically meaningful articles is not occasional or accidental, for it is predetermined by context. Due to this, the number of lexically meaningful articles in different speech substyles often varies. Their occurrence can also depend on the personal taste of the author who may be more or less inclined to use them in his narrative. But whatever their quantity, none of the lexically meaningful articles should be ignored or overlooked in the passage under translation and its meaning must be correctly rendered in the target language.

In order to faithfully convey each kind of the aforementioned meaningful articles, the student will be advised first of all to subject the whole passage, which is to be translated, to a thorough content analysis in order to select possible lexical substitutes for the articles in the target language. The substitutes in languages like Ukrainian (or Russian), which have no functionals of the kind, can differ by their logico-grammatical nature, as well as be contextually synonymous. Because of this the choice of the contextually equivalent substitutes depends much on the translator who, when selecting a fitting lexical equivalent for the article, has to take some factors into consideration. These include first of all the semantic factor playing a predominant role, and the stylistic factor eliminating an unnecessary repetition of the same equivalent substitute in sentences close by. In other words, the co-occurrence of the same synonymous substitutes must be strictly regulated. Besides, the translator has to keep it in mind, that some contextual meanings of the definite article may seem similar to those of the indefinite article and vice versa. Hence, the translator should be no less attentive to the style of his target lan-

209


guage passage which in its turn will help him achieve a faithful translation of sentences or the passage as a whole, where both the defining and the nominalizing lexically charged articles are used.

When conveying the lexical meanings of the definite and indefinite articles into Ukrainian, attention should be paid to their functional meanings in the sentence/word-combinations. Thus, the meanings of the definite article are usually expressed through different Ukrainian attributive pronouns, adjectives, participles, adverbs or cardinal/ordinal numerals. The meaning of the numeral one, on the other hand, is always expressed only through the indefinite article, which is historically derived from this part of speech. Cf.: Most of felllows in the Quarters share a studio. (Maugham) Багато хлопців з латинського кварталу орендують удвох одну студію.

The nominalizing articles are mostly rendered through the parts of speech having the functions of attributes to the noun: «...I believe that a young person in a city tea-shop has left her situation. (Maugham) ...Гадаю, водній із кав'ярень якась офіціантка зникла.

The emphatically used articles, on the other hand, have usually particles for their contextual equivalents in Ukrainian: But I must content myself with a few paragraphs. (Maugham) Жаль, що можу обмежитьсь дише кількома епізодами.

The rhematic use of the articles introducing the new information, a new core of an utterance, and its thematic use repeating the already known information about an object or event is often disclosed in Ukrainian sentences by other than lexical means, as will be shown further. Still, the bulk of meanings which the lexically charged articles can acquire due to their syntagmatic environment in speech are those of pronouns. This can also be seen from the citied illustrations on the forthcoming pages.

REALIZATION OF CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The definite article when endowed with the lexical meaning in a sentence or passage can have various realizations in Ukrainian. It is expedient to begin with the most common of them which may be the following:

210


1) as the demonstrative pronoun цей (ця, це, ці):

What his sister has seen in the man was beyond him. (J.London)1

The thought was fire in him. Martin came back and looked at the beady eyes ~ sneering ....

 Що його сестра знайшла у цьому чоловікові, він не міг збагнути.

Ця думка пекла його, мов вогонь. Мартін опритомнів і, глянувши в ці злі, хитрі очі....

2) as the demonstrative pronouns такий (той, та, те, ті), той самий, (саме той, та сама), такий самий:

«Sometimes there is the impression that the IMF is on the same side of the barricades with the forces which are out to reverse the course of development back to Soviet times.» Ukrainian president said. (Kyiv Post)

Prime Minister's dismissal had been rumored from the date of his appointment. (Ibid.)

But surely Ruth did not understand it, he concluded. How could she, living the refined life she did?

He was amazed at the man's sympathy with the life and his incisive psychology.

The fellow behind us in the crowd was talking again. (E.Caldwell)

....and when I could see again, the fellow who stayed with me was dragging me down the street. (Ibid.)

 «Іноді створюється таке враження, що МВФ стоїть на одному боці з тими самими силами, які намагаються повернути курс розвитку до радянських часів», - заявив президент України.

Чутки про зняття прем'єр-міністра поширювалися від самого початку його призначення.

Рут навряд чи розуміла цей твір. Та і як вона могла зрозуміти, живучи таким витонченим, яку неї, життям?

Його вразила така любов цієї людини до життя і її психологічне проникнення.

Той самий хлопець із натовпу позад нас тепер озвався знову.

...а коли мені розвиднілось в очах, саме той хлопець, що зостався зі мною, тяг мене за собою.

1 All cited instances in illustration of the lexical meaning of articles, unless indicated otherwise, have been picked up from J.London's works and their translations in Ukrainian.

211


3) as the possessive pronoun /"/', їхні, свій (своя, своє, свої):

The room was situated over the laundry...

«Why don't you eat?» he demanded, as Martin dipped dolefully into the cold, half cooked oatmeal mush.

...Mr. Higginbotham sneered throughout mealtime at the «literary» person they had discovered in the family.

 Його кімната була/ знаходилась над пральнею...

«Чому ти не їси?» - запитав він, бачачи, як неохоче Мартін копирсає свою недоварену вівсяну кашу.

...містер Хіггїнботем під час обіду стільки кепкував з «писаки», що виявився у їхній родині.

4) as the identifying pronoun весь, вся, все/цілий:

Не looked up, and it seemed that the room was lifting...

The romance and beauty, and high vigour of the books were coming true.

Her trained ear detected the overemphasis of the tyro...

«What the hell you guys blocking the street?» (E.Caldwell)

 Він підвів голову і йому здалося, що вся кімната ходить ходором...

Вся романтика і краса, всі високі поривання, про які він читав у книжках, виявились правдою.

її витончене вухо враз вловило всі перебільшення новачка...

«Якого біса ви, волоцюги, запрудили всю вулицю?»

5) as the relative pronoun який (яка, яке, які):

Не caught himself imagining the wonder of a caress from such a hand, and flushed guiltily...

She did not know the actual fire of love.

 Він подумав, яку насолоду повинні приносити пестощі такою рукою, і зніяковіло зашарівся...

Вона не знала, яке то справжнє полум'я коханая.

6) as the indefinite pronoun якийсь (якась, якесь), певний:

For the moment the great gulf that separated them then was bridged. He was played by the low comedian, who had intro-

 Ha якусь мить через велику безодню, що розділяла їх, був наведений міст. Його роль виконував такий собі комік з

212


duced gags of his own... (О.    фарсовими         вибриками
Wilde) власного штибу.

7) as the identifying attributive pronoun сам, сам собою, інший/

Інша:

But the man did not seem to know of the content of the great mind.

The toil meant nothing to him.

...which was new to him, for of the women he had known -that was the only way he thought.

 Та, очевидно, сам бібліотекар нічого не знав про творчість цієї великої голови.

Сама собою праця нічого не важила для нього.

.... і це було нове для нього, бо про інших жінок, яких він знав, він інакше взагалі не думав.

 

8) as an adjective or adjectivized participle (according to the

contextual meaning):

Martin Eden did not go out to hunt for a job in the morning.

He had worked the day before in the basement and the money had been kept all the time. (E.Caldwell)

9) as a particle emphasizing or some other part of speech:

But the story was grand just the same, perfectly grand.

The man above us was talking to several persons in the crowd. (E.Caldwell)

The next afternoon, accompanied by Arthur, she arrived in the Morses carriage.

 Мартін Іден не пішов наступного ранку шукати роботи.

Напередодні він також працював у підвалі фабрики і ще не витратив зароблені гроші.

the attributive pronoun, numeral

А так це оповідання -чудове, ну просто чудове.

А той чоловік над нами огризався до людей з натовпу/ сперечався з людьми з натовпу.

На другий же день в супроводі Артура вона приїхала до нього в кареті Морзів.

10) very often when the noun in the sentence has another attribute the clearly explicit lexical meaning of the definite article remains superflous:

He lay where he had fallen,         Він лежав, де впав, і звідти and from there he watched the    спостерігав за чоловіком у

213


man   in   the   red   sweater.     червоному светрі. (J.London)

Here the man in the red sweater may be translated as той чоловік у червоному светрі but the postpositive attribute у червоному (светрі) has a stronger force of definiteness than the prepositive lexically charged article. As a result, the meaning of the article remains implicit, though strongly felt.

Similarly in the sentence below where the lexically charged definite article is also suppressed by the attributive prepositional noun:

From the first mention of the 3 першої миті, як місіс

dance by Mrs. Cowperwood and Каупервуд та Анна заговорили

Anna, Ailen had been conscious про вечори з танцями, Ейлен

of a desire toward a more effec- закортіло блиснути (показати

tive presentation of herself than себе) ще яскравіше, ніж це їй

as yet. (T.Dreiser) вдавалося досі.

The definite article in the sentence above is substituted for the contextual noun вечори (з танцями) instead of ті танці as in the original sentence.

11) In many a case the definite article may point to thematic functioning of the noun, which is usually signalized by its initial position in the sentence and pointing to the core of the utterance presenting the basic, known already elements in the sentence:

The street lights were fewer Лампіонів на вулиці тепер

now. (J. Steinbeck) горіло менше.

The old man stared at the Старий з острахом дивився

open door. (Ibid.) на прочинені двері.

The night was getting colder А ніч усе холоднішала і

and more raw all the time, ставала щодалі вологішою/ і

(Е. Caldwell) ставало щодалі вологіше.

The dog had gone back to his Тут собака заходився знову

slow, spiritless barking, спроквола і неохоче

(J. Steinbeck) погавкувати.

They silently passed the stu- Повз майстерню вони

dio. (J. Fowels) пройшли мовчки.

The rheme, the new notional element in the utterance, is more frequently indicated in English by the indefinite article determining

214


the noun in the initial position. When translated into Ukrainian, however, the rhematic noun, as has long been noticed1, occupies a terminating position in the sentence/clause (when the utterance is a composite sentence):

There was an old twostorey Того року на Філдінґ Авеню ще

yellow house on Fielding Av- стояв старий двоповерховий

enue that year. (W. Saroyan) жовтий будинок.

A dog growled in one of the Коли чоловіки проходили

yards as the men went by. (J. повз один з будинків, у його

Steinbeck) дворі загарчав собака.

A light fog began to drift У повітрі потяглися

through the air, and the stars легенькі пасма туману, /вони

were swallowed in it. (Ibid.) заволокли й поглинули зірки.

A train hooted mournfully, Тужно загув поїзд, і, обігнув-

and in a moment it rounded а ши за якусь мить округлий вигін,

bend and pushed its terrible light кинув свої страхітливі сліпучі

down the track. (Ibid.) пасма світла на колії.

A correct selection of thematic and rhematic nouns, identified by the definite and indefinite articles and by their respective placement in the sentence, facilitates the faithful conveying of the logical sentence perspective in the target language.

REALIZATION OF CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

Strange as it may seem but very often, almost predominantly, the indefinite article is endowed in speech/text with lexical meanings, which may coincide with those of different pronouns. The only exception is made for the meaning of the cardinal numeral «one» from which the indefinite article historically originates. No wonder that the contextual meanings of the lexically charged indefinite article can sometimes be, as will be seen further on, quite unexpected. The most frequent and common of these meanings can be expressed, as has been mentioned already, in one of the following ways:

1) by the cardinal numeral один (одна, одне): He said something about а         Він тут розповідав щось про

1 See: Бархударов Л.С. Структура простого предложения современного английского язьїка. - М.: «Вьісш. шк.», 1966, p.p. 192-195.

215


schooner that's gettin' ready to go    одну шхуну,
off.
(О. Wilde) відпливати.

 яка готується

2) In some contexts, however, the indefinite article may ac
quire a lexical meaning which corresponds either to the Ukrainian
cardinal numeral
один, to the ordinal numeral перший or to the in
definite pronoun
якийсь (якась, якесь). The indefinite article may
also mark the rheme of the utterance as in the sentence:
Only for an
instant he hesitated, then his head went up and his hand came off.
(J. London) In this sentence any of the above-given substitutes may
be quite faithful, since the cardinal or ordinal numeral and the indefi
nite pronoun are equally fitting in the utterance, which in Ukrainian
will have another position:

Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки якусь мить... Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки першу мить... Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки одну мить... Similarly in the following sentences:

It was only fora moment. Це тривало тільки одну/

(J. London) якусь мить.

3) By the indefinite pronoun якийсь only, without the attendant
meanings of the cardinal or ordinal numerals:

He saw her come down the aisle, with Arthur and a strange young man. (J.London)

Sometimes, when with her, she noted an unusual brightness in his eyes, and she liked it. (Ibid.)

Він бачив, як вона пройшла партером у супроводі Артура і ще якогось незнайомого молодика.

Часом, коли він бував з нею,
вона помічала
якийсь

особливий блиск в його очах, що подобався їй.

4) when the lexically meaningful indefinite article precedes the noun under logical stress, it functions as the demonstrative pronoun, which is translated into Ukrainian as цей, ця, це:

This was his programme for a week. (J. London)

Here was a man who could do anything, was the message she read there. (Ibid.)

How can a man write so badly?.. (E. Hemingway)

 Це була його програма на цей тиждень.

Ця людина здатна на все-ось що вона прочитала в його погляді.

Як може ця людина (цей чоловік) писати так погано?..

216


5) As one of the possessive textual meaning):

He did not go home immediately, and under the tree, where he kept his vigils, he looked up at a window and murmured. (J. London)

When she returned with the grammar, she drew a chair near his. (Ibid.)

 pronouns (according to their con-

Він (Мартін) не рушив зразу додому, а пішов до знайомого дерева, став на звичне місце проти її вікна і прошептав схвильовано.

Коли вона (Рут) повернулася з граматикою, вона присунула свій стілець до його стільця.

6) As the negative ргопоипжоден or the negative perticle ані (when the determined noun is preceded by the negative particle not):

You were not following а Ви не чули жодного слова/
word. ані слова.

Не hadn't a penny. Він не мав жодного пенні
(S. Maugham) (ані пенні).

7) as the relative adjective цілий which is lexically equivalent in the sentences below to the Ukrainian identifying pronoun весь (вся, все):

Мартін узяв напрокат друкарську машинку і цілий (весь) день вчився друкувати на ній.

...(його) доробок за день дорівнював доробкові якого-небудь модного письменника за цілий тиждень.

Martin rented a typewriter and spent a day mastering the machine. (J. London)

- (his) day's work was the equivalent to a week's work of

the average succesful writer. (Ibid.)

8) More common in Ukrainian contextual substitutes for the lexically meaningful indefinite article are, however, different relative adjectives, the most often used being справжній:

It is sweet to feel that you are really and truly a woman. (Ibid.)

This small sum seemed a fortune. (Ibid.)

 Приємно відчувати (себе), що ти є справжньою жінкою.

Ця маленька сума здалася (Мартіну) справжнім (цілим) скарбом.

9) The contextual meaning of the indefinite article may some-

217


times be expressed in Ukrainian through different adverbs:

He had the conviction that he         У нього було таке переконання,

could sit in a draught if he     що він міг сидіти навіть на протязі,

wanted to. (J. Galsworthy) якби того захотів...

There is a great difference.         Це зовсім різні речі/зовсім

(O.Wilde) інша річ.

The above-given lexical realizations of the determining and identifying functions of the definite and indefinite articles would be incomplete without the illustration of some other meanings, which they may acquire in contextual environment. The choice of the se-mantically fitting substitute for the definite or indefinite article then rests entirely with the translator, who is well acquainted with the text/ work under translation. Since the style of the text may often influence or predetermine the choice of the necessary synonym, care should be taken in order not to neglect the possible ways of expression in Ukrainian either. Thus, the lexical meaning of the indefinite article a in the sentence - I didn't dare show my face at Court for a month. (O. Wilde) - could be faithfully expressed in Ukrainian either through the identifying pronoun весь or by its lexical equivalent at sentence level, which is the relative adjective цілий. But the translator of The Picture of Dorian Gray (R. Dotsenko) has suggested for this particular case a more acceptable contextual version: Я добрий місяць і носа не наважувався показати при дворі.

10) The broader context often predetermines the employment
of lexically equivalent variants which could scarcely ever be offered
for a narrow context. The kind of contextual substitutes can be seen
in the examples below, where Ukrainian demonstrative and other
pronouns, adjectives, numerals, etc., are contextually/semantically
enforced by emphatic or modal particles. Thus, the contextual mean
ing of the indefinite article below is expressed through an adjective
enforced by an emphatic or some other particle or group of particles:

He was not to remain a sailor. Бо ж він не буде простим

(London) собі матросом..

Не seemed to think it a dis- Він вважав це чи не за

tinction. (Ibid.) особливу відзнаку.

11) The contextual meaning of the indefinite article may be
expressed through the interrogative or indefinite pronoun also en
forced by some emphatic particles:

- a penniless young fellow, а         ...молодик без шеляга за

218


mere nobody, sir, a subaltern in а душею, - власне ніщо, сер,
foot regiment. усього лишень якийсь

піхотний офіцерик... What a lovely day! (La Mure)         Який же гарний день!

Note: Apart from the above-cited contextual meanings of the definite and the indefinite articles there may be some other (implicit) meanings of them. Thus, the definite article may sometimes have the following additional realizations in Ukrainian:

a) that of a pronominal word-group of an emphatic force:

I want you to get rid of the Я хочу, щоб ви врешті-решт
dreadful people you're associ- перестали спілкуватися з усіма
ated with. (O. Wilde) тими покидьками.

The identifying definite article may include in its semantic information some specifying function and meaning too:

The Chinamen were already Там уже метушились госпо-
busy in their shops. (Ibid.) дарі китайських крамничок.

Some implicit contextual meanings of the modifying and identifying definite article the can often be given a true and faithful explication i.e. realization in translation only after a thorough study of the broader content as well. Cf.:

After a moment's hesitation, Стрікленд роздумував

Strickland scrambled to his feet, недовго. Випростав затерплі
and together they went to the ноги, і вони вдвох подалися до
Bonchee de Pain. іншого благодійного

(S.Maugham) закладу під назвою

«Хлібодар».

The MacAndrews, who were Полковник Мак-Ендрю з

childless and in easy circum- дружиною, бездітні й добре
stances, arranged to undertake забезпечені, взяли на
the care of the children, and Mrs. утримання її дітей, так що місіс
Strickland had only herself to pro- Стрікленд заробляла тільки на
vide for. (Ibid.) себе.

b) Sometimes the article may substitute an implicit identifying/
interrogative pronoun and a particle expressing the contextual mean
ing of the emphatically used noun with the definite article. This can be
seen in the following exclamatory sentence:

219


The pity of it! The pity of it! Як жаль! Який жаль!

шкода! Дуже шкода!

The picture of contextual realizations of meanings pertained to the determining and identifying articles would be incomplete without some illustrations of their «deep», as one might call them, or interpharasal and superphrasal meanings, which the articles may acquire in some contexts. The interphrasal meaning of the definite or indefinite article may be elicited already from its contextual meaning at the level of the sentence. Cf.:

I looked at her mouth for an Я позирав на її вуста - чи expression that could give me не майне там бодай тінь її a clue to what she felt. (Maugham) душевного стану.

The meaning of the noun with the indefinite article (an expression) is clearly perceived from the content of the sentence where it may also be substituted tor якийсь вираз/хоч якийсь вираз.

More or less transient is also the meaning of the underlined noun with the definite article in the following sentence:

Of the threat she said noth- Власне ж про саму погрозу
ing. (O.Wilde) вона промовчала/не сказала

нічого.

In some cases, however, it is next to impossible to translate a noun with the implicit meaning of its identifying or specifying article without an inquiry into the broader context of the whole work, as in the following sentence:

They sent me to Amsterdam Мене вірядили до
to try for a scholarship, and І Амстердама на конкурс, який
won it. (Maugham.) обіцяв стипендію в художній

школі, і я здобув її.

It goes without saying that such a descriptive translation of the noun (a scholarship) could be offered only by a translator well acquainted with the content of the preceding sentences or even of the whole paragraph.

There are, naturally, many more contextual realizations of the lexical meanings, pertaining to the definite and the indefinite articles, which they may acquire in a text/at speech level.

In view of the diversity of possible lexical realizations, which the English articles may have in speech, the student will be warned to employ not only their single word equivalents to express their meanings in Ukrainian. A thorough study of the broader context may sometimes help to find a more fitting substitute for a lexically charged

220


indefinite or definite article in Ukrainian. Thus, in the sentence He had a face that reminded me of a frog. (W.Lewis) the bold type indefinite article a can not be denied the meaning of the demonstrative pronoun таке. All this must be borne in mind when dealing with the lexically meaningful articles in the sentences of the exercise below. Unfortunately, the restricted space of the manual makes it impossible to give regular passages with the implicit (contextual) meanings of the definite and the indefinite articles.

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

  1.  The most general contextual realizations of meanings of
    the nominalizing and emphatic articles. The means of expressing
    their meanings in Ukrainian.
  2.  The most common contextual meanings of the definite arti
    cle and means of expressing them in Ukrainian.
  3.  The most common contextual meanings of the indefinite
    article and means of expressing them in Ukrainian.
  4.  Ways of conveying the rhematic and thematic contextual
    meanings of the definite and the indefinite articles in Ukrainian.
  5.  Other possible contextual meanings of the definite and in
    definite articles and means of their expression in Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Analyse the sentences and substitute the definite article for an appropriate Ukrainian demonstrative pronoun. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

I. This was the man Dorian Gray was waiting for. (O. Wilde) 2. He had met the woman at last - the woman he had thought little about, not being given to thinking about women. (Ibid.) 3. Eight Street Bridge is the place. (J.London) 4. - and at the instant he knew, he ceased to know. (Ibid.) 5. That's the Barney, that has the ugly daughter. (W. Maken) 6. «You've heard of Rancocanty?»- «I'm the man». (G. Byron) 7. «The Mr.Jardyce, sir, whose story I have heard?» (C. Dickens) 8. When she smiled, he saw the Pat he had known, the Pat smiling at him from worn photo, that still lay in the pocket-book against his heart. (J. Lindsay) 9. If I ever saw a man hopelessly hard up it was the man in front of me. (H. Wells) 10.1 was brought up by

221


my paternal aunt, Miss Frobisher, the Miss Frobisher of the Barton Chapel Case and the Woman's World Humanity movement. (Ibid.)

Exercise II. Substitute the definite article for an appropriate possessive pronoun. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. He had uttered a mad wish that he himself might remain young, and the portrait grow old - . (O. Wide) 2. It was his beauty that ruined him, his beauty and the youth that he had prayed for. (Ibid.) 3. «Take the thing off the face. I wish to see it.» (Ibid.) 4.1 know the age better than you do, though you will prate about it so tediously. (Ibid.) 5. The next night, of course, I arrived at the place again. (Ibid.) 6. At last, liveried in the costume of the age, Reality entered the room in the shape of a servant to tell the Duchess that her carriage was waiting. (Ibid.) 7. - and you have often told me that it is personalities, not principles, that move the age. (Ibid.) 8. «He began to talk about the house». (J.Fowles). 9. In England he never quite capitalized on the savage impact, the famous «black sarcasm» of the Spanish drawings. (Ibid.) 10. The friendship, the rapport (взаємовідносини) became comprehensible - . (Ibid.)

Exercise III. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Give your reasons for the choice of the indefinite pronoun (or cardinal numeral) to express the lexical meaning of articles.

1. «A Mr. Forsyte to see you, sir». (J. Galsworthy) 2. «By the way, have you any spare clothes you could give the wife of a poor snipe? -. (Ibid.) 3. He was moving slowly on the Bond Street, when a little light lady, coming from the backwater, and reading as she went, ran into him behind. (Ibid.) 4. Haviland looked at him for a moment and then hung up his hat and coat. (M.Wilson) 5. «I saw a Mrs. Danvers on the twelfth floor at two o'clock», he said. (D. du Maurier) 6. There was a woman sitting before the fire. (K.Mansfield) 7. There lay a young man, fast asleep - sleeping so soundly, so deeply, that he was far, far away from them both. (Ibid.) 8. In a few minutes a man came in, and George explained that the cook was sick. (E. Hemingway) 9. «We're going to kill a Swede. Do you know a big Swede named Ole Anderson?» (Ibid.) 10. As he swung, head down, into Talgarth Street he was conscious, suddenly, of a man running. (A. Cronin) 11. «- not to be acquainted with a Jarndyce is queer, ain't it, Miss Flite?» (C. Dickens). 12. Every old gang has a Billy in it. (S. Leacock) 13. «What a fool Rawdon Grawley has been to go and marry a governess!» (W. Thackeray) 14. After a pause Lord Henry pulled out his watch. (O. Wilde) 15. When all that is settled, I shall take a West End theatre and bring her out properly.

222


(О. Wilde) 16. A woman in a fluttering shawl was creeping slowly by the railings, staggering as she went. (Ibid.) 17. At last he heard a step outside, and the door opened. (Ibid.) 18. When a government makes a bad mistake of judgement, the electorate turns against it as soon as it feels the effect. (J. Galsworthy)

Exercise IV. Analyse the sentences below. Identify how the contextual meanings of the bold type articles are realized in Ukrainian (as an identifying pronoun, a relative adjective or any other semantically/contextually suitable word). Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Desperately he came to a halt in front of one decent picture hanging on the walls. (A. Huxley) 2.1 honestly think if a person's an artist nobody ought to have any feeling at all about meeting him. (D. Parker) 3. Life worried and bored him, and time was a vexation. (J. London) 4. He is a man. (Ibid.) 5. He was over to San Francisco yesterday looking for a ship. (Ibid.) 6. «What's that?» he replied to a question from Olney that broke in upon his train of thought. (Ibid.) 7. «Yes, she is a peacock in everything but beauty», said Lord Henry. (O. Wilde) 8.1 have not laid eyes on him fora week. (Ibid.) 9. They are always telling that it (America) is the Paradise for women. (Ibid.) 10. Were people to gape at the mystery of his life? (Ibid.) 11. «An eternity», she tells me... (Ibid.) 12. There is hardly a single person in the House of Commons worth painting - . (Ibid.) 13.1 want to place her on a pedestal of gold, and to see the world worship the woman who is mine. (Ibid.) 14. Then he discovered Henley and wrote a series of sea-poems on the model of Hospital Sketches. (J. London) 15. For a generation ... the Old Hundredth (night club) has maintained a solid front against all adversity. (F. Fitzgerald) 16. So when a young man at the office suggested that we take a house together in a commuting town, it sounded like a great idea. (Ibid.) 17. «You can tell me the truth without giving me any of that lip.»(W. Saroyan)

Exercise V. Substitute the articles in bold type for the appropriate particles (вже, навіть, просто, саме, таки, ще, etc.). Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1.1 believe some pictures of mine had made a real success at the time... (O. Wilde) 2. It was the passions about whose origin we deceived ourselves that tyrannised most strongly over us. (Ibid.) 3. You are the type the age is searching for -. (Ibid.) 4. It seems to be the one thing that can make modern life mysterious or marvellous to us. (Ibid.) 5. Conscience is the trade-name of the firm. (Ibid.) 6. «You are the one man in the world who is entitled to know everything about

223


me - . (Ibid.) 7. «Years ago, when I was a boy», said Dorian Gray -. (Ibid.) 8. The very thought of it stirs me. (J. London) 9. -when that was over and he had failed to kill his loneliness but only made it worse, he had written to her, the first one, the one who left him. (E. Hemingway)

10. «I suppose, it's the thing to do», Macomber agreed. (Ibid.)

11. «She went into a house-» «Intoahouse!» Michael dived his ciga
rette-case. (J. Galsworthy)
12. -1 have this coloured laundress. She is
a real character. (D. Parker)
13. - He says he wouldn't sit down at the
table with one (Negro) fora million dollars. (Ibid.)
14. She is more than
an individual. (O. Wilde)
15. «That's better», the sheriff said. «That's a
civil answer». (W. Saroyan)
16. «You should go and see Claud Brains.
He's a real genius». (J. Galsworthy)
17.1 have no doubt it was not an
accident, Dorian. (O. Wilde)
18. What a girl! (T.Dreiser) 19.... «but I
shall have to ask them what the name of the country is, you know»
(L. Carroll)
20. It sounded an excellent plan, no doubt, and very neatly
and simply arranged. (Ibid.)
21. That will be a queer thing, to be sure!
(Ibid.)
22. «Ah, that's the great puzzle!» (Ibid.) 23. «What a curious
feeling»! said Alice.
24. Either the well was very deep, or she fell very
slowly. (Ibid.)

Exercise VI. Point out the difference in the lexical meaning expressed by the indefinite and the definite articles signalizing respectively the rheme and theme in the sentences below. Pay attention to the place which the rhematic and thematic nouns occupy in their Ukrainian variants.

1. As he passed the bronze statue of the Four Moors a man's figure emerged from an old house on the opposite side of the shipping basin. 2. The man approached unsteadily along the water side, shouting an English song. (E. Voynich) 3. As they passed by the gateway of the Uffizi, he crossed the road and stooped down at a dark bundle that was lying against the railings. (Ibid.) 4. The bundle moved, and answered something in a low, moaning voice. (Ibid.) 5. «What a fool Rawdon Grawley has been to go and marry a governess!» (W.Thackeray) 6. «But there was something about the governess too. Green eyes, fair skin, pretty figure». (Ibid.) 7. It was as John had said - he and she just wanted to live and the past was in their way - a past they had not shared in, and did not understand. (J.K.Jerome) 8. I've written a lot of them (his sayings) down in a book for fear of losing them. 9. It is only fair that at the back of the book I would be allowed a few pages to myself to put down some things (Ibid.) 10. It was an early morning of a sunny day. (Ibid.) 11. He remembered suddenly the early morning when he slept on

224


the house-boat after her father died-. (J.Galsworthy) 12. He wrote a pamphlet on Malt on returning to England - . (Ibid.) 13. She ... took an interest in the pamphlet on Malt: was often affected, even to tears. (Ibid.) 14. There came a morning at the end of September when aunt Ann was unable to take from Smither's hands the insignia of personal dignity. (Ibid.) 15. The morning after a certain night on which Soames at last asserted his rights and acted like a man he breakfasted alone. (J.Galsworthy)

ASYNDETIC NOUN CLUSTERS AND RENDERING THEIR MEANING INTO UKRAINIAN

Present-day English abounds in asyndetic noun clusters which are very often used in newspaper and scientific matter/texts. They are word-groups consisting of two, three or more nouns (functionally equivalent to word-groups) like yarn production, yam production figures; the House of Commons debate; mother and child care. New Deal and Great Society programs.'

Irrespective of the number of components in these clusters or their structure, they are always in subordinate relation to each other, i.e., they function as adjunct (attributive component) and head (nucleus). The former occupies the left-hand (initial) position and the latter -the right-hand (closing) position in the cluster. The subordinate relation between the parts of the binary asyndetic substantival cluster can be graphically presented as follows: yarn -> production, the House of Commons -> debate, mother and child -> care, cotton yam -> production, New Deal and Great Society -> programs.

In many such and the like noun clusters the head components may have a compound noun or a word-group structure too: Sahara -> oilwells, US open tennis champions, The placement of head may be reverse: Stormont<r- a Social Democratic and Labour Party MP. Many asyndetic noun clusters have often extended adjuncts and extended/expanded heads as in examples Upper Clyde Shipbuilders -> shop stewards; Noise Advisory Council -> working group representative; the Suez Canal Zone base -> agreement negotiations.

The semantic interrelation between the componental parts in asyndetic noun clusters may often be rather complicated.

1 The illustrative examples of asyndetic noun clusters on this and on the forthcoming pages have been picked up in British and American papers: The Guardian, Financial Times, USA Today, from The Time magazine and others.

225

ASYNDETIC NOUN CLUSTERS AND RENDERING THEIR MEANING INTO UKRAINIAN

Present-day English abounds in asyndetic noun clusters which are very often used in newspaper and scientific matter/texts. They are word-groups consisting of two,  three or more nouns (functionally equivalent to word-groups) like yarn production, yam production figures; the House of Commons debate; mother and child care. New Deal and Great Society programs.'

Irrespective of the number of components in these clusters or their structure, they are always in subordinate relation to each other, i.e., they function as adjunct (attributive component) and head (nucleus). The former occupies the left-hand (initial) position and the  latter- the right-hand (closing) position in the cluster. The subordinate relation between the parts of the binary asyndetic substantival cluster can be graphically presented as follows: yarn —> production, the House of Commons -* debate, mother and child -> care, cotton yarn -> production, New Deal and Great Society -> pro- grams.

In many such and the like noun clusters the head components may have a compound noun or a word-group structure too: Sahara

-> oilwells, US -> open tennis champions, Stormont -> a Social Democratic and Labour Party  MP. Many asyndetic noun clusters may have extended adjuncts and extended/expanded heads as in examples Upper Clyde Shipbuilders -> shop stewards; Noise Advisory Council -> working group representative; the Suez Canal Zone base

—> agreement negotiations.

The semantic interrelation between the componental parts in asyndetic noun clusters is often quite complicated.

1 The illustrative examples of asyndetic noun clusters on this and on the forthcoming pages have been picked up in British and American papers: The Guardian, Financial Times, USA Today, from the Time magazine and others.

225

 


So is the structural complexity of many asyndetic substantival clusters, which may make their identification as two-, three-, four-, etc. componental word-group uncertain. In other words, a difficulty may arise as to how the asyndetic clusters should be treated - as the NN, NNN, or NNNN, etc. word-groups. This is of importance not so much for the allotment of a substantival cluster, which can partly be seen from the following examples: wage increase підвищення заробітної платні/зарплати; 10 per cent wage increase підвищення зарплати на 10% or десяти відсоткове підвищення зарплатні; US policy політика США; US foreign policy зовнішня політика США; the House of Common's debate дебати в палаті громад; the recent House of Commons debate недавні/останні дебати в палаті громад.

The adjectival components, therefore, can extend the asyndetic noun cluster and change the starting point of their translation without changing in any way their asyndetic nature. Neither do they change the quantitative correlation of noun components in the clusters. Thus, the House of Commons debate, the Scottish League Cup-tie, the US foreign policy, etc. are two-componental NN-type asyndetic substantival clusters. Proceeding from this, the components like North-West, the U.S.A., the U.K., Long Kesh and the like are to be treated as single heads or single adjuncts, since they function as a single Compound or Nabbreviate</N proper- еіс- Hence, the word-groups, as these below, are three-componental only: the Long Kesh concentration camp (Nprop. +NN), the US foreign policy statement (Nabbrev.+ AN+N).

It goes without saying that each lexeme in the asyndetic substantival clusters adds some new meaning to its general semantic structure. Hence, the more lexemes the cluster consists of, the more unlike the other ways of approach to its translating there may be.

APPROACHES TO TRANSLATING ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

As has been pointed out, there may be different approaches to rendering the lexical meaning of asyndetic substantival clusters. These approaches are predetermined by the following main factors: 1) by the number of nouns making up the cluster; 2) by the structure of the adjunct and head (or both these components); 3) by the semantic relations between the constituent parts of the asyndetic substantival cluster which may be local, temporal and others by nature; 4) by the presence or absence of the preceding adjective, participle, possessive pronoun or ordinal numeral.

226

 Besides, a quick and correct rendering of meaning of any type of asyndetic substantival clusters mostly depends on the choice of the right component (or its part) from which the translation has to be started.

TRANSLATION OF TWO-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

There can be suggested some ways of faithful translation of asyndetic noun/substantival clusters into Ukrainian. Each of these ways may be predetermined by one of the following three factors: 1) by the lexical meaning of the component parts; 2) by their structural form and 3) by the meaning of the cluster as a whole. Hence, translation of two componental asyndetic NN-structure clusters may start:

1) with the head noun: board members члени правління; economy regime режим економії; policy change зміна політики; payment imbalance нестійкість/незбалансованість платежів;

2) beginning with the adjunct (functioning as an adjective) or with the head (functioning as a noun): dinner-time break обідня перерва/перерва на обід; school reform шкільна реформа/ реформа школи; student groups студентські групи/групи студентів; currency reform грошова реформа/реформа грошової системи; liberation movement визвольний рух/рух за визволення.

The number of thus translated asyndetic substantival word-groups in present-day English is considerable. Having often a dual meaning and nature, some Nadjuncts may be treated both as A+N- and as N+N-components of asyndetic substantival clusters.

Of similar nature are also the substantival clusters with prefixed adjuncts which are translated, as a rule, beginning with the head noun which is characteristic of the NN-type asyndetic noun clusters: anti-apartheid legislation законодавчі акти/закони про заборону апартеїду, anti-trade union act закон (спрямований) проти профспілок; non-smoker compartment купе для некурящих/ для некурців.

3) the meaning of some asyndetic substantival clusters with compound adjuncts can be rendered into Ukrainian in a descriptive way as well: nine-men defence захист із 9 гравців (спорт); two-thirds majority більшість у дві третіх голосів; top-drawer family родина, що вдягається у дорогу одіж; the under-16 country match матч сільських спортсменів віком до 16 років. Some adjuncts of asyndetic noun clusters often have a composite structure. They may consist of words belonging to different parts of speech which consti-

227


tute either a regular phrase/word-group or a hyphenated conglomeration of words. This kind of word-groups are usually translated in a descriptive way too: the lame duck policy невдала/збанкрутіла політика; dead ball situations ситуації, за яких м'яч команді не зараховується; rob Peter and pay Paul policy політика виплати одній категорії населення за рахунок пограбування іншої; Manchster -travel-to-work area район Манчестера, звідки дістаються на роботу комунальним транспортом.

Asyndetic substantival clusters of the NN-, NNN-, etc. structure are often preceded by adjectives, participles, bahuvrihi formations, pronouns, numerals, etc., used in the function of attributes. They usually form with the N/NN components distinct sense units, which may often predetermine the way of approach to the translation of clusters. For example, in the substantival clusters as final press conference, English amateur champion, London cab drivers, striking mine workers the attributive (adjectival) components modify the NN head components forming with them word-groups of the A+NN structure. In examples like a Democratic Party member, the Tory Government policy, toxic action results the attributive components form close sense units of the AN+N structure with the head noun. This structure of the word-group, i.e., asyndentic noun cluster, and the semantic interrelation between its components predetermines the choice of the approach to translating it. As a result, the meaning of the A+NN-type substantival clusters can be rendered into Ukrainian by the following main approaches:

1) beginning with the initial adjective after which the head noun and its adjunct noun is translated in succession: English amateur champion англійський чемпіон-непрофесіонал; leading world jockeys провідні (найкращі) жокеї світу; public protest meeting загальні збори/мітіні1 протесту; junior hospital staff молодший медперсонал лікарні; British health service англійська служба охорони здоров'я/ служба охорони здоров'я Великої Британії;

2) beginning with the adjective after which the following noun (adjunct) and then the head noun is translated in succession: final press conference заключна пресконференція; London cab drivers лондонські кебмени/таксисти; Royal Shakespeare company Королівська шекспірівська трупа; six-week summer holiday півторамісячна літня відпустка; major autumn campaign головна осіння кампанія London undergroud tunnels лондонські підземні тунелі;

3) a considerable number of lexically transparent asyndetic substantival clusters of the A+NN-type are translated in reverse or-

 der, i.e., beginning with the head noun after which the attributive component and the adjunct noun is translated in succession. The choice of this approach of translating the A+NN-type asyndetic substantival clusters becomes possible due to the existence in Ukrainian of identical semantic units formed with somewhat different grammatical means: European Cup-winners Cup кубок еропейських володарів кубків; Local authority staff штати місцевих органів влади;

4) some asyndetic clusters of the type may be semantically condensed. As a result, more words are needed in the target language to render their meaning, i.e., they are to be translated in a descriptive way: Royal Berkshire polo ground королівський стадіон для гри в поло в Беркширі; London Evening News лондонська вечірня газета «Івнінґ ньюз»; Royal Air Force військовоповітряні сили Великої Британії. The A+NN asyndetic substantival clusters may sometimes be translated in two ways: a) by preserving the componental structure of the English word-group; b) by transforming the initial adjective into a noun and changing the order of components: Maltese NATO base 1) мальтійська військова база МАТО; 2) натівська військова база на Мальті; 3) військова база МАТО на Мальті.

Much simpler is the approach to translating the AN+N-type of asyndetic noun clusters in which the initial adjective (A) and the following adjunct noun form a sense unit of their own. The AN-type sense unit functions as a syntactically and semantically single at-.tributive component of the head noun. Translation of the AN+N type asyndetic substantival clusters predominantly starts with the head noun, after which the attributive component and then the adjunct noun is translated in succession: the Republican Party candidate кандидат у президенти від республіканської партії США; toxic action results наслідки токсичної дії (інтоксикації); dense fog patches пасма/латки густого туману; British Lion film фільм англійської кінокомпанії «Брітіш Лаен»; human resources planning планування людських резевів.

As has been already mentioned some attributive components in English are of dual nature (cf. cannon ball, speech sound). As a result, they can be conveyed either as relative adjectives or as nouns: Labour Government policyполітика лейбористського уряду/політика уряду лейбористів', London district chairman голова лондонського окружної ради/голова окружної ради Лондона; salary structure design проект реструктуризації/впорядкування зарплатні.

A number of AN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters are

228

229

 


translated in a descriptive way too. It becomes necessary when the asyndetic noun cluster is used to denote a specifically British/American feature, which needs an explanation in the target language: Civil disobedience campaign кампанія громадянської непокори (кампанія протесту населення Північної Ірландії проти дискримінаційної політики англійської уряду супроти/проти католицької меншини); Industrial Relations Act закон про взаємовідносини в промисловості (закон косерваторів, яким обмежувалось право на страйки).

Two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters may often have other than AN+N or AN+NN-type structure of components. These may be of the N+AN, or A+AN+N/AN configuration. The approach to their translating may consequently vary to some extent as well. The asyndetic clusters with the N+AN structure of the componetns may be translated in the following ways:

1) beginning with the AN head sense unit: US military bases військові бази США; NATO nuclear weapons атомна зброя (країн) HATO; UN General Assembly Генеральна Асамблея ООН.

2) A similar approach should be employed when dealing with the N+AN or N+QN/N+VingN structure substantival clusters with the initial proper names components as in the following word-groups: the Avior Airline general manager генеральний директор авіокомпанії «Авіор ерлайнз»; New Times editorial staff редакційні працівники (журналу) «Нью-Таймз»; Burnt Oak public library публічна бібліотека (в) Бернт-Оук. The asyndetic substantival clusters can be conveyed beginning with the initial noun which turns in the target language into an adjective: the Opposition Liberal Party опозиційна ліберальна партія; world public opinion світова громадська думка.

Other approaches to rendering the meaning of similar type N+AN asyndetic substantival clusters are not excluded either. Thus, the Burnt Oak public library may also be translated as Бернтоукська публічна бібліотека; Shakespeare Memorial Theatre as шекспірівський меморіальний театр (у Стратфорді).

It goes without saying that the descriptive way of translating is preferred, when the asyndetic noun cluster is used out of context: finance over haul bill законопроект про перевірку надходжень коштів на фінансування передвиборної кампанії претендентів на пост президента США; the Wednesday black belt пояс повного затемнення сонця в середу.

Extensively exemplified in the newspaper and scientific mat-

230

 ter speech styles of present-day English are also A+AN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters with preceding adjectivai, participial and other modifiers in the function of attributes. To render their meaning, different approaches are employed, each being predetermined by the semantic correlation between the componental elements in the target language asyndetic noun cluster. Among the approaches the following are most frequent:

1) starting with the head noun, proceeding to the adjunct (AN) unit and concluding with the adjunct noun: major Western states interests інтереси провідних західних держав; the ten-kilometre international road race міжнародні змагання з бігу на 10-кілометрову дистанцію;

2) starting with the initial adjective or participle, proceeding to the head noun and concluding with the adjunct (AN) unit: thrilling second round replay захоплююча повторна гра другого кола; efficient public transport system рентабельна система комунального транспорту;

3) starting with the head noun (or sense unit), proceeding in a reverse order of components to the sense unit with the adjunct noun and concluding with the initial adjective, which becomes a noun in Ukrainian: Scottish Labour Party resolution резолюція лейбористської партії Шотландії; the Chechen fighters activities виступи бойовиків (у) Чечні;

4) descriptive translating can also be resorted to when dealing with this type of asyndetic substantival clusters: International Social Security Association міжнародна Асоціація (з питань) соціального забезпечення.

Two-componental AN+AN-type asyndetic substantival clusters irrespective of the structural forms of A or N components are predominantly translated starting with the head AN sense unit. The A component of the head sense unit is usually the starting point: Big Business multi-national firms багатонаціональні фірми великого бізнесу; First Aid Nursing Yeomanry корпус медсестер швидкої допомоги; Old Age Pensioners Joint Committee спільна комісія/ комітет пенсіонерів за віком.

The descriptive way of conveying the sense of AN+AN-type asyndetic substantival clusters may often become necessary to avoid ambiguity or in order to explain some national specific notions as in the examples Labour Party Young Socialist молоді соціалісти, члени молодіжної організації лейбористської партії; living fire central heating центральне опалення методом постійного підтримання

231


вогню/підігріву.

Since the relative adjective and the noun in English has often the same orthographic form, it may sometimes be difficult to distinguish them at first sight as in case with the world in the cluster The Next World Esperanto Congress. Here the word world may mean both світ and світовий. Because of this translation of the cluster will have two faithful variants in Ukrainian: 1. наступний з'їзд есперантистів світу, 2. наступний всесвітній з'їзд есперантистів.

TRANSLATION OF THREE-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

Second place as to their occurrence in the newspaper and scientific/technical matter texts is occupied by the three-componental NNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters. They split like the extended two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters into two main subgroups as well. The first subgroup constitute the NN+N-type clusters, i.e., the ones with two initial nouns forming a close sense unit having the function of an adjunct to the final head noun. The second subgroup make up the N+NN-type clusters in which the final two nouns form the head component to the initial adjunct noun. The meaning of the NN+N-type subgroup of substantival clusters can be faithfully rendered into Ukrainian by employing several approaches. Their choice is predetermined by the semantic interrelations existing between the component parts of the cluster and by the way in which the meaning is to be expressed in Ukrainian. And yet some approaches to translating the three-componental NN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters are more frequently employed than the others. Among these is the 3-1-2 components approach, i.e., starting with the head noun and proceeding to the initial and then to the second noun, both of which form together an NN sense unit: Suez Canal area район/ регіон Суецького каналу; West Coast dockers докери західного узбережжя (США); flat rate increase ріст/підвищення квартирної платні; science research council рада з наукових досліджень; Labour Party leadership керівництво лейбористської партії; Scotland Yard spokesman представник Скотланд-Ярду.

Note. Some NN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters can be translated in two ways: a) starting with the head noun or b) starting with the NN-type sense unit, the adjunct, whose initial noun turns in Ukrainian into an adjective: Trade Union funds 1 .фонди/кошти

232

 англійських тредюніонів; 2. профспілкові фонди/кошти; Tory Government policy 1. політика уряду торі/консерваторів; 2. політика консервативного уряду; town centre development 1. розвиток центру міста; 2. розвиток міського центру.

A considerable number of the NN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters are translated in a descriptive way. It becomes inevitable when some components are nationally/culturally biased words/ expressions denoting a specifically English national feature which must be explained: Clun Forest sheep кланфорестська порода овець (із короткою вовною); venture scout leader командир загону бойскаутів старшого віку; Mill Hill School Міл-Пл-Скул, чоловіча привілейована приватна середня школа в Лондоні; Race Relations Act закон про расові взаємовідносини/стосунки (обмежує в'їзд кольорових із колишніх колоній до Великої Британії'); a labour disputes commission комісія, що розглядає суперечки між профспілками та підприємцями/роботодавцями. Some NNN (and also the NN) substantival clusters can be translated with the help of a single word: coal face workers шахтарі; sheet metal workers прокатники, Russia leather юхта; land improvement work меліорація; land improvement workers меліоратори.

In rarer cases expressing the meaning of the NN+N-type subgroup of asyndetic substantival clusters can be performed consecutively, i.e., in the order in which the components are arranged in the cluster. Cf.: bullet proof shirts/jackets куленепробивні обшивки/ жилети; child guidance clinic дитяча консультація-поліклініка.

There are also NN+N-type clusters whose meaning can be rendered in the reverse order to the components' arrangement, i.e., starting with the head noun and proceeding to the second and to the initial noun: labour movement figures дані про.міграцію робітників/робочої сили; Manchester City Council (муніципальна) рада міста Манчестера; the target language peculiarities особливоті мови перекладу.

The semantic relations between the head and the adjunct NN sense unit may require some other approach to their rendering into the target language as well: a mile event run змагання з бігу на (одну) милю; (the Russian) Міг space station (російська) космічна станція «Мір»

When the componental parts of asyndetic substantival clusters are of compound or word-group/phrase structure, their meaning is usually more complicated than that of simple components noun clusters. Due to this they are often translated in a descriptive way: white collar steel industry strike страйк службовців сталеливарної промисловості (Великої Британії); bread-line old age pensions

233


пенсії людям похилого віку, яких вистачає тільки на хліб/на прожитковий мінімум.

The allotment of a substantival cluster to a componental type may sometimes be difficult because of its complicated structure and meaning. Thus, it is difficult or almost impossible to identify the asyndetic substantival clusters like The Great Britain-Australia clashes as a two-componental NN-type word-group, because of the meaning expressed by the adjunct: Great Britain-Australia (clashes) (протиріччя між) Великою Британією та Австралією. Similarly with the substantival cluster The Notts County centre forward (центрфорвард команди «Нотс-Каунті») which despite its complicated first component Notts County may be regarded as a three-componental asyndetic substantival cluster. This assertion can be substantiated by a more extended translation of the cluster центральний нападник команди/футбольної команди «Нотс-Каунті» (Ноттінгемшир Каунті).

Translation of this and other (N+NN) subgroup of asyndetic substantival clusters is no less dependent on the semantic interrelations existing between their componental parts than in the previous NN+N subgroup. It is not surprising, therefore, that the meaning of the bulk of the N+NN subgroup of asyndetic substantival clusters is rendered starting with the NN head group or rather with its initial/ adjunct noun and proceeding in the reverse order to the initial/adjunct noun: friends meeting house будинок зустрічі друзів; Derry development Commission комісія з проблем розвитку міста Деррі; Glasgow autumn holiday осіннє свято в Ґлазґо/міста Глазго.

The last asyndetic noun cluster like some others of the kind may also be understood somewhat differently, namely, as «свято осені в Глазго». Two variants of translation may also be suggested for the noun clusters like The Macclesfield Tory candidate 1. кандидат торі від Маклесфілда; 2. маклесфілдський кандидат консервативної партії; New Cross Labour Club 1. клуб лейбористів у м. Нью-Крос; 2. нью-кроський лейбористський клуб.

Note: Club in this word-group may also mean party members, i.e., лейбористи м. Нью-Крос or Нью-Кросська лейбористська парторганізація.

Among other approaches to translating the three component N+NN-type asyndetic substantival clusters the following are to be pointed out:

1) beginning with the initial adjunct noun of the N+NN-type sense unit: London trade Unions Лондонські трейдюніони/ профспілки; state

 security police державна таємна поліція or таємна поліція штату; Attica state prison в'язниця «Аттіка» штату Нью Йорк;

2) beginning with the head noun - to the initial adjunct noun and to the adjunct noun of the head: Attica state prison в'язниця «Аттіка» (штату Нью-Йорк) 2) or in the 3-1-2 order: в'язниця (штату Нью-Йорк) «Аттіка»;

3) beginning with the head noun and preceding to the first adjunct noun, i.e., in the 3-2-1 order: U.S. Senate seat місце в сенаті СТА; Rand Daily/Mail newspaper газета «Дейлі мейл» провінції Ренд (Південно-Африканська республіка);

4) beginning with the adjunct noun and proceeding to the head noun after which the second noun in the cluster is translated, i.e., in the 1-3-2 order: worid weight lifting championship світовий чемпіонат штангістів; Rand Daily Mail newspaper ренденська газета «Дейлі мейл»; the millionaire press owners мільйонери - володарі преси/ газетні магнати; London delegate conference Лондонська конференція делегатів;

5) widely represented among the N+NN subgroup word-groups are substantival clusters whose meanings are rendered into Ukrainian beginning with the NN-type sense unit and concluding with the initial noun (N) as in the word-groups a Government reserve scheme резервний проект уряду; Andersonstown police station поліцейське відділення/дільниця Андерсонстауна; Manchester housing estate житловий фонд Манчестера;

6) in still other cases the meaning of N+NN subgroup of substantival clusters can be rendered into Ukrainian only in the 3-1-2 order of components arrangement: retail trade associations спілки роздрібної «торгівлі; the Hertfordshire County Council рада Гертфордширського графства.

It should be emphasized once again that some of the N+NN-model substantival clusters given above can be translated in two ways, depending on the treatment of the adjunct component as noun or as adjective: AI-Anon family groups 1. групи родин Ал-Анона; 2. ал-анонські групи родин/сімей; the Sheffield district committee 1. комісія Шеффілдського району; 2. шеффілдська районна комісія.

The choice of the approach to a faithful translation, which could faithfully express an asyndetic substantival cluster's meaning can be prompted, of course, by the context in which the cluster functions, and by the style of the text under translation;

7) amply exemplified in this, as in the preceding NN+N subgroup of asyndetic substatival clusters are word-groups whose mean-

234

235

 


ing can be faithfully rendered in a descriptive way only: a rubber bullet gun гвінтівка для стрільби гумовими кулями; September amateur stakes вересневі любительсьскі/непрофесійні призові скачки; Ulster Defence Regiment англійське урядове військо в Північній Ірландії; rent assessment committees комісії по встановленню/ визначенню плати за користування житлом приватного фонду.

The three-componental NNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters are also often preceded by adjectives, participles, numerals or bahuvrihi components in the function of attributes. Irrespective of the semantic subgroup to which the clusters belong (the N+NN or the NN+N-type) their meaning is conveyed starting with the initial attributive component and then proceeding according to the rules employed above to the N+NN and the NN+N-types of three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters: the massive riot police operation масова операція поліції (по розгону демонстраці'І); the national cash register factory державний завод касових апаратів; the giant Fiat motor company Ганська машинобудівна компанія «Фіат»; an international invitation horse race міжнародні гостьові змагання скакунів; the five-storey Silver Seashore Hotel п'ятиповерховий готель «Срібне узбережжя»; the «voluntary» wage-price regulation (так зване) «добровільне» регулювання зарплатні й цін.

When the initial attribute, however, does not refer to the whole NNN asyndetic substantival cluster but forms a close sense unit only with the initial noun, translating of the clusters usually starts from some other component, though not without exceptions either: special rides revision conference конференція з питань перегляду спеціальних правил дорожнього руху; Common Market grain prices ціни на зерно (країн) Спільного ринку; the local government staff workers працівники місцевих органів самоврядування/влади; Upper Clyde shipyard steward представник профспілки робітників судноверфі Верхнього Клайду; The Northern Ireland Labour Party лейбористська партія Північної Ірландії/крайове відділення лейбористської партії Ірландії.

Exceptions to either of the two above-given rules of placement of components in translation are due to the existence of some different ways of expressing the same meaning in the target language: the British trade union movement 1. профспілковий рух Великої Британії; 2. англійський профспілковий рух; American trade union organizer 1. організатор американського профспілкового руху; 2. організатор профспілкового руху США;

236

 U.S. health - maintenance organization 1. організація охорони здоров'я США; 2. Американська організація охорони здоров'я.

Sometimes the attribute in the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters modifies the head noun and forms a sense unit with it. Such attributes often serve as a starting point for translation of the NN+AN clusters as well: Kent area general secretary генеральний секретар Кентської округи; the Bangladesh National Awami Party 1. національна партія Авамі Бангладеш; 2. бангладеська національна партія Авамі; But: World class high jumping світове досягнення в стрибках у висоту; the 1999 holiday shopping bag святкова продуктова торбинка (кошик) на 1999 рік; 2) святковий кошик 1999 року на купівлю продуктів; 3) кошик на святкові покупки 1999 року.

The three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters consisting of two AN+AN+N component parts functioning as the extended adjunct and a head respectively (or as homogeneous adjuncts to a single head noun) are to be translated beginning with the head component irrespective of their structural form: Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association спілка/союз боротьби за громадянські права Північної Ірландії; Noise Advisory Council working group робоча група дорадчої ради по боротьбі з шумом.

Regular descriptive translating may also be employed when the meaning expressed by the asyndetic noun cluster is connected with a specific English (or Ukrainian) notion or when the semantic structure requires it, i.e., when there exists no other way of conveying its sense in Ukrainian: Manchester direct works building site житловий масив Манчестера, що споруджується методом конвеєрного будівництва; eclipse eye protection захист очей від сонця під час затемнення; Cossack salt merchants чумаки -постачальники солі.

TRANSLATION OF FOUR-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

The four-componental NNNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters are less frequently used in newspaper or scientific and technical matter texts than the three-componental ones. The nouns within the four-componental asyndetic noun clusters are semantically interconnected, like in the three componental ones forming the N+NNN, NN+NN or NNN+N sense units within them. There may also be AN+NNN or AN+ANNN etc. structural forms of them. The semantic

237


interrelations between the components usually predetermine the choice of an approach to translating the four componental asyndetic substantival clusters. This approach may sometimes depend on the meaning of separate noun components and on their structure as well as on their position within the frames of substantival clusters. As a result, there are different approaches to translating this structure type of asyndetic substantival clusters, the most frequently resorted to being the following:

1) starting with the head noun and proceeding in reverse order to the initial noun adjunct. This approach provides the expression of meaning of the NNN+N, NN+NN, NP+NN+N, N+NN+N structural types of asyndetic substantival clusters: the US Defence Department officials decision рішення представників міністераства оборони США; Copper Products Development Association відділ/ рада розробки виробів з міді; the UN Security Council meeting agenda порядок денний засідання Ради Безпеки ООН/Організації Об'єднаних Націй; Kyiv career club open meeting відкриті зустрічі в Київському клубі трудовлаштування;

2) some of the above-given semantic groups of the four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters are translated starting from the head noun and its preceding adjunct and proceeding to the initial and the following (second) noun: the Sunday Express newspaper leader writer автор передових статей/передовиць газети «Санді експрес»; а $40 a week wage increase offer пропозиція про підвищення зарплатні на 40 доларів за тиждень;

3) depending on the semantic interrelations between the nouns of the four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters their translation can also proceed in the 4-2-3-1 order of components: the House of Representatives Government Operations Committee комісія урядових заходів палати представників (при палаті представників); Caterpillar Diesel tractors trials випробування дизельних тракторів (марки) «Катерпіллар»;

4) there are also some minute groups of the four-componental substantival clusters with less common approaches like 4-1-3-2: Nobel Peace Prize Winners лауреати Нобелівської Премії Миру; 3-4-1-2: Gloucester County Cricket Club крикетна команда/клуб Глостерського графства; 2-3-1-4: Salford West Labour MP Stan Orme Стен Орм, лейбористський член парламенту від Салфорд-Веста; 2-4-1-3: the 40-nation Geneva Disarmament Conference Женевська конференція 40 країн з питань роззброєння; 1-4-3-2: Darmouth Auto Castings Plants заводи відливків автомобільних

 заготовок у Дартмауті or: Дартмаутські заводи відливків автомобільних заготовок;

5) when the NNNN-type substantival clusters are semantically condensed, which happens rather often, because their components may also be of different word-group structure or contain a noun denoting some specific English national features, they are translated in a descriptive way: Mr. Hiles, the lobby committee secretary секретар комітету комісії лоббістів пан Гайлз; the National Union of Railway-men jubilee celebration dinner святковий обід з нагоди відзначення ювілейної річниці профспілки залізничників (Великої Британії).

The four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters having an initial adjective, numeral, participle, pronoun or an N's component may be translated by applying different approaches:

1) starting with the attribute and proceeding in the same order of components in which the N+NNN, NN+NN or the NNN+N(N+NN+N-type) asyndetic substantival clusters are translated: a total UK oil output figure загальні/підсумкові цифри/дані видобутку нафти Об'єднаним Королівством (Великої Британії); the first Rugby League test match перший відбірковий матч команд з регбі/ регбістів;

2) starting with the head NN or N component as in the asyndetic substantival clusters below: the British road service parcels depots склади посилок/пакетів дорожнього обслуговування Великої Британії; the language service inauguration dates дати початку перших передач (радіо «Свобода») окремими мовами (світу).

Translating of the four-componental NNNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters may also be predetermined either by a semantically leading head component (a single noun or a NN, AN, NprepN structure) as well as by the adjunct component. The latter may in its turn be a single attributive noun or an adjective +N (AN), present participle + N(VingN), past participle +N (Ven+N), numeral +N (QN), pronoun +N (IN) or have a word-group structure (NP or VP): U.S. presidential campaign finance legislation (Nabbr. +AN+NN) заканодавство США про фінансування передвиборної президентської кампанії. Similarly in many other noun clusters of this type: a glass reinforced plastics lifeboats construction зміцнена склопластиком конструкція рятувального човна. But: Harwell atomic Energy Research Centre Гарвельський центр досліджень в галузі атомної енергії; the continental China off-shore islands oil deposits поклади нафти (біля) прибережних островів континентального Китаю.

238

239

 


TRANSLATION OF FIVE-, SIX-AND

SEVEN-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC

SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

It must be noted from the very start that the five-, six- and seven-componental asyndetic substantival clusters belong to rare or rather rare word-groups in English newspaper or scientific and technical matter texts. Nevertheless the approach to their translating does not differ practically from that of the four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters. It usually starts with the head noun. To render the meaning of any multi-componental asyndetic noun cluster, however, there should be identified first and foremost closer sense units within them. Thus, in a five-componental asyndetic substantival cluster its noun constituents may form the NN+NN+N, NNN+NN, AN+NN+NN, N+AN+NN+N-type, etc. sense units. For example: Covent Garden Opera House orchestra performance has the following closer or looser sense units: NN+NN+NN where Covent Garden is a close sense unit (proper noun) and functions as a single component. Translation of this and the like asyndetic substantival clusters should be started with the head NN component: виступ/гра оркестру (лондонського) оперного театру «Ковент Ґарден». Similarly with the cluster London County Council general purpose committee member член комісії із загальних питань Ради Лондонського графства; London District Woodworker Amalgamated Society committee комісія/комітет Лондонського окружного відділення об'єднаної профспілки теслярів.

When the initial N component performs the function of a relative adjective, translating of the five-componental NNNNN-type asyndetic substantival cluster may start with this N component: the London sheet metal workers section Лондонська філія профспілки робітників металопрокатних підприємств. Translating of the five-componental asyndetic substantival clusters can also be started with the second sense unit initiated by a noun, functioning as a relative adjective: the Post Office Workers London district council Лондонська окружна рада профспілки поштових працівників.

When the multi-componental asyndetic substantival cluster is of appositional nature, its translation starts either with the proper name, which is the apposition noun, or with its antecedent noun. However, translation may also start with some other component functioning as a relative adjective in a sense unit preceding the appositional nouns: world-mile record holder Peter Snell. 1. Пітер Снелл,

240

 чемпіон світу з бігу на милю; 2. світовий рекордсмен з бігу на милю Пітер Снелл; 3. рекордсмен світу з бігу на милю Пітер Снелл. Multicomponental asyndetic substantival clusters designating some specific English notion, which is not revealed by direct rendering of the lexical meaning of its noun components, are translated in a descriptive way: the City Cooper Square Community Development Committee комісія (комітет) по переплануванню площі Купера лондонського Сіті.

Translation of the six- and seven-componental asyndetic substantival clusters is realized according to the same principles and approaches as the four- and five-componental asyndetic substantival clusters. Pointing out the sense units, formed by the components usually helps find out the starting component and the correct way of translating the clusters. It must be borne in mind, however, that these multicomponental asyndetic substantival clusters may be translated by different approaches as well, each of which may faithfully render the clusters' meaning: New Zealand world mile record holder Peter Snell 1. новозеландський світовий рекордсмен з бігу на милю Пітер Снелл; 2. новозеландець Пітер Снелл, чемпіон світу з бігу на милю. On rare occasions one may come across asyndetic substantival clusters consisting of seven or more nouns. These semantically condensed noun word-groups are translated in accordance with the same rules, which are employed when dealing with the five- and six-componental noun clusters (by way of pointing out the sense units within the clusters and finding the necessary noun or sense unit for the translation to start). In such cases the multi-componental asyndetic substantival clusters, which are not preceded by attributive adjuncts, can be translated starting with the head noun: United Post Workers London district council postmen section chairman Mr. Harry Jones Гаррі Джоунз, голова Лондонської окружної/районної філії листонош об'єднаної профспілки поштових працівників.

It should be added in conclusion, that many asyndetic substantival clusters are difficult for our students to translate because they mostly do not take into account their condensed semantic nature, due to which more words are usually needed to convey their meaning in the target language. And not only multi-componetal asyndetic substantival clusters. Very often two-componental asyndetic noun clusters can be semantically condensed: >4/DS drugs ліки/ пілюлі, що поліпшують самопочуття хворих на СНІД; fax brakes зриви/провали в зборі податків; Rome-based Food and Agriculture Organization Організація з питань сільского господарства і

241


виробництва продуктів харчування (зі штаб-квартирою в Римі). Semantically condensed may also be many three- and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters: World Health Organization (three words) Всесвітня організація охорони здоров'я (four words); government work offices урядові установи з питань працевлаштування населення. Here the number of components in all Ukrainian equivalents is larger than in their English originals.

Sometimes, though rarely, however, the meaning of asyndetic substantival clusters can be rendered in Ukrainian by fewer words, than in English: the Turin public prosecutor прокурор Туріна; London building workers лондонські будівельники; the old books salesman букініст; the land improvement work меліорація; the crop farmers хлібороби, etc.

Our students must be repeatedly warned, that the use of three-and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters is mostly restricted to the newspaper and scientific or technical matter texts. In spoken English and in belles-lettres texts preference is given to prepositional word-groups, which may easily be transformed into asyndetic substantival clusters. Cf.:

Newspaper texts/styles Oral speech
the plant shop-stewards                    the shop-stewards of the plant
Labour housing policy                        the policy of the Labour Party

in/concerning housing

the Midlands car factory trade the trade union committee of
union committee                                the Midlands car factory

All translators, therefore, must bear it in mind, that in the process of rendering far from all Ukrainian substantival word-groups should necessarily be transformed into English multi-componental asyndetic noun clusters. Exception must be made only when dealing with the names of various former Soviet and today's Ukrainian public bodies, offices and enterprises, institutes, universities, former collective and state farms, plants and factories, publishing houses, firms, farmer cooperatives, etc., which bore or bear honorary names like: Львівський театр опери та балету їм. Заньковецької Lviv Zan'kovets'ka Opera and Ballet House; київська станція метро «Шулявська» the Kyiv Shulyavs'ka underground railway station; Харківський педагогічний університет їм. Сковороди Kharkiv Skovoroda Teachers Training University, колективне сільскогосподарське підприємство (КСП) «Пролісок» the Prolisok (Snowdrop) Collective Agricultural Enterprise, etc.

242

 SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. The structural peculiarities of the word-combinations referred to as asyndetic substantival/noun clusters.

2The principle of identifying the number of componental parts in asyndetic substantival clusters.

3. The correlation between the position of N components and their functional significance in asyndetic substantival clusters.

4. The structural forms of the adjunct and head components in asyndetic substantival clusters.

5. The nature/kind of syntactic connection existing between the components of asyndetic substantival clusters.

6. Factors predetermining the approaches to equivalent rendering of meanings of two-componental (NN) substantival clusters into Ukrainian.

7. Ways of faithful expressing the meaning of the two-componental asyndetic noun clusters with extended/expanded adjuncts or heads of the NP+NP (noun phrase+noun phrase) type.

8. Approaches to rendering the meanings of the two-componental NN substantival clusters preceded by an attributive adjective, participle, pronoun, numeral or adverb.

9. Approaches to conveying the meanings of the two-componental NN asyndetic substantival clusters with attributes to the adjunct and to the head component (ANAN, ANQN, etc.).

10. The influence of semantic relations between the components of the asyndetic substantival clusters over the choice of an approach to a faithful rendition of their meanings.

11. Ways of extending two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters by adding adjuncts to each NN component.

12. The consecutive order of translation in the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters of the N+NN and NN+N types.

13. The approach to rendering the meaning of the three-componental NNN asyndetic noun clusters preceded by attributive adjectives, participles, pronouns, numerals or adverbs.

14. The approaches to faithful translating of the four-, five-and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters with and without the preceding attributes to their component nouns.

15. The way of rendering the meaning of semantically con-

243


densed two-, three-, and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters.

16. The structure of the word-combinations preferred in spoken English and in belles-lettres works instead of the multi-componental asyndetic substantival clusters.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOME TRANSLATION

Exercise I. Define the structural form of the components in the two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters below. Suggest the possible ways of conveying their meaning into Ukrainian.

1. witness testimony; 2. skills analysis; 3. night shift; 4. debt trap; 5. Krasnodar Territory; 6. television network; 7. food prices; 8. job opportunities; 9. London docks; 10. Labour group; 11. sugar steamers; 12. oil paintings; 13. school leavers; 14. oil countries; 15. wage strike; 16. forestry products; 17. economy regime; 18. pay claim; 19. crop yields; 20. livestock products; 21. animal husbandry; 22. solid engine; 23. consumer demand; 24. wage cuts; 25. protest demonstration; 26. Midlands unemployment; 27. promotion limitations; 28. car thieves; 29. gun licence; 30. Labour backbenchers; 31. slave sailers (ships); 32. car bomb; 33. Sunday Express sellers; 34. non-smoker carriage; 35. electricity cuts; 36. «keep wages down» lobby; 37. government draft; 38. Management development; 39. a question and answer interview; 40. law and order advocates; 41. the IMF visit (to Kyiv); 42. an oblast capital; 43. a 44-hour week; 44. a team-contract method; 45. White House intern; 46. the Guardian International subscribers; 47. plan and production discipline; 48. Research and Development Society. 49. Notts County vs Bolton match; 50. Scotland Yard detectives; 51. Trafalgar Square rally; 52. the latest sun eclipse; 53. a welfare-reform plan; 54. government bond prices; 55. a «Buy America» (American cars) campaign; 56. a price-earnings ratio; 57. Tory failings; 58. contract killings; 59. the Osaca Summit; 60. John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library; 61. the Sea Owl submarines (USA).

Exercise II. Find the starting component for translating into Ukrainian the following two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters with the attribute to the adjunct or to the head noun/nucleus:

 A) 1. Light music and drama programme; 2.the maximum end results; 2. the two-way trade exchanges; 4. Ukraine-British business partnership; 5. nuclear power stations; 6. the latest weather forecast. 7. Moscow-based industry analyst; 8. local sports clubs; 9. first-ever press conference; 10. our spring musical program; 11. Royal Court Theatre; 12. the main passenger section; 13. an in-house video specialist; 14. major ocean routes; 15. two-seater «city cars»; 16. three-party coalition government; 17. a Commercial production supervisor and technician; 18. larger-than-local sports projects; 19. good Ryder Cup start. 20. an island penal colony; 21. the next Cabinet meeting; 22. International Motor Show; 23. a former CIA official; 24. local education authorities; 25. off-shore oil deposits; 26. common profit aims; 27. British woman doctor; 28. meagre salary increase; 29. current wages negotiations; 30. the Scottish tartan Society; 31. intensive-type crop varieties; 32. the first NBA championship (U.S.A.); 33. (the) House Republican leaders; 34. the promising soccer club; 35. the public sector reform; 36. the modest «Santa Claus» rally; 37. a favourite harbour party.

B) 1. Republican party leaders; 2. the Middle East process; 3. most City of London economists; 4. the National Bank activity; 5. Scottish Electrical Workers Union; 5. a police department lawyer; 7. primary school teachers; 8. Labour Party conference; 9. high quality second hand cloths and accessories; 10. political committee secretary; 11. civil defence organization; 12. social insurance expenditure; 13. pop music fans; 14. local government jobs; 15. Engineering Unions officials; 16. national protest day; 17. lightweight metal; 18. tourist class double rooms; 19. the five-party Cabinet Consultative Committee; 20. the Windows operating systems; 21. British postal service processes; 22. Decimal Currency Board (Gr. Brit.) 23. a solid fuel system; 24. German Booksellers and Publishers Association; 25. a Health Sector Stream; 26. government and European Union decisions; 27. International Copyright Protection; 28. London Evening Standard.

Exercise III. Analyse the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters below. Point out the closer NN-type sense units in them and the starting components for their translation into Ukrainian.

A) 1. a Bachelor of Music Education Degree; 2. Sunday afternoon concerts; 3. the supertanker collision drama; 4. a school football pitch; 5. Andrew Jackson Park and Museum; 6. Edinburgh Student Unions; 7. publications control board; 8. Essex Action Commit-

245

244

 


tee; 9. London Business School; 10. the Detroit motor show; 11. Cossack salt merchants; 12. school sports facilities; 13. State circuit court; 14. customer service laboratories; 15. City of London police force; 16. Westminster Defence Minister; 17. England team manager; 18. crime figures rise; 19. Labour majority group; 20. Tory leadership election; 21. the Natural Resourses Defence Council; 22. Local Government Officers Union; 23. New York State Governor; 24. the Youth Hostels Association; 25. V-E Day celebrations; 26. world without bombs conference programme; 27. the Kyiv Dynamo soccer club; 28. U.S. Civil War veterans; 29. Kyiv teachers and students demonstration; 29. sheep skin vests;

B) 1. U.S. Administration official; 2. the world bagpipe championship; 3. the Tory selection procedure; 4. the world disarmament conference; 5. retail food prices; 6. New Zealand Golf Association; 7. White House press secretary; 8. New York State governor; 9. Shevchenko prize winners; 10. Manchester City Council; U.Stockport trade unionists; 12. depot mass meetings; 13. Pittsburgh steel works; 14. the U.S. Senate seat; 15. water conservancy constructions; 16. Park Royal Vehicle factories; 17. South-East (a London district) Sports Council; 18. appeal court judges; 19. the US Negro servicemen; 20. the Girl Guide Association; 21. sugar crop disaster (in Cuba); 22. the House of Commons committee room; 23. Medicare part В premiums; 24. the University of Toronto graduate student; 25. the APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation) liberalization commitments; 26. a baboon bone-marrow transplant; 27. upperclass mass murderer; 28. the snap opinion polls; 29. the exchange rate level; 30. South Carolina State Museum; 31. the oblast government administration; 32. a health insurance programme; 33. the Air Force General Staff; 34. the Air Force Command; 35. the London Stock Exchange; 36. the World Trade Organization; 37. the morning and evening rush time; 38. the Buckinghamshire County Museum; 39. a $542 million stand-by arrangement; 40. the Hong Kong web developer.

Exercise IV. Point out the sense units in the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters below and render descriptively their meanings into Ukrainian.

1. the Fire Brigades Union; 2. land improvement measures; 3. the League management committee; 4. world light-weight title; 5. the Commonwealth sugar agreement; 6. vehicle repair industry; 7. post office employees; 8. trade union movement; 9. front line positions; 10. Ireland Civil Rights Association; 11. the London building workers joint sites; 12. car bomb explosion; 13. Nottingham autumn stakes;

246

 14. Leeds Anti-Racialism Committee; 15. motor vehicle castings; 16. Thames Television interviewer; 17. school milk cuts (in Great Britain); 18. summer holidays vacancies; 19. a health insurance programme; 20. Jbkoda sports coupe; 21. the world cricket team; 22. Scots shipyards stewards; 23. Mersyside car workers; 24. Derbyshire and West Midlands police force; 25. a Ryder Cup golf series; 26. the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders shop-stewards; 27. the Ford joint shop-stewards committee; 28. Ashridge (settlement) executive development programmes; 29. the Saxony data-protection commissioner; 30. the voucher insurance company; 31 Public Sector Management Institute (UK) 32. the Oxford Strategic Leadership programme; 33. the Verdugo Hills Archery club (Cal., U.S.A) 34. the business development division; 35. United Nations Environment programme; 36. (Rural) Finance and Enterprise Support Project; 37. China familirization programme; 38. world stockmarket capitalization; 39. (Ukraine's) 1999 privatization efforts; 40. Itar-Tass news agency; 41. the UJS. Supreme Court decision. 42. Salary structure design.

Exercise V. Analyse the semantic Interrelation between ~ ІНв ^oTTtpo*rT8fft8l fJSnS Of tfie AWN^MNANll-,**^li5r'fypeS 6T~~ asyndetic noun clusters below. Point out the starting and the proceeding components to achieve a faithful translation of the clusters into Ukrainian.

Model: Former world heavyweight champion колишній чемпіон світу у важкій вазі (1 -4-2-3). The first trade union country club (1 -4-2-3-5) перший переферійний профспілковий клуб.

1. additional television news programmes; 2. National Health Service hospitals; 3. International amateur golf tournament; 4. the Common Market fisheries policy; 5. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks; 6. Labour Party conference week; 7. the black-soil zone crop yields; 8. French television network facilities; 9. the entire trade union movement; 10. The preschool child care establishment; 11. the internal trade union conference; 12. Labour Shadow Home Secretary; 13. South Wales steel plants; 14. a local CBS television station; 15. large-scale US air raids; 16. Singer's Sewing Machine factory; 17. the Tory Industrial Relations Act; 18. State Social Security Department (USA); 19. Trade Union Congress general secretary; 20. the International bass guitarist section; 21. International ski federation rules; 22. successful world championship defence; 23. the North-West Economic Planning Council (Gr. Brit.); 24. British Ocean Steamship companies; 25. British Steel Corporation shop-stewards; 26. the 1998 World

247


Cup final; 27. our fall (autumn) drama production; 28. strict data protection laws; 29. a marginal income tax reform; 30. European and world club champion; 31. British steel strip products; 32. private White House polls results; 33. the Caspian pipeline Consortium deal; 34. a true health care reform; 35. international labour organization criteria; 36. a moderate welfare reform plan; 37. the nuclear power plant disaster; 38. the captive gas station attendant; 39. a moderate welfare reform plan; 40. The daytime and evening bus service; 41. New York City Transit Authorities.

Exercise VI. Suggest the possible approaches to translating the four-componental asyndetic noun clusters below.

Model: the BBC TV feature Death in the Prison Yard (3-2-1-4) художній телефільм Бі-Бі-Сі «Смерть на тюремному подвір'ї.»

A) 1. Durability Insurance Trust Fund; 2. the United Nations Refugee Relief Agency (UNRRA); 3. the nuclear weapons test ban treaty. 4. New-Castle Youth Employment Office; 5. the UK oil output figures. 6. the Post Office Engineering Union; 7. the trade union branch table; 8. the USA Senate Foreign Relations Committee; 9. the Child Poverty Action Group; 10. London port ship-repair workers; 11. the Europa World Year Book; 12. State Development Research Centre; 13. the BBC Radio «Today» programme; 14. the Medicare health insurance programme; 15. the State Duma Culture Committee (Russia); 16. a Harvard Business School professor; 17. George Washington Bridge bus station; 18. the Nobel Peace Prize Winner; 19. (this year's) Cannes Film Festival winners; 20. the Air Traffic Control Staff; 21. (the Department of Transport's) Air Accidents Investigation Branch; 22. Boryspil Airport same-day tickets sales; 23.the Manhatten Express bus service; 24. the Pacific Stock Exchange technology index; 25. the University of Chicago Law School 26. Kyiv career club open meeting.

B) 1. French world record race champion; 2. the Rolls-Royce Bristol engines division; 3. the estate grain elevator company; 4. factory and office trade union committees; 5. the speed-way Express Knock-out cup semi-final; 6. district trades union council; 7. Clyde-bank Town Hall Council; 8. Northern Ireland Labour Party leaders; 9. the Birmingham regional Hospital Board meeting; 10. China Policy Study Group; 11. the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Associations Executive; 12. Shevchenko Literature Prize winners; 13. the South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive; 14. the US Cruise missile bases; 15. European Petroleum Equipment Manufacturers Federations; 16. British European Airway cheap summer tourist flights; 17.

 all-Britain East-West trade agreements; 18. leading Southampton Dock trade unionist; 19. former world mile record holder; 20. Indian Union Carbide Pesticides Plant; 21. Richard and Hinda Rosenthal Foundation poets award; 22. Mountain State arts & crafts Fair; 23. Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area; 24. the New York Times bestsellers list; 25. The United Nations Security Council Resolution; 26. the New Castle second division football match; 27. The Northern Praries Wildlife Research Center.

Exercise VII. Point out the sense units and the starting components to translate correctly each five- and six-componental asyndetic substantival cluster below. Offer one or two Ukrainian variants (where possible) for each English word-group.

1. the Voice of America Language service inauguration dates; 2. the world speedway team championship final; 3. the Perkins Diesel factory engine plant; 4. the Retail Food Trades Wages Council; 5. the Coventry tool room rate agreement; 6. a Natal University Sports Union dinner; 7. Essex Gold Cup supporters club trophy; 8. West Midlands Deputy Chief Constable Les Sharp; 9. guerrilla suicide car bomb attack (Lebanon); 10. World Number One amateur tennis player Roy Emerson; 11. the Suez Canal Zone base agreement; 12. the U.S. Information Infrastructure Task Force; 13. the community development block grant programme; 14. the government law enforcement assistance administration; 15. United Nations Security Council Resolution 425; 16. Mr. Shimpei Nukaya, Economic Planning Agency deputy director-general; 17. the Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Yasser Arafat. 18. the Radio City Music Hall box office; 19. cane sugar industry waste products; 20. the U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial; 21. the U.S. health maintenance organization; 22. Ameri-can'Power Boat Association Gold Cup Champions.

Exercise VIII. Prior to translating the sentences below into Ukrainian point out the sense units in their asyndetic substantival clusters and find the starting component for a faithful conveying of their meaning into Ukrainian.

1. The three-man UN mission leaves London today after four days of talks with the British Government. 2. Several magistrates are staying from the civic luncheon being given by the Labour-controlled city magistrates. 3. Two new miniature power units have been announced by the Lexor Electronics. 4. At Scottish career offices there were, in September, only 287 real jobs for more than 10,000 school leavers. 5. Public support for the Coal Miners strike decision

249

248

 


in Luhansk region is growing. This is shown in an opinion poll published yesterday. 6. On Friday the Foreign Secretary flies off to Washington for a NATO Ministers meeting. 7. The frequency meter type 265 will measure the frequency of repetitive wave form. 8. The workers have to fight redundancy dismissals, pit closures, rail closures. 9. A week of county council election opened in England and Wales yesterday. 10. «We'll never accept Govt pay policy», say miners. 11. The book features short excerpts from actual student communication note books as well as excerpts from student and professional speeches. 12. He has three times been President of the Romford Constituency Labour Party and also of the Romford Trades Council. 13. «And there's a play on from the New York Theatre Guild...» (A.Cronin) 14. He had really belonged... to that crowd of outsiders who turned up their coat collars, spotted, smoked, and took their occasional recreation not at the University Students Union Club but in a downtown billiard saloon. (Ibid.) 15. This is the name («Little General Assembly») given to the three-month United Nations World Trade and Development Conference which opens today. 16. The Public Health Laboratory Service team is to try to track down the cause of what is commonly known as «gastric flu» by studying outbreaks throughout Britain. 17. The committee studied a trade union activities draft document in dealing with the multinational companies. 18. The USA continues to produce most MBA or Master of Business Administration graduates. 19. Harvard Business School and Columbia University both have introduced more team projects in their management courses. 20. The satellite is some 15 times heavier than previous US spy satellite models. 21. The New York Herald Tribune Washington correspondents say the deficit now stands at about two million dollars and continues to grow. 22. A General Assembly resolution provided for the establishment of a United Nations Emergency Force Special Account. 23. The Amalgamated Engineering Union South Essex District Committee is sending a delegation to meet Members of Parliament with a request for engineers to flood the lobby when they have finished work. 24. The dispute at Fords factory is to be the subject of any inquiry headed by chairman of the Motor Industry Joint Labour Council. 25. Five members of the Windsor group hospital management committee at the Binfield Park Hospital for mentally handicapped children took part in the discussion. 26. The United States Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories at Fort Bluoir are currently testing a multi-pur> pose tracked vehicle. 27. Quality Control Department decision re-

250

251

 garding proposed defect elimination expenses estimate was referred to Chief Design engineer, Welding Department superintendant and Process Department superintendant. 28. But Miss Mason who came, she exposed, from the Home Office Frozen Meat Investigation Department-proved a restricted source of enlightenment. (A. Cronin) 29. The British Aircraft Corporation combined shop-stewards committee expressed full support for the NUM (National Union of Miners). 30. «Hong Kong doesn't need high technology manufacturing», says Mr. Howard Davies, Hong Kong Polytechnic University professor of business studies. 31. Mr. Shimpei Nukaya, Economic Planning Agency deputy director-general, said growth in gross domestic product was on track to meet the more modest government target of 2.5 per cent for the fiscal year. 32. The full-year growth rate was distorted by artificially strong data in the first quarter. 33. It has been taken Boyko up till today to change most of the personnel in the oblast government administration. 34. One of the ways New Jersey is making it easier for families to save is the Garden State Savings Bond Programme. 35. The interest earned on Garden State Savings Bonds will not be included in gross income for Federal income tax purposes and will be exempt from the tax imposed by the New Jersey Gross Income Tax Act. 36. South Carolina kindergarten teacher Phyltis Adelsflugel had a flair for imaginative ways to seize the attention of her pupils. 37. Get tickets at the Radio City Music Hall box office (Bronx).

Exercise IX. Transform the following Ukrainian noun word-groups into English asyndetic substantival clusters:

1. Книжковий фонд Київського державного лінгвістичного університету. 2. Шостий Київський авторемонтний завод. 3. Студенти Київської музичної академії ім. П.І. Чайковського. 4. Молочні продукти Білицького (Біличі) молокозаводу Києво-Святошинського району Київської області. 5. Призери фінального туру студентського конкурсу «Красуня міста Києва» 1999 року. 6. Рішення Київської міської державної адміністрації. 7. Зустріч випускників 1940 року Боярської середньої школи Лисянського району. 8. Науково-дослідні інститути академії наук України. 9. Різдвяні колядування учнів молодших класів міста Львова. 10. Наслідки зимової студентської сесії 1999 року. 11. Заочники Київського інституту бізнесу і технологій. 12. Заліки п'ятикурсників за останню весняно-літню сесію. 13. Новорічні та різдвяні свята харківських школярів. 14. Київські видавництва художньої літератури «Веселка» та «Український письменник». 15. Читачі

  1.  
    Читачі національної бібліотеки України ім. Вернадського.
  2.  Комісія в справах обміну сільськогосподарською продукцією.
  3.  Заходи стимулювання інвестицій у промисловості України.
  4.  Наслідки фінансової кризи осені 1997 року. 19. голова комісії
    Верховної Ради у справах боротьби з корупцією Г.Омельченко.

20. Агентство у справах контролю повітряних ліній України.

21. Державна комісія України в справах контролю авіаційних зв'язків
із країнами Західної Европи та Близького Сходу.

252


 

TRANSLATION OF ENGLISH VERBALS AND VERBAL CONSTRUCTIONS/COMPLEXES

Common English and Ukrainian non-finite forms of the verb, i.e., the infinitive and both participles, are characterized by identical functions in the sentence. Some of their lexico-grammatical meanings, however, are considerably broader in English than in Ukrainian and include the combined tense and aspect or tense, aspect and voice forms of the infinitive as well as of the present participle derived respectively from the intransitive and from transitive verbs (cf. to live - to be living, to have lived; but: to do - to be done, to be doing; doing - being done, having been done, etc.)

To render faithfully some of these lexico-grammatical meanings (semes) of English verbal paradigms into Ukrainian is not always possible. An exception make the simple paradigms, which usually have semantic and structural equivalents in both languages. For

example:

English Ukrainian
to
ask —to be asked                         Запитувати - бути

запитаним,

working (Participle I) - працюючий, працюючи; having worked (Perfect Participle) - попрацювавши, пропрацювавши.

Translation of verbals depends not only on their structural, i.e., paradigmatic forms but also on their nature. Thus, a special approach is needed to render in Ukrainian the complexity of meanings contained by some paradigms of the English gerund (or to render the meanings of the Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk in English).

Consequently, the ways of rendering the meanings of verbals are predetermined by some factors which include a) the structural form of the verbal and b) the function of the verbal in the sentence,

252

 where it may be either a single part of the sentence or a component of an extended part of the sentence.

Despite the differences in their morphological nature and lexical meaning, some verbals may perform the same functions in English sentences and in their corresponding Ukrainian syntaxemes. Hence, it is expedient to contrast the functions and meanings of English and Ukrainian verbals in the corresponding sentences of these two languages.

WAYS OF RENDERING THE LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL MEANINGS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE

Translation of the English infinitive is greatly predetermined by its form and sometimes by its function in the sentence. The infinitive functioning as a single part of the sentence, i.e., not being a component of a secondary predication complex, has usually corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian. The latter are a single infinitive or infinitival phrase when the infinitive functions as 1. The subject:

Було так приємно знову дістатися до своєї кімнати.

«Вивезти Айріні за місто... - в цьому було все!»

Не було жодної потреби описувати родину Келсів.

It was pretty nice to get back to my room. /Salinger/

To get Irene out of London ... that was the thing. /Galsworthy/

There was no need to desribe

the Kelseys. (Christie)

«Щоб чоловікові вдарити / бити жінку!»

2. The simple nominal predicate: «A gentleman to strike a lady!» (B.Shaw)

This function of the infinitive is often observed in Ukrainian
literary speech style, eg:
Hi. He бути панам на Вкраїні!
(Сосюра)

Вже скоро бути бабиному літу. (Дмитерко)

3. Part of a compound predicate /or predicative:

No, you couldn't have called         Hi, її не можна було назвати
her beautiful. (Mansfield) гарною.

... the company began to         ...товариство заходилося/

253


mark the time. (LDurrel) розпочало відраховувати час.

Her next step was to speak її наступним кроком було

to Llewellyn. (Cronin) ^ поговорити з Ллевеллином.

«You will have to wait until you «Вам доведеться почекати.

hear from me again.» (Dreiser) доки я знову сповіщу про себе».

4. The Object (simple, extended or expanded):

~i- --- - - ,

Julia found it very pleasant to sit then in the shade looking at the river. (Maugham)

She taught him tosjtata table and not put his elbows on it. (Ibid.)

Джулїі дуже подобалось тоді сидіти в затінку і дивитися на річку/воду.

Вона вчила його сидіти за столом і не класти на нього руки.

The infinitive has also its equivalents in Ukrainian when it is

used as a complement to an adjective or adjectivized past participle:

«I'm very glad to have seen         «я дуже радий, що зуст-

you again...» (Cronin) рівся з вами знову/що побачив

вас знову...»

Very often the English infinitival object may have in Ukrainian an equivalent infinitival phrase introduced by the conjunction:

/ was too much disturbed to         Я був аж надто стурбова-
go tQ bed. (C.P.Snow) ний, щоб іти спати.

5. An attribute (which is less often used in Ukrainian) as in the sentence below:

«Can I give you anything to         «Дати вам щось поїсти чи.
eat or to drink?» (Lawrence) попити?»

Attributive infinitives can also be conveyed with the help of attributive subordinate clauses:

We made a list of things to be         Ми склали список речей,
taken ... (Jerome) щоб узяти з собою/які візьме
мо
з собою.

This same attributive syntaxeme may also be translated as які/що треба було взяти з собою.

Some English attributive syntaxemes can be conveyed in Ukrainian with the help of an attributive subordinate clause:

«... he wasn't a sort of boy to         «... він був не з тих хлопців,

254

 

яких можна збити з_ пан-телику.

bje moved from 3. purpose ... (Ibid.)

Some English attributive infinitives may have apart from subordinate clauses or infinitival phrases also prepositional nouns for their semantic equivalents in Ukrainian:

... there were instructions to        ... були дані інструкції до /
be carried out. (Cronin) для виконання (які треба було

виконати).

Note. This function of the infinitive is also observed in Ukrainian: мати бажання поїсти/щось випити. Він мав надію ще зустрітися.

6. An adverbial modifier (usually of purpose, result or consequence) may be conveyed in Ukrainian with the help of an infinitival щоб-phrase, a prepositional noun or a noun word-group:

She wanted time to, think it         їй треба було часу для
over. (Galsworthy) обдумування/щоб обміркува
ти це.

It was too dark to_ distinguish         Було занадто темно, щоб
anything. (Lawrence) розрізняти що-небудь.

These were the main Ukrainian semantic equivalents for single English infinitives performing different functions in the sentence.

Exercise I. Prior to translating the English sentences be-low point out the function of the underlined infinitive and suggest a Ukrainian semantic equivalent for it.

1. Then she remembered about his own children; how most of them had been bom but to sicken and die before they grew up. (Maugham)

2. «I hope you'll have enough to eat», said. Julia. (Ibid.) 3. You did it deliberately to separate us. (Ibid.) 4. In the creek there are birds to watch, and fish to catch- and streams to explore. (Maurier). 5. It was necessary to do something. (D.Lessing). 6. I have not had time to examine that room yet. (C.Doyle) 7. It must be a big thing to swing the telescope like that. (H. Wells) 8. Sometimes you retreat in order to advance. (Galsworthy) 9.1 was too young to think such things at the time. (Ibid.). 10. His eyes were sharp enough to look after his own interest. (Ibid.) 11. George said we had better get the canvas up first. (Jerome K.Jerome) 12. He forgot to wind the watch when he

255


went to bed. (Ibid.). 13. We intended to camp in one of the inlets to be found round that tiny shore, (ibid.) 14. «I think», he said, «that to prolong this discussion is to waste time.» (Galsworthy) 15. He felt that it was something to be connected with such a place, and he made her feel that way. (Dreiser) 16. It is useless to discuss this problem. (Cusack) 17. Soames put on his coat as not to be cold. (Galsworthy) 18. Katie surmised that something had gone wrong in school to upset Francie. (Mowat) 19.1 crept back to my hut, to cast myself on my grass bed and sink into a dull, miserable, desponding stupor. (Ibid.) 20. Our job will be to investigate some of its properties. (M.Wilson) 21. I'm glad to meet you. (Dreiser) 22. She refused to answer him. (Lawrence) 23. Annie was now studying to be a teacher. (Lawrence) 24. It was sufficient to sit there to breathe, to look at the river and trees, simply to exist. (Braine) 25.1 meant to have a talk to him. (Wells) 26. He was ...too good a workman to be sacked and too outspoken about his Labour convictions to be promoted. (Braine) 27.1 told the driver the address to drive to. (Hemingway) 28. It was the automatic instinct to live. (London) 29. Anything was good enough so long as it paid - say, five dollars a week, to begin with. (Dreiser)

30. He was a fool to attempt to make a pretence that way. (London)

31. He was satisfied to turn his face away entirely, and any call to look back was irksome. (Dreiser).

WAYS OF TRANSLATING INFINITIVAL COMPLEXES

There are three types of infinitival complexes in present-day English (which are often referred to as secondary predication constructions): 1) the for-to-infinitival complex; 2) the objective with the infinitive and 3) the subjective with the infinitive complexes.

Each type of these predicative constructions has some explicit and implicit grammatical characteristics of its own. Since translation of these complexes is often predetermined by their nature and structure, it would be expedient to dwell upon each of them separately.

A.  Ways of Translating the For-to-lnfinitive Constructions These secondary predication constructions are used in their active and passive forms which does not influence their functioning as various complex parts of the sentence. Depending on its function in the sentence and on the voice form (active or passive) of the infinitive, this secondary predication word-group may have different equivalents in Ukrainian. The most often occurring are the infinitive, an

256

 infinitival phrase introduced by the conjunction щоб, a finite form of the verb or a subordinate clause. The realization of a definite meaning may be predetermined by the function of the infinitival for-phrase which may be as follows:

1. The complex subject having for its equivalent in Ukrainian a simple subject expressed by the infinitive or an extended subject expressed by the subordinate clause:

«For me to see you is the hap- «Побачити тебе - для
piest minute in my life... (P. мене найщасливіша мить у
Abrahams) житті/є для мене найщасли-

вішою хвилиною ...

«It would be better for us to         «Було б краще для нас
leave him.» (Wilde) залишити його/щоб ми зали
шили його.

2. A complex predicative having for its Ukrainian equivalent either an infinitive functioning as the simple nominal predicate, or a finite form of the verb, i.e., a simple verbal predicate:

«If is not for you to make Ue не тобі ставити умови/
terms.» (Wilde) He ти ставиш умови.

«The simplest thing,» said «Найпростіший вихід для
Fleur, «is for him to resign at нього ... — негайно відмови-
once.» (Galsworthy) тись від членства.»

3. A complex object corresponding to a simple or extended object in Ukrainian:

We are waiting for the bovs Ми чекаємо повернення/на
back from Hanoi. (Greene) повернення наших хлопиів з

Ганоя...

The condensed form of this infinitival complex may also have an object clause for its equivalent in Ukrainian: ми чекаємо, доки наші хлопці повернуться з Ганоя.

4. An attribute to a nominal part of speech: She had only to express а         Варто  було  їй тільки wish for him to fulfil. (Mauaham}    виголосити  якесь   (своє)

бажання, він негайно ж виконував його.

There was no room for us to He було місця, де сісти/де.
sit down... (Galsworthy) можна було сісти.

257


5. An adverbial modifier of equivalents a subordinate clause / left something under your door for you to read it. (Carter)

Her home was too far west for anyone to come to him. (Cusack)

purpose or result having for their or an infinitive in Ukrainian:

Я дещо залишив тобі під дверима, щоб ти почитав/ тобі почитати.

її'домівка була далеко західніше, тож ніхто не міг навідатись до нього.

Sometimes, however, an equivalent of the for-phrase in Ukrainian may be only a subordinate (or coordinate) clause:

He paused for me to show my         Він помовчав, аби я ще раз
ignorance again... (Greene) показав своє неуцтво ...

Exercise II. Identify the function of the infinitival for-phrase and translate each sentence below into Ukrainian.

1. For me to ask would be treason; and for me to be told would be treason. (M.Wilson) 2. For you to come here is impossible. 3. «For me to discover England to him,» she thought, «for him to discover the East to me.» (Galsworthy) 4. It was impossible for me now to persuade myself that this urgent desire of his to dispense hospitality was disinterested. 5.... It was out of the question for him to absnnt himself for any length of time. 6. It would have been easy for him to get out of it. 7. It seemed a good opportunity for Julia to get away. (Maugham) 8. It would be better for us to leave him. (Wilde) 9. It was not unknown for small boys to enter a monastery. (Ken Follett) 10. It was so easy for a young man of his looks and character to be led astray by evil woman. (Dreiser) 11. There was need for him to be economical. 12. It seems so babyish for me to be young to night school. (London) 13. It is for me to thank you. 14. «The simplest thing,» said Fleur, «is for him to resign at once». (Galsworthy). 15. «That is for me to decide, is it not?» (C.Doyle) 16. He wants me to do something pleasant - for him to feel better.» (Maugham) 17. All he wanted desperately now ... was for their child to live. (A. Hailey) 18. «What is there for me to do, except one thing?» (J. Conrad) 19. Rosemary looked for a place to sit. (Fitzgerald) 20. David had decided to let him wait for his seventeenth birthday to come. 21. We think it natural for parents to want their children to conform to a pattern they understand. 22. David prayed nightly for her and Blaise to come back. (I.Murdoch) 23. I'll try and arrange for you to see him at Mount Street. (Galsworthy) 24. He sat there in the little hot office

 waiting for one of us to speak. (Greene) 25. She also asked for more women to be appointed news-readers. (M. Guardian) 26. I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so much money this way. (Dreiser) 27.1 bought something for you to read. 28. «It's not a bad thing for you to judge others by yourself». (Maugham) 29. There was milk in the ice-chest for her to drink.(Cusack) 30. And there was a child's shirt in the living-room waiting for a button to be sewn on. (Greene) 31. Arrangements are being made for the girl to be taken back to her own country. (M. Guardian) 32. Dr. Saunders stopped for us to join him. (Maugham) 33. But five minutes was enough for them to understand one another. (Cronin)

WAYS OF TRANSLATING THE OBJECTIVE WITH

THE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS/PREDICATIVE

COMPLEXES

Unlike the polyfunctional for-to-infinitive constructions, the objective with the infinitive complexes can have mostly one function in the sentence - that of the complex object. Despite this the semantic equivalents of this construction in Ukrainian are often different. The choice of the Ukrainian semantic equivalent is predetermined by some factors, the main of which are as follows: a) the lexical meaning of the finite verb after which the objective with the infinitive construction is used; b) the paradigmatic form of the infinitive (its categorial meaning); c) the lexical meaning of the objective infinitive. As a result, different semantic and structural equivalents may be used in Ukrainian as substitutes for this predicative complex. The choice of the appropriate language unit/sense u(1it may often rest with the translator only or it may be predetermined by the structural peculiarity of the sentence under translation. The most common ways of translating the objective with the infinitive constructions are the following: 1. By means of a subordinate clause:

Ви хочете, щоб___ (діапозитиви) забрав?

Усі спостерігали, як він іде садком/переходить садок.

я   їх

«Do you want me to take these (slides) away?» (Hailey)

Depending on the predicate verb, the objective with the infiniive construction may be rendered into Ukrainian with the help of an infinitive or a subordinate clause:

Everyone watched him walk across the garden. (D. Lessing)

258

259

 


Він наказав кучерові /xs щоб він їхав далі.

He ordered the cabman to drive on. (London)

2.   By means of an objective infinitival word-group forming part of the compound modal verbal predicate (like in English):

У дитинстві я бажав стати художником, але батько змусив мене піти в бізнес.

Повільно, збираючись з силами, він одягнувся і змусив себе йти.

-    - - -      -                                   •       _      <r _

/ rather wanted to be a painter when I was a boy, but my father made me go into business. (Maugham)

Slowly, economically, he got dressed and forced himself to walk. (Lawrence)

3. By means of a noun derived from the objective infinitive (an alternative way of translation) or an object clause.

He heard the blackbird sing. Він чув спів дрозда.

Не had expected him to be Він очікував від нього біль-more sympathetic. (Maugham) ше співчуття.

The objective with the infinitive construction in the above-given sentence may naturally be translated with the help of the subordinate clause: Він очікував, що той виявить більше співчуття/що той буде співчутливішим.

4.   By means of a phrasal/simple verbal predicate: The champagne and the alti-         Від шампанського й висоти tude made him sleep. (Hailey)        його хилило до сну/йому хотілося спати.

Не never made me laugh. Він ніколи не міг мене
(Maugham)                                    розсмішити/викликати в мене

посмішку.

The objective with the infinitive construction in the last sentence may also be understood and translated with the help of a single finite form of the verb: Він ніколи мене не тішив.

In some sentences introduced by the anticipatory ft the objective with the infinitive construction may perform a quite unusual for it function of the complex subject corresponding to the Ukrainian extended infinitival subject:

«It's heavenly to hear you say         «Чути ие од вас - справж-that, my sweet.» (Maugham)         нісіньке блаженство.»

 Translation of the objective with the infinitive constructions, therefore, may be predetermined npt only by the nature and meaning of the finite verb/predicate, which may have various implicit dependent grammatical meanings (those of physical or mental perception, verbs of saying, etc.), but also by its syntactic function, by the translator's choice of the equivalent and by the stylistic aim pursued in the sentence.

Exercise III. Prior to translating the English sentences below offer appropriate Ukrainian semantic (and structural) equivalents for each objective with the infinitive construction.

1.1 want you to hear me out. 2.1 saw you drive up and I ran down, I'm afraid, on the third floor. 3. She had never seen him smoke a pipe before. 4. She heard him slam the front door and saw him come out. 5. Now she heard Guy clatter down the steps to the bath-house. 6. He heard Big Ben chime «Three» above the traffic. (Galsworthy) 7. Neilson watched him make his way across and when he had disappeared among the coconuts, he looked still. 8. She wanted him to look back on this as one of the great moments of his life. 9. She felt that he wanted her to be a child of nature. 10. «Don't you remember, before I married Gelbert you advised me to marry a man of my own age.» 11. She had expected him to be more sympathetic. 12. «I should hate him to be an author if that's what you mean.» 13. She must look at the people if she wants 1hem to look at her. 14. She saw Charles's smile freeze on his face. 15. ... he could not see Julia's face when she heard him say this. 16. Julia didn't know why... her little presents made her inclined to laugh. (Maugham) 17. «Oh! If I could only see him laugh once more. Oh! If I could only see him weep». (M.Twain) 18. She caused a telegram to be sent to him. (Galsworthy) 19. «... she must agree her baby to be surrendered for adoption immediately after birth.» 20. O'Donnell wanted his baby to live. 21 If you wanted him to take an assistant, you told him to do so and ussually that was that. 22. «Even at that,» O'Donnell reflected, «he had considered the chairman to be erring toward optimism.» 23. «It was a loud, firm protest, but even as he made it he had known it to be a lie » 24. «Mike had spoken them (words) on impulse, but suddenly, deeply, he knew them to be true.» (Hailey) 25. It was so like his family, so like them to carry their business principles into their private relations. (Galsworthy) 26. «I want order! I want things to get started!» (R.Goldberg) 27. He had the dray-man bring in the soap. (Dreiser) 28. «I cannot bear you to speak of that.» (Jerome K.Jerome)

261

260

 


Exercise IV. Translate the sentences into English. Be sure to use the corresponding form of the infinitive in each of them.

I. Я не знав, що вона також розмовляє італійською мовою. 2. Він не сподівався, що ви запросите і мене. 3. Всі раді, що перша лекція в нас була з історії України. 4. Ми були першими, хто зустрічав канадських студентів у нашому університеті. 5. Вона пишалася тим, що мала змогу перекладати промову цього вченого з Оксфордського університету. 6. Микола задоволений, що зустрічався зі своїми однокласниками. 7. Ніхто не чекав, що до них завітають перед сесією делегати наукової конференції. 8. Ми хочемо, щоб першим іспитом у зимову сесію поставили теоретичну граматику. 9. Студенти не сподівалися, що вони всі так добре напишуть контрольну роботу. 10. Всі задоволені, що їздили на екскурсію до колишньої козацької столиці Батурина.

II. У тому тексті надто багато неологізмів і жаргонізмів, щоб перекласти його без словника. 12. Вона не пригадує, щоб тоді в Харкові придбала цей дорогий словник. 13. Нікому не було місця, де сісти. 14. Нам незручно пригадуватиб що ми тоді стільки турбували вас із перекладом цієї торговельної угоди. 15. Погода була несприятлива, щоб їхати в Карпати на спортивні змагання. 16. Вони були дуже задоволені, що відвідали музей мадам Тюссо в Лондоні. 17. Хто б міг подумати, що з цього тендітного першокурсника виросте такий видатний спортсмен. 18. Ми раді повідомити вам, що його наукова робота з перекладу відзначена першою премією на конкурсі. 19. Студентам подобається, коли їм дають більше самостійно перекладати. 20. Вони задоволені, що їхні наукові праці прийняті на конкурс. 21. Студентка не погодилася, щоб її одну з групи посилали до Великої Британії. 22. Ніхто не очікував, що їх пошлють тлумачами на виставку шведських споживчих товарів у Києві. 23. Студент не боявся, що його усний переклад слухатиме вся група. 24. Він хотів попросити час, щоб виконати цей важкий переклад. 25. Ми раді, що нас під час зимових канікул посилали на спортивні змагання до Львова. 26. Усі сподівались тоді, що нашому інститутові буде присвоєне почесне ім'я найбільшого поліглота України академіка Агатанґела Кримського. 27. Не всі знають, що цей учений володів 68 мовами народів Европи й Азії. 28. Щоб правильно й адекватно перекласти текст, його треба перш належно проаналізувати. 29. Студент не підозрював, що той уривок міг мати стільки незнайомих йому слів-технічних термінів. ЗО. Усі погодилися, що уривок міг бути перекладений за коротший час.

 WAYS OF RENDERING THE MEANING OF THE

SUBJECTIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE

CONSTRUCTIONS

This predicative infinitival construction or complex, as it is often referred to in grammars, consists of the secondary subject, usually noun or pronoun, and secondary predicate expressed by the infinitive. The latter is mostly separated from the nominal part of the complex subject by the primary predicate: Mr. Chritchlow had never been known to be glad to see anybody. (Bennett) or: You are to live here for the next six months. (B.Shaw)

The secondary subject may often be expressed by the anticipatory pronoun it lt,was considered a virtue not to talk unnecessar-ily at sea. (Hemingway).

Translation of the infinitival complexes into Ukrainian depends on or is predetermined by some factors, the main of which are the following:

1) the lexical meaning of the verb or rather the semantic group to which the verb (after which the syntactic construction is used) belongs;

2) the voice form (active or passive) of the subjective (nominative) infinitive;

3) the structure of the parts of the sentence and that of the sentence itself, which may be simple or composite;

4) the translator's choice of the means and language units conveying the meaning of the subjective with the infinitive constructions.

Thus, when used with the verbs expressing permission, request, intention, order, compulsion (to allow, to permit, to order, to command, to force, to make, to request, to intend, etc.), the subjective with the infinitive construction may be rendered in Ukrainian in the following ways:

a)   with the help of an indefinite personal sentence;

b) with the help of an impersonal sentence having the passive verbal predicate in -но, -то;

c) with the help of an object subordinate clause, for example:

A. The inmates were ordered not to try to leave their wards. (USA Today)

1)   В 'язням наказали не робити спроб залишати камери:

262

263

 


2)   В 'язням було наказано/наказали не робити спроб...

3) В'язням наказали, щоб вони не робили спроб залишати камери.

В. The subjective with the infinitive construction used with the verbs of physical perception (to feel, to hear, to see, to taste, etc.) can be translated:

a) with the help of the one-member introductory indefinite personal sentences followed by an object subordinate clause as in the following sentence:

He was seen the first to come. Бачили, що він прийшов
(D. Carter) першим.

A certain mar? w&s seen tQ Бачили, що якийсь чоловік,
reel into Mr.Twain's hotel last заточуючись, ввалився вчора
night. (M. Twain) ввечері в готельний номер

містера Геєна.

Alongside the introductory definite personal sentence, sometimes the impersonal introductory sentence may be used in Ukrainian to render the meaning of the nominative with the infinitive construction. Thus the sentence below can be translated in two ways:

The garden gate was heard to bang. (Lawrence)
1)   
Чули/було  чути,  як         2) Почулося, як у садку
хляпнула хвіртка в садок. хляпнула хвіртка.

Similarity in the sentence below where the Ukrainian reflexive verb performs the functions of the introductory/subject clause:

It was felt to be hopeless.        Відчувалося.      що     це
(Galsworthy) безнадійно./Відчувалося. що з

цього нічого не буде.

This sentence may have in Ukrainian one more quite unexpected condensed version of a two-member simple sentence: 1) Відчувалася безнадія. 2) Відчувалася якась безвихідь.

С. Similar ways of translation are employed when the subjective with the infinitive complex/constrtuction is used with the verbs of mental perception (to believe, to deny, to expect, to know, to suppose, etc.):

He is supposed to be work-         Вважають (вважається), що ing in the sanatorium. (Cusack)     він нібито працює в санаторії.

Irene was known to take very sudden decisions. (Galsworthy)

Знали, що Айріні приймає зовсім несподівані рішення (здатна на несподівані рішення).

 Depending on the context, the translator may suggest some other structural (and, naturally, semantic) versions for the last sentence. As for example:

Айріні знали як людину, що здатна на зовсім несподівані (непередбачені) рішення. Знали, що Айріні може приймати зовсім непередбачені рішення.

D. When used after the verbs of saying and reporting (to say, to report, to tell, etc.), the nominative with the infinitive complex is translated with the help of the introductory indefinite-personal sentence followed by an object subordinate clause. The choice of the form of this introductory clause is predetermined by the verb with which the subjective with the infinitive construction is used. Thus, the verb say, for example, can not have а ^сяЛсь equivalent in Ukrainian, whereas the verb report can have both the -ся form as well as the third person plural form introduced by the conjunction як:

Paper is said to have been invented in China. (Bennett)

Кажуть, що папір винайдений/винайдено в Китаї.

But: US Secretary of State is reported to have arrived in Geneva. (The Guardian)

1) Повідомляють, що державний секретар США прибув до Женеви.

2) Як повідомляють, державний секретар США прибув до Женеви.

3) Повідомляється, що державний секретар США прибув до Женеви.

Apart from the verbs of saying and reporting the verbs to expect, to understand, and to see are used in oral and written mass media in the same functions. Their meaning may sometimes differ from their commonly known vocabulary meanings. For example:

Sax sates this year are expected to blow past last year's 67000. (USA Today)

But: The rally was seen to be much smaller than had been expected. (The Guardian)

Очікується, що продаж платівок саксофонної музики цього року перевищить торішню на 67,000 (штук)

Виявилося (як виявилося), мітинґ зібрав менше людей, ніж очікувалося.

The sentence can also be translated with the help of the impersonal -ся verbal clause introduced by the conjunction як: Як переконалися, мітинґ зібрав менше людей, ніж спершу очікувалось.

264

265

 


The verb understand with which the subjective with the infinitive construction is used, has a peculiar meaning - згідно наявних відомостей:

The trial is understood to be         Згідно наявних відомостей. held next week. (The Guardian)     суд______відбудеться

наступного тижня.

Еліс, здавалося, не чула про мене./Здавалося. Еліс не чула про мене.

Вважали/здається, вона брала участь у першому польоті до Альфи 73.

Е. When used with the verbs to appear, to chance, to happen, to prove, to seem, or with the mood phrases to be sure, to be certain, to be likely/unlikely the subjective with the infinitive constructions may have different interpretations in Ukrainian. Thus, the verbs seem, believe, appear, etc, which function as simple verbal predicates in English are converted into parenthetic words or introductory сь-1-ся impersonal/definite personal sentences (Вважається/ вважають, здається):

«Л//се didn't seem tc heard of me.» (Braine)

She was believed to hi taken part in the first flight to Alpha 73 (J.Christoper)

Other contextual semantic variants of sentences with the predicate verbs to appear, to believe, to seem, etc. followed by the secondary subject expressed by the subjective infinitive may be the adverb очевидно or the modal particle ніби/нібито:

He seemed to be thinking of Він, здавалося, думав про
something else. (Dreiser) щось зовсім Інше.

The sentence can also have some other equivalent in Ukrainian: Його думки, очевидно, були зайняті чимось іншим/Він ніби думав щось (про щось) зовсім інше.

Note. The structure of some English sentences containing the subjective with the infinitive constructions may undergo certain slight changes in Ukrainian translation:

Mrs. Cowperwood, in spite of Місіс Каупервуд,
the differences in their years, ap~ незважаючи на різницю в
peared to be a fit mate for him at роках, виявилась для нього під
this time. (Dreiser) цю пору гідною партнеркою.

Sentences with the subjective with the infinitive constructions

 may have predicates expressing the modal meanings of certainty, uncertainty, probability, etc. (to be sure, to seem, to be certain, to be likely/unlikely, etc). Such sentences are not transformed in Ukrainian translation, i.e., they maintain their simple structure, with the predicates turning into modal words/particles or adverbs such as можливо, певне/напевне, навряд/чи/неможливо, обов'язково:

The fire is certain to produce         Пожежа        обов'язково panic in the morning. (Dreiser)       зчинить   паніку   взавтра

But he is sure to marry her. (T.Hardy)

Alice did not seem to have heard me. (Braine)

вранці.

Але він обов'язково (певно-таки) одружиться з нею.

Аліс, очевидно/здавалося. не почула мене.

Ukrainian semantic equivalents for the modal words likely/unlikelyfollowed by the subjective infinitive may also be clauses of modal meaning:

є можливість (існує ймовірність), не виключена можливість:

Існує можливість, що вона споживатиме в Мексиці забруднені продукти чи питиме забруднену воду.

«... навряд чи можна в одній людині поєднати все, що хочеш.»

She was likely to consume contaminated food or water in Mexico. (Hailey)

«... we're unlikely to get everything we want in one man.» (Snow)

The last English sentence and sentences like that having nominal predicates with implicit modal meanings of supposition, doubt, uncertainty, etc. followed by the subjective infinitive may have other lexico-semantic equivalents in Ukrainian to express their meaning. Among these are the modal phrases as цілком імовірно/цілком можливо, не виключена можливість, може бути/статися: Цілком імовірно/Цілком можливо, що вона буде споживати в Мексиці забруднені продукти чи питиме забруднену воду. Може статися, що...

The subjective with the infinitive constructions may be used with some other English verbs as will be seen in the exercise below. They may sometimes influence the choice of faithful Ukrainian equivalents for these English sentences as well.

266

267

 


Exercise IV. Suggest possible contextual equivalents for the subjective with the infinitive constructions below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian:

1. They were seen to just touch each other's hano^s, and look each at the other's left eye only. (Galsworthy) 2. «She wants, I'm sure, to be seen today.» (J.G.Griffin) 3. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 4. Her situation was considered very good. (Bennett) 5.... he was impelled to reestablish their lines of communication (Seghal) 6. ... the injured teacher had an operation for a head wound and is said to be improving. (The Guardian) 7. She was not expected to reply, but she did. (Dreiser) 8. «They're certainly entitled to think that, and they're entitled to feel respect for their opinions ...» (H.Lee) 9. The economic problems facing France are certain to have strong repercussions. (The Guardian) 10. They were told to get the children back to sleep. (H.Fast) 11. ... the fetters that bound their tongues were considered to be locked and the key thrown away. (M.Twain) 12. He was thought to be honest and kindly. (Dreiser) 13. He was never expected to recover his equilibrium. 14. «You appear to be in poor shape, all the same.» 15. Her name appeared to be Millicent Pole. 16.1 happen to know young Tasburgh who isn't with his ship. 17. «I just happened to drive up.» (Galsworthy) 18. Bob finds it impossible to keep pace with stroke, because stroke rows in such an extraordinary fashion. (Jerome K.Jerome) 19. ... he seemed to be asking what was the matter with me. (Snow) 20. «I seem to have promised that I'd take you into my laboratory.» 21. «I seem to be getting over it a little.» (M.Wilson) 22. The tower seemed to rock in wind. (Lawrence) 23. For about ten days we seemed to have been living on nothing but cold meat, cake, and bread and jam. (Jerome K.Jerome) 24. The goods are reported to have been awaiting shipment for several days. (The Guardian) 25. The girl seemed to perceive that a question of taste was concerned. 26. He seemed to take rather a fancy to me. 27. She seemed, indeed, to have heard it before. 28. Some fellows seem to know everybody and exactly how to work them. (Galsworthy) 29. The child is likely to face a first period of uncertainty and bewilderment on being taken into care. (Schimmels) 30. Being subject to endorsement by the Cortes, the «reform» is likely to be of little practical significance. (The Guardian) 31. The money is unlikely to be repaid, unless there is a fundamental change in the policies of the United Federation ... 32. The latest cease fire agreement between the worrying forces in Bosnia is unlikely to hold. (The Guardian)

268

STRUCTURAL TYPES OF UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE

UNITS CONVEYING THE MEANING OF THE

NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL

CONSTRUCTIONS

Translation of nominative absolute participial constructions is often connected with considerable difficulties. These are caused by the indistinct semantic and syntactic relations created between the constituent part of the sentence containing secondary predication construction on one hand and the introductory/matrix clause on the other. When the nominative absolute participial constructions express explicitly or implicitly the adverbial, objective or attributive relations/ meanings, they are usually translated, as has been shown already on the foregoing pages, with the help of the corresponding subordinate clauses.

The logico-grammatical nature of the nominative absolute par-

285


ticipial constructions in the sentence, however, is far from always clearly and exactly identifiable. This is because of the implicit meanings, which some of the nominative absolute participial constructions may have in a sentence. As a result, more than one Ukrainian version may be suggested for some of such constructions. For example, the meaning of the participial construction/syntaxeme Several of his letters being ignored in the sentence Several of his letters being ignored. Martin indited an angry one which drew a reply. (London) is not quite distinct. It may be considered as causal (Why did Martin indite an angry letter? - Because he did not receive any reply to his previously sent letters). It may also be temporal (When did Martin indite an angry letter? - When he received no reply to his previously sent letters).

More obvious and more contextually substantiated seems to be the causal meaning, though the temporal meaning can not altogether be discarded either. Consequently, the translator guided by the requirements of his own presentation, may suggest two versions, giving respectively a stronger preference to causal meaning. Each of the two meanings in Ukrainian is explicitly indicated by the corresponding conjunction:

1) Оскільки на попередні         2) Після того, як газета не листи газета відмовчалася,    відповіла на попередні листи,

Мартін надіслав їм сердитого листа, на який прийшла відповідь.

Мартін надіслав їм сердитого листа,   на який надійшла

відповідь.

One more identical example of the explicit and implicit meaning of the nominative absolute participial construction (the NAPC) is given below:

The session drawing towards its close. Senator Dilworthy shook hands with his constituents and let them look at him. (Mark Twain)

1) Оскільки збори наближа- 2) Коли збори наближалися
лися до завершення, сенатор до завершення, сенатор
Ділворзі потиснув руку кожно- Ділворзі потиснув руку кожному
му виборщикові, удостоївши їх виборщикові, удостоївши їх
честі глянути на себе. честі глянути на себе.

Far from all the NAPCs with different implicit meanings have always a more or less clearly distinguishable or transparent logico-grammatical meaning. In some cases the translator may be simply

286

 in dou^t ao m me semantic and functional meaning of the NAPC singled out of a contextual environment.

For example: His try for a smile ignored. Stavros turns to Harry.
(J.Updike)
*

The NAPC His try for a smile ignored clearly refers to present tense which can be seen from the simple verbal predicate (turns) in the matrix clause. This makes the choice of the lexico-grammatical meaning between causal and temporal more difficult. The question to the matrix clause includes an alteration - Does Stavros turn to Harry because his smile is ignored or he turns totally when his smile is ignored? Consequently, the NAPC may be translated with the help of the subordinate clause of cause: Оскільки/Тому що на його посмішку не реагують, Ставрос повертається до Гаррі.

Neither can there be objections to this NAPC being translated with the help of a temporal clause: Якщо на його посмішку не реагують, він повертається до Гаррі.

An analysis of the semantic relations between the main immediate constituents of the sentence induced the translator to suggest a third possible Ukrainian variant for this NAPC - a temporal subordinate clause: Коли на його усмішку не реагують. Ставрос повертається до Гаррі.

The conditional meaning of the NAPC in this sentence seems to be the most fitting in the general content of this semi-composite sentence. It can also be proved by the corresponding transformation of the NAPC into a conditional subordinate clause:

If his try for a smile is ignored. Stavros turns to Harry. This was not the last possible way of faithful rendering of the logico-grammatical meaning of this NAPC into Ukrainian. There may be one more, which at first sight may seem doubtful, though only at first sight. And this is by transforming the NAPC into a coordinate clause joined to the matrix clause by means of the copulative conjunction and: His try for a smile is ignored and he turns to Harry. -Його усмішка залишається поза увагою, і він звертається до Гаррі.

Consequently, the NAPC, being a specifically English lexico-syntactic unit, may often be endowed with different meanings which require the employment of various means of rendering them into Ukrainian. The choice of these means may be predetermined, however, not only by the lexico-grammatical meaning of the NAPC, but also by its syntactic interconnection with the part of the matrix clause and also by the means, which are available in the target language to

287


express their meanings and functions.

Thus, when the secondary subject of the NAPC is in no logical interrelation with the action expressed by the predicate of the matrix clause, i.e., when the secondary subject functions as the agent in the NAPC, the latter is translated as a co-ordinate clause orsas an independent sentence. For example:

There was a pause, Coleman listening. (Hailey)

1)   Настала пауза, і Колман прислухався.

2)   Настала пауза. Колман прислухався.

Similarly translated into Ukrainian are many other NAPCs which are logically and grammatically not connected with any constitbent part of йіе matrix clause. For example:

The two walked in silence, Обоє йшли мовчки, і Сомз Soames watching him out of the поглядав на нього краєчком corner of his eye. (Galsworthy) ока.

She gritted her teeth, grabbed Вона скреготнула зубами,
the rope and started walking вхопилась за канат і рушила,
across, the bridge swaying with - і місток захитався від
every step. (Sheldon) кожного її кроку.

As can be noticed, the secondary subjects Soames and bridge function as independent subjects in both languages.

Ukrainian co-ordinate clauses, which are equivalents of the NAPCs may often be joined by the conjunctions /, а, причому:

We went out behind the Ми один по одному вийшли
church in a single file,
the lieu- за церквою, і вів насосам
tenant leading... (Greene) лейтенант.

The feaction was immediate, Реакція була негайною.
Pearson almost shouting. Причому Пірсон мало не
(Hailey) закричав.

Tony,was staring at him, his Тоні дивився на нього, а
eyes uncomprehending, той, розгубившися, не розумів
(Sheldon) його.

The above-cited NAPCs may be translated into Ukrainian correspondingly as independent sentences or as clauses of a compound sentence: Ми один по одному вийшли за церквою. Попереду нас ішов лейтенант. Тоні подивився на нього. Той, розгубившися, не розумів його/Той розгублено дивився, не розуміючи його.

The translator may sometimes transform the English sentence, turning the NAPC of this type into a Ukrainian simple sentence w\th

288

 homogeneous predicates: Він нашвидкуруч закінчив

Matters pressed on. he made справи і пішов обідати на Ґрін-

his way to Green Street for lunch, стріт/відклавши справи, він

(Galsworthy). пішов обідати на Ґрін-стріт.

The lexical and functional meanings of different NAPCs in simple and composite sentences may sometimes be rendered in Ukraifi-ian with the help of some other means too:

1. With the help of the participial (diyepryslivnyk) construction or by means of a single diyepryslivnyk:

The two guards listened, their Обидва вартові слухали, faces turned to the rifle-slit, their пороззявлявши роти і mouths hanging open. (Greene) повернувшись обличчям до

амбразури.       \,

«І felt compassion for him,» «Мені стало шкода його/я
said Louisa, her colour deepen- відчула жаль до нього,» -
ing... (Dickens) відповіла, зашарівшись.Луїза...

2. With the help of a prepositional noun, a noun phrase or a participial/diyepryslivnyk construction:

His head lowered, holding to Тримаючись за перила, з,
the banister, Andrew went up- низько похиленою головою.
stairs. (Cronin) Ендрю пішов до себе нагору.

This NAPC may also be translated with the help of the participial/diyepryslivnyk construction: Потупивши голову і тримаючись за перила, Ендрю почвалав до себе нагору.

3. As a participial (diyepryslivnyk) construction or a subordinate (mostly adverbial) clause:

The champagne poured.         Наливши шампанського^
Andrew sat back. (Cronin) Ендрю знову сів.

The corresponding temporal clause for the NAPC may be Після того, як/Коли Ендрю налив шампанського, він знову сів.

4. With the help of a prepositional noun: He was watching her, his eyes         Він з цікавістю спостерігав

ed. (Sheldon)

за нею.

-• — -J    '"'-      '   '         ' U01/1

5. By an adverbial substantival word-group or a single adverb:
His voice low. Alexander said, Олександр стиха запитав:
«He died, didn't he?» (Hailey)        «Він помер, так?»

289


This NAPC can also be translated with the help of the adverb притишено: Олександр притишено запитав ... Олександр насторожено/боязко запитав ...

In rare cases the structure and meaning of both the Ukrainian equivalent and the NAPC may be much alike:

And still with his eyes closed.         Все ще з заплющеними
he said... (Galsworthy) очима він сказав...

This NAPC may be translated with the help of an antonymic syntaxeme containing a diyepryslivnyk: / есе ще не розплющуючи очей, він сказав...

It should be repeatedly emphasized in conclusion that some NAPCs may have more than one faithful semantic and structural equivalent in Ukrainian. Thus, the underlined below NAPC in the sentence They having the keys, no entrance was possible. (Galsworthy) may have the following two equally faithful versions in Ukrainian:

1) Оскільки ключі були в         2) Ключі були у них, і ввійти них, ввійти було неможливо.      (нам) було неможливо.

The second (last) Ukrainian substitute of the above-given NAPC is the co-ordinate clause with an implied causal meaning (Чому ввійти було неможливо? Бо у них не було ключів).

These secondary predication constructions are often used in scientific and technical matter texts in which the translator has also to find equivalents for different terms. The ways and means employed to faithfully convey the meaning and structure of the NAPCs are the same:

1)   the temporal subordinate clause;

2)   a causal, conditional and other sub-clauses: 1) The job having been sand-         Коли деталь обробили blasted, all scale was removed.     піскоочисним апаратом, то

вся циндра була знята.

2) The part cooling during this process, it is necessary to reheat it.

3) The induction motor being of high efficiency, the power input of the primary would be but slightly more than the rating.

Оскільки деталь при цьому охолоджується, то її треба підігріти.

Якщо асинхронний мотор має високий коефіцієнт корисної дії, то сила використання його лише трохи більша, ніж номінальна.

 4) By co-ordinate clauses as in other types of text joined by the conjunctions У. а. причому:

The motor load thus in- Навантаження мотора
creases and
a s//p takes place, таким чином збільшується, [
the amount being proportional to відбувається пропориійне
the load.
, навантаженню сковзання.

The depth of insert being suf- Глибина насадки була
ficjerii, it was possible to make а достатня, і можна було
large number of regrinds.
1 зробити більшу кількість

переточувань.

The existence of some possible ways of faithful rendering of meaning of the NAPCs in Ukrainian provides the translator with some freedom of choice between some ways of expression. This can be illustrated on the following sentence containing two NAPCs: He held on to the bar, his legs wobbling under him. Martin's arm around him and supporting him, while he thought. (London)

1) Хлопець ухопився за 2) Він ухопився за стійку,
стійку,
його ноги повисли, і його ноги гойдалися під ним.
Мартін підтримував його, а Мартін охопив його рукою і
охопивши рукою,
доки той підтримував, доки той
збирався з думками. збирався з думками.

Exercise I. State the nature of the semantic and syntactic relations existing between the main constituent parts in the sentences below. Suggest an appropriate subordinate clause for each NAPC and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. My private station being that of a university professor, I was naturally deeply interested in the system of education in England. 2. But Henry VIII being dead, nothing was done. (Leacock) 3. He had seen Jody with his head slowly moving about... (M; Wilson) 4. After a first session of the Six, with the British .prime Minister waiting outside, there seemed no reconciling of the French and the Five. (F. News) 5. Patterson, his habit of politeness back in place, inquired, «Do you want to take questions as we go, Alex, or leave them to the end? 6. For an instant, with Mike holding her, she felt the same solace and relief, as when years before she had run, a little girl, into her mother's arms. (Hailey) 7. The message reported, they walked on. 8. The service in the Chapel over, the mourners filed up again to guard the body to the tomb. 9. The men had been sent out to dine at

1 The examples are picked out from Machinery and Production Engineering. London, 1988.

290

291

 


Eustache's Club, it being felt that they must be fed up. (Galsworthy) 10. The children, with Graham still hanging on to Susan, were being carried relentlessly by the current into the path of the water wheel. (J.Higgins) 11. A police motorcycle escort, engines running noisily, was at the head of the assembling cortege. (Hailey) 12. His door being shut, she softly opened it and spoke to him ... (Dickens) 13. These houses, details settled, Hurstwood visited some of the advertised opportunities to purchase an interest in some flourishing downtown bar. 14. Coroner Heith, his official duties completed for the time being, found himself pondering ... how he was to proceed further. 15. And with that thought in mind, he now scanned more briefly, but none the less sharply and critically the various notes, or invitations, or love messages from Saundra ... (Dreiser)

Exercise II. State the nature of the syntagmatic relations existing between the NAPC and the matrix clause in the sentences below. Suggest the appropriate type of clause for each NAPC and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. He took her hand gently, their faces close. 2. The younger man's face was strained, the tears streaming. 3. There was no answer, only Vivian's steady gaze meeting his own. 4. His expression was serious, his eyes troubled. 5. Coleman wheeled serious, his eye on Bannister; his eyes merciless. 6. Barlett was on his feet, his chain flung back, his face flaming red. 7. «Ramona», Elise shouted, with her eyes shut, «go out in the kitchen and let Grace take galoshes off.» (Salinger) 8. He was all confusion and embarrassment on the instant, the blood flushing on his neck and brow. (London) 9. They moved toward the Vicarage, each making enormous effort to find excused for the other. (Christie) 10. He speared Brad with a long stare, his black eyes glittering. 11. Bendabb jumped out, Leighton heating and pulling himself from the limousine behind the younger executive. (R. Moore) 12. Rossman withdrew and Himmler returned to his work, the only sound in the room the steady scratching of his pen. (J.Higgins) 13. Buddha sat as Buddha always sits, with his lap empty ... 14. Then I got hold of Pyle's sleeve and dragged him out, with the .girl handing on to his other arm like a hooked fish. (Greene) 15. With me working and not home until dark, he hangs around with that bad crowd toward the bridge. (J.Updike) 16. He looked at her happily in the sun; her khaki shirt open. 17. The sentry was still standing at the far box with his back turned. (Hemingway) 18. With Adna gone too, Mr. Wipple tried to run the farm with just him to help. (LA. Porter) 19. Her face tear-streaked but expressionless, almost vacu-

292

 ous, she picked up her handbag from the floor, opened it, and took out a small pea-green clothbound book. 20. She was lying asleep, with her face sort of on the side of the pillow. (Salinger) 21. They went out by the gate, he with his arm round her waist, and were lost in the night. (Maugham)

Exercise III. Analyse the syntagmatic relations existing between the NAPC and its matrix clause in each sentence below. Suggest the appropriate way of translating the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Meanwhile Andrew, with his eyes fixed upon the glass jars before him, had been stumbling upon the specimens. (Cronin) 2. Her cheek pressed against the pillow, she gazed at him with shining eyes. (Cronin) 3. Miss Lawson stood in the doorway smiling rather foolishly after them, her mouth a little open. (Christie) 4. With her eyes fixed on that great yellow moon of a face from which these entrancing sounds came, Miss Matfield allowed her mind to be carried floating away on these changing currents of music. 5. «Well, Livian, now that we're out of that monkey house in there, with everybody snatching and pecking at each other, I can wish you a proper «Happy New Year». (J.Priestley) 6. With his hand upon her brother's shoulder, Louisa still stood looking at the fire. 7. «Ah», said Mr. Bouderby, with his thumbs in the arms of his coat. (Dickens) 8. His thought having returned, he concluded that it must be some night bird or large bat. (H. Wells) 9. She turned towards him, her smile, a mixture of love and sadness. 10. His face in her hair, he whispered «Vivian, darling ...» (Hailey) 11. He sat there, with raw eyes glaring across the room at me. (Greene) 12. Peter looked up, his head fallen slackly back. (Cronin) 13. Listening to the minutes and other routine business, with his chin clasped on his hand, he let his eyes move from face to face. 14. She took the flowers in her hand and went down, her face carried high under its burden of hair. (Galsworthy) 15. Jane turned to look at Mrs. McGrador, who all this time remained silent, watching, with her pale unblinking eyes fixed at Jane's face. (J.Aiken) 16.... he could see the upswept wide black horns on their heads as they galloped, heads out; the heads not moving. (Hemingway) 17.... he could see the full span of the ravine along the edge of town, his view of it broken by two or three Negro cabins which lined the edge of it. (W.Faulkner) 18. The worship of senses has often, and with much justice* been decried, men feeling a natural instinct of terror about passions and sensations that seem stronger than themselves... (O.Wilde)

293


Exercise IV. Analyse the syntagmatic relations between the main constituent parts in the sentences below. Suggest, wherever possible, more than one way of translating of the NAPCs and the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Once upstairs, I met the nurse coming down the hall. 2. He felt it (knee) carefully, his hands moving lightly. 3. Coleman lashed out, his voice rising in pitch. 4. It was Bannister, a tray of equipment in nis hands. 5. The younger man's face was strained, the tears streaming. (Hailey) 6.... she now walked unsteadily to the door, the terrors of the future crowding thick upon her. (Dreiser) 7. This being his first exam, he was anxious to know the result. (Cronin) 8. They passed her in silence, with their noises in the air, as if she did not exist. (Maugham) 9. That being so, then he could rise to Ruth. (London) 10. Now, the car making a turn around a bank and crossing a green, grassy field, we came in sight of the Masai village. (Hemingway) 11. The filling completed, Con threw his instruments into a jelly containing lysol and demanded Andrew should return to the house with him to tea. (Cronin) 12. The morning broke, they saw the traces of his fall. (H.Wells) 13. He stood beside me in silence, his candle in his hand. (C.Doyle) 14. She stood in her room pondering this new problem as Clyde arrived, his Xmas package under his arm. (Dreiser) 15. That over, she sat back with a sigh and softly rubbed her knee. (H.Watson) 16. She was still standing inside the screen door, with the house door open behind her. (H. Chandler) 17. The boy stood as long as he could, the bitter struggle fascinating him. (Dreiser) 18. She pressed his hand mutely, her eyes dim. (London) 19. A car was parked up in the middle of 'the floor with its bonnet open. 20. Perhaps only ten days ago he had been walking back across the Common park in Boston, his armsfuli of the books. (Greene) 21J Gandy, book in hand, the boy looks to his father for rescue. (J.Updike) 22. There he stood, his face to the south-east, his cap in his hand. (London) 23. The grove having been cut at 45°, all the difficulties were overcome. 24. Only overcurrent provided, the earth leakage being separated. (Machinery and Production Engineering) 25. Transistors being sensitive to light, engineers have to take this property into consideration. 26. Some transistors act as insulators in the darkness, cadmium sulfide presenting one of them. (Radio Engineering) 27. There were lamps on, the first dusk outside. 28. The old man stared out of the window; the setting sun on the trees. (J.Fowlers) 29. So they groped and shuffled along, with their ears pricked up and their paws on the pistols. (K.Graham)

294

 Exercise V. Translate in viva voce the following sentences into English. Use the nominative absolute participial constructions where required.

1. Після того, як лекція закінчилась, всі студенти пішли до читального залу. 2. Оскільки настала сприятлива погода, ми заходились готуватися до етнографічної експедиції. 3. Бартерні операції    були    заборонені    до    кінця    жовтня,    тож сільськогосподарське виробниче об'єднання шукало інших шляхів роздобути потрібні нафтопродукти й запасні частини. 4. Хоч температура повітря була -15°С, чимало киян купалося в Дніпрі. 5. Він заснув, а світло в кімнаті залишилося горіти до ранку. 6. Всі студенти групи склали успішно зимову сесію, причому жоден з них не отримав посередньої оцінки. 7. Студентів було завчасно полереджено, і ніхто з них не запізнився на нульову пару. 8. У нього вдома не було англо-українського словника, і він змушений був їхати до бібліотеки ім. Вернадського. 9. Час, відведений на контрольну роботу, скінчився, і студенти поклали свої переклади викладачеві на стіл. 10. Хоч запис промови на плівці був нечіткий, всі добре зрозуміли і правильно переклали його. 11. Найвидатніші твори Івана Багряного написані ще в 50-60 роки, причому всі вони побачили світ не на його батьківщині. 12. Мільйони українців змушені жити за кордонами України, причому найбільше їх у Сибіру та на Далекій Півночі Росії. 13. Гелікоптер зазнав катастрофи в горах. Нікого не залишилося в живих. 14. Не було жодних заперечень. Рішення було схвалено. 15. Не маючи тоді іншого виходу, я змушений був заглянути до словника.

TRANSLATION OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIAL COMPLEXES

Translation of the gerund performing its nominal or verbal functions in the sentence usually does not create great difficulties. Care should be taken, however, when identifying the nature of the -ing from verbal, which may influence its way of translation. Thus, the -ing form moving in the sentence below, where it has an attributive function, may be taken by mistake for the present participle. In reality, however, it has the nature of a gerund which is also proved by its syntactic function:

Chester liked a moving day to         Честеру подобалось, що в
be dry and fair. (Cheever) день переїзду була суха гарна

погода.

295


As can be seen, «moving», though it performs an attributive function to the noun («day») is nevertheless a regular gerund by its nature, as it always is in the compounds like dressing-table, dressing-gown, sitting-room, writing-table, etc.

Translation of the indefinite or perfect gerund in its nominal function of the subject, object or a predicative usually presents no great difficulty either, provided it is not used idiomatically. When used in idioms, proverbs or sayings, the gerund may acquire some transparent meaning and not express its direct lexical meaning. The translator should choose then some similar means of expressing their idiomatic meaning in Ukrainian. For example:

1) Doing is better than saying. Судять не по словах, а по
(Saying)                                         ділах. (Вірять не словам, а

2) Cunning is the fools' substitute for wisdom. (Saying)

ділам)

Хитрощі у дурнів замість розуму Спор. Хоч дурний та хитрий).

Translation of the indefinite gerund, as has been said, mostly depends on its function and meaning in the sentence. Gerunds of nominal functions, therefore, are usually translated into Ukrainian as nouns of the corresponding lexical meaning:

Crying and praying followed Плач впереміш з молитвою
all over the house. (Hughes) чулись по всьому дому.

The ugliest habit of our teen- Найогидніша звичка наших agers today is smoking. (NfUkr.) підлітків - паління/куріння.

Predicative and subjective gerund may also be translated with the help of the infinitive or infinitival phrase:

Deciding is acting. (Saying) Вирішити  -  це   діяти/

означає розпочати діяти.

Note. On rare occasions the indefinite gerund may be translated into Ukrainian as the finite verb:

«I've heard of making a ga-         «Буває, і стайню переоб-rage out of a stable,» Tom was    ладнують на гараж,» - відпо-saying to Gatsby. (Fitzgerald)        вів Том Ґетзбі/Чув, що із стайні роблять гараж...»

Usually infinitival or substantival are also the Ukrainian functional equivalents of the gerund used as part of the compound modal

296

 

Телефон не переставав дзеленчати.

Ентоні закінчив нарізувати і намазувати маслом булочки.

... будинок/дім потребував пофарбування/ треба було сЬарбувати

and aspect verbal predicates: The phone went on shrilling.

(Cusack)

Anthony finished cutting and

buttering the rolls. (London) ...the house wanted painting.

(Fitzgerald)

Nouns and infinitives are usually employed in Ukrainian as functional equivalents for the English non-prepositional and prepositional gerundial objects:

Ми дещо-таки знаємо про сьогоднішнє фінансування вистав.

«Обов'язки законного шлюбу не заважають вам кидати дружину, чи не так?

We know a thing or two about financing plays now. (Maugham)

«Marriage doesn't prevent you leaving a woman - does it?» (Greene)

The noun or the infinitive is also used in Ukrainian to convey the gerund in its attributive function:

/ hated the idea of turning out.         Про    виселення    я    не
(
Maugham) допускав навіть думки.

Перспектива вирватися із uux злиднів ... полегшувала переносити їх.

The prospect of getting away from the misery, made it easier to bear. (Ibid.)

The adverbial functions of the gerund are conveyed in Ukrainian with the help of the diyepryslivnyk or a phrase with the diyepryslivnyk.When paraphrased, the gerund may be translated as an adverb (sometimes as a subordinate clause):

вітальні.

Він говорив, не поворухнувшись з місця і навіть не повернувшись до неї обличчям.

... жоден не міг ускочити в

After watching him walk away Провівши його очима ... ...Soames returned to the draw- Сомз повернувся знову до ing-room. (Galsworthy)

He spoke without shifting his position, without even turning to look at her. (E.Seghal)

...no one could very well slip

той будинок чи вискочити з нього непомітно/щоб його не помітили.

in or out of that house m being seen. (Dreiser)

297


The prepositional gerund in the function of the object may sometimes be translated into Ukrainian as a diyepryslivnyk introducing a subordinate clause:

What had Tom meant by say- Що Том мав на увазі,
ing_that she ate out ofhis hands? сказавши, що вона «їсть у
(Maugham) нього з рук?» (що вона стала

зовсім приборканою)

Depending on the meaning expressed in the sentence, a simple gerund may sometimes be translated into Ukrainian as a subordinate clause:

There are some advantages В тому є певні переваги,
in being fifty and an old hand, що тобі п'ятдесят, і що ти
(J.Priestley) досвідчений.

Still other simple prepositional gerunds in the function of an object are often translated into Ukrainian through a prepositional noun or a subordinate clause:

«I look forward to hearing «Чекаю на відповідь від
you.»(Cronin) тебе/шо ти відповіси.»

The perfect gerund is usually translated with the help of the subordinate clause:

Він не пригадував, що будь-коли бував/побував у тій кімнаті.

Я подякував йому за те, що він допоміг мені.

He did not remember ever having been in that room. (Galsworthy)

I thanked him for having helped me. (Maugham)

This perfect gerund can naturally be translated by means of a prepositional noun as well, with the predicate verb referring to the past, which may be indicated by the corresponding adverb: Я подякував йому/тоді/за допомогу.

Translation of the passive gerund is equally predetermined by its function in the sentence. The main means of conveying the meaning and function of the indefinite passive and perfect passive gerund are the same as those employed to express the active voice gerund.

They are as follows:

1)   A noun or a corresponding nominal subordinate clause:

... I am indebted to Miss Betsey for having been-born on a Friday. (Dickens)

 Я зобов'язаний міс Бетсіза Я зобов'язаний міс Бетсі,

своє  народження  саме  в що  я   народився   саме   в

п'ятницю. п'ятницю, (щасливим)

2)   A verbal word-group or a subordinate clause: ... the need for being loved began to wrestle with her pride. (Eliot)

1)    ...    потреба    бути 2) Потреба в тому, щоб її

коханою увійшла в конфлікт з кохали,    зіткнулася   з    її

їїпогордою. погордою.

3)   An infinitival sentence introduced by the conjunction or an object subordinate clause:

Only to think of being married to such a girl. (Dreiser)
1) Подумати тільки, щоб         2) Подумати тільки, щоб
одружитися
     з      такою    така дівчина та вийшла за
дівчиною. нього заміж.

3)   A subordinate clause and no other means:

She could not bear being read         Вона вже не витримувала/не

to any longer. (B.Shaw) могла терпіти, що їй читають.

... she felt a strange certainty         ... У неї була якась/майже

of being watched... (Galsworthy)    впевненість,   що  за   нею

спостерігають.

WAYS OF TRANSLATING GERUNDIAL COMPLEXES/CONSTRUCTIONS

Gerundial complexes as secondary predication constructions are formed by a noun in the genitive case (rarer in the objective case) or a possessive pronoun (a pronoun in the genitive case cf. somebody's) plus the gerund in any of its paradigmatic forms. For example: Ann's/her reading (being read), somebody's reading (being read/having been read), etc.

The choice of the way of translation of a gerundial complex greatly depends on the paradigmatic form of its gerundial component, its lexical meaning and on the lexical meaning of its nominal/ secondary subject component. Besides, the function of such a gerundial complex in the sentence may influence its translation as well.

299

298

 


Thus, when used as a complex subject, this secondary predication construction may be rendered depending on the paradigmatic form and meaning of its gerundial component, through the following Ukrainian syntactic units of the same function:

1) As a subordinate noun word-group or a subordinate clause:
Tom's
coming was a blessing. Томів приїзд був великою
(
Fitzgerald)                                    розрадою/радістю.

її хвороба розладнає/зведе нанівець усе.

Недобре, що ти такрозлю-чуєшся/так шаленієш.

Her being ill will spoil everything. (Christie)

It's no good your flying in temper. (Maugham)

The gerundial complex subject of this type may sometimes have two or more faithful versions in Ukrainian:

... Annett's being French might upset him a little. (Galsworthy)
1)
Те. шо Аннет 2) Французька наиіональ-
франиуженка.
може його ність Аннет може його тро-
трохи збентежити. хи збентежити.

2) When used as a complex predicative or part of a compound verbal predicate, the gerundial complex may be translated into Ukrainian with the help of a functionally and semantically equivalent part of the compound verbal aspect predicate expressed by an infinitive or noun (as in the second sentence below):

The dollar at the Moscow Ex- Курс долара на Московській
change began its climbing up валютній біржі став знову
again. (M. News) р_остц/почав знову зростати.

It was Shchedryk's singing Саме спів дитячого хору
that made it well-known in Poland «Шедрик» приніс йому
and now in France. (News from визнання у Польщі, а тепер і в
Ukraine) ФранцїІ.

3) When used as a complex object, the gerundial construction may have various semantic, functional and partly structural realizations in Ukrainian. The most often employed are the following:

a) The object subordinate clause:

/ didn't like his hearing such         Мені не подобалось, шо він
stupid things. (Fitzgerald) слухає такі нерозумні розмови.
Tom and Daisy were afraid of        Том і Дейзі боялися, щоб я
ту
finding out the truth. (Ibid.)       не вивідав правди.

300

 b) An object subordinate clause or a noun phrase, the choice of which rests with the translator, who suggests the most fitting lexical and structural equivalent (substitution) for the gerundial complex in Ukrainian. Thus, the gerundial complexes in the sentences below may have two equally faithful realizations in Ukrainian - either a subordinate clause or a noun:

She was wakened by someone knocking at the door. (S.Ross) 1) Вона прокинулась, бо/         2) Вона прокинулась від тому що хтось постукав у    чийогось стукоту в двері, двері.

І think everybody looked forward to his coming back. (Maugham)

1) Думаю., всі чекали, що він         2) По-моєму, всі чекали на
повернеться. його повернення.

4) When used in the attributive function the gerundial complex may be translated in some ways which are predetermind by the lexical meaning and structural form of the gerundial component. These ways are as follows:

a) An attributive subordinate clause:

... she was tortured by the ...їїмучила думка, що Майкл
thought of Michael's unhappiness    буде нещасливим і що її дитя
and her baby being looked after    доглядатимуть чужі люди.
by strangers. (Ibid.)

b) An attributive infinitival word-group or an infinitive:
There's a/ways
the chance of        Ніколи не можна відкидати
her having a baby... (Ibid.) (для неї) можливість мати

дитину.

or: Вона не може відкидати можливості завагітніти.

their being left even fora moment by themselves. (Ibid.)

there was no chance of ... y них не було жодної

можливості навіть хвилину побути самим/щоб їх залишили самими.

5) When used in an adverbial function, the gerundial complex may respectively be translated as an adverbial modifier expressed by diyepryslivnyk or as a functionally corresponding subordinate clause (of time, cause, purpose and attending circumstances:

301

 


On my being settled at Doctor Strong's I wrote to her again... (Dickens).

1) Після того, як мене 2) Поселившись у лікаря
поселили
у лікаря Стронґа, я Стронґа, я знову написав їй
знову написав їй листа. листа.

The gerundial complex expressing the adverbial function of purpose is translated by means of the corresponding subordinate clause:

Instinct made him step on the Він інстинктивно
accelerator with the purpose of натиснув на акселератор,
Daisy and Wilson leaving behind, шоб відірватися від Лейзі та
(Fitzgerald) Вільсона.

The gerundial complex expressing the attendant circumstances may be translated into Ukrainian with the help of the corresponding subordinate clause or an adverbial (or substantival) word-group:

Dusk dropped down without his noticing ... (Galsworthy) Сутінки   настали   так         Якось непомітно для нього несподівано (зненацька), що    впали сутінки... він і не помітив...

І could know it without your telling me. (B. Shaw)
1) Я знав би це,
навіть якби 2) Я знав би це і без тебе/
ти цього мені не сказав.              твого повідомлення.

TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

ЯЯЯ

Expand on the following points concerning the verbal constructions/complexes:

1. The for-to-infinitive construction/complex, its functions in the sentence and ways of rendering its meanings into Ukrainian.

2. The objective with the infinitive constructions/complexes, their functions in the sentence and ways of translating them into Ukrainian.

3. The subjective with the infinitive constructions/complexes, their functions in the sentence and ways of rendering their meaning in Ukrainian.

4.Ways of rendering the meaning of English word-groups with

302

 prepositive and postpositive present and past participles into Ukrainian.

5. Ways of translating the objective with the present and past participle constructions/complexes into Ukrainian.

6. Ways of translating the subjective with the present/past participle constructions into Ukrainian.

7. Define the nature and structural forms of the nominative absolute participial constructions and give all possible ways of rendering their meanings into Ukrainian.

8. Give examples of Ukrainian semantic equivalents rendering the meanings of the English nominative absolute participial constructions in the sentence.

9. Give examples of the verbal and nominal functions of the active and passive gerund in English sentences and offer your ways of faithful rendering of these functional meanings into Ukrainian.

10. flGive examples of different functions of gerundial complexes in the sentence and offer your ways of rendering them in Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASSWORK AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. State the function (nominal or verbal) of the gerund in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Talking mends no holes; winning the war is what counts. (Murdoch) 2. Fishing kills me exactly as it keeps me alive. (Hemingway) 3. Seeing and doing are two entirely different things. (Dreiser) 4. Avoiding difficulties is not my method. (B.Shaw) 5. Perhaps being conscientious was a family trait. (Hailey) 6. «Oh, well, it's no good crying over spilt milk.» (Maugham) 7. Not having money does that. (Saroyan) 8. Being adored is a nuisance. (Wilde) 9. Having a baby settled her. (Dreiser) 10. «Do you want me to go on seeing you?» (Maugham) 11. Gatsby had intended writing him. (Fitzgerald) 12.1 remember the candles being lit again. (Ibid.) 13. He continued blinking his eyes and trying to smile. (Joyce) 14. I'm not used to living out of doors. (K.Prichard) 15. «I tell you, you're not physically capable of carrying on this fight.» (Cronin) 16. «She's awfully keen on getting in the Siddon Theatre.» (Maugham) 17. Then he began asking people casually if they knew her. (Fitzgerald) 18. She never thought of doing anything. (Maugham) 19. He cursed himself for having come, and at the same time resolved that, happen what would, having come, he would carry it through. (London) 20.

303


«Oh, what the good of beating about the bush?» (Maugham) 21. «That's a dog that'll never bother you with catching cold.» (Fitzgerald) 22. I can count upon getting back to France at the end of my six years. (Maugham) 23. «But come, I am forgetting your reason for calling.» (P.Preston) 24. «Thanks for having us, Edward, - we've had a love time.» (M.Spark) 25. «Fancy having to go back to-night,» said Tom. 26. I don't remember seeing either of them. 27. «I don't mind telling you.» (Fitzgerald) 28. «What was the good of having a bit of influenza if you didn't use it.» 29.1 only wanted to thank you for writing to me. (Maugham) 30. Now he remembered coming down through the timber in the dark holding the horse's tail... (Hemingway) 31. «That's a trick worth learning.» (Kipling) 32. «Can you ever forgive me for doubting you?» (Lardner) 33. «I don't much care to leaving London.» (Dreiser) 34. Bard ... made a particular point of keeping himself up-to-date. 35. To Dorothy, pleased at having confounded him, it seemed a good moment to leave. (Cronin) 36. He did not remember ever having been in that room. 37. «You give that girl absolutely no credit for having any good taste ... (Salinger) 38. He insisted on coming downstairs with her and putting her into a cab. 39. «There's no objection ingoing back to that.» 40. «I wouldn't mind making an exception in your favour if it would amuse you to come.» (Maugham) 41. Nobody thought of going to bed in this room. (Fitzgerald) 42. « ... there is no use in standing here arguing about it.» 43.... she has been reduced to working as a nursemaid. (Cheever) 44. «You do not object to having your picture taken, Mr.Eden?» (London) 45. Now she loved sitting here watching it all. (K.Mansfield) 46. Michael got the chance of letting the theatre go to a French company for six weeks. (Maugham) 47.... he had a way of finding out whom the yellow car belonged to. (Fitzgerald) 48. «I'm glad to have the opportunity of falling to you, Doctor.» (Cronin) 49. She was completely stunned at having left Paul's notebook on the train. (Murdoch) 50. One was not given his choice of having plums or not having plums. (Wolfe) 51. «I can't bear the thought of doing it in front of all those important people.» /I.Snow/ 52. «They were not in the habit of exchanging embraces at odd hours of the day.» 53. There is no use in losing your temper. 54.... her heart ached not for the lost opportunities, but because young man seemed to prefer playing golf with her son to make love with her. (Maugham)

Exercise II. Offer the appropriate means and ways of faithful translating into Ukrainian the adverbial gerunds and sentences containing them.

 1.1 did this by loosening all the planks, by cutting the sinews, and heating the pitch that bound them together.(S.O'Dell) 2. Finally, after having abandoned so many, he decided that he must act or return defeated. (Dreiser) 3. An 11-year girl died after being savaged by two Rottweiler dogs which she had taken for a walk. (The Guardian) 4. After taking off her stage make-up Julia had not done anything. (Maugham) 5. Mr.Bumble's conduct on being left to himself was rather inexplicable. (Dickens) 6. After a long period of writing, editing and patching up, we agreed on a final draft. (Snow) 7. In five minutes they were at the Northern Light building, and without being kept too long they were shown up to Page's office. 8. Page left for Manchester without telling Malcomb about it. 9. In uttering those words, he was conscious of a girl coming down from the common just above them. 10. The day was spent in preparing and writing the articles to the new issue. (Cronin) 11. Upon reaching the park he waited and waited and Daisy did not come. (Fitzgerald) 12. After being expelled he became a reporter to Gas World. (J.Osborne) 13. Broken edges on lawns can be fixed by removing a square of turf and replacing it in the reverse position. (The Guardian) 14. He always ended up by sending her his best love and signing himself «hers very affectionately...» 15. And ReTeTffPiat fie should more pro-" foundly spend his evenings ... by going to outlying theatres and trying to find talent. 16. They started by breaking a cup. (J.K.Jerome) 17. Before following her in her round of seeking, let us look at the sphere in which her future was to lie. (Dreiser)18. After the summer, after being friends with Won-a-nee and her young, I never killed another otter. (S.O'Dell) 19. When the two men had gone, she looked through the photographs again before putting them back. 20. She consoled herself by thinking that he loved her as much as he was capable of loving. (Maugham) 21. «I don't suppose you feel much like talking about it now.» (T.Williams)

Exercise III. Find a faithful Ukrainian equivalent for each passive gerund in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

-1. We liked neither reading aloud nor being read aloud to. 2.1 insisted on being told everything. 3. «... but damn it all, I insist on your being educated like a gentleman.» (Galsworthy) 4. Dartie on being told it was pleased enough. (Maugham) 5. «But he has no right to come without being invited,» said Tom. (Fitzgerald) 6. I am very fond of being looked at. (Wilde) 7. He had met the woman at last - the woman that he thought little about, not being given to think-

305

304

 


ing about women ... 8. Several times he barely escaped being caught by her brothers. (London) 9. Versh remembered laughing aloud, and the laugh being carried by the wind away from me. (Saroyan) 10. He did not like the idea of being haunted down by her. (Dickens) 11. Objection and argument finally ending in the question being allowed. (Dreiser) 12. The countries financial difficulties being unsolved undermines its economic stability. (F.News) 13. I remember the candles being lit again. (Fitzgerald) 14. He became chief of a fine ship without ever having been tested by these events. (Caldwell) 15. There followed disturbing pictures of how their respective parents or relatives had it on being informed of their sins. (Dreiser) 16. The court was told that the victim had given himself up to police after having been beaten with sticks by a punishment squad. (The Guardian)

Exercise IV. State the function of the gerundial complex in each sentence first and then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «His singing is gorgeous,» I think. (Christie) 2. Miss O'Shay's calling her to the office had been in the nature of a preparation and warning. (Hughes) 3. «It's no good your flying in a temper.» (Maugham) 4. The most unexpected event then was her being engaged to Bob. (Wolfe) 5.1 can't expect Julia's putting on shorts and coming for a sun with me in the park. 6. Her consideration was prevented by Evie's coming into the room. (Maugham) 7. «He is disturbed by my not taking part in the game.» (USA Today) 8. Tom was evidently perturbed by Daisy's running around alone. 9. I've heard of it's being made out of a stable. (Fitzgerald) 10. Tell me about this horrible business of my father wanting to set aside for another son. (B.Shaw) 11. I dread him coming into the room. (J.Osborne) 12.... there is no use in my getting excited over it. 13. «Hope you don't mind my coming?» (London) 14.1 insist on both of them coming in time. 15. Doris was awakened by the sound of her husband's splashing in the bathhouse. 16. «Perhaps you wouldn't mind her coming in?» 17. «You don't mind my asking though, do you?» 18. It's my fault, I ought to have insisted on your taking a holiday long ago.» 19. «I don't know that I should altogether approve of your having animated conversations with ladies, while you're having your bath.» 20. «I couldn't bear to think of your having to throw away your good money on tips.» 21. «I am surprised at your having said it.» (Maugham) 22. «Is there any objection to my seeing her?» 23. «Don't fear of my forgetting Daisy,» said Gatsby. 24. «I wonder at Tom's allowing this engagement,» he said to Jor-

306

 dan. (Fitzgerald) 25. We were astonished by the policeman's taking down names with such correction and sweat in a little book. (Greene) 26. «I could imagine his giving a friend a little pinch of the latest vegetable alkaloid ... (C.Doyle) 27.1 remember her being surprised by Gatsby's gracefulness.28. «Don't fear my forgetting her. (Fitzgerald) 29. «And I don't worry about me losing a night.» (M.Puzo) 30. Speaking without thinking is shooting without aiming. (Cronin) 31. His father, not liking the idea of his going on the stage, had insisted on it. 32. She couldn't hear the thought of her wasting his life over her. (Maugham) 33. « ... there was no chance of your getting over to Apia for at least another week.» (W.Styron) 34. «The reason for your writing is to make a living, isn't it?» (London) 35. A feeling of its being too dangerous to take a step in any direction had fallen on them all. (Galsworthy) 36. Simultaneously came a tumult from the parlour, and a sound of windows being closed. (Wells) 37. Alice laughed so much at this that she had to run back into the wood for fear of their hearing her. (Caldwell) 38. «I can never do anything without your interfering.» (Maugham)

Exercise V. Translate the sentences in viva voce into English. Use in each of them an appropriate form of the gerund.

1. Оцінка залежала від своєчасного перекладу студентом цього тексту. 2. Ми раптом дізналися про те, що він минулого тижня їздив із делегацією до Лондона. 3. Після його повернення з Лондона, він уже двічі відвідав мене. 4. Незважаючи на те, що цей аспірант молодий, він досяг значних успіхів у науці. 5. Його відвідини стали для мене приємною несподіванкою. 6. Те, що він досвідченний, не надало йому помітної переваги над молодими учасниками змагання. 7. Перебування цього письменника тоді в зеніті слави пояснюється чіткою патріотичною позицією, що звучала в його творах. 8. Уявити тільки, щоб ця вихована й культурна людина не вміла танцювати. 9. Я не пригадую жодного діяча української культури, щоб він у ті роки не переслідувався. 10. Не всі ще, на превеликий жаль, усвідомили величезну шкоду паління для людського організму. 11. Ми пишаємось тим, що українця Сергія Бубку паризька спортивна газета назвала найкращим спортсменом року. 12. Його всебічна поінформованість про плани футбольної команди не викликала здивування. 13. Студенти погодилися з тим, що їхній іспит перенесено на інший час дня. 14. Уникайте контактування із хворимі на грип під час епідемії. 15. Нам стало відомо про проведення переговорів з метою підписання вигідного для України торгівельного договору з державою-сусідкою. 16. Він розпочав колекціювання поштових марок, ще

307


навчаючись у середній школі. 17. Те, що ці товари поставляються багатьом західним клієнтам, є свідченням виробничого потенціалу цього оснащеного найновішим устаткуванням заводу. 18. Як вам подобається, що ім'я цього українського баскетболіста не згадується серед найвизначніших спортсменів року? 19. Збори акціонерів наполягли на тому, щоб ця вигідна підприємству угода була підписана.

308


 

WAYS AND MEANS OF EXPRESSING MODALITY IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

Modality as an extralingual category expressing the relation of content to reality has in English and Ukrainian common means of

realization. These include:

a)   phonological means (stress and intonation);

b)   lexico-grammatical means (modal verbs);

c)   lexical means (modal words and modal expressions) conveying subjective modality;

d)   grammatical means (mood forms of the verb) conveying

grammatical modality.

The expression of modal meanings by phonological means has often an identical realization in both languages, though in Ukrainian the lexical means such as modal particles and modal adverbs are mostly preferred here. These means may also express the most subtle meanings of suggestion, admonition, supposition, doubt, assuredness, etc. Among the most frequently used particles, which create such and other meanings, are аж, ж, хоч, б, би, і, й, -но, -то, саме, таки, etc., and also adverbs авжеж, адже, надто, певне, напевне, все ж, все ж таки, мов, немов, ніби and some others. The choice of the particle or modal adverb is predetermined by the content, though sometimes it rests only -with the translator, who may employ stronger or weaker means to convey the modal meaning in the sentence. Thus, the modal meaning in the proverb sentence below may have two expressions - a weaker and a stronger one (more enphatic) in Ukrainian:

After us the deluge.
Після нас хоч потоп. or:              Після нас хоч і потоп.

 Since the phonologically expressed modality is always conveyed by translators as they themselves subjectively perceive the relation of content to reality, there may naturally be various ways of its individual realization in the target language. This can be seen from some possible interpretations of the modal meaning in the sentence where modality is expressed via the emphatic and logical stress laid on the predicate centres and on the pronoun you. Hence, there may be at least five different ways of expressing the modal meaning of the sentence in Ukrainian:

«I do really wish it hadn't been you.» (Greene)

«Мені й справді хотілося, щоб це був не ти»

«Мені аж ніяк не хотілося, щоб це був ти.»

«Мені-такижаль, що це був ти.»

«Якжаль, що це був ти.»

«Я й справді жалкую, що це був ти.»

When under the emphatic or logical stress happens to be the English modal word, the expression of modality may coincide in both languages:

Jane is sure to be at her birth-        Джейн неодмінно/обов 'яз-
day party to-night. (Hailey) ково буде в неї на іменинах

сьогодні ввечері.

This same modal meaning of certainty (assuredness) may equally be expressed in Ukrainian by means of the modal adverb певне/напевне and the particles ж, таки:

Джейн напевне ж буде в неї сьогодні ввечері на іменинах.

Джейн напевно-таки буде в неї сьогодні ввечері на іменинах.

The meaning of unsertainty or doubt expressed in English through prosodic means finds its full realization in Ukrainian with the help of particles and the corresponding intonation and stress as well, Cf.:

«What if I don't pass the examinations», said Charlie (D. Lessing)

«Що ж воно буде, якщо я не складу іспитів», промовив Чарлі.

As will be seen below, Ukrainian particles and adverbs .may also be used to render modality which is expressed in English by some other lingual means.

308

309

 


THE LEXICO-GRAMMATIC EXPRESSION OF MODALITY

This kind of modality is realized in both languages via modal verbs/their lexical equivalents plus the infinitive of the notional verb. These constructions perform the function of the compound modal verbal predicate and express different meanings predetermined by the modal verb in the main, which can be observed in many citations and their Ukrainian translations on the forthcoming pages.

1. Thus, the modal verb can/could expressing physical or mental ability is usually translated into Ukrainian with the help of the modal verbs могти, вміти or by means of their equivalents мати змогу/можливість, бути в змозі/мати силу:

a)l saw that he could hardly         Я бачив, що він не може/не take his eys off her. (Maugham)     має сили очей відірвати від неї.

«Now, you pray, Harold,» she said. «I can't», said. Krebs. (Hemingway)

«I haven't been able to do what I meant.» (E. Warton)

«А тепер ти молись, Гарольде,» - сказала вона. «Я не вмію.» відповів Кребс.

«Я не мав змоги зробити те, що надумав зробити ...»

b) When expressing doubt, distrust, uncertainty, etc. (mainly in interrogative and negative sentences) the meaning of can/could is mostly enforced in Ukrainian with the help.of the particles невже, хіба or the adverb навряд:

«Невже (хіба) ви мені не вірите, мамо?»

«Навряд чи це той самий чоловік.»

«Та невже/хіба то Волтер?»/ Навряд чи то Волтер.

«Can't you believe  me, mother?» (Hemingway)

«It can't be the same man -

«(Christie)

It can't possibly be Walter.» (Maugham)

с) When expressihg the meaning of reproach, surprise or permission the lexical equivalent of the modal verb can in Ukrainian is mostly the stative можна:

Як можна таке обіцяти/ такого наобіцяти?

«Можна прийти й подивитись ваші картини?»

«Маючи все це, не можна залишати жінку без шеляга.»

«How can one promise that?» (Greene)

«Can I come up and see your pictures?» (Hemingway)

«Having it all, one can't leave a woman without a bob.» (Maugham)

310

 d) When the modal verb can expresses irrefutability of action or assuredness of statement, it may be conveyed in Ukrainian, where this kind of modal meaning is usually expressed implicitly, through a definite word-order and sentence stress (prosodic means):

«You can't teach an old dog «Старого вчити - тільки
new tricks.» (D. Lessing) час даром марнувати.»

There was nothing, the boy Хлопцеві нічого не could do but run. (J.K. Jerome) залишалось, як тікати.

Can the leopard change his Горбатого могила вип-
spots? (Saying) равить.

e) Some modal meanings of can/could are expressed in Ukrainian either lexico-grammatically or through phonological means. The choice of the means rests then exclusively with the translator. Thus, in the sentence below the meaning of the modal verb could is under logical (or emphatic) stress which may be marked (pointed out) accordingly in Ukrainian: / could know it without your telling me. (B.Shaw) Я міг довідатись про це і без тебе.

The same could in the isolated sentence may also be treated as a form of the subjunctive mood, marked by the participle б/би: Я довідався б/міг би довідатись про це і без твоєї допомоги.

«І can't recollect him.» «Я щось не пригадую/не
(Greene) можу його пригадати.»

«Why can't he go to a hospi- «Чому він не може лягти в
tal?» (Christie) шпиталь?/Чому він не лягає

до шпиталю?»

Note. Some English modal meanings of can have no corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.: / can see in this picture. Я бачу на цій картині... І can hear you well. Я добре чую тебе. Сап you see me? Ти бачиш мене?

f) In some contextual environment the modal meaning of can may be expressed in Ukrainian through other modal verbs:

«How can you talk to me like «Як ти смієш зі мною так
that.» (Fitzgerald) розмовляти.»

«We had an awful time get- «Повинен тобі сказати. ting back, I can tell you.» (Ibid.) дорога назад була страшенно

важка.»

The modal verb can/could followed by the perfect infinitive

311


and expressing a probable, doubtful, uncertain, incredible, etc. action is usually translated into Ukrainian depending on its contextual meaning. The latter may be expressed: 1) through the past form of the corresponding verb (indicative mood) or 2) through its subjunctive mood form (умовний спосіб). For example:

1) «She can't have neglected all that.» (F.King)

«Невже  вона  всім  цим знехтувала?»

«Вона не могла всім цим знехтувати»

2) «How could she have been like that?» (Fitzgerald)

Nobody could have saved him. (W.Trevor)

But he could have lived, this boy. (Hailey)

«Як   вона    могла    так поводитись/бути такою?»

Ніхто його не врятував би/ Навряд чи хто врятував би його.

Проте хлопчина той міг би й жити/міг би й вижити.

Exercise I. Offer appropriate Ukrainian particles or modal adverbs (or both) to convey the phonologically expressed (through emphatic stress or intonation) modality in the English sentences below.

Model: «I did have ideas that way. For a time.» (Hailey) Таки закрадалися спершу такі думки/У мене й справді закралися були спершу такі думки, (modal particle таки', modal particle й plus the modal adverb справді).

1. «Wouldn't you like me to read?» she asked. 2. «Wouldn't you like some broth?» 3. «I wouldn't know what to do. Honestly.» 4. «Behave yourself.» «Why don't you try behaving?» (Hemingway) 5. «Oh, I am longing to see it,» Iris said. 6. «Sweety, I don't honestly like this very much.» (F.King)?. «I know you didn't mean to. but you did it (hurt).» (Fitzgerald) 8. «John, it was you who initiated the Joe Black Memorial Award.» (B. Glanville) 9. «I do apologise, Madam. I feel so... I would not have troubled.» (S.Hill) 10. «Now I caught you!» she said. «Now you can't get away!» 11. «It (music) seems to be right in them.» 12. «Wait till I tell him I met Walter Williams,» she said. 13. «Why don't you have another concert, some time?» 14. «Well, I'll be there. ГИ be there, if I possibly can. You can count on me.» 15. «I just caught myself in time.» (D.Parker) 16. «You think so?» «Why not.» I said. (Hemingway) 17. «I'm not hungry. Dave. I wouldn't lie to you.» (Caldwell)

Exercise II. Identify the modal meaning of can/could, to be able to (physical ability, mental ability, etc.) and translate the

312

 sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Anyone can be a fisherman in May. (Hemingway) 2. «Can you draw?» 3. «I could wash the floors.» (Dreiser) 4. Suleman-ibn-Daoud could hardly speak for laughing. (Kipling) 5. «You have done everytning you could for me.» (Hemingway) 6. « ... but I can't make head and tail of it.» (Maugham) 7. She couldn't bear the sight of him. (Christie) 8. «I was able to do the commissioner a favour once, and he sends me a Christmas card every year.» (Fitzgerald) 9. Dorian seemed to be able to exercise whenever he wished. (Wilde) 10. Still there are many individuals who have never been able to work. (D.K.Stevenson) 11. A man can do no more than he can. 12. No man can serve two masters. (Proverb) 13. «Can't I go with you, Holden? Can't I?» (Salinger) 14. It could scarcely be said that he did this in a fatherly spirit. (Dreiser) 15. And there followed, of course, squeals and gaffaws of delight - so loud that they could be heard for half a mile. (Dreiser) 16. As for Mrs.Gerhardt, one could better imagine than describe her feeling. (Ibid.) 17. For a moment the set of his face could be described in just that fantastic way. (Fitzgerald) 18. He was unable, however, to long keep silence. (Galsworthy) 19. You cannot burn the candle at both ends. (Proverb) 20. «I suppose, Joe, there couldn't be any doubt about that blood test on Mrs.Alexander?» (Hailey) 21. All that could be truly said of him now. (Dreiser) 22. «How could it have mattered then?» 23. How could she have been like that?» (Fitzgerald) 24. «I couldn't have missed that.» 25. «I could have forgiven it if fallen desperately in love with someone and gone off with her.» 26. «That's just why they couldn't have had the key.» 27. «She could have gone back to Strove,» he said irritably. (Maugham) 28. «Oh,» cried Fleur. «You could not have done it.» 29. There could not have been such relentless unforgiveness. (Galsworthy) 30. We could have stayed in Paris or gone elsewhere. (Hemingway)

Exercise III. Choose the most fitting meaning of the two pertained to the modal verb can/could and translate the sentences faithfully into Ukrainian.

1. If we ignore this problem, we can easily find ourselves in an embarrasing situation. (Stevenson) 2. «I don't think I can stand it.» 3. «I'd send you a certain sum of money and you could give it him gradually, as he needed it.» 4. «Even now I can hardly believe it's true.» 5. «I can tell you why he left his wife - from pure selfishness and nothing else whatever.» 6. «Why can't you write yourself?» 7. «I could not hear what he said.» 8. «Why can't he go to a hospital?» 9.

313


«May I speak now? (Maugham)

«May I offer you some fruit?» (E.Bates)

I could not tell how they were getting on. (Maugham) 10. «It's more than he's worth, I know, but it can't be helped now.» (Dreiser) 11. «If it wasn't for the mist, we could see your home across the bay.» 12. Neitner of them can stand the person they're married to. Can they?» (Fitzgerald) 13. He couldn't say the word «dead». (W.Trevor) 14. «You'll have no trouble. I can assure you.» (Christie) 15. «Pardon, but could you tell me if a Mr. or Mrs.Kobinson resides here?» (Ibid.) 16. «I couldn't take the chance of letting it be known that there was doubt.» (Hailey) 17. «I can't bear the look of that horrible muzzle.» (C.S.Lewis) 18.1 could not believe that Strickiand had fallen in love with Blanche Stroeve. (Maugham) 19. I could think of no excuse. (Christie) 20. «You can't expect me to think it's a very good system.» (Hemingway) 21. «I couldn't expect you to understand it.» (Maugham) 22. «What's your opinion, Joe?» «It could be a bone tumor?» (Hailey)

Exercise IV. Find appropriate Ukrainian equivalents forthe explicitly and implicitly expressed meanings of can/could in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Thus, you can keep rubbing the wounds of the day a little sorer even while he is on his knees ... (C.S. Lewis) 2. There are lots of fellows who would be delighted to have your chance, I can tell you. (Dreiser) 3. «It can't possibly be Walter.» (Maugham) 4. Vivian could see he was puzzled, not knowing what to make of it. (Hailey) 5. Love cannot be compelled. (Proverb) 6. «You can't wait in the dining-room, Miss.» (Mansfield) 7. She could not help giving ear to the sounds surrounding her. (Dreiser) 8. «I wish I could see him.» (Hemingway) 9. How weakened she was I had not been able to imagine until I saw her at the railway station ... (Buck) 10. You could see they were being careful as hell not to drink up the minimum too fast. (Salinger) 11. «Your sister? I can't believe it.» (Greene) 12. If we ignore this problem, we can easily find ourselves in an embarrassing situation. (D.K.Stevenson) 13. «I'm sorry, Granger. I wish I could help.» (Greene). 14. Can it really be true, then, that a non-commercial, nonprofit public network is the largest. (D.K.Stevenson) 15. « ... you can't expect me to «believe a word you say.» (Galsworthy) 16. «I can't bear it.» (Christie) 17. She used to be able to understand. (Fitzgerald)

18. «We had an awful time getting back, I can tell you.» (Fitzgerald)

19. «Oh. If only I could return back to my flower basket.» (B.Shaw)

20. «I cannot have you call on me here.» (Dreiser) 21. «I can't say anytning in this house, old sport.» (Fitzgerald) 22. «You can't talk to me like that.» (Ibid.) 23. «You can't live on air, you know.» (Christie) 24. Love and cough cannot be hid. (Proverb) 25. «...compare her

 with that poor Mrs. Osborne who could say boo to a goose.» (W.Thackeray) 26. A fog cannot be dispelled with a fan. (Proverbs) 27. He was not old, he could not have been more than forty. (Galsworthy)

2. The modal verb may/might with its lexical equivalents to be permitted I to be allowed has also some peculiarites of use and expression of meaning. The latter predetermines the use of its Ukrainian lexical equivalents. Thus, when the modal verb may/might expresses permission it is usually translated into Ukrainian as the stative можна. For example:

a) «Now may I go?» (Christie) «To що, можна мені йти?»
At the hospital they told me І         «У шпиталі сказали, що
might wait.» (Ibid.)                         мені можна почекати.»

This meaning of may, as can be seen below, coincides with the meaning of the modal verb can in the indefinite personal or impersonal sentences as in One can count it/It could be counted on the fingers of one hand - це можна(можна було) порахувати на пальцях однієї руки.

b) The meanings of permission expressed by the modal verb may/might can equally be conveyed by the Ukrainian verbs дозволяти, не заперечувати:

« Тепер дозволяєте/можна мені говорити?»

«Можна запропонувати вам/Не заперечуватимете проти фруктів?»

с) When the verb may/might expresses possibility (coinciding with the verb can/could) or probability, assumption, uncertainty, admonition, advice, etc., it is usually translated into Ukrainian with the help of the polysemantic verb могти.

This verb is therefore homonymous in its meaning incorporating in Ukrainian the meanings of can and may wnich can be seen from the following sentence:

«I think I may, remind him of а «Я могтиму/матиму
time he prefers to forget.» змогу, думаю, пригадати йому
(Christie) той чаСІ Пр0 якии в;н Єол/є не

згадувати.»

314

315

 


pelled from the organisation by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. (Charter of the United Nations)

d) When expressing assumptio.ri,^rQ^!:|J||:^,.:.p)i^sumability, wish, advice, etc., the verb may andI its^ pasf ^o^subjunctive) form might often acquires some additional modal meaning.which is mostly rendered into Ukrainian with the help of different modal particles. The most frequently employed of them are б, ще/ще й, хай, etc.

«Let's wait a little more, she «Зачекаймо трохи, вона ще
might return in a couple of min- може (може ше й) прийде за
utes.» (Bailey) кілька хвилин.»

Bass said we might get some Бас каже, що ми могли б
of the laundry of the men at the брати в пожителів^готелю
hotel to do. (Dreiser) білизну прати (для прання).

«We shall never be married.»         «Ми ніколи не одружимось.»

«Some time-we mightsaid «А може, колись і одружи-
Dorothea in a trembling voice, мось,» відповіла Доротея
(
Seghal) тремтливим голосом.

e) When expressing wish, the subjunctive meaning of may is conveyed in Ukrainian either with the help of the particles хай or щоб, initiating the sentences:

May they live a long life. Xmi їм щастить.
May damnation take him.              Шобвінбув проклятий./Хай

йому трясші!

f) Some modal meanings (supposition, assumption, desire, etc.) expressed in English by may/might are rendered into Ukrainian through modal particles and a peculiar logical word order:

«May He (God) support me «Допоможи й мені Боже.»
too.» (H.Hawthome) (Хай Бог помогає й мені)

Between the cup and the lip a He кажи гоп, доки не
morsel may slip. (Proverb) перескочиш (Скажеш гоп, як

перескочиш).

«Might he not, later, be pun- «А його за це часом/згодом
ished for a thing like this?» не покарають?»(А його це_
(
Dreiser) можуть потім покарати?)

g) The-modal verb may is often used in the language of documents to express polite though severe warning:

A Member of the United Na- Держава - член Організації' tions which has persistently vio- Об'єднаних Націй, яка lated the Principles contained in постійно порушує зазначені в the present Charter may_be ex- цьому Статуті принципи,

 може бути виключена з ООН Генеральною Асамблеєю згідно рекомендації Ради Безпеки. (Статут Організації' Об'єднаних Націй).

h) The modal verb may/might followed by a perfect infinitive often expresses supposition, desire, uncertainty, probability, etc., of actions which might not have been carried out. When isolated from a contextual environment, the construction of may/might with the perfect infinitive may be treated as polysemantic and consequently offered different interpretatations in Ukrainian. Thus, the sentence «She may have forgotten, you know; or got the evening mixed.» (Galsworthy) may have the following five faithful (from the translator's point of view) interpretetions/variants:

1) «Знаєте, вона мабуть забула чи сплутала вечір.»

2) «Вона певне забула або сплутала вечір.»

3) «Можливо, вона забула чи сплутала вечір.»

4) «Цілком імовірно, що вона забула чи сплутала вечір.»

5) «Знаєте, а може вона забула чи сплутала вечір.» і) There appears still more uncertainty while conveying the meaning of may/might with the negated perfect infinitive as in the sentence «The aircraft might not have been downed in the action.» (USA Today) The lexical ambiguity of the construction can be seen from the following possible variants of its interpretation in Ukrainian:

1) Літак може й не збито в тім бою.

2) Літак мабуть не збито в тім бою.

3) Цілком імовірно, що літак не був збитий у тому бою.

4) Навряд чи літак був збитий у тому бою.

5) Може літака й не збили в тому бою.

These meanings of may/might are naturally realized through the infinitive forming the content core of the modal predicate in the sentence.

In many sentences the modal verb might adds a subjunctive meaning to the predicate, which it is a part of, as in the following example:

Mrs.Gerhardt thought of all Дженні Ґергардт перебрала
the places to which she might й усі інші місця, де можна було
apply. (Dreiser) б спитати про роботу.

317

316

 


Exercise I. Before translating the sentences into Ukrainian, state the meaning (supposition, probability, assumption, uncertainty, permission, etc.) expressed by the modal verb may/ might. Suggest the use of the stative можна or the adverb можливо (with or without a modal particle) where necessary.

1. «They may not like it.» 2. «She may and she may not prove to be a riddle to me.» (Dreiser) 3. Erik says that you may be coming to New York. (M.Wilson) 4. He may have to go to Monte Carlo with his father. (O.Wilde) 5. There may be a number of benefits. 6. Many non-Americans may be aware of the geographical size of the United States. 7. Other aspects of America may be a far more serious challenge to our experts. (D.K.Stevenson) 8. The hospital might receive money now or it might not. 9. «I suppose I might be difficult to live with. (Hailey) 10. Anything might happen. (G.Greene) 11. «We might dine together.» (Christie) 12. «She was afraid he might die before she had done so.» (H.James) 13. I thought you might be glad to learn of my good fortune. (O.Henry) 14. «Sometimes when Mr. de Winter is away and you feel lonely, you might like to come up to these rooms and sit here.» (Du Maurier) 15. You may know one of them to be a great warrior on the Enemy's side. (C.S.Lewis) 16. ... her heart might be lonely, but her lips continued to sing. 17. Yes, he might be called a successful man. (Dreiser) 18. You might see nothing in him. (O.Wilde) 19. «There's one thing that might work, might give us a better pointer. That's X-ray. If there's a tumor, X-ray might show it.» 20. It might be dangerous, if we get a disease carrier at the hospital. (Hailey) 21. This may be the reason of their refusal to join us. (J.F.Cooper) 22. «She might be a duchess.» 23. «I may be very stupid, but I can't make head or tail of what you're saying.» (Maugham) 24. «You might as well ask for a reflection without a mirror.» 25. «You may or may not be right on that point, Hastings.» (Christie) 26. «Perhaps I may keep the handkerchief. (C.S.Lewis) 27. I told her she might fool me but she couldn't fool God. (Fitzgerald) 28. «... but you may as well get what you can out of it.» (Maugham) 29. A fool may ask more questions than a wise man can answer. (Proverb) 30. «If I may introduce myself, I am Mr.Chou's manager.» (Greene) 31. She might come-this afternoon if she wants to.» 32. «They might all be wrecked by such fast driving.» (Dreiser).

Exercise II. Offer the most fitting lexical equivalents for the modal verb may/might with the perfect infinitive in each sentence below and after that translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

318

 1. They may not have said anything about it. (H.Munro) 2. If they had been in the room then, she might have murdered them. (J.Cheever) 3. «That may not have occured to you that it would be rather a shock to a girl to find out that her husband had lived for ten years with another girl and had three children.» (Hemingway) 4. She may have had no particular feeling for him. 5. For all, we know they may have settled down into a most domestic couple. (Christie) 6. Miss Matfield might have been very sorry for him. (J.Priestley) 7. «Well, he might have been murdered by the Vietminh.» (Greene) 8. «He looked at Hilda; he might have been looking at a stranger.» (Bennett) 9. «You might have told me earlier - what you told me on Wednesday night.» 10. It may have been a healthy wind, but the effect on the nerves was evil. (Bennett) 11. Wolf too had disappeared, but he might have strayed away after a squirrel or a partridge. (W.lrving) 12. «You might have told us that half an hour ago.» (B.Shaw) 13. Of course, there were many things, I might have answered to this.» (Christie) 14. «If I had remained a rich man, I might have lost it for good and all.» 15. «And we might have been so happy.» (Maugham) 16. «Catherine, who might have said anything didn't say a word.» 17. Of course, she might have loved her for a minute. (Fitzgerald)

3. The modal verb must has also some peculiar features of its own. Borrowed by Ukrainian from German through Polish, this verb in English and Ukrainian expresses strong obligation, duty, necessity. In these meanings must has for its direct lexical equivalents the strongest Ukraininan modal verb of this same meaning мусити.

a) «Now I really must get back «Тепер я мушу серйозно
to my tasks. End of term in sight, взятись за роботу. Знаєш,
you know.» (Murdoch) скоро кінець семестру.»

We must eat, we must drink, Ми мусимо їсти, пити і and we rnust be merry. (Saying) мусимо завжди бути веселими.

b) Not without the long influence of the Russian language, which was for some centuries a dominant political factor in Ukraine, the modal verb мусити has been more often substituted by urban Ukrainians for its almost as strong semantically Ukrainian synonym повинен or for the modal stative треба. То convey the meaning of necessity, duty or obligation, expressed by the modal verb must. whose direct Ukrainian equivalent is still often avoided on the aforenamed grounds, present-day Ukrainians often resort to the ad-

319


ditional use of the modal adverb обов'язково:

«I must sit down. This leg gets «Я мушу/повинен сісти,
tired.» (Greene) Щось поболює оця нога.»

«You must certainly send it «Ти повинен обов'язково вис-
(picture) next year to the тавити портрет наступного
Grosvenor.» (О. Wilde) року у павільйоні Ґросвенор.

The meaning ofmi/sfin both English sentences above directly corresponds to our Ukrainian мусити, which is also proved by the use of the intensifying modal adverb обов'язково in the last sentence.

It may naturally not always be clear from an isolated sentence, which of the possible meanings the modal verb must expresses: that of the strongest (мусити) or those of the somewhat weaker ones (повинен, треба). Thus, from Martin Eden's words in the sentence below is not clear whether it is Ruth's duty, moral/presumptive obligation or her necessity to address her father: «And you must tell your father for me.» (London) Hence, the translator may suggest three posible equivalents for this modal meaning of must in Ukrainian:

1) «I/A ти мусиш сказати це за мене батькові.» (duty, obligation)

2) «I/A ти повинна сказати це за мене батькові.» (necessity)

3) «І/А тобі треба самій сказати це за мене батькові.» (presumptive obligation)

с) The translator may sometimes choose the Ukrainian lexical equivalent of must under the influence of the traditionally established usage of a modal meaning in his native tongue. Thus, the meaning of necessity, obligation following from a prescription or rule, may often be expressed in Ukrainian through strict logical word order or via some other finite verbs with the intensifying adverb, as can be observed in the following sentences:

сіли в затишному куточку...

Конституцією США встановлено, що державний перепис («поголівний облік») населення повинен проводитися кожні десять років.

«I musn't take the money,» «Я ніколи не візьму цих гро-
said Carry, after they were set-
шей,»- відповіла Керрі, коли вони

tied in a cosy corner... (Dreiser) The Constitution of the US specifies that a nationwide census, a «head count» of all Americans, must be taken every ten years. (O.K. Stevenson)

 d) When expressing assumption or supposition, the modal verb must may have for its lexical equivalent in Ukrainian a contextually fitting modal adverb or a modal particle:

«Він мабуть/не як з глузду з'їхав!-вигукнувполковник. (Та ж він просто з глузду з'їхав!)

«Топ хлопець певне/як залізний. Він ніколи не стомлюється.»

«Якщо я почуваюсь так, це означає, що моє серце більш не витримує.»

«He must be as mad as a hatter!» exclaimed the Colonel. (Christie)

«That fellow must be made of steel. He's never tired.» (R.Warren)

«If I feel this way, my heart must be broken.» (Hemingway)

e) Some meanings of this modal verb are formally obligatory in English, where they express obligation or certainty but they may not have an explicit expression of these meanings in Ukrainian:

«I must apologize, Agnes, I'm «прошу вибачити. Еґнес;
very sorry...» (Coward) мені дуже жаль. »/«Перепро-

шую. Еґнес, мені дуже прикро.»

«І thought you must be «я думала, що тебе нема
away.» (Maugham) вдома/що ти вже пішов.»

f) Therefore, the usual meaning of must in some Ukrainian contexts may be weaker than in the English language original where it clearly expresses certainty, duty or obligation. Consequently, it can not be substituted in Ukrainian for either the modal verb мусити or for its weaker variant повинен. Then, some other equivalents have to be chosen for such nationally predetermined meanings of must. For instance:

«What must you have thought «Що ти міг тільки подумати
of me?» (Maugham) про мене?»

«It must seem very funny to «Це може здатися /певне
you.» (Galsworthy) здається тобі/дуже дивним.»

«Were the people looking at Чи люди дивилися на неї? her? They must be.» (Mansfield) Мабуть./Напевне. ш.о так.»

Some contextual meanings of must have a national Ukrainian non-explicit expression of modality. For example: «Come, Dave, you must see.» (London)

«Ходіть-но, Дейве, подивіться.» or: «Ходи-но, Дейве, на свої

очі пересвідчишся.»

321

320

 


g) The Ukrainian modal verb мусити or повинен is to be used, however, when conveying the meaning of the English syntagmeme have got (to) with the indefinite infinitive having the function of the compound modal verbal predicate:

(Greene)

«Doris, l say to you.» (Hemingway)

«I've got to stay sober.»         «Я   повинен/маю   бути

тверезим.»

jot something to         «Доріс, я маю/повинен тобі дещо сказати.»

h) The modal verb must when used with the perfect infinitive usually expresses actions supposed to have taken or not taken place but of which the speaker is mostly informed. The meaning of thus expressed action is usually rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the modal adverbs or particles можливо, очевидно, мабуть, напевно, певне:

«Не must have fallen off when we left the first bull.» (Hemingway)

«Зброєносець певне випав з машини, коли ми від'їхали від першого застреленого буйвола.»

Тут лікар Браун промовив:

«Цей чоловік уже мертвий певне з тиждень.»

So Dr. Brown's whispered words: «The man must have been dead a week.» (Greene)

Some probable action expressed by the modal verb must with the negative particle not and the perfect infinitive shows that the action might have been carried out. Though other interpretations, i.e., expressions of the meaning are not excluded either:

She must not have followed        Вона   не   повинна   була
the advice ... (Austen) виконувати цю пораду...

Some other interpretations of this modal verb with the perfect infinitive construction may be quite opposite to that in the sentence above. Namely:

1) Навряд чи вона послухалася тієї поради.

2) Не може бути, щоб вона послухалася тієї поради.

3) їй не треба було слухатися тієї поради.

As in the similar case with may/might plus the perfect infinitive, there may be also other contextual meanings of must with the perfect or indefinite/continuous infinitive. These meanings can also be found in the compound modal predicates of sentences given in the exercises that follow.

 Exercise I. Analyse each sentence first and offer a suitable Ukrainian equivalent (мусити, повинен, треба, маю etc.) for the modal verb must. Then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «Accidents can happen to anybody, darling. You mustn't blame yourself.» (S.Sheldon) 2. «Only you must give me your clothes, too.» (A.Bierce) 3. «You mustn't stare at people when they pass,» continued mother. 4. To succeed one must do something - one must associate, at least seem to associate with those who were foremost in the world of appearences. (Dreiser) 5. «I'll telephone. They must see the faces of many people you've heard about.» (Fitzgerald) 6. This brings us to the last factor that must be kept in mind. 7. They must have local public support, because citizens vote directly on how much they want to pay for school taxes. (D.K.Stevenson) 8. «We must go as quickly as we can.» 9. In the meantime we must make the best of the situation. (C.Lewis) 10. «I must be left to myself fora while.» 11. «They mustn't take him into my house.» (Maugham) 12. «Adam, you must not leave the house.» 13. To be popular, one must be a mediocrity. 14. «I go on board to-night for India, and I must do my job first.» (Wilde) 15. «He must know that infatuation won't last.» 16. «He must be treated with infinite tact.» 17. «But you mustn't go with me, you wouldn't understand. I must show them to you myself.» (Christie) 18. «I must speak to you by such means as are within my reach.» (J.Austen) 19. «But according to your category I must be merely an acquaintance.» (Wilde) 20. «Still I must sleep.» (Hemingway) 21. An articled clerk must pass the necessary examinations held by the Law Society. (I.Tenson) 22. «I must acquit you of criminality.» (A.Bierce) 23. «But we mustn't talk here.» (Galsworthy)

Exercise H. Translate the sentences containing the modal verb must with different forms of the infinitive. Use one of the following (or some other) fitting Ukrainian equivalents for the purpose: повинен, певне, мабуть, треба, змушений, зобов'язаний, маю, etc.

1. «She must be in New York by now.» (M.Wilson) 2. They must be in a bad way truly. 3. «It must cost a good deal to live here, don't you think?» 4. «It must be nice to be famous,» said the girl softly. 5. The neighbourhood they lived in must be very poor. 6. Mrs. Gerhardt commented upon this repealing again and again: how good he must be or how large must be his heart. (Dreiser) 7. «Must be interesting?» he said. (Christie) 8. «We heard it from three people, so it must be true.» (Fitzgerald) 9. The boy must be forty by now.

323

322

 


(Galsworthy) 10. «You must be too hard,» he smiled back. (Hemingway) 11. Alcohol must help somewhat in fighting arteriosclerosis. (D.K.Stevenson) 12. «You must know, Gatsby.» 13. Some words of this conversation must have reached Wilson swaying in the office door... 14. She must have seen something of this expression for she turned abruptly away... 15. She must have broken her rule against drinking that night. 16. «You must have gone to church once.» 17.1 must have felt pretty weired at that time, because I could think of nothing else. 18. It (the car) must have killed her instantly. 19. He must have looked up at the unfamiliar sky. (Fitzgerald) 20. «He must have been in the river,» the woman said. (S.Barstow) 21. But even when she laughed she must have'been one of the servants. (Maugham) 22. These must have been expensive cigars. (J.Priestley) 23. But you must have seen pictures of her. (Christie) 24. «You must have got mixed up in something in Chicago.» (Hemingway) 25. What he saw in that room must have frightened him terribly. (J.Kierzek) 26. «I have read your feelings, and I think you must have penetrated mine». (J.Austen)

4. The modal verb have (to) is of common lexical nature in English and Ukrainian, where its meaning in all substyles corresponds to the verb мати as in the following examples:

a) «Oh, I have to tell you «О, мамо, я маю вам щось something, mamma.» (Dreiser) сказати/розповісти.»

«Don't forget, we have to pay «Пам'ятай, що ми маємо
the library. (Hemingway) платити бібліотеці.»

b) Depending on the lexical meaning of the infinitive that forms the compound modal predicate with it, the modal verb have (to) may often become close to that of the Ukrainian modal verbs повинен, мусити, to the stative треба or to the modal adverb потрібно/ необхідно:

«Бачите, нам, бідним художникам, треба/необхідно показу-ватися час від часу на людях.»

«Ми маємо/повинні робити все, що можемо.»

«Вам треба буде/
доведеться
взавтра
попрацювати/взятись краще,
ніж оце зараз.»

«You know we, poor artists, have to show ourselves in society from time to time. (Wilde)

«We have to do everything we can.» (Hemingway)

«You'll have to pull harder than this tomorrow. (Hemingway)

 c) In some contextual environment, however, the meaning of have to may be very close if not equivalent to must (мусити/ повинен):

«I have to leave you here.» «Я змушений/повинен покину-
(
Fitzgerald) ти/залишити тебе тут.»

«І have to tell you I find your «Повинен/мушу сказати, твоя
work just a little too stark.» робота/праця видається мені
(
Hemingway) трохи заважкою.»

d) The modal meaning of the verb have to may be predetermined by the peculiarity of usage and singularity of expressing the same modal meaning in the source language and in the target language, which may sometimes coincide as in the sentence below:

«And what have we to do with «А що нам/маємо робити з
the lives of those who toil for us?» життями тих, котрі як чорні
(Wilde) воли важко працюють на нас?»

As can be seen, translation of the modal verb have (to) may be influenced by various factors which should be taken into consideration while choosing its lexical equivalent in Ukrainian.

Exercise I. Suggest an appropriate lexical equivalent for the modal verb have (to) in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «You don't have to do it.» 2. «You have to go back to school.» (Salinger) 3. «If you gain anything, you will have to fight for it.» 4. «Times are hard ... I have my family to keep.» 5. «You will have to wait until you hear from me again.» (Dreiser) 6. «We've got to go to bed.» 7. «She's not to know about it.» (Fitzgerald) 8. «Hadn't we better put a little bit of stick or something between each word.?» (Kipling) 9. «Doris, I've got something to say to you.»10. «He'd have nothing more to do with the woman and Macomber would get over that too.» (Hemingway) 11. «... under my oath I've got to try to catch the criminal.» (Saroyan) 12. «Shan't we have to risk it?» (C.S.Lewis) 13. «Well, we've got a little business to talk about,» said Boom confidently. (W.Jacobs) 14. «All I had to look forward was doing the same old thing day after day.» (Maugham) 15. «How long did you have to stay there?» (F.Cooper) 16. «You don't have to be an alcoholic to hurt your baby; you just have to be drinking enough while pregnant.» (Alcohol, the Legal Drug) 17. «I must write stories and they have to be stories that will sell.» (Salinger) 18. «Bob has to be on duty at the

325

324

 


hospital at nine o'clock.» (J.King) 19. «You have to take it.» (Dreiser) 20. «She and Diana, have a lot to arrange together.» 21. «... you've still got to take it easy.» (F.King)

5. Together with the common in both languages modal verbs of generally isomorphic nature there is one conspicuous for its usage. This is the synonymous to the modal verb have to English modal verb to be (to) which has some meanings that are realized depending on the form and lexical meaning of the infinitive following it. This modal verb may express obligation or necessity resulting from an arrangement or from a prearranged agreement/plan. The Ukrainian equivalents for these meanings of to be (to) are usually the modal verbs мати, повинен, мусити:

a) «Remember, Joe, you are «He забувай, Джо, що ти
to run the laundry according to    маєш керувати пральнею

those old rules you used to lay down. (London)

According to the agreement rent was to be paid strictly in advance. (Ibid.)

згідно тих старих правил, які ти сам колись виробив.»

Згідно угоди, комірне (квартплатня) повинне було сплачуватись обов'язково наперед.

When to be (to) expresses the meaning of inevitability of some action or event, it is translated into Ukrainian as the modal verb мати:

«Якщо вже це мало скоїтись. то воно мало скоїтись саме так, а не інакше.»

«If the thing was to happen, it was to happen in this way ...» (E.Wharton)

The modal verb to be (to) may also express a meaning corresponding to the Ukrainian stative треба:

«It was to be expected.» Mrs. «Цього і треба було чекати.»
Mors said gently. (London)            - стиха промовила пані Морз.

с) Sometimes the modal meaning of the verb to be (to) is faithfully conveyed by means of the Ukrainian infinitival predicate of the sentence and the strictly logical position of the parts of the sentence, as in the rhetorical questions below:

What am  I to do now?         Що мені тепер робити? (Maugham)

How was President Kravchuk         Як президентові Кравчуку

 to have won the re-election?    було перемогти на повторних
(F.News) виборах?

d) When expressing order or instruction (usually in reported speech) the modal verb to be (to) is translated into Ukrainian either with the help of the modal verbs бути повинним/мати, or with the help of a subordinate clause respectively. For example:

«Я йому скажу, щоб він більш не приходив/шоб його ноги не було біля цього будинку.»

«You are to stay in bed until «Ви не повинні вставати.
you are allowed to get up.» (Du доки лікар не дозволить (доки
Maurier) вам не дозволять).

«I'm going to tell him he's not to come to the house anymore.» (W.Jacobs)

e) When expressing possibility, the modal verb to be (to) is translated with the help of the modal verbs можна, мати, or with the help of the modal word можливо:

There is a good training to be Там можна пройти гарну
had there. (Dreiser) практику/вишкіл.

... in the basement of the ... у підвальному приміщенні Diggby Avenue, Congregational на Ліґбі Авеню мали відбутися Church, there was to be held а збори конґреґаційної церкви з social with refreshments. (Ibid.) частуванням.

f) When expressing an assumptive or suggested possibility, the meaning of the modal verb to be (to) is mostly rendered with the help of a peculiar logical sentence structure. The meaning of the modal verb to be (to) in such sentences may have reference either to present or to future. For example:

«I am to have the priviledge «Мені випадає щаслива
of sitting next to you.» нагода сидіти поруч з вами/Я
(Maugham) матиму приємність посидіти

поруч з вами.»

g) Somewhat clearer is the reference to future, however, when the modal verb to be (to) is used in the subjunctive mood as in the underlined conditional clauses below:

If anything were to happen, it Якби що-небудь мало
would cost me my place all right, скоїтися/скоїлося, я неодмінно
(Dreiser) втратив би своє місце.

326

327

 


If he were to come, he would certainly have arrived already. (S.Sheldon)

Якби він мав приїхати, він би вже напевне приїхав/він був би вже приїхав.

There may also be other contextual modal meanings of the verb to be (to) in English, which can be ascertained from the sentences in the given exercise below.

Exercise I. Translating the sentences into Ukrainian state the meaning of the modal verb to be to in each of them.

1. «Is he to take it that everything is O.K.?» (Salinger) 2.1 was to catch them and hand them over to her. (C.Lewis) 3. «There is only one thing to be done.» (Cronin) 4. We made a list of things to be taken. (J.K.Jerome) 5. «If I were to marry Guilliandum, the Church would never stand for it.» (J.Fowler) 6. But all his meals were to be taken outside his working hours and he was to report promptly in uniform for line-up and inspection by his superior... 7. This daughter of poverty, who was now to fetch and carry the laundry of this citizen, was a creature of a mellowness of temperament. 8. They were to be seen upon the principal streets of Kansas City flitting to and fro like flies. 9.... he was to be held back by any suggestion which his mother could now make. 10. She could give him seventy five dollars cash in hand, the other forty to be paid in one week's time. 11. Anything to be as carefully concealed as possible. 12. ... they were to be turned over to Clyde with the suggestion that he try them. 13. But Clyde, in spite of this honest and well-meant condition, was not to be dissuaded. 14. ... there had been a development which was to be effected by this very decision on the part of the Griffiths. 15. And yet, if the problem were on this account to be shifted to him, how would he make out? 16. From this Clyde wondered how long he was to be left in that dim world below the stairs. 17. ... there was to be staged on June twentieth the annual intercity automobiling floral parade and contest, which this year was to be held in Lycurgus and which was the last local social affair of any consequence. 18. Plainly, it was an event to be admitted to the presence of such magnificence. (Dreiser) 19. The polling stations were to have been closed at 8 p.m. (News from Ukraine)

6. The modal verb ought to like the modal verb should expresses moral obligation, presupposition, desirability, advisability and some other meanings. Its meaning in Ukrainian is mostly very close

 to that of the stative треба or modal verb слід, потрібно, which can be seen from the following sentences:

«Oh, I've forgotten, I ought to have asked Iris about her cook.» (F.King)

He ought never to have given it (the flute) up. (Galswothy)

«Every man ought to be married.» (Hemingway)

«О, а я й забув: я ж мав/ повинен був запитати Айріс про її кухарку.»

Йому нізащо не треба було кидати гру (на флейті).

«Кожному чоловікові слід одружуватись.»

As can be understood from the content of the second sentence, the meaning of ought to may equally be expressed through the modal verb необхідно: Кожному чоловікові необхідно одружуватись.

b) The content of the sentence may often display a still stronger meaning of the modal verb ought to. which corresponds to that of the modal verbs повинен, мати, мусити:

«We're going to Greece...» «Миїдемо до Греції.» «Зараз
«...It ought to be lovely at this там мусить/повинно бути
time of year.» (Maugham) прекрасно в цю пору року»

«You ought to know that you «Ти повинен/мусиш знати,
can't have to steal.» (J. Cheever) що красти не можна.»

c) Apart from the above-mentioned, the modal verb ought to may acquire some other meanings in different contextual environments. These may be as follows:

1) that of the assumptive duty or obligation, necessity, assumption, which is expressed in Ukrainian through the particles 6/ би, щоб and the corresponding infinitive of the verbal predicate or subordinate clause:

«You ought to be working now.» (J.Joyce)

By this time it ought to have been over. (Christie)

I don't think she ought to be in that place alone. (Galsworthy)

«Тиж повинен би працювати/ мав би бути на роботі зараз.»

На цей час/під цю пору все мало б давно вже скінчитися.

He думаю (навряд чи), щоб вона була там сама.

2) The conditional subjunctive meaning expressed through the particles б/би and the notional finite verb without the subordinate conjunctions якби or якщо б, as in the following examples:

«You ought to have seen her         «Бачили б ви його в Ті


328

329

 

tie he had on.» (Dreiser)

«God. You ought to hear Walter on the subject of you.» (Fitzgerald)

 краватиі»/Треба було бачити його...»

«Боже. Чула б ти, що про тебе каже/говорить Волтер.»

 

3) When ought to expresses desire or affirmation, assumption, its modal meaning is rendered into Ukrainian through the modal adverbs and modal words певне, напевне, мабуть:

«She ought to have been thinking about spending her money on theatres already ...» (Dreiser)

«She's said to be very beautiful by people who ought to know.» (Fitzgerald)

 Вона мабуть/певне

подумує вже про те, як потратити свої гроші на театр...»

«Люди, які напевне/мабуть-таки знаються на вроді, кажуть, що вона дуже вродлива.»

4) The meaning of the modal verb ought to may sometimes be rendered into Ukrainian through peculiar word forms (mood forms) of the verbal predicate as in the sentence below:

«If you're a poor driver, you    «Якщо ти поганий водій/
oughtn't to try driving at night.»    шофер, то не їздь (не треба
(Fitzgerald) їздити/уникай їзди) вночі.»

Some other contextual realizations of the modal meanings pertained to ought to are not excluded either, which can be seen from the English sentences of the exercise that follows.

Exercise I. Offer faithful Ukrainian equivalents for the meanings of the modal verb ought to in the sentences below and translate these sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «Someone ought to go for the police.» 2. «Well, I think you ought to send it to her.» (Maugham) 3. «We don't think you ought to let him, dear.» 4. «Well, I think we ought to be starting ...» 5. «She ought to be very happy.» (Galsworthy) 6. «It is her birthday and she ought to have first choice.» (J.Priestley) 7. «We ought to make terms with him.» 8. «You ought to take care of yourself.» (Galsworthy)

9. «A strong party ought instantly to be thrown into the block-house.»

10. «Have I said anything I oughtn't?» asked Harvey Birch. 11. «You
think I ought to have thrown White to the wolves?» (J.F.Cooper)
12. But I was wondering whether I ought to be getting back. 13.... he
ought at least to be violently attacked by some party within it.

330


14. «You ought to be ashamed of yourself...» (C.Lewis) 15. «It ought to be better out in the country than in Town.» (Hemingway) 16. «That ought to be a beauty.» (Bates) 17. «He says so and he ought to know,» was the answer. 18. «You ought to care,» she answered with blazing eyes. (London) 19. «You ought to know all about statues and things.» 20. «He ought to have put a spoke in the wheel of their marriage.» (Galsworthy) 21. «You ought to ask for a transfer to a more civilized school,» Leslie said. (I.Shaw) 22. «You ought to see the baby.» 23. «You ought to live in California,» began Miss Baker. 24. «Either you ought to be more eyeful, or you oughtn't to drive at all.» (Fitzgerald) 25. Life ought to be lived, as he lived it... 26. «Well, she ought to know bettter than to want to go out alone.» 27. ... he ought to be compelled to continue at this very manual form of work any longer. (Dreiser)

7. The modal verb need is known to have two forms of realization, e.g., that of a defective verb and that of a regular verb with modal meaning. The double morphological nature of need does not influence in anyway its lexical meaning, which remains in both cases identical. Hence, when used in its paradigmatic forms with the personal endings or with the auxiliary verb do/does and the infinitive with the particle to, the verb need is translated in quite the same way as its defective form in the present or past tense, always maintaining the meaning of треба, потрібно, необхідно. This can be seen from the following illustrative sentences:

a) «That needs a bit of think- «Над цим треба ще трохи
ing.» (Christie) подумати.»

«He need say no more to «Йому не треба більше їй
her.» (Ibid.) нічого казати.»

«May I ask you to take care «Можна попрохати тебе
of me?» «I didn't need any ask- заступитися за мене?» «Не
ing.» (E. Wharton) треба прохати мене.»

The meaning of the modal verb need may be rendered in the last sentence implicitly, i.e., by employing semantic transformation:

Нічого/нема чого прохати мене.

b) Similar semantic transformations are observed when rendering the meaning of resolute/negative advice or indignation:

«Why need we defend it?» «Навіщо/чого це нам захи-

(Maugham) щати це?»

331


« You need not worry about it». « Тобі нічого турбуватись

(Ibid.) про це»

с) There may be other contextual meanings equivalents of the modal verb need as in the sentence below where its Ukrainian equivalent is the modal verb бути повинним/мусити.

« Well, nobody needn 't know «Але ніхто не повинен будь-
about it...» (W.Jacobs) що знати про це.»

The meaning of need in this sentence may also be expressed with the help of prosodic means (intonation and stress): «Тільки щоб 'ніхто не 'знав про це.»

Exercise I. Identify the meaning of the verb need in fhe sentences below and translate them into Ukrainian.

1. We don't need anything else.» 2. «You needn't have to bring your umbrella, Sugar Boy, as we are going by car.» 3. «He need say no more to her this evening.» (R.Warren) 4. «Boys of your age need to sleep the clock round». (Snow) 5. «I don't think you need be afraid of that.» (Maugham) 6. «You need not come before tea.» (Ibid.) 7. «You are in a condition in which you will shortly need care and attention.» (Ibid.) 8. «You need not worry about that.» (Voynich) 9. Then for a flight to Italy ... people needed pasports to get abroad. (Hailey) 10. «Let's take you rear... Then I needn't get mine out of the garage.» (F.King) 11. «You need not be afraid.» (Wilde) 12. «You needn't trouble. It's here.» (Greene) 13. «More, I shall send you at all times that you need.» (O.Henry) 14. «As a matter of fact you needn't ascertain.» 15.... the chauffeur asked him if he needed help, but he shook bis head. (Fitzgerald) 16. «You needn't bother about coming up, Manson...» (Cronin) 17. «You want my professional opinion ... that what you need is sea air.» (Christie) 18. She said, «Need we go to the club?» (Greene) 19. «I'm sorry. You needn't be. It's not you, kid.» (Ibid.) 20. His presence in Columbus was due to the fact that his political fences needed careful repairing. 21. Hence, only twenty-five cents need to be returned to the man. (Dreiser) 22. «You needn't be in such a fright, take my arm.» (B.Shaw) 23. I need hardly say I would do anything in the world to ensure Gwendolen's happiness. (Wilde) 24. To achieve long-term capital growth, you need foresight and selectivity. (The Economist). 25. «... I don't think you need translate it.» (Galsworthy)

8. The verb dare like the verb need may function in English

332


both as a modal verb and as a regular finite verb with all its paradigmatic forms. The lexical meaning of the verb, however, remains unchanged and corresponds to the Ukrainian verbs сміти, наважуватися/відважуватися, насмілюватися.

The verb dare is mostly translated into Ukrainian as сміти, насмілюватися. For example:

She daren't come here when І        Вона не сміла/насмілювалася
was alone. (V. Pritchett) заходити сюди, коли я був сам.

When in its non-modal formal meaning, the verb dare is translated with the help of these same \1\Матуедужв'ввртіло прочитати He longed to read his stories    свої оповідання Рут, але він не to Ruth but he did not dare. (Lon-    наважувався/не насмілювався. don)

In colloquial English the verb dare is often used either in a phrase form or as a composite word with the verb say: dare say/ daresay.

«Most people would say so.»        «Більшість так сказали б.»
«І
dare/say they would.»        «Вважаю/гадаю, що ска-
(Christie) зали б.»

The verb daresay in the last sentence may also have the meaning насмілюватися, сміти, наважуватися/ відважуватися. Hence, a correct translation depending on its contextual environment may also be «Наважуваюсь/відважуюсь, стверджувати, що сказали б».

The meaning of dare say/daresay in Ukrainian may be conveyed, therefore, as вважаю, допускаю, цілком імовірно, смію сказати, не без того, щоб; наважуся сказати/ стверджувати, etc. Besides, the verb dare is often used to express indignation as in the following sentences:

«How dare you talk to me like         «Як   ти       смієш    так
this.» (Maxwell) розмовляти зі мною.»

«Let him come back, if he         «Хай тільки свого носа dare!» cried Valencia. (Kingsley)    наважиться показати тут!» -

викрикнула Валенсія.

The above-mentioned and other meanings of both the modal form and the regular finite form of the verb dare/daresay are to be found in the sentences cited in the exercise below.

333


Exercise II. Identify the meanings of the verb dare/daresay in the given sentences and translate them info English.

1. «How dare she come here!» cried Davidson indignantly. 2. «I simply dared not think what he meant.» 3. «I dare say you'd like to think it over a little.» 4. «I dressed in a hurry I dare say.» 5. «I dare say there's a great deal about human nature that I don't know.» (Maugham) 6. «I dare say he'll be happy enough.» 7. «I dare say he'll make a very good husband,» said Tarrell patronizingly. (W.Jacobs) 8. «Dare not say that man forgets sooner than woman». (J.Austen) 9. No conquistador dared to move without a royal licence. (J.Heming) 10. «How dare he say such a thing?» (B.Shaw) 11. He dared not go near Ruth's neighbourhood next in the day time. (London). 12. He did not dare to travel after dark. (London) 13. «I dare not be alone at night.» (Voynich) 14. Margaret did not dare to define her feeling. (Gaskell)

English Modal Verbs Having not Aways Modal Verb Equivalents in Ukrainian

Apart from the afore-mentioned there are four more modal verbs in English, which practically lack direct lexical equivalents in Ukrainian. These modal verbs are: shall, will, would and partly should, the latter being only historically the past form of shall, which, like the modal verb iv/7/and would, may sometimes have implicit meanings but lacking explicit lexical equivalents in Ukrainian. This is partly explained by the complicated nature of shall, will, would and should, which mostly combine their modal meanings with that of the auxiliary one, pertained to some of these verbs.

A. Shall in its modal meaning is most of all used with the second and third persons plural and sometimes (though mostly in interrogative sentences) with the first person singular and plural. Depending on the intention of the speaker, the modal verb shall may express in combination with the notional infinitive the following main meanings:

1. Will or intention which can be conveyed in Ukrainian either with the help of the verbxom/mu or through the logical stress on the verb that implicitly expresses this meaning plus the corresponding intonation (prosodic means) of the sentence. Cf.:

«Shall I tell you how I felt as а «Розповісти вам, як я,
mate of my high school stu- дорослий, почувався учнем в
dents ?» (С. Schimmels) одному з коледжів ?»

The principal clause shall I tell in this sentence has the im-

334


plicit contextual meaning corresponding to the Ukrainian «Хочете/ бажаєте, щоб я розповів вам...? «

A similar meaning of wish or will of the person addressed has the modal verb shall with the infinitive in the following sentence:

Their eyes met. «Shall І         їхні погляди зустрілися, serve said Doris. (Maugham)      «Допомогти (вам) ?» - запитала Доріс.

Shall I serve? can also be translated as Хочете/бажаєте, щоб я допомогла? or Треба/потрібно моєї допомоги?

The modal meaning of the verb shall may often incorporate some other meanings inherent in the lexical meaning of the infinitive with which it is used. Hence, different explicit variants may sometimes be suggested in the target language for one and the same modal word-group. The modal verb sha//with the infinitive may also express in the simple or composite sentences some other meanings:

2. Promise or promised assurance, consent:
«You shall entertain as much         «... Запевняю, ти будеш і
as you please.» (B.Shaw) далі  розважатися, як твоя

душа забажає.»

«Shall we say four pounds а «Погодишся (працювати)
week?» (D.Lessing) за чотири фунти за

тиждень?»

3. Warning, threat or resolute demand which is usually conveyed in Ukrainian through the imperative verb forms. Cf.:

«I shall want your account of «Вимагаю звіту про те, як how this happened.» (B. Sha w) ви таке допустили.»

«You shall not have it - not «Ніколи - ніколи ти цього
ever. I will take care of that.» не матимеш. Це вже я про це
(Ibid.) подбаю.»

4. Compulsion, obligation, order or demand (both in simple and composite sentences), which is also often conveyed through the imperative mood forms of the Ukrainian verb:

«You shall not run away be- «He втечеш, доки не
fore you answer.» (Ibid.) відповіси. Тобі/ не втекти,

доки не відповіси.»

«You shall not stay another         «Щоб я за годину тебе hour in my house. Get out!»    тут не бачив. Геть звідси!» (Dreiser)

335


The modal verb shall, expressing compulsion or obligation according to law or a prearranged agreement, is mostly used in texts of different regulations, proclamations, charters, treaties, contracts, etc. The verb srta//forms with the infinitive a sense unit, which is conveyed in Ukrainian through the verb-predicate forming a logical centre in the sentence. For example:

Збори всіх членів Організації Об'єднаних Націй створюють Генеральну Асамблею.

Вісник Генеральної

Асамблеї ООН публікується робочими мовами.

The General Assembly shall consist of all the Members of the United Nations. (Charter of the United Nations)

The Journal of the General

Assembly shall be used in the working languages. (Ibid.)

It should be added in conclusion that in other cases the use of the modal verb shall is restricted to formal or even archaic speech style. In some context the meaning of shall may coincide with that of the modal verb dare as in the following sentence:

«After such a picturesque «Після такої колоритної
love affair in high society, who любовної пригоди у вищому
shall say that romance is dead?» світі хто наважиться сказати.
(Dreiser) що романтика вмерла ?»

В. Will as a modal verb together with the infinitive, with which it forms a word-group, may also express different meanings, the main of which are volition, insistence, determination, intention. The modal verb will is used with all persons in singular and plural, never losing its auxiliary function (to express the future tense). In a number of cases the modal meanings of will may coincide with those expressed by its past form would. As a result, their lexical equivalents in Ukrainian may be close or even identical as well.

The modal verb will may be endowed in different contextual environment with various meanings, the main of them being the following:

1. Volition, demand or assurance which is expressed in Ukrainian through the corresponding verb, stative or logical/emphatic stress: «I will not have these re- «Я не хочу/мені не треба, щоб pealed scenes within hearing of розігрувались ці сцени і щоб їх

the servants.» (B.Shaw)

«І will be another kind of president,» said Constantinescu. (Kyiv Post)

слухала/чула прислуга/челядь». «Я буду/обіцяю бути зовсім іншим президентом,» - заявив Константинеску.

336


2. Will as well as assurance or promise:

Mrs. Warren: «And you'll be Miccic Воррен: «І за це ти
good to your poor old mother for
будеш добре ставитися до
it, won't you?»
 своєї сердешної старої

матері. Будеш?»

Vivie: «I will, dear». (B.Shaw)         Віві: «Обіцяю, люба.»
Trench: «I
will save you the         Тренч: «Я вже допоможу
trouble.» (Ibid.) вам вибратися з цієї халепи.»

The answer of Vivie / will contains assurance and promise for the future, because of which its explicit form in Ukrainian is only Обіцяю. A similar construction is displayed in the second sentence in which Trench assures (promises) the poor man (Sartorius) to relieve him of his trouble.

3. Determination, perseverance or promising threat which
is often rendered through lexically explicit Ukrainian verbs, express
ing also the future tense at the same time:

«I will examine them (ас-         «Я зараз перевірю їх(гроші

counts and money) and settle й рахунки) і порішу з вами.»
with you presently.» (В.Shaw)

«І will prosecute you myself.»         «Я сам вас судитиму.» (Ibid.)

«I will survive. I will escape. І        «Я переживу це. я втечу

will not give in.» (Dreiser) звідси, нізащо не здамся.»

4. Willingness, consent (in conditional clauses after fol
lowing the conjunction
if):

«IfyouwillJeJlmeallaboutit «Якщо ти захочеш мені in a chatty way, I can communi- розповісти про це щиро, я cate it to Lady Roxdale (Ibid.) перекажу'тоді'всеЛедіРоксдейл.»

The meaning of the modal verb will (will tell) in the sentence above may also be expressed in Ukrainian through a logical or emphatic stress laid upon the notional verb (predicate) :Якщо ти розкриєш/розповіси все чисто, то я тоді перекажу це Леді Роксдейл...

As has been pointed out, the modal meaning of the verb will may go parallel with that of its past form would. This is observed when iv/7/and would are used to express the following meanings:

5. Polite request which may be expressed as follows:
«Will you  walk  into  my         «Чи не зайдеш/зайди-но до

parlour?» (Dreiser) моєї вітальні?»

337


«I want you to do a most terrible favour. Will you? Will you please?» (D.Parker)

« When would you like to come over?» (Galsworthy)

 «Яхочу, щоб ви мені зробили страшенно велику послугу. Зробите?Благаю, зробіть?»

«Коли б ви хотіли (могли) навідатись/зайти?»

6. Supposition which is usually expressed in Ukrainian with the help of modal words or by means of the subjunctive mood of the predicate verb:

«І expect he will have had his tea.» (Smith)

«This will be the place where they reposed.» (W.Maken)

«Well, this would interest you.» (Fitzgerald)

«... навряд щоб він ще не снідав/не пив чаю»

«Це напевне/мабуть і є те місце, де вони перепочивали.» «Це тобі було б цікаво/ Напевне зацікавило б тебе.»

7. Habitual volitional actions which are conveyed as follows:
After this accident he will Після того нещастя він

lock himself and not show off.       став замикатися в собі і не
(Ibid'.) показуватись.

In the afternoon he would go out alone and walk for hours. (Galsworthy)

 Після полудня він, бувало, йшов із дому і годинами не вертався з прогулянки.

8. Resistance to an action referring to the present or to the future, which is observed only in English. Consequently, it has no corresponding modal expression in Ukrainian. Cf.:

Двері ніяк не відмикаються.»

...дощ заливав лобове скло автомашини, а «двірник» не працював (не хотів працювати).

«Help him, please. The door   «Допоможіть, будь ласка, йому, will not unlock.» (Jacobs) ... it (rain) blinded the wind screen and the wiper wouldn't

work. (Greene)

9. Condition which is equivalently expressed in Ukrainian through the subjunctive or conditional mood forms in subordinate clauses of real and unreal condition:

«If he wouldn't mind. I would        «Якби він не був проти (не
love to come.» (Maxwell) заперечував), то я б охоче

прийшов.» «You may go, if you will, but        «Іди собі/можеш іти, якщо

338


no one will follow you. I'm sure.> (Hudges)

 хочеш, але я певен, що за тобою ніхто не піде.»

 

10. Determination or persistence, which is expressed with the help of set constructions like / (he, we) won't/would not. This modal meaning is rendered into Ukrainian by means of the verb дозволяти/не дозволяти, допускати/не допускати as well:

«Ten or eleven», the Sheriff said, «I won't stand for it.» (Saroyan)

Several times Eckerman tried to get away, but Gothe would not let him go.» (Maugham)

 «Десять чи одинадцять років, - сказав шериф, - я все одно не дозволю цього.»

Не раз Екерман намагався піти, але Ґете не відпускав (не_ погоджувався відпустити) його.

 

11. Preference choice and other meanings as in the set expressions I'd rather/I would/I'd sooner, which are usually rendered into Ukrainian with or without the help of the subjunctive mood forms plus such adverbs of manner as краще, радніше/ліпше:

«So we had better go to supper,» said Mary. (Joyce)

Mother said she would much rather watch him fish and not try to fish herself. (Leacock)

He will/would never set the Thames on fire. (Proverb)

He will die as he lived. (Ibid.)

He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet. (Ibid.)

 «Чи не краще б піти на вечерю,» -запропонувала Мері.

Мати сказала, що вона радніше спостерігала б. як він вудить, ніж самій вудити.

Він навряд чи порох вигадає./ Він зірок із неба не знімає.

Горбатого (тільки) могила виправить.

Хочеш рибки - лізь у воду./Лежа-тимеш на печі, не їстимеш калачі.

 

С. Will and would are used in many set/idiomatic expressions having both subjunctive and non-subjunctive meaning:

He would give a penny for the young fellow's thoughts. (Galsworthy)

« You'd make a saint swear.» (Ibid.)

 Він багато дав би. щоб дізнатися, що цей молодик задумав.

«Ти навіть святого виведеш/вивів би з рівноваги.»

The range of modal meanings, which the modal verbs will and would may express, is not exhausted by those enumerated above.

339


There may be some others, as for example: 12. To express favour, benevolence:

«He wants to know ... if you'll «Він хоче знати ... чи ви не
invite Daisy to your house some зволите запросити колись на
afternoon ...»(Fitzgerald) обід до себе Дейзі...»

D. Should as a modal verb is very often used both in reference to present and to future (and to express the subjunctive meaning). It conveys a variety of meanings some of which may be close to the meanings of the modal verbs ought to, have to, to be to, must. Thus, the sentence «I'm sorry. /shouldn't have said that.» (Cusack) may be translated, when out of its broader context, as follows:

1) Пробачте: мені не треба було цього казати/
Перепрошую: мені не слід було це казати.

  1.  Пробачте: мені не слід було цього казати.
  2.  Пробачте: я не мав був цього казати.

There may be one more variant of the sentence with the intonational/supersegmental expression of this modal meaning: Жаль/жалкую, що я це сказав/що це зірвалось у мене з язика.

The most common direct meaning of the modal (non-subjunctive orfuture-in-the-pastform) verb should'in Ukrainian corresponds to the statives слід, треба, or to the modal word and phrase потрібно/є потреба. These equivalents (depending on the contextual environment) are also mostly employed in order to express the following meanings of the modal verb should:

1. Obligation/moral obligation, necessity.

"What do you think he should «\ що, по-твоєму, йому слід/

do?» (Trevor) треба робити?»

«You should have told me so «Вам слід/треба було

before.» (В. Sha w) раніше сказати мені про це.»

2. Regret, grief, sorrow:

"/ shouldn't have said that.» «Меніне слід/не треба було
(Cusack) цього казати.»

The structure of the Ukrainian sentence here may also be different and not correspond to its English original above: Навіщо мені було тільки казати це?/І треба мені було сказати це.

3. Advice/recommendation, admonition:

«You shouldn't have consulted «Тобі не треба/не слід було
те,
Esme.» (S.Hill) радитися зі мною, Есме.»

340


« You shouldn't talk bitter like « Ти не повинен стільки зла
that, Albert,» Miss Jackson re- виливати, Альберте,»-докір-
proved. (K. C. Prichard)
пиво зауважила міс Джексон.

The meaning of the modal verb should in this sentence may also be rendered through the imperative sentence: He виливай стільки зла, Альберте ...

4. Supposition/suggestion, which can be expressed in Ukrainian with the help of modal words or particles, as in the following sentences:

«Perhaps I should introduce «Може б мені представити
ту
friend Cocane to you.» вам мого друга Кокейна?...»/
(В.
Sha w) Мабуть представлю вам мого

друга Кокейна.

«Itshould be about five now.» «Зараз десь/певне біля
(Cusack) п 'я тої.»

The modal verb should in the first sentence may also be translated through the particle бодай: Може, бодай представити вам мого друга Кокейна?

5. Doubt, indignation and some other emotions expressed
through the modal verb
should may be also rendered with the help
of some Ukrainian particles and the implicit meaning of the sentence:

Sartorius: «I don't know. How «Я не знаю. Та й звідки мені
should I?» (B.Shaw) знати/Та й звідки б я довідався ?»

« Why should I wait?» (Ibid.) « Чому б це мені чекати

6. Surprise, indignation or pleasure (with the indefinite or
perfect infinitive following the modal verb
should). These meanings
of the modal verb
should are mostly rendered in Ukrainian through
the logical emphatic stress, intonation, particles or through some
modal verbs:

«God forbid that /should ever «Воронь Боже мені сказати/

say a good word for you!» щоб я коли-небудь сказав хоч

(L. P. Hartley) одне добре слово за тебе!»

«І don't know why should I «He знаю, чому це я ше маю

think about him.» (W. Trevor) думати про нього.»

«/shouldn't have done that.» «(Ну) навіщо я це зробив.»

(B.Shaw) (Мені неслідбуло цього робити.)

The modal verb shouldIn these same sentences above may

341


also be understood and conveyed, when taken isolated from the text, in some other ways. For example, in the second sentence (under point 6) the meaning of should may also be expressed in Ukrainian through the modal verb повинен:

«I don't know why should I «He розумію, чому це я

think about him.» (Trevor) повинен думати про нього.»

The modal verb should In the third (last) sentence above may also be translated with the help of the modal word слід:

«/ shouldn 't have done that.» «Мені не слід було цього
(B.Shaw) робити.»

7. The modal verb should may also express reproval or protest, disappointment, etc., which may be expressed in Ukrainian with the help of the modal words or stativesтреба, слід, потрібно or with the help of some modal particles. Cf.:

«I don't know why sometimes «He збагну, чому це іноді з
І
should be sneered at.» мене треба покепкувати/
(Galsworthy) поглузувати.»

«She really should have worn «їй справді слід/треба було
the coat.» (Cusack) носити пальто.»

In the last sentence above the meaning of should have worn. when under logical or emphatic stress, may be expressed in Ukrainian via the modal words треба/слід and the particles таки, і: їй і справді-таки треба було/слід-таки було носити пальто. Hence, before rendering the meaning of the modal verb should or any other modal verb belonging to those of indistinct or polysemantic contextual meaning, as shall, will, would, the following factors have to be taken into account:

  1.  the meaning and nature of the modal verb itself;

the lexical meaning of the infinitive with which this modal
verb forms a predicative unit;

  1.  the contextual environment of the predicative unit and

the traditional preference/choice of the modal verb in the
national/target language.

Consequently, in case of the modal verb should preference may often be given not to its seemingly closer Ukrainian equivalent слід, as it could naturally be expected, but to its stronger modal word/stative треба, (cf. треба йти, треба думати, не треба забувати), which is more common in our language.

342


TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

  1.  Expand on the nature of modality and the main means of
    expressing it in English and Ukrainian.
  2.  Enumerate the modal verbs common in both languages
    and define their possible lexical and contextual equivalents in Eng
    lish and Ukrainian.
  3.  Comment on the meanings expressed by the construc
    tions of the modal verbs
    can, may, must plus the perfect infinitive.
  4.  Enumerate the English modal verbs which have not always
    direct modal verb equivalents in Ukrainian. In which speech styles are
    they mostly used?
  5.  Identify the cases when the modal verbs must and may/
    might
     express assumption, presumability, probability, suggestion,
    etc. and give their semantic equivalents in Ukrainian.
  6.  Differentiate the modal verbs ought to and should'in Eng
    lish and their semantic equivalents in Ukrainian.
  7.  Differentiate the modal verbs need and dare/daresay, their
    double nature and ways of expressing their meaning in Ukrainian.
  8.  Explain the peculiar nature of the modal verbs shall, will
    and would in English and ways and means of expressing their func
    tions and lexical meanings in Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Identify the meanings of the modal verb shall and translate the following sentences containing it into Ukrainian:

A. 1. «Shall we all go in my car?» suggested Gatsby. 2. '"Well, shall I help myself?» Tom demanded. (Fitzgerald) 3. «Shall I ask the man here to cut you with his rope?» (Kipling) 4. «They shall be called the Malazy - the lazy people.» 5. By their fruits ye shall know them. (Saying) 6. If the blind leads the blind, both shall fall into the ditch. (Saying) 7. «Father», she cried, «father, are you ill? Shall I ring?» (Leacock) 8. «Since you have acted so handsomely, you shall have no cause to complain of me: you shall entertain as much as you please.» (B.Shaw) 9. «Shall I tell you about it?» (M.Spark) 10. «I'll take care that you shall be well off when I'm gone.» (Ibid.) 11. «Shall we go away?» (B.Shaw) 12. "You certainly shall not go till you have

343


told me all," I said. (Bronte) 13. «Shall we take anything to drink?» (Fitzgerald) 14. «Shall I give you some coffee?» (Galsworthy) 15. «I will sing the Baby a song that shall keep him asleep for an hour.» 16. «I will throw these five things at you, wherever I see you, and so shall all proper Men do after me.» 17. «Hence, forward I will go out seven times a day and the waters shall never be still." (Kipling) 18. It won't take you long, and then you shall have your tea." (Maurier)

B. Translate the articles of The Charter of the United Nations below. State the way in which the meaning of the modal verb shall is to be expressed in Ukrainian.

Article 9.1. Each Member shall have no more than five representatives in the General Assembly. Each Member of the General Assembly shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. Article 21. The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its President for each session. Article 22. The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.

Competence of the Court

Article 32. 1. Each member of the Court shall receive an annual salary. 2. The President shall receive a special annual allowance. 3. The Vice-President shall receive a special allowance for every day on which he acts as President. 4. The salary of the Registrar shall be fixed by the General Assembly on the proposal of the Court. 5. The official languages of the Court shall be French and English.

Article 34. 1. Only states may be parties in cases before the Court.

Article 15. 1. The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and special reports from the Security Council; these reports shall include an account of the measures that the Security Council has decided upon or takei І to maintain international peace and security. 2. The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other organs of the United Nations.

Article 16. The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect to the international trusteeship system as are assigned to it in Chapters XII and XIII, including the approval of the trusteeship agreements for areas not designated as strategic.

Article 17. 1. The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the Organization. 2. The expenses of the Or-

344


ganization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly. 3. The General Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and budgetary arrangements with specialized agencies referred to in Article 57 and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making recommendations to the agencies concerned.

C. Translate the following articles from the Ukrainian Constitution into English. Be careful to express the modality of each article.

РОЗДІЛ II КОНСТИТУЦІЇ УКРАЇНИ ПРАВА, СВОБОДИ ТА ОБОВ'ЯЗКИ ЛЮДИНИ І ГРОМАДЯНИНА

Стаття 21: Усі люди є вільні і рівні у своїй гідності та правах. Права і свободи людини є невідчужуваними та непорушними.

Стаття 22: Права і свободи людини і громадянина, закріплені цією Конституцією, не є вичерпними.

Конституційні права і свободи гарантуються і не можуть бути скасовані.

При прийнятті нових законів або внесенні змін до чинних законів не допускається звуження змісту та обсягу існуючих прав та свобод.

Стаття 23: Кожна людина має право на вільний розвиток своєї особистості, якщо при цьому не порушуються права і свободи інших людей, та має обов'язки перед суспільством, в якому забезпечується вільний і всебічний розвиток її особистості.

Стаття 24: Громадяни мають рівні конституційні права і свободи та є рівними перед законом.

Не може бути привілеїв чи обмежень за ознаками раси, кольору шкіри, політичних, релігійних та інших переконань, статі, етнічного та соціального походження, майнового стану, місця проживання, за мовними чи іншими ознаками.

Рівність прав жінки і чоловіка забезпечується: наданням жінкам рівних з чоловіками можливостей у громадсько-політичній і культурній діяльності, у здобутті освіти і професійній підготовці, у праці та винагороді за неї; спеціальними заходами щодо охорони праці і здоров'я жінок, встановлення пенсійних пільг; створення умов, які дають жінкам можливість поєднувати працю з материнством; правовим захистом, матеріальною і моральною підтримкою материнства і дитинства, включаючи надання оплачуваних відпусток та інших пільг вагітним жінкам і матерям.

Стаття 25: Громадянин України не може бути позбавлений

345


громадянства і права змінити громадянство.

Громадянин України не може бути вигнаний за межі України або виданий іншій державі.

Україна гарантує піклування та захист своїм громадянам, які перебувають за її межами.

Exercise II. Identify the meanings expressed by the modal verb will in the sentences below and translate them into Ukrainian.

A. 1. « - we will now seriously devote ourselves to a little high
tension.»
2. «Now I know you're tortoise. You thought I wouldn't. Now
I will.»
3. «I've never seen a Jaguar ... An' I 'spose I never will.»
4. «...but we, О Best Beloved, will call himTegumai.» 5. «We will still
call her Taffi.»
6. «I will go away and get help for him from his tribe.»
7. «I will make a Magic and I will play your play.» 8.1 will go up and
look and say: «I will guard your cave.»
9. «I will come, I will be your
servant for the sake of the wonderful grass.»
10. «I will do so», said
the Woman- «but I will not thank you for it».
11. «I will ever be grate
ful to you». «Now we will make our bargain».
12. «I will hunt you till I
catch you. I will bite you. I will be kind to the Baby while I am in the
Cave». (Kipling)
13. None are so blind as those who will not see.
(Saying)
14. As you sow, so will you reap. (Saying) 15. «Say, will you
do me a favour?» «Will I?»
15. «I will prove that he lied.» (Kipling)

  1.  «I will now read you a little tale that I wrote last night». (M.Twain).
  2.  «I will never marry without my father's warrant», she added.
    (Leacock)
    18. «Will you be going to the dance tonight?» he asked.
    (Macken).
    19. «Get this prescription made up and come and see
    me». «Thanks, Doc, I will». (Maugham)
    20. «But I think I will say no,
    if you don't mind.»
    21. «I am an Englishman, and I will suffer no
    priest to interfere in my business».
    22. «They're crazy. The Sheriff
    won't let them.» (Saroyan)
    23. «I am perfectly willing to wait.» 24. «I
    will go out of the room if you do.»
    25. «Then I will not marry him. I will
    not go abroad». (B.Shaw)
    26. Tomorrow I will be a man, For Tomor
    row I shall fight, And Tomorrow I will die. (Olga Oddes)
    27. «I will,
    Leister, I will,» she exclaimed, «I will tell you everything when I come
    back.» (Dreiser).
    28. «We will let him go to school next year if we
    can.» (Ibid)

B. Read carefully the Release Form below. Identify the
meaning of the modal verb
will in it and translate the document
into Ukrainian.

346


TERMS OF AGREEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE INTERNATIONAL LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE

I agree that during this trip I will not smoke cigarettes nor use alcohol or drugs. I will not visit relatives and friends living in the United States, nor arrange or participate in private or public business or activities unrelated to the program of the International Leadership Conference. I will not engage in any promiscuous relationships or dating relationships during my entire stay in the United States. I will follow the program as scheduled and I will return to Ukraine on the scheduled date of departure. I will take full personal and legal responsibility for all my actions while in the United States.

C. Find an appropriate equivalent for each modal verb in the articles from a contract and translate them faithfully into Ukrainian.

Article 10. COMPANY FUNDS

10.1. Company shall set up a capital fund, a reserve fund and such other funds that are required by the effective Ukrainian law or stipulated by the Company's Statutes, or considered necessary by a decision of the Participants Meeting.

ARTICLE 11. CAPITAL FUND

  1.  The Participants shall set up a capital fund of the Com
    pany to the value of
    [?] Hryvnias, which sum according to the cur
    rency exchange rate established by the National Bank of Ukraine at
    the date of this Agreement
    (1 Deutsche Mark [?] Hryvnias).
  2.  The Participants' contributions to the capital fund of the
    Company may consist of monetary means in Ukrainian and foreign
    currency, buildings, erections, equipment and other material valu
    ables, securities, rights to use land, water and other natural resources,
    as well as other proprietary rights, including rights to intellectual
    property.

11.3.1. The Ukrainian Participant shall contribute to the capital fund of the Company monetary means in Ukrainian currency, [material valuables and proprietary rights] to the aggregate value of [?] Hryvnias, which sum according to the currency exchange rate established by the National Bank of Ukraine at the date of this Agreement equals to [?] 1 Deutsche Mark, and his share shall constitute [?%] of the Company's capital fund, including:

11.3.1.1. Monetary means in Ukrainian currency in the amount of [?] Hryvnias, which sum according to the currency exchange rate established by the National Bank of Ukraine at the date of this Agreement equals to [?] Deutsche Marks.

347


15.5. A Participant's share, after he has made his contribution to the capital fund in full, may be acquired by the Company itself. In such a case the Company must transfer the share, if so acquired, to other Participants or to third parties in no later than 1 year of the date of acquisition. Within that period distribution of Company's profits, determination of quorum and voting at the Meeting of Participants shall be made without regard to the share acquired by the Company.

ARTICLE 16. SUCCESSORS (HEIRS) OF A PARTICIPANT

  1.  In case of reorganization or liquidation of a Participant (a
    legal entity) or death of a Participant (natural person) their succes
    sors (heirs) shall have the priority right to join the Company.
  2.  In case the successors (the heir) refuses to join the Com
    pany or the Company objects to his admission to the Company, such
    a successor (the heir) shall be given in cash or in any kind a part of
    all of the Company's property, owing to the reorganized or liquidated
    entity (died person), evaluated as on the date of reorganization or
    liquidation or death of the respective Participant. In such a case the
    Company's capital fund shall be decreased.

ARTICLE 18. GOVERNING BODIES

  1.  The Company's governing bodies shall be: Meeting of
    Participants; Director; Auditing Committee.
  2.  The Meeting of Participants shall be the highest govern
    ing body of the Company. Each Participant shall have at the Meeting
    the number of votes proportionate to his share in the Company's
    capital fund.
  3.  The Director shall be the one person executive body of the
    Company and shall manage the Company's current activity. The Direc
    tor shall be appointed by a decision of the Meeting of Participants.
  4.  The Auditing Committee shall be the body for maintaining
    control over activities of the executive body. Members of the Auditing
    Committee shall be appointed by a decision of the Meeting of Partici
    pants.
  5.  Powers, responsibilities and procedures of functioning of
    the Meeting of Participants, the Director and the Auditing Committee
    shall be determined by the company's Statutes and the effective law
    of Ukraine.

Exercise III. Identify the meaning of the verb would in the sentences below and then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «Would you rather put it off for a few days?» I asked. 2. «Well, this would interest you. It wouldn't take much of your time».

348


  1.  You wouldn't have to do any business with the Nolfsheim. (B.Shaw)
  2.  «I wouldn't look like Giraffe not for even so.» 5. «How would you like
    to spank somebody?
    » 6. «I wouldn't drink that water because I 'd know
    you said it was bad».
    7. «I wouldn't look like Zebra», - said the Leopard.

  1.  «Then great Mr. Lloyds would come with a wire and drag him home».
  2.  "But Balkis talked to a butterfly as a man would talk to a man».
    (Kipling)
    10. «I would willingly offer up my political life on the altar of my
    dear state's wheel and I would be glad and grateful to do it»
    . 11. «Would
    you ever imagine what is a human volcano?» «I would not». (M.Twain)
    12. «You'd like some tea, would you?» (B.Shaw) 13. Without hope the
    heart would break. (Saying)
    14. «I don't know about things like that. I
    wouldn't know what to do».
    15. «I would remember it only as a day that
    was rather funny». (Trevor)
    16. «Reporters came, television and all, but
    I wouldn't see them». (D.Garnett)
    17. «William... William...» he would
    have to look back to find the surname. (LP.Hartley)
    18. «I wouldn't have
    her now, not if she asked me on her bended knee». (W.W.Jackobs)

  1.  «I don't talk about such things: whatever would they think of us».
  2.  «She is not like my mother; the same treatment wouldn't do for
    both cases».
    21. «So that was why he would not touch the money».
    (B.Shaw)
    22. «The honour would be entirely Gatsby's... if you would
    attend his «little party» that night». (Fitzgerald)
    23. «When would you
    like them to come over?» (Galsworthy)

Exercise IV. Identify the meaning of the verb should in the sentences below and then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. You shouldn't look a gift horse in the mouth. (Saying) 2. People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 3. «Why should she not (see her)?» (B.Shaw) 4. He knew what he should do.

5. He should get down soon on to the white road. (Macken) 6. «I do
not know what we should do without the pulpit.» (M.Twain)
7. «I should
very much like to see it done.»
8. «Why should I not go too?»
9. «How would you like to spank somebody - but I should not like it at
all.»
10. «I should like it very much indeed.» 11. «I should call it Arma
dillo...and I should leave it alone.» (Kipling)
12. «You should be more
careful.» (J.London)
13. «You should go to a healthy spot.» (M. Spark)
11. «Well, for God's sake, get him attended to, Margo.» «You think I
should?» (Trevor)
15. «Why shouldn't you pass (the examination)
then?» (D.Lessing)
16. «People should know their place and stick to
it.»
17. «You should be saying these things to him.» 18. «Are you
sorry you didn't do it?» «I should have been a perfect fool if I had.»
(Maugham)
19. «That's what you should have done.» 20. «Why
shouldn't you marry me?»
21. «Why should I have done it?» 22. «There

349


shouldn't be better opportunities forwomen». (B.Shaw) 23. «You should go back and finish grammar school.» (London) 24. «I don't see why we shouldn't get on very well together.» (B.Shaw) 25. «I shouldn't be sorry if you thought ill of me.» (Maugham) 26. «Well, we'd better telephone for an axe.» 27. «You'd better try and sit quiet till morning.» (Fitzgerald) 28. «I think we'd better draw a picture of them.» 29. «You'd better get off there,» Charlie said. (D.Lessing) 30. «May be I'd better sell it somewhere else.» (Macken)

D. Ways Of Conveying the Meanings of Subjective Modality

The relation of content to reality expressed by subjective modality is viewed upon as hypothetical. The speaker considers the event or action mentioned as assumptive or suggestive (desirable, possible, impossible, doubtful, certain /uncertain, etc.), i.e., as likely or unlikely to take place. That is why this type of modality is often referred to as «subjective modality». It is expressed in English and Ukrainian with the help of common means: a) modal words, modal expressions or sentences; b) with the help of parenthetic words/expressions or parenthetic sentences; c) with the help of modal particles. The latter are a characteristic feature of the Ukrainian language where this feature acquires definitely semantic characteristics.

English modals, as they are often referred to, have usually direct semantic and even structural equivalents in Ukrainian. Among these notional language units, which mostly function as syntactically independent elements in English and Ukrainian sentences, there can be singled out at least two clearly distinguishable groups: a) modals correlating with hypothetic or indirect modality and b) modals expressing a clearly evaluative or subjective functions. The former include modal words/expressions or parenthetical elements in the sentence expressing supposition, assumption, presumability, etc. (cf. maybe, possibly, presumably, it is likely/most likely, it seems, etc.). These and other modals of the type present the attitude of the speaker to an event/action as hypothetical, as likely to take(or as having taken place, etc.). These modals have mostly direct equivalents in both languages:

"Maybe you got some friend Може у тебе є який друг,
that you can telephone for через котрого я міг би дещо
George?" (Fitzgerald) переказати для Джорджа?»

It was probably the first time Це було мабуть/либонь чи
in his adult life that he had ever не вперше за все його доросле
cried. (J.Cheever) життя, що він сплакнув.

350


Semantically close to the above-cited are English modal words and expressions whose meaning is predetermined by the contextual environment. These modals have often a hypothetical meaning, which may correspond to that of some Ukrainian modal particles or parenthetical adverbs/phrases. They include: perhaps, evidently, scarcely, no/little possibility, etc. Their Ukrainian hypothetical modal equivalents in sentences may be: певно, напевно, напевно-таки, десь-то, навряд/навряд чи, справді/насправді. For example:

"Perhaps, you've seen her "Певно ви бачили її portrait in the papers." (C. Doyle) фотографію в газетах."

Jesus Christ is actually a Icvc Xoucmoc - це насправді name and a title. (J.McDowell) ім'я (Ісус) і титул (Христос).

A separate large group constitute modal words/expressions and parenthetical words/phrases or sentences expressing general assessment of a statement. These lexical units clearly point to the subjective evaluation of the action or event by the speaker. The modals of this group include the following:

certainly, of course, surely, definitely, really, in fact, indeed, naturally, no doubt, without doubt, it is natural, etc. Their Ukrainian equivalents are: безперечно, безумовно, без сумніву/ немає сумніву, зрозуміло, певна річ, правду сказати, природно, як відомо, як кажуть and others. For example:

"Well, he certainly must have "Він, безперечно, мусив був strained himself to get this прикласти великих зусиль, managerietogether."(Fitzgerald) щоб прибрати до рук увесь

цей звіринець."

"Surely he is mad..." (Wilde)         "Він і справді з глузду з'їхав...'"
"This was no doubt due to his        'Це сталось, безумовно.
cowardly behaviour in the after-    через     його     боягузливу
noon." (J. Collier) поведінку по обіді."

Subjective modality may also be rendered in both languages via elliptical sentences:

Was it because he was afraid Може це було тому, що він
of being lost in a bigger city? боявся загубитись у великому
Scarcely. (Hailey) місті? Навряд.

The above-mentioned and other means and ways of expressing subjective modality can also be observed in several sentences of

351


the exercise below.

Exercise I. Identify the meanings (assumption, general assessment, assuredness, doubt, probability, supposition, etc.) expressed by the underlined modals below. Find equivalent Ukrainian modals or other semantic equivalents (e.g., particles) and translate the sentences. Model: "It was really a terrible break." (Salinger) "Це й справді був жахливий випад." or: "Це справді-таки була жахлива безтактність."

1. Latin America, in fact, is a veritable laboratory of anti-corruption experiments. 2. Perhaps, in the end, the only universal cure for corruption is to quietnature democracy. (Newsweek) 3. «Maybe they won't come? Maybe it was all a lie?» «Maybe.» (Steinbeck)

  1.  «Oh, I feel some concern for my future all right. Sure. Sure. I do.»
  2.  «I thought about it for a minute». «But not too much, I guess.»
    (Salinger)
    6. She was apparently indifferent to her two daughters...
    (Fitzgerald)
    7. The young fellow was obviously anxious to be well with
    him. (J.Cary)
    8. «Really.» she thought, «I should come out more of
    ten,
    really it is very pleasant here in summer...» 9. «The sand isn't so
    soft here.» «Of course, of course.»
    10. She was very quiet for some
    moments, as if,
    perhaps, shy of being alone with him. (Bates)
    11. «Yes, indeed, he's such a good watch-dog.» 12. «You did not
    approve of paying such a sum, naturally.»
    13. «I wanted to bring the
    crab.» «All right, darling, all right.»
    14. «I think I got a good picture of
    Heidi.» «Indeed. Indeed.» (Bates)
    15. «And today, most fortunately, is
    a Thursday.»
    16. «After all, three hundred pounds is three hundred
    pounds.»
    «Certainly it is.» 17. «Unfortunately, when you opened it
    contained only blank sheets of paper.»
    18. The builders' letter he kept
    to the last. Some bill, probably.
    19. «I couldn't care less, frankly.» 20.
    «They can't possibly do it any more than they can prove, it won you.»
    (Hailey)
    21. «No doubt, if you were a good detective, you'd be able to
    make it much clearer to me than it is.» (Salinger)
    22. «An unpleasant
    and dangerous looking young man», he thought, «and not impossibly
    a murderer. «(Christie)

E. Grammatical Modality and Means of Expressing It

Grammatical or syntactic modality is of common nature in English and Ukrainian as well. It expresses actions viewed upon as real, unreal, optative, hypothetic, conditional, incentive, interrogative, etc. The principal means of expressing such actions are mood forms of the verb (indicative, imperative and subjunctive). These mood forms are realized respectively in declarative, interrogative and negative sen-

352


tences of wishful, hypothetical or conditional modality.1 As conveying the meanings, which are pertained to different verb forms in the indicative and partly in the imperative mood does not present any difficulty for our students, it is expedient to pay attention, at least shortly, to the means of expression and rendering in English and Ukrainian of optative or wishful (бажальна), incentive (спонукальна) and subjunctive (умовна) modality.

1. Ways of Expressing the Meanings of Optative Modality

Optative (бажальна) modality in English and Ukrainian serves to express the wish of the speaker to establish the correspondence of content of the utterance to reality. The main ways and means of expressing this type of modality in English are syntactic. They include characteristic sentence structures, the use of auxiliary and modal verbs (to be, were, should, could, let, would, etc.), the ascending or descending utterance intonation. In Ukrainian apart from the modal verbs and intonation (prosodic means) some specifying modal particles are widely used. The most common of them are б/би, аби, щоб/щоби, коб/и/, бодай, десь, либонь, хай, хоч, хоч би, чи не, коли б, якби and others Cf:

«Я її   либонь   побачу.»         «І might see her there» (M.Вовчок)

«Чи   не   краще   вийти         «Would it not be better to назустріч?» (М.Коцюбинський)    meet them halfway?»

Optative modality is used in both languages in ample and composite sentences:

If only it could always be От якби завжди була весна.

spring. (Galsworthy) /От коли б завжди була весна/.

«Ah, I wish I were fifteen «Ах/От якби мені знову

again.» (Maugham) було п'ятнадцять років.»

То express wish with implied regret or unreal wish the stative жаль or шкода may be used in Ukrainian:

«I wish I had met him when         «Шкода, що я не зустріла
he was younger.»(Greene) його, копи він був молодшим.»

1 See more about grammatical/syntactical modality in: Сучасна українська літературна мова. Синтаксис. За ред І.К. Білодіда. - К.: Наукова думка, 1972, р. 125-137.

353


«I wish I could gather knowl- «Хотів би/міг би я отак без-
edge as carelessly...» турботно/ліньки набувати
(
Maugham) знань...»

Optative modality is very often used to express incentive (спонукальні) meanings which are expressed in English simple and composite sentences with the help of the so-called subjunctive I mood form (synthetic or analytical). In Ukrainian the imperative mood of the verb and the particles хай, бодай, що б are mostly used for the purpose. They express the meaning pertained to the modal verb may in the subjunctive (I) mood as in the following sentences:

«... my gates are open to real «... обійми мої відкриті life, bring what it may». (B.Shaw) перед життям, хай несе воно

що завгодно./ІМо б воно мені не несло.»

«May you both be happy.» «Хай вам обом щастить./
(Hornby) Бажаю вам обом щастя./

Щасти вам обом.

Some optative meanings expressed in Ukrainian through such modal particles as бодай, for example, may not be easy to fully and completely express in English which has no such fine means (Confer the Shevchenkinian «Веселіздалека палати, Бодай ви терном поросли.»).

The Optative meaning of the concluding line was rendered by John Weir with the help of the modal verb may. The mansion, too, from far away - May nettle choke the cursed place!

Optative modality in both languages may have different forms of expression. Its formal means in Ukrainian include the corresponding mood forms of the verb (predicate) and the particle б/би. The particle identifies some subtypes of the subjunctive mood meanings (the suppositional, the conditional, etc.):

«I would he were a tree or «Хотів би я, щоб він був
flower.» (H.S.Leigh) деревом чи квіткою.» (От якби

він був деревом чи квіткою).

«If only you could make him «Тільки   б  ви     змогли

laugh.» (М. Twain) викликати в дядька посмішку/

Якби   тільки   ви     змогли викликати в дядька посмішку.»

The last sentence, naturally, can be translated without any

354


structural transformation:  «Якби ви тільки змусили його хоч посміхнутись.»

The meaning of optative modality expressing desire is very close to incentive modality expressing non-categorical demand, requestor threat. Optative meanings are usually realized in English via the modal verbs should, would, may/might, could, and the semantically corresponding infinitive, whereas in Ukrainian the particles щоб, бодай, хай and the prosodic means (sentence intonation/stress) are mostly employed here:

«Щоб нікому 'ні 'словечка.» «But no one should ever
(А. Головко) know/learn anything about it.»

«Щоб на 'світанку був «But you should (are to) be
'тут!» (Г. Тютюнник) here at daybreak!»

2. Incentive (спонукальна) modality is more often expressed in English through the modal verb let. These meanings are usually rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the imperative mood forms of the verbal predicate and the particle хай/нехай:

God said, "Let Newton be!» Бог сказав: «Хай буде
and all was light. (A.Pope) Ньютон!» і навкруги

розвиднилось.

Let him that earns the bread Нехай той, хто заробляє
eat it. (Bibl. Saying) свій хліб, і споживає його (пор.

Хто не працює, той не їсть).

Let each tailor mend his own Хай кожен займається
coat. (Saying) своїми справами.

The meaning of the second sentence, for example, may have a fuller expression when it is rendered into Ukrainian antonymically: Хто не заробляє хліба, той не повинен і їсти його./Хто не робить, той не їсть.

Ukrainian incentive sentences introduced by the particle хай/ нехай are usually translated into English with the help of the modal verb let as well:

Нехай стара мати Let the old mother learn How
Навчається, як дітей Нових such kind of children... must be
доглядати. (Т. Шевченко) cared for by her. (Transl. ByJ.Weir)

Нехай мати усміхнеться. Let once more our mother

Заплакана мати. smile. Our tear-ridden mother.

(Т. Шевченко) (Ibid.)

355


Incentive modality may also be expressed in Ukrainian with the help of other modal particles. One of the often used for this purpose is ж/же, the meaning of which is usually expressed in English through the modal verb let and the corresponding intonation:

Походимо ж, моя зоре. Oh let us wander still, my fate...

(Т.Г.Шевченко) (Transl.byJ. Weir).

English incentive meanings can also be expressed through the combination of the particle long with the modal verb may, which together with the corresponding intonation of the sentence express the meaning close to the Ukrainian exclamatory sentences with the particlexafi or the particles хай же: Long live and prosper our Motherland! May our Motherland live long! Хай/хай же живе і квітне наша Батьківщина!

3. The means of expression as well as those of rendering sub
junctive modality are mostly common with those employed to ex
press optative modality. They are in English the modal verbs
could,
should, would, might or the expressions would rather, would
sooner.
 For example: / would rather come tomorrow than today.
He would sooner resign than take part in such dishonest business
deals. (Kerr) These modal verbs are also used to express the corre
sponding subjunctive meanings in Ukrainian simple and composite
sentences:

«Пішов би в огонь і воду.» «Не would go through thick

(Гончар) and thin/through many trials.»

«Вам би милосердною «You would perfectly suit for

сестрою бути. (Ibid) a hospital nurse.»

4. The expression of subjunctive modality in the composite
sentence of the two languages does not differ from that in their simple
sentences. Allomorphism, i.e., divergence is observed only in the
already mentioned formal expression of incentive meanings with the
help of the so-called subjunctive I mood; the latter does not correlate
with its Ukrainian grammatical and partly semantic expression. For
example: It is necessary that you
(should) come a couple of days
before the others. (Kerr)
Необхідно/треба, щоб ти приїхав за кілька
днів раніше від інших.

The subjunctive I form should come or simply come (It is necessary that you come) used for any person in singular or plural has in Ukrainian the only equivalent verb form in the indicative mood (приїхав).

356


Other English synthetic and analytical subjunctive mood forms in simple and composite sentences have in Ukrainian their morphological and semantic equivalents. Constantly distinguishing among them is that same particle б/би or the conjunction якби, which help to render the meanings of the suppositional and the conditional mood forms into Ukrainian. The use of the modal particle or the conjunction is predetermined by the meaning of the Ukrainian verb and not by the mood or tense form of its English lexical equivalent, which may express actions referring both to present and to future as in the following sentences:

It would be madness to start Було б просто божевіллям in management unless one had братись за організацію трупи, at least three plays. (Maugham) доки нема/не маєш хоча б

трьох п'єс.

«Should Carry come, ask her «На випадок, якби прийшла
to wait." (Dreiser) Керрі, попросіть її'зачекати.»

Similarly rendered are also meanings expressed by the subjunctive II and conditional mood forms of the verb, which may refer to present, past or future. These forms of the verbal predicate have their corresponding paradigmatic equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.:

«But if they had been sent by Але якби вони були послані
ту people to take me away, then нашими, щоб забрати мене, то
І
should not hide." (O'Dell) не треба було б мені ховатись.»

«If he had any sense, he^d «Коли б він був розумнішим.
shut his eyes.» (Maugham) він би заплющив на це очі.»

The clauses which express the subjunctive meanings in English and Ukrainian may have no introductory/connecting conjunction if (якби, копи б):

«Were I less attached to you, «Був би я менш прихильним

І might pretend to gloss it over.» до вас, я б може й прикрасив
(Cronin) це./Будь я не так прихильний»

«... had any stranger been «...никав би був хтось prowling round the house, he сторонній попід будинком, would have been seen by the його був би помітив слуга чи servant or the keepers.» (Wilde) то сторожі.»

The past subjunctive II (had been prowling'] and the past conditional mood paradigm (wouldhave been seen) have in these sentences their corresponding verb forms in Ukrainian. These subjunc-

357


lOf

us.

tive mood forms under the pressure of centuries long domination Russian in Ukraine are mostly substituted for simple past verb forms. Being lexically equivalent and structurally much like their English paradigms, these Ukrainian subjunctive mood forms present an excellent morphological means of expression and must not be neglected when rendering such type of meanings into Ukrainian.

Exercise I. Identify the type of modal meaning (incentive, suppositional, conditional, etc.) expressed by the modal verbs and mood forms in the English sentences below. Suggest the appropriate means and ways for faithful translating these sentences into Ukrainian.

1.1 should have seen them farther first. 2. «I would have it as a gift.» (Galsworthy) 3. «Jacob would have insisted on going to the police.» 4. «Most people, Mr.Poirot, would let this business go.» (Christie) 5. «If only one were like birds!» (Galsworthy) 6. «I should be sorry to interrupt you.» 7. «I suggested we should meet here...» (Snow)

  1.  «I couldn't squeeze a tear out of my eyes, if life depended on it...»
  2.  «A real change of air surroundings would be very helpful if you
    could arrange it.» (M.Wilson)
    10. «The thing was «rich», as his father
    would have said
    - if he knew, I would see her furtherfirst.» (Galsworthy)

  1.  «I wish you had not put yourself to so much trouble.» (Cronin)
  2.  «You had better move over to the other side.» (Hemingway)
  3.  «I wouldn't stay with you, though if you didn't worry me.»
  4.  What a delight it would be if it would endure. 15. «I wouldn't have
    wanted you to come if I hadn't loved you.» (Dreiser)
    16. «He had been
    anxious that morning in case she might take it into her head to come.»
    (Murdoch)
    17. «I'd have been hurt, if you hadn't called». (M.Wilson)
    18. «It wouldn't have been so bad if she hadn't been all alone in the
    house.» (Stout)
    19. «It wouldn't have happened if Douglas hadn't come
    here.» (Spark)
    20. Had he not known, it could be so easy. (Stone)
    21. Even if they had wanted me to stay, I should have refused.
    (Maugham)
    22. Happy they could have been, if they could have dis
    missed me at a month's warning too. (Christie)
    23. She wished she
    had an opportunity of a few words with him, so that she would have
    told him not to worry.
    24. «If you had been in love with him, you wouldn't
    have wanted three days to think it over. You'd have said yes there and
    then.» (Maugham)
    25. And their feet would have yet trod many trails
    and not dusting brushed the clouds aside and cleared the air. (Lon
    don)
    26. «If I had been you, mother, I might have done as you did...»
    (B.Shaw)

358


Exercise II. Identify the modal meanings (optative, incentive, suppositional, etc.) expressed through optative or subjunctive modality in the English sentences below and translate them into Ukrainian.

1. «I wish it hadn't happened. Oh, I wish it hadn't happened.» 2. «If you rested, I would go,» I urged him. (Hemingway)S. «I think I'd better ring off.» 4. «And with time on my side I would look back on the day without bitterness...» 5. «On your way, bums,» the policeman said, prodding us with his billy. (Caldwell) 6. «You go up to bed,» I said, «You are sick». 7. «Don't think,» I said, «Just take it easy.» 8. «Let's not have any ordering, nor any silliness, Francis,» Margot said.9. «Behave yourself.» «Oh, shut up,» Macober almost shouted. 10. «Let's go to the car,» said Macober. «Let's all have a drink. Come along.» 11. «You ought to take some broth to keep your strength up.» 12. «It would have been natural for him to go to sleep.» 13. «I'd rather stay awake.» (Hemingway) 14. «Well, he says himself, he wouldn't have white servants.» 15. «I guess maybe I'd better (shake hands)», she said. «I wouldn't for the world have him think I had any feeling» (here упередженість). 16. «I think I'd better shake hands, just the way I would with anybody else.» (D. Parker) 17. The girls wouldn't have thought so much of him if they'd seen him then. 18. If he couldn't get something to do he'd have to commit suicide. 19. «The swim shouldn't take you much over an hour and a quarter.» (Maugham) 20. «We'd better be getting back,» one of the girls said. 21. «Richard should stay here and I should go up North,» Frank said. (M. Spark) 22. «I wish you hadn't stopped your German,» said Mor. (Murdoch) 23. «If you should happen to change your mind, I'm always ready to take off your hands.» (Bennett) 24. «I expect you've not finished your business. I should be sorry to interrupt.» (Snow) 25. «If Joe were only with him!» (Galsworthy) 26. Happy they could have been, if they could have dismissed me at a month's warning too. 27. «But for your help, the old woman would not have risked crossing the street.» (Kerr) They were ready to attack the intruders, should they prove unfriendly. 28. «If they were hunters, I must hide before they saw me.» (S.O'Dell) 29. If worst came to worst. (Saying) 30. He suggested that they should have a stroll through the Luxembourg (museum).30. Then, perhaps, I'd be able to judge if I could help.31. Even if they had wanted me to stay, I should have refused. (Maugham) 32. If we could get hold of her, we might learn a lot more. (Christie) 33. «I wish you had not put yourself to so much trouble,» Stephen said. (Cronin) 34. «I think I'd sooner have the other one,»

359


said Mr. Povey. (Bennett) 35. «I wouldn't have it as a gift.»(Galsworthy) 36. She wished she had an opportunity of a few words with him so that she would have told him not to worry. (Maugham) 37. «Mike, would you guess I was half Welsh?». 38. «Would you want a job?» «Sure?» «Oh yes, quite sure.» (Trevor)

Exercise III. Analyse the Ukrainian sentences containing optative, incentive or subjunctive modality and translate them into English.

1. Пора було б уже покінчити з балачками про розподіл земель колишніх колгоспів і радгоспів і розпочати їх справжню приватизацію. 2. Студент побоювався, щоб не наробити помилок при перекладі речень з умовним способом. 3. Він напевне не запізнився б, якби сів на автобус «Автосвіту», а не на тролейбус. 4. Хотілося б сподіватися, що в новому тисячолітті людство уникне спустошливих воєн і руйнацій матеріальних цінностей, як це було в двадцятому сторіччі. 5. Що б ви відповіли на таке несподіване запитання допитливого читача? 6. Не хотілося б про це думати, але доводиться за таких обставин. 7. О, як би мені хотілося ще раз побувати на такій виставці творів справді великих майстрів образотворчого мистецтва. 8. Що не кажіть, а такий медичний препарат зробив би справжній переворот у лікуванні алкогольної та тютюнової залежності. 9. Хай вам Бог допомагає у вашій нелегкій і дуже потрібній для виховання патріотизму нашої молоді праці. 10. Хто б міг подумати, що з цього колись звичайного на перший погляд хлопчини стане колись великий спортсмен. 11. Хотілося б вам коли-небудь провести свої зимові канікули у засніжених Карпатах і зустрітися з ровесниками тамтешніх місць? Чому б вам не подумати про таку романтичну подорож уже зараз? 12. Якби не дощ, зараз на Дніпрових пагорбах було б набагато більше киян і гостей. 13. Бути б мені знову з вами на тій пречудовій найвищій горі українських Карпат. А вам хіба не хотілося б ще й ще раз походити влітку карпатськими плаями і подихати цілющим повітрям смерекових гір і квіткових полонин. 14. От якби ми зібралися і всі разом поїхали на екскурсію по історичних місцях Лівобережної України. 15. Якби тії не тиночки та не перелази, ходив би я до дівчини по чотири рази (Народна пісня). 16. Аби ми були те знали, ми б ніколи не вирушали були з дому без парасольок чи дощовиків. 17. Хай супроводжують наших атлетів тільки вдачі на всіх олімпійських змаганнях у новому тисячолітті. 18. Скласти б успішно іспити і попрацювати добре фізично влітку. 19. Був би я на вашому місці, я б, звичайно, з радістю погодився їхати перекладачем з

360


делегацією до Рима. 20. На випадок, якби вона зателефонувала, що б я мав сказати про твою відсутність? 21. Тільки б вони не запізнилися на поїзд, як було того разу, коли вони навряд чи встигли б, якби були не взяли таксі. 22. Я б радніше пішов пішки, якби не було так слизько. А ти б хіба пішов, якби ще й падав сніг? Мабуть-таки й пішов би. 23. А що, якби справи тоді обернулися були по-іншому? 24. Тоді мені треба було вперш добре все зважити. 25. Пора б уже зважити всі «за» і «проти». 26. «Тоді чого б це він так підлещувався до мене? -А звідки мені це знати?»

TRANSFORMATION IN THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION

The student, who followed the preceding pages with attention, could not have failed to notice that some sense units of the source language retained their sense and structure in the target language unchanged, whereas others had retained only their content/meaning unchanged, but altered or completely changed their original/source language form. The kind of major and minor alterations in the structural form of language units performed with the aim of achieving faithfulness in translation are referred to as translator's transformations. They are carried out either because of the incompatibility of the target language means of expression, which makes the transplantation of some source language units to it impossible, or in order to retain the style of the source language passage and thus maintain the expressiveness of the source language sense units. Naturally, not all sense units need to be structurally transformed in the process of translation, a considerable number of them are also transplanted to the target language in the form, meaning and structure of the original, i.e., unchanged or little changed. Among these, as could be seen on the foregoing chapters, are the following classes of language/sense units:

  1.  Most of genuine internationalisms (words, word-groups, sen
    tences), some idiomatic expressions, culturally biased notions. For
    example: begon/a
    бегонія, computerization комп'ютеризація, mar-
    /cef/пдмаркетині1, electron електрон, іґіеогегтеорема, gentleman,
    джентльмен, chemical reaction, хімічна реакція, democratic sys
    tem
    демократична система, finita la commedia фініта ля комедія
    (ділу кінець),
    veni, vidi, viciприйшов, побачив, переміг, etc.
  2.  Many loan internationalisms which maintain in the target
    language the same meaning and often the same structural form but

361


have a different phonetic structure (sounding). Cf.: agreement/concord (gram), узгодження, adjoinment/juxtaposition прилягання, word-formation словотвір, the complex sentence складнопідрядне речення, subordination підрядний зв'язок, longitude (geogr.) довгота, latitude широта, horse power кінська сила, standard of living життєвий рівень, etc. 3) Almost all proper nouns of various subclasses (names of people, family names and geographical names, etc.): An/id Арвід, Dora Дора, Floy Флой, Сгопіп Кронін, Newton Ньютон, Longfellow Лонґфелло, Boston Бостон, Newfoundland Ньюфаундленд, Ohio Огайо, Hyderabad Гайдерабад, General Motors Corp. корпорація «Дженерал Моторз», Playboy Magazine журнал «Плейбой», etc.

Some proper names and family names, as well as geographical names, names of companies/corporations, firms, titles of newspapers, magazines/journals, as has been shown already in Chapter II, do not always completely retain their source language form in the target language, e.g.: Mary Stewart Марія Стюарт. Charles V король Карл П'ятий, Lorraine Лотарінґія. Munich Мюнхен, Cologne Кельн, Leghorn Ліворно, Continental Airlines американська авіакомпанія «Контінентал ейрлайнз», Boston Globe and Mail Бретонська газета «Ґлоуб енд мейл», USA Today американська газета «Ю-Ес-Ей Тудей», «Sports» американська спортивна газета «Спорте», etc. These and many other proper nouns acquire in the target language a somewhat different sounding and additional explication (cf. американська газета), which often extend their structure as compared with that in the source language (cf. Reuters інформаційне агентство Великої Британії «Рейтер»). As a result, there is not always the same structural «dimension» (because of transformation) of the source language units in the target language, where they are partly transformed, as a rule.

A considerable number of different proper nouns do not maintain their form or structure due to the historic tradition or because of the lack of the corresponding sounds in the target language. Cf.: Варшава Warsaw, Москва Moscow, Запоріжжя Zaporizhya, Харків Kharkiv, etc. The lingual (sounding) structure of these and some other geographical names somewhat differs from that in the source language, because Zaporizhya, Kharkiv or Khrushch do not fully reflect their authentic Ukrainian sounding. But since the English language has no [г, й, ц, ц', х, р, дз'] sounds/phonemes and the Ukrainian language has no [9,6, a , r), r, h] and other sounds, the spelling forms like Tsarenko for Царенко, Zayarya for Заяр'я or Текерей. Рут for

362


Thackerey, Ruth should be considered as justified and, therefore, correct, in other words faithfully turned in either of these two languages. Such and the like (or more complicated) alterations and changes constantly take place in the process of translation both at word level and at syntactic level. Hence, from what was shortly shown on the examples above, one can draw an irrefutable conclusion that translation of sense units at the language level, i.e., at the level they belong to in the source language, represents nothing else than a process of constant transformations. The most regular if not the most frequent of these are the following two:

  1.  «inner» or implicit transformations taking place at the lexi
    cal/semantic level of the target language as compared with the corre
    sponding source language units;
  2.  «outer» or explicit transformations causing some alterations
    in the target language as compared with the structure of the corre
    sponding sense units of the source language units.

A vivid illustration of «inner» transformation is realized in genuine internationalisms through their synonymous or polysemantic meanings. For example, the noun icon apart from its direct Ukrainian meaning ікона may have in some context also the meanings зображення, портрет, статуя. Any of the last three forms of the word ікона represents an implicit/inner transformation of icon. Similarly with the noun idea which may mean apart from its genuine international sense ідея also думка, задум, гадка. When realised in its faithful translation through any of these three last meanings, it exemplifies an inner/implicit translators' transformation.

Similar «deviations» from the direct and main meaning may be observed in many more translated English genuine internationalisms. For example: idiomatic ідіоматичний/фразеологічний but also властивий/ характерний, притаманний, специфічний. (Cf. idiomatic English англійська мова з характерними їй рисами, властивостями, but not англійський текст, що складається з ідіоматичних виразів); illumination ілюмінація, освітлення and also пояснення/оздоблення (рукопису, книжки); illustration ілюстрація, малюнок and also пояснення, приклад.

Sometimes the meaning («inner form») of an internationalism or any other language unit may be absolutely unexpected for an unexperienced translator or interpreter. Cf.: imitation 1. імітація; 2. наслідування and сурогат, заміна, замінник Cf.: imitation coffee замінник кави, ерзац-кава; intonation 1. інтонація; 2. модуляція голосу and спів речитативом/співання перших слів пісні; militia

363


  1.  міліція; 2. народне ополчення (іст.) в Англії; militiaman (іст.)
    ополченець and also міліціонер; national 1. національний;
  2.  народний and державний, збройний (CL: national forces of Ukraine
    збройні сили України);
    nationalist 1. націоналіст, 2. борець за права
    свого народу, за незалежність своєї батьківщини, за її
    державність,
    i.e.   патріот   своєї батьківщини;   realize
    1. реалізовувати, здійснювати', 2. уявляти собі, розуміти чітко
    and давати прибуток, нагромаджувати кошти, багатство.
    Therefore, inner or implicit transformations disclose the semantic
    potential of the source language units in the target language. The
    oute//axp//crttransformation is performed in the process of translation
    practically on any type of the source language sense unit; already the
    change of the Roman type
    (шрифт) for the Ukrainian or Arabic one
    presents an explicit or outer transformation (cf.
    Львів Lviv, Чоп Chop).
    A kind of combined explicit and implicit transformation may some
    times take place too. Thus, the proper name
    John, for example, may
    have three outer/contextual explicit realizations of its implicit mean
    ings in Ukrainian:
    1. Джон as in Джон Буль, Джон Кітс; 2. Іван as in
    Pope John Paul II папа Іван Павло Другий; 3. Іоанназіп King John
    І король Іоанн І,
    John the Baptist Іоанн Хреститель.

Apart from the notionals many functionals may undergo inner/ implicit transformations in the process of their translation as well. For example, the word yet may realize its lexical potential as follows: adverb (need you go yet? Тобі вже треба йти?); conjunction (though young yet experienced хоч і молодий, але/проте досвідчений); the word ncwwhich may be adverb (he is here now); noun (he is there by now Він уже там на цей час); conjunction (we may start, now the work is over Ми можемо вирушати, оскільки робота закінчена). Even the functional word the has two different realizations: 1. that of the grammatical determiner (definite article) and that of a particle as in the sooner the better чим швидше, тим краще. Inner transformations, therefore, may be performed on most sense units.

Outer/explicit transformations may sometimes change the structural form of the sense unit under translation. Thus, the noun the Orkneys becomes a word-group Оркнейські острови and the Hebrides becomes Гебрідські острови, whereas Labrador becomes півострів Лабрадор, and vice versa: some Ukrainian and English word-groups, proper names are transformed in the target language into single words: Ладозьке озеро - Ladoga, Онезьке озеро - Onega, Уральські гори - the Urals, the Antarctic Continent - Антарктика, the Artctic Region - Арктика, etc.

364


A peculiar type of outer transformation is observed at the phonetic/phonological level, when conveying different types of proper names, internationalisms and some lexical units designating specifically national (culturally-biased) elements of the source language. The outer transformation of the source language units in this case finds its expression only in adopting their spelling and sounding forms to the corresponding target language phonetic/phonological system, which usually differs from that of the source language. For example: acoustics [g'kuistiks] акустика, assembly [ a'sembli] асамблея, ceremony ['serimani] церемонія, discussion [dis'k/Jn] дискусія, etc.

A great number of phonetic/phonological transformations of the kind had been performed in the course of our history of translation. As a result, different types of various proper and other nouns have been already adopted by our language both directly and through mediating languages (Polish or Russian).

In the process of this adoption many different proper names of people and geographical names have acquired in Ukrainian a partly transformed phonetic/phonological, i.e., outer structural form. Cf.: Ireland [aialand] Ірландія, Maine [mein] Мен (штат Мен), Ulster [Alsta] Ольстер, Thessaly [беззіі] Фессалія, Thesalonica [9esal8'nai:ka] Салоніки, Фесалоніки, Rwanda [ru:'anda] Руанда, etc. Others acquired a unified outer form to express different notions: Algeria [ael'djieri'e] Алжир (країна), Algiers [eel'crjiaz] Алжир (столиця), Tunisia Туніс (країна), Tunis Туніс (столиця).

The observant reader could not have missed to notice that the outer forms of some of the above-given nouns were not everywhere linguistically justified, as their outer presentation contradicts the latest rule of Romanization of Ukrainian proper names and the rule of Ukrainization of foreign proper names respectively. In accordance with these rules the U.S. state of Maine, should be Мейн, Ulster should be Альстер or Алстер, and Thessalia, Thesalonica -Тессалія and Тесалоніка. Nevertheless, the outerform of these and many other nouns still remains in their traditional presentation, which was in some period of the past introduced in a wrong translators' transcription, cf.: Athens Афіни instead of Атени (as терапевт), etc.

A lot of other language units have either completely or partly changed their outer form according to the requirements of the target language. Cf.: arcuate аркоподібний, bachelor бакалавр, charter хартія, de/7/епродефілювати, frterapeuf/стерапевтичний, etc. Many loan internationalisms, on the other hand, maintain their inner and outerform in Ukrainian. Cf.: сазевідмінок, tense formnacoBa форма,

365


syntactic relations синтаксичні відношення, syntactic connection синтаксичний зв'язок, etc.

The outer form of many language units of the source language may, naturally, differ from its structural presentation in the target language. Thus, the sense of several simple words may be expressed through word-groups: асЛ/алсе_робити успіхи, drive просуватись уперед, quantify визначати кількість/встановлювати кількість; зарибити to put young fish into the pond, збити to knock down/to knock down together, перемерзати/перемерзнути to get chilled, to be nipped by the frost.

Compound words on the other hand may 1) maintain their outer form/structure in the target language: 1) easy-going добродушний, first-rate першорядний, fireproof вогнетривкий, fourfold чотирикратний, free-thinker вільнодумець; 2) they may be transformed into semantically corresponding word-groups: dew-fall випадання роси, bed-fast прикутий до ліжка (хворобою), spotlight прожектор для підсвічування, squaw-man(Атег.) білий/одружений з індіанкою; 3) they may turn in Ukrainian into simple words: ear-rings сережки, dress-coat фрак, mother-in-law свекруха/теща, ink-pot чорнильниця, operating-room операційна, son-in-law зять, glass-house теплиця/оранжерея, go-aneacf заповзятливий, etc.

Similar outer (structural) and inner (lexico-semantic) transformations are often resorted to when rendering the meaning of specific notions of national lexicon, namely: 1) when a single-word notion of the source language is translated by means of a single word (when the notions are internationalisms): mister, miss, lady, lord, barter, etc., містер, міс, леді, бартер тощо. 2) when a word-group notion is conveyed through a common word: little /Wa/y(jocul.) шлунок, Lord Harry чорт/чортяка, the outward man одежа (людини), for ever and a day назавжди /навіки, to turn one's way зникнути (втекти). 3) when a word-group structure of a specific source language notion is rendered through a sentence structure: Nosy Porker людина/той що втручається в чужі справи; Lazy Зизалстолик, на якому розвозять/ подають бутерброди/до чаю; doctor Fell людина, що викликає до себе антипатію; the Centennial Stateiujai Колорадо, який увійшов до складу США 1876 р. в сторіччя проголошення незалежності США; K-ration (milit. Amer.) індивідуальний військовий пайок, що складається виключно з консервів. Very often, the structural (outer) forms of some sense units may also coincide. Thus, the word-group structures of the source language are not changed in the target language: straight А «кругле» п'ять (оцінка), London particular (co\\oq.)

366


густий лондонський туман, sane andsouncf(jocul.) живий і здоровий, in one's birthday suit (jocul.) «в Адамовій одежі» (голий), the Sunflower sfafe(colloq. American) соняшниковий штат (Канзас), etc. But complete transformations are often performed when rendering the meaning of idiomatic expressions, especially of those based on specific notions of the national lexicon. Cf.: the Dutch have captured НоІІапдце всі знають, це всім відомо (пор. «відкрив Америку»); Queen Ann is cteac/це вже старе/це вже чули; the boot is on the other Іедце зовсім не так, усе якраз навпаки; or in Ukrainian: курям на сміх for cats and dogs to laugh at, у нього (неї) всі кози в золоті he/she presents things much better than they in reality are, he/she bounces too much boasts or: pretends to have something in abundance, etc.

All these outer transformations were prearranged by the semantic aims, i.e., they were used to express as fully and faithfully as possible the sense of the source language units in the target language. The translator here is mostly free to deliberately choose any sense unit of any structural form in order to convey faithfully the meaning of the source language unit. Thus, when translating the word trifle as a unit of the English culturally biased lexicon the translator is free to choose deliberately any of the three possible equivalents: 1) солодка страва; 2) солодкі бісквіти; 3) солодкі бісквіти, просочені вином (часом із варенням). The choice of this or that Ukrainian equivalent transform among these three is also conditioned by the personal preference of this or that equivalent and by the context requiring correspondingly a more or less extended information of the reader about this or that English specific national notion.

GRAMMATICALLY AND STYLISTICALLY PREARRANGED TRANSFORMATIONS

Apart from the semantically conditioned outer transformations, a bulk of sense units of the source language can be faithfully translated into the target language only through their structurally transformed semantic equivalents. Such kind of transformations usually become necessary because of the difference in the means of expression in the target language. They are mainly employed in the following cases: 1) when translating antonymically; 2) when rendering the meaning of most passive constructions, and 3) when translating sentences with an inverted order of words.

Antonymic translation, as was already mentioned, requires a) an obligatory substitution of an affirmative in sense and structure

367


source language unit for a semantically corresponding negative in structure sense unit of the target language:

«For the thousandth time I've «Тисячний раз тобі кажу, told you, to keep your nose out не втручайся ти в цю справу» of the business». (J. London) /Будь подалі від цієї справи.

Fair words fat few. (Proverb)         Гарні слова не нагодують.

This proverb may also have some other antonymic versions, which faithfully convey its meaning via an explicit form in Ukrainian: Від гарних слів їсти не перехочеться /гарними словами голод не проженеш (не вгамуєш).

b) A reverse transformation of negative in structure sense units of the source language into semanticaliy equivalent affirmative in structure sense units in the target language is no less frequent in both languages either:

In reality, of course, the doc- Насправді ж лікар має

tor hasn't the least idea about тільки туманне уявлення про
what is wrong. (Cronin) цю хворобу (шахтарів).

«Can't I have a little peace ?» «Ви можете дати мені
(Ibid.) спокій?»

When stylistically required, the transformation may sometimes be avoided, as in the first sentence above: Насправді ж лікар не має навіть найменшого уявлення про хворобу.

The choice of the form of expression/transformation usually rests with the translator only, who takes into account the contextual environment of each sense unit which is to be translated. As a result, there may sometimes be different explicit forms of realization of sense units in the target language, as can be seen from the given sentences in the exercise below.

Exercise I. Analyse the underlined English sense units and offer ways of their explicit transformation in Ukrainian translation of the sentences.

1. He was not slow, however, in perceiving that he had now his excuse forgoing home. 2. «Here you are then, Soames,» she said,j«l am not so bad now.» 3. «I don't dislike you, Mr. Mont, but Fleur is everything to me.» (Galsworthy) 4. «No. I don't believe I don't remember the name.» (K.Mansfield) 5. «Did this nigger boy set fire to Mr. Feakens's old yellow house?» «No more than you did.» (Saroyan)6. It was not unknown for small boys to enter a monastery. (Ken Follet) 7. It was no uncommon sight to see Gadge drooping across the waiting room with a prescription in his hand. 8. «Doctor», she said in her brisk

368


way, «my husband is not well». 9. «Well, I did take it. And it was not an unconsideredact.» 10. «I think we are not doing too badly.» 11. It was not unnatural to take it (illness) back into his own hands. (Cronin)

  1.  «I didn't care a hang whether the soap was in or whether it wasn't.»
  2.  «Girls, also, don't look half bad in a boat, if prettily dressed.»
  3.  The first thing that they thought was the boat was not clean.
    (J.K. Jerome) 15. Miss Bingley was by no means unwilling to preside
    at his table. (I. Austen)
    16. He could not be unaware that every one
    regarded him as a bit a hero. (Cusack)
    17. In this case widowhood (of
    Mary Stewart)
    was not unwelcome, as she was a girl of eighteen, and
    her husband a prematurely aged sick man of fifty-three.
    18. He (Prince
    of Wales) was
    not infrequently the companion of his father on some of
    his journeys into the country. (Jerrold)
    19. «You don't mind my being
    frank, do you?».
    20. They were not handsome creatures. (London)
    21. It was not til I the dawn crept into the room, ghostlike and silent, that
    he fell asleep. (Maugham)
    22. «I didn't have much lunch. Doctor.»

  1.  «You aren't going to have anything to do with that feller, Doctor?»
  2.  The sound, not unlike the rat-a-tat-tat of parade drums, heralded
    Hickock's arrival. (Capote)
    25. «And that's your final word?» «It could
    not be more final.» 26. «The public are not slow in the matter of sifting
    evidence and arriving at a verdict.»
    26. «Don't you think you might be
    able to use me when you get back?»
    27. «I dislike these bastards».
    (Hemingway)
    28. Frank Cowperwood cared nothing for books. (Dreiser)

STYLISTICALLY/SUBJECTIVELY PREDETERMINED TRANSFORMATIONS

In many a case transformations of sense units are performed for the sake of achieving a fuller expressiveness. Thus, in the sentence «JjMiernernber you are working for Doctor Page.» (Cronin) the underlined part may have two semantically equivalent variants: 1. «Ib ж пам'ятайте», що ви працюєте на лікаря Пеіджа» or «He забувайте. що ви працюєте на лікаря Пеіджа». The second variant, however, is somewhat stronger since it implies threat. To achieve more expressiveness, the translator may change the outer and inner form of the sense unit in the target language, as in the sentence «We have stacked piles of brickbats under the corners of the piano box to keep the floor QLit dry.» (Caldwell) 1. Щоб утримувати підлогу сухою, ми попідкладали битої цегли під кути ящика з-під піаніно; 2. Щоб не затікала вода, ми попідкладали битої цегли під кути ящика з-під піаніно.

369


Stylistically/subjectively predetermined is always the choice of the inner (content) form of a sense unit in the target language. Cf.: I feel well. (Hemingway) Я почуваюся непогано (добре). A shell fell close. (Ibid.) Неподалік/поруч вибухнув снаряд. Consequently, any transformation is aimed at a more exact (and more faithful) rendering of the source language units into the target language.

Exercise II. Suggest for the underlined parts of the sentences subjectively/stylistically or semantically predetermined outer/inner transformations and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «For she scarcely took her eyes from the ground and she was timid and afraid.» 2. «Priest wants us never to attack.» 3. «I dislike these bastards.» 4. «He was rude, to say the least of it.» (Christie) 5. Four men in their shirt-sleeves stood grouped together on the garden path. (Mansfield) 6.1 told her to keep away this morning. (Greene) 7. They spoke little and much of what they said was in the Welsh tongue. 8. Indeed she was so eager to make much of him she could barely frame a word. (Cronin) 9. His voice was final and Erik could see that he was exerting his authority. 10. «What difference does it make «It makes all the difference in the word». 11. Haviland had overlooked the presentation of his name. 12. He met Erik's silent question without coloring but he smiled. 13. «Was that all he said?». 14. «The lab is still open, isn't it?». (M.Wilson) 15. «Wait till you see.» 16. «But if nobody spoke unless he had something to say. Roman race would soon lose the use of speech." (Dreiser)

  1.  «Eat till you can just stagger across the room with it.» (S.Leacock)
  2.  «You can stay there until you're old enough to go away.» (Saroyan)
  3.  « I wish I had known it was your friend.» (Wilde) 20. «I fed well.»
    (Hemingway) 21. «You better stop pushing.» (Maugham) 22. «You
    came out of Court
    with clean hands.» (Galsworthy) 23. «Keep your
    head.» Blound insisted soothingly. 24. «He hated her and could not
    get along with her.»
    25. The little shop girl was getting into deep water.
    (Dreiser)
    26. It was the first time he had given way to anger with her.
    (Galsworthy)

WAYS OF CONVEYING THE PASSIVE VOICE CONSTRUCTIONS

It is common knowledge that the quantitative representation of the passive voice constructions in English by far exceeds that in Ukrainian. This is not reflected, naturally, in translation since En-

370


glish passive constructions are far from always transplanted to Ukrainian sentences. The much larger quantity of passive constructions in English is explained 1). by the ability of not only the direct but also of the indirect and prepositional objects to perform the function of the subject to the predicate in the passive voice; 2). by the ability of several intransitive verbs to become transitive and take a direct object, and consequently form the passive voice (cf. Her dog is often walked by her brother. The office is run by Mr.Brown). No transpositions of such type are possible in Ukrainian where only the direct object can be transformed into the subject of the sentence in the passive voice. Nevertheless, the meaning of the passive voice may sometimes be maintained, though expressed then not with the help of the analytical means. This can be seen from the following English sentence:

He was offered a better job of Йому кимсь пропонувалась
some sort of somebody or other, нібито якась навіть краща
(Saroyan) робота.

Parallel to this Ukrainian version and less common or less faithful is one more version and way via the active form of the verbal predicate: йому буцімто хтось пропонував кращу роботу or: йому нібито десь пропонували кращу роботу. A similar expression is also possible in English: some sort of somebody offered him a better job, which the author (Saroyan) ignored in his sentence above.

Some ways of expressing the passive voice in both languages may coincide in form and structure, as can be seen in the first sentence below; others should be transformed (as in the second sentence), in der other to achieve faithfulness in translation:

She was faintly disturbed by Вона була дещо
what mother had said, стурбована тим, що сказала
(Maugham) їїмати.

If the U.N. peace plan is Якщо план мирного
implemented, frozen Serb assets врегулювання ООН буде
in the USA would be released, здійснений, заморожені рахунки
(
USA Today) Сербії у США... будуть відпущені.

The passive constructions in the above sentences, however, may not necessarily be rendered into Ukrainian through passive equivalents only. Other contextual variants may also be suggested by the translator, for example: вона була трохи стурбована - її трохи турбувало, рахунки будуть відпущені - рахунки

371


розморозять/відпустять.

Nevertheless, English passive forms referring to present tense have mostly no structural equivalents in Ukrainian where the auxiliary verb to be (є) is usually omitted and the past participle acquires other morphological (e.g., finite form) and semantic expression. Cf.:

Rescue efforts are being ham- Рятувальним роботам
pered by dozens of aftershocks, перешкоджають повторні
below-freezing temperatures, поштовхи і температура, що
(Ibid.) падає нижче нуля.

One more faithful Ukrainian transformation of this passive sentence construction may be achieved by way of conveying it through the so-called middle voice form ог-ся/-сь verb: Рятувальні роботи утруднюються повторними підземними поштовхами і температурою, що падає нижче нуля.

Depending on the form of the passive construction and still more on the lexical verbal meaning, this voice form may have in Ukrainian some still other transformations, which express the same meaning of the passive construction; they may acquire the following outer forms of expression in Ukrainian:

a) that of an indefinite personal sentence/clause:

«I am told that pork-packing         Кажуть,  що в Америці

is the most luckrative profession пакування свинини - найбільш

after politics in America.» прибуткова   праця   після

(О. Wilde) політики.

b) that of a single predicative word/simple nominal predicate:
«They'reprepared to sacrifice        «Вониладні пожертвувати

everything to satisfy their yearn-    всім,   аби   задовольнити/
ing.» (Maugham) здійснити своє прагнення.»

c) a finite form of the verb/simple verbal predicate:

He has never been answered. Його ще ніхто і ніколи не
(B.Aidiss) спростував.

d) an indefinite personal past participle ending in -но/ -то:

It is a sound instinct of the Це здоровий глузд

common people which per- простого люду переконує

suades that this all, that needs його, таким чином, що все те,

to be said, is said. (Maugham) що треба сказати. - сказано.

The room had certainly been У   кімнаті   безперечно

372


transformed. (I.Murdoch) зроблено перестановку.

e) any other contextual and structural substitution of the English passive voice predicate verb:

«I must be left to myself for а «Я повинен якийсь час

while.» (Hemingway) побути сам/самим із собою.»

«If Isabel had come in then, І «Якби Ізабель була зайшла

suppose I'd be married to Larry тоді, мабуть зараз я була б

now.» (Maugham) замужем за Пері.»

The passive structure sense units of both the English sentences, as can be seen, are practically translated into Ukrainian irt a descriptive way, i.e., avoiding their source language outer structure. Nevertheless grammatically correct, though literal and stylistically not quite appropriate or justified, would also be passive variant constructions in Ukrainian: 1). Я мусив бути залишений самим; 2). Я була б замужем/була б одружена з Лері.

Not infrequently the Ukrainian past participle in its predicative function may be one, if not the only possible passive form equivalent of the English passive construction in Ukrainian, as in the following sentence:

«Their children slept, their «'(хні діти спали, і (їхня)
gate was shut for the nightбрама була зачинена на ніч.»
(Fitzgerald) (І браму зачинили на ніч?)

The passive voice constructions with the prepositional object as their subject have generally no equivalent passive constructions in Ukrainian. These are rendered then with the help of the indefinite personal forms of the verb (sometimes through reflexive verbs):

«Why do you not answer        «Чому ви не відповідаєте, when you are spoken to?»    коли до вас звертаються?» (Galsworthy)

I may say, that he is rightly я можу сказати, що у
looked upon by all the publishing видавничих колах його
business as one of the mainstays справедливо вважають однією
of literature in America. 3 головних постатей в
(Leacock) американській літературі.

Consequently, some English passive voice constructions often change their outer and inner form and become active voice forms in Ukrainian. The main concern of the translator, in this case then,

373


must be not so much the structural form of a source language sense unit, than its contextual meaning and, respectively, its form of realization/presentation in the target language.

Exercise I. Offer possible Ukrainian non-passive transforms/outer forms for the English passive voice constructions and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. He was haunted by a fear. 2. Also he was rendered self-conscious by the company. (London) 3. It (furniture) was given to us as a wedding present by Mr. Bradley's father. 4. They entertained lavishly and were lavishly entertained. 5. Gregory Brabazov was in Chicago at the time the purchase was made and the decoration (of the house) was entrusted to him. 6. I had recently brought out a successful novel - and I had no sooner arrived than I was interviewed. 7. There are men who are possessed by an urge so strong to do some particular thing that they can't help themselves. 8. He was so incommunicable that I was forced to the conclusion that he had asked me to lunch with him merely to enjoy my company. 9. But here she encountered in her husband an obstinacy, which she had not for years been accustomed to. 10. She was puzzled by Isabel. 11. «I'm told she's rather good.» (Maugham) 12. She might have been asked to go too. 13. What luck that the boy had not been caught by that ghastly war. He might so easily have been killed, like poor Jolly twenty years ago out in the Transvaal. (Galsworthy) 14. «I'm afraid a lot of your private papers were burned.» (Leacock) 15. And when the Indian veteran came there, he was told the blunt truth. (D.Carter) 16. «I suppose in about a fortnight we shall be told that he has been seen in San Francisco.» (Wilde) 17. Immediately after their marriage Couperwood and Aileen journeyed to Chicago direct and they were given there the best room that Frencout provided for the time being. 18. Caroline, or Sister Carry - was possessed of a mind rudimentary in its power of observation and analysis. 19. In certain emergencies he was called to assist his father, and was paid for it. (Dreiser) 20. - only after a minute did she realize that she had been awakened by a knock at their saloon door. (Fitzgerald) 21. People have been asking those questions for thousands of years and they could be answered, surely they'd have been answered, by now. (Maugham) 22. «We've been sort of pals and it's not my business to talk unless I'm spoken to.» (J.K. Jerome) 23. Clovis was sent for in haste, and the development of the situation was put before him. (H.Munro) 24. We were ques-

374


tioned, all of us. (Defoe) 25. The door was opened by a tall and stout Negro butler with white hair and we were ushered into the drawing-room. 26. Most of the actors wanted to think Logan was crying because he was being arrested. (L.Hughes) 27. «I am urgently needed at Apia,» said Dr. Macphail. 28. «Young Bossiney has been run over in the fog and killed.» 29. «Water was given her.» (Galsworthy) 30. He was beaten. 31.1 was surprised that I had been asked to this party. 32. The two persons, who were hustled away, did not take it well. 33. They were made for the third Duke of Dorset and they're almost priceless. 34. She was a trifle taken aback that it had all gone so easily. 35 . «I presume that in a day or two we shall be fixed up for the rest of the season.» (Maugham) 36. «I was desired by that gentleman to identify the wearer of a very uncommon coat - a bright blue dress coat, with a gilt button, displaying a bust, and the letters «P.C.» (Dickens) 37. «Was Coleman being told here and now, as a newcomer, not to rock the boat?»1 (Hailey) 38. «Mr. Afghan North was robbed and he made a complaint.» 39. «The car had been built on a special chassis in America.» (Fitzgerald) 40. She was received only by Ting-a-Ling, who had his back to the fire, and took no notice beyond a stare. (Galsworthy) 41.1 was wired for. (C.Doyle) 42. Some things had been lost sight of. (Galsworthy) 43. The bed had not even been lain on. (Dickens) 44. She was told that a message could be left for him. (M.Wilson) 45. Do not pass judgement, that you may not be judged. 46. You either make both tree and fruit to be rotten; for the tree is known by its fruit. (Bible). 47. She hastened around to the side entrance and was taken up by the elevator to the fourth floor. (Dreiser) 48. «Not a word of it, in my interpretation, is actually spoken.» (S. Leacock) 49. «They're not the sort of people I've been brought up with.» 50. Isabel appeared to be delighted and Mrs. Bradley was reassured. 51. She was rather pretty and I was rather taken with her. 52. Face and neck were deeply burnt by the sun. (Maugham). 53. «Sophia, I'm not going to be talked to like this.» (Bennett) 54. One leg was gone and the other was held by tendons and part of the trousers and the stump twitched and jerked as though it were not connected. (Hemingway) 55. His coming had not been looked for. (Greene) 56. He was given up to his dream. (K.Mansfield) 57.1 was wanted in the dining-room. (Bronte)

1 to rock the boat (coll.) підривати авторитет установи.

375


OBJECTIVELY REQUIRED AND SUBJECTIVELY

INTRODUCED/CONTEXTUAL TRANSFORMATIONS

OF LANGUAGE UNITS

As has been shown, there may be two types of transformations resorted to in the process of translation: 1. objectively required/ conditioned by the peculiarities of the target language, i.e., inevitable, and 2. subjectively introduced at the translator's own will and therefore not always unavoidable. Either of them requires structural/ outer alterations of the source language units in the target language. Moreover, each type of these transformations may be realized both on the syntactic as well as on the lexical level units. Cf. His holidays had been spent at Robin Hill with boy friends, or with his parents. (Galsworthy) - канікули він проводив у Робін Плі з товаришами чи з батьками. Here the passive voice syntaxeme had been spent must have been changed in Ukrainian into the active voice form. Objectively predetermined are also transformations of the objective with the infinitive or participle constructions/complexes, gerundial and nominative absolute participial constructions, national idioms, etc. In these cases a simple English sentence may turn into a complex sentence. Cf.:

«It (music) seems to be right «Здається, ніби музика в
in them.» (D.Parker) них просто в крові».

« When do you want me to do «Коли ви хочете, щоб я це
it(Maugham) зробив?»

The outer form/structure of the language unit may be deliberately changed in the target language, when it requires a concretiza-tion. As a result, the structure of the sense unit is often extended or shortened in the target language without changing its proper meaning. For example, the personal pronoun ft and the auxiliary verb do. when concretized in the Ukrainian translation may be substituted for a noun phrase and an objective word-group:

«Why did you do it?» the/she- «Ти навіщо підпалив
riff said. «I didn't do it,» Johnny будинок?» - запитав шериф. -
said. (Saroyan) «я не підпалював його.» -

відповів Джонні.

The predicative word-groups підпалив будинок and його не підпалював become necessary in Ukrainian in order to explicate

376


properly the meaning of the verb do and the pronoun it, which can be achieved only in a descriptive way, i.e., through transformation.

Also semantically and stylistically predetermined are all translator's transformations through addition, which are resorted to with the aim of achieving the necessary expressiveness. Additions become necessary in the target language either in order to express more clearly the content of the source language unit, or for the sake of achieving some stylistic effect. Cf.:

When a girl leaves her home Коли дівчина залишає
at eighteen. she does one of two домівку у вісімнадцять років, з
things - (Dreiser) нею трапляється одне з двох...

«I'm so glad you've asked me, «Я дуже радий, що ти мене
darling.» (Maugham) запитала про це. люба.»

The additions made in the first and in the second Ukrainian sentences are both lexical and syntactic, since the first of them completes the sentence through the formation of the attributive word-group (вісімнадцять років), and the second complements the objective verb and forms an objective word-group, which completes the object clause and the sentence as a whole (що ти мене запитала про це).

A semantic or syntactic addition used with the aim of concreti-zation may become necessary in the target language in order to maintain the peculiar way of expression or to complete the structure of the sense unit in the language of translation. For example:

There was just enough room У ящикові було місце лише для
for us two in the crate, and if the нас двох, і якщо бананова
straw was not evenly strewn, it підстилка не була рівномірно
made lumps under our backs, розгорнута, вона збивалася в
(Caldwell) жмутки і муляла нам у боки.

The objective word-group муляла нам у боки is a semantically stable expression in Ukrainian and it can not exist without the verb муляти, which functions as its syntactic head. Similar additions for the sake of concretization become inevitable in the target language when dealing with local place names and specifically national notions of the source language. For example:

Він мешкає у Києві на Подолі, а працює там на Сирці.

Не lives in the Podil district of Kyiv and works there in the Syrets' residential area of the city.

There is no mention in the        В офіційній інструкції мініс-

377


Home Office list of any such in-    терства внутрішніх справ і
dustrial desease. (Cronin) згадки нема про таке професій-

не захворювання (шахтарів).

The Home Office (list) has been concretized by way of an explicatory translation, i.e., by adding the word (noun) міністерство which is contextually required in the Ukrainian translation.

Often occurring among various translators' transformations are also omissions, which may be of two types: a) objectively required, i.e., inevitable and b) casual or subjectively introduced. The former are conditioned by the grammar phenomena which are not available in the target language. Thus, objectively omitted are auxiliary verbs, determining articles or pronouns (cf. he has his hands in his pockets він тримає руки в кишенях), individual barbarisms, as in the sentence below:

«Oh, I like them. I really do.» «О, вони подобаються мені.
(D.Parker) Справді.»

«Goodness, I'm so crazy «Боже мій, я у такій
about music and everything. І нестямі від музики, що мені
don't care what colour he is.» байдуже, якого він (артист)
(Ibid.) кольору.»

Here the sentence "I really do." is reduced to one-word sentence "Справді." The word «everything» in the second sentence is a barbarism of a character in the story, which the translator found obsolete, of no need to transplant it to the Ukrainian translation of this sentence.

Very often, however, a sense unit may be omitted in the language of translation for stylistic reasons, when it is necessary, for example, to avoid a repeated use of the same sense unit in adjacent sentences, as in the following sentence:

She turned aghast towards Вона з жахом/приголомшена
the bed. (Salinger) обернулась.

Since the noun bed was already mentioned in the preceding sentence of the passage, the translator found it necessary to omit it in the Ukrainian version, which could not be made, naturally, if the sentence were singled out (separated) from the text and translated as a separate language unit.

Casual subjective omissions of this kind usually do not change the general content of the sentence/passage, though they may alter

378


to some extent the author's emphasis made in the sentence of the source language, as can be seen in the following translation:

/ was learning fast, but І Я навчалася швидко, але не
learned not fast enough to real- настільки швидко, щоб
ize then the peril of our position, усвідомити, яка над нами
(
London) нависла загроза.

The omitted adverbial modifier then in the Ukrainian translation changes the temporal emphasis of the author in his original version of the sentence where he pointed out the time («then») of «the peril».

A somewhat similar (and also deliberate) omission of the adverbial modifier, though for the sake of achieving faithfulness, can be observed in the Ukrainian sentence below:

Tamales are very good Tамали (товчена кукурудза

when the air grows chilly at з м'ясом) - дуже добра річ,

night. (Ibid) надто (...) коли ночі бувають

холодні.

The translator (O.Senyuk) found the specifying adverbial modifier at night not explicatory enough for the Ukrainian reader or stylistically aggravating for the structure of the target language sentence. This way of economizing the lexical means on account of the original content could not, naturally, be justified, as the content of the Ukrainian version would be simplified. To avoid it, the translator employed an extension (коли бувають холодні ночі). Hence, the deliberate omission of the part of the sentence (at night) was made for the sake of achieving a more exhaustive faithful rendering of this English sentence. Reduction is often employed for stylistic reasons, especially in translations of belles-letters texts, when there exists an incompatibility between the structural forms of the syntactic units of the source language and their semantic and structural equivalents in the target language. The forms of reduction depend on the peculiarity of the language units under translation, on the means of expression or units to be reduced, and sometimes on the aims persued by the reduction1 . The most often occurring reductions are the following:

1 See about various transformations in the process of translation also Я.И.Рецкер. Теория перевода й переводческая практика. - М.: Международньїе отношения, 1974, p.p. 38-63, 80-113; Л. С. Бархударов. Язьік й перевод. - М.: Международньїе отношения, 1975, р.191-231.

379

1) Changing of an extended word-group into a simpler sense
unit {reduction or contraction):

She gave him a little smile and Вона грайливо посміхнулась
took his hand. (Maugham) і взяла його за руку.

The objective verbal word-group «gave him a little smile» may also be transformed in Ukrainian into other word-groups: 1) (вона) окинула його грайливою посмішкою 2) (вона) подарувала йому грайливу посмішку. Each of these two variants, naturally, would be quite acceptable, but the translator avoided them as stylistically and semantically less fitting in this particular sentence.

Shortening of syntactic units in the target language is often conditioned by the stylistic aim of individualizing the speech of some literary character as in the sentences below:

«What politics have you?» І «Ви за кого?» - запитав я.
asked, «lam without politics.» he «Я ні за кого.» - відповів
said. (Hemingway) старий чоловік.

Instead of the direct translation of the underlined English sentences «Яких політичних поглядів ви дотримуєтесь» and «Я ніяких політичних поглядів не дотримуюсь» the translator used a more natural for the old and seemingly uneducated shepherd, a shortened and an elliptical sentence characteristic of colloquial Ukrainian :»Ви за кого?" and logically natural «Я ні за кого».

2) Transformation of an English complex sentence into a simple
one in the target language because of the structural incompatibility
of the former in the Ukrainian language:

«That's what I say.» she said. «Оце така моя думка.» -
«
That's the way I feel.» she said, сказала вона. «Отак я ставлюсь
(D. Parker) до цього,» - підсумувала вона.

The first complex sentence with its predicative clause and the second complex sentence with its attributive clause have both been transformed into simple extended Ukrainian sentences and thus changed their outer structure and syntactic nature («Оце така моя думка,» «Отак я ставлюсь до цього», «Це так я ставлюсь до цього»).

3) Merger of two separate sentences into one composite sen
tence in the target language. This type of reduction may be required
by the content, as well as by the national Ukrainian way of expres
sion (and by the style of the text). For example:

380


1. Every once in a while Dave         (1) Раз по раз Дейв ставав

got on his hands and knees and навколішки і розрівнював

turned the straw over. 2. It was руками       (2)       бананову

the banana straw, and it was підстилку, яка була сира

soggy    and    foul-smelling, (відсиріла), і від якої неприємно

(Caldwell) тхнуло.

It is easy to assert that each sentence in the source language is semantically and syntactically highly relevant. Nevertheless, only the first sentence can be completely transplanted to Ukrainian: Раз по раз Дейв ставав навколішки і розрівнював підстилку. The second sentence, however, when transplanted unchanged, would be structurally and stylistically irrelevant, i.e., not fit in the style and for the Ukrainian wayof expression in this particular context. Cf.: Це була бананова підстилка, і вона була волога і неприємно тхнула.

То avoid literalism and structural/syntactic awkwardness in Ukrainian, the translator reduced the second sentence or rather changed it into an attributive subordinate clause, which made the Ukrainian variant sound stylistically and semantically quite natural: Дейв розрівнював бананову підстилку, яка була мокра і неприємно тхнула.

One more example of contextual reduction (or extension) of English sentences through their merger in Ukrainian can be seen below. The only difference between this and the above-given sentence lies in the placement of the second English sentence, which in the Ukrainian translation is moved to the front position. This is required by the peculiarities of the Ukrainian way of expression and by the semantic/logical structure of its communicative units. Cf.:

«Oh, we have more argu- «О, ми стільки спере-ments about colored people. чаємось про кольорових.

I talk to him like I don't know Я як розійдуся, то такого
what. I get so excited.» йому наговорю, що й сама не
(D.Parker) знаю, що.»

These and the like purely subjective, at first sight, transformations are absolutely necessary in order to achieve a faithful expression of content of the English sentences and maintain the logical flow of thought characteristic of the natural Ukrainian speech. It goes without saying that such kind of transformations through reduction, extension or replacement can not always be treated as deliberate or exclusively subjective, because they are objectively required by the

381


peculiarly national ways of expression in the target language.

Always subjective, however, is the approach of the translator to the choice of some semantically and syntactically equivalent versions of the source language units as in the following sentence:

«They gave me a wrong book, and I didn't notice it, till I got back to my room.» (Salinger) This sentence can have two equally faithful versions in Ukrainian, each of which fully expresses its content:

1) Вони мені дали не ту 2) Мені дали не ту книжку, книжку, і я не помітив цього, і я помітив ие. аж коли аж доки не прийшов додому. прийшов додому.

The subjective transformations in the left hand Ukrainian definite personal clause Вони мені дали не ту книжку \s transformed into the indefinite personal sentence Мені дали не ту книжку,

2) the second co-ordinate clauseне помітив цього is changed into the antonymic affirmative clause / я помітив це, and the adverbial subordinate clause аж доки не прийшов додому is changed into an affirmative clause (antonymic again) аж коли прийшов додому.

These subjectively introduced by the translator transformations have not in any way changed the syntactic nature or content of the English composite (compound-complex) sentence as a whole. Neither have they changed the order of words, though the plane of expression has undergone some alterations, the main of which is the employment of the antonymic device. It is expedient to term such kind of alterations in the structural plane of syntactic units as «inner transformations» as well. The latter involve only minor structural or lexico-semantic alterations without causing any cardinal changes in the structural form of the sense units under translation.

These were by far all the possible objectively required or deliberately introduced transformations of lexical and syntactic units called forth in the process of translation by the existing divergences between the means of expression in the source language and in the target language on one hand, or due to the translator's subjective approach to some types of sense units on the other.

OBJECTIVELY AND SUBJECTIVELY CONDITIONED

TRANSFORMATIONS OF LEXICAL UNITS IN THE

PROCESS OF TRANSLATION

Transformations of nationally peculiar lexical units in the pro-

382


cess of translation, as will be shown below, are sometimes of particular interest as well. These transformations become inevitable as a result of differences existing between the ways and means of expression of the same meanings in the source language and in the target language. Among the lexical units that change their outer/structural form in the target language as a result of translation are a number of simple and compound words belonging to different parts of speech and representing various layers of lexicon. They include three main stylistically distinguished classes of units: 1) Stylistically neutral lexis; 2) stylistically evaluative lexis; 3) culturally biased national specific units of lexicon pertained to each source language and to every target language.

1. Among the numerous stylistically neutral simple and compound words both in the English and Ukrainian languages there are different notional parts of speech - nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, numerals, pronouns, the semantic equivalents of which in the target language may be single words, word-groups and even sentences. Because of this the choice of their lexical equivalents in the target language is not always easy. Cf.:

advertiser той /та, ті/, хто дає/що дають рекламне оголошення, пропонують на продаж товар;

akimbo взявшись руками в боки, тримаючись руками в боках, руки в боки;

answerable той, та, те, що/на що можна відповісти/дати відповідь;

ЬасКегтой, хто підтримує когось/допомогає, сприяє комусь у чомусь;

boatful пасажири й команда корабля/судна; заповнене/ завантажене судно/корабель;

indulge робити собі приємність у чомусь, віддаватись якимось утіхам (читанню, слуханню музики, грі в футбол, тощо);

airsick той/та, те, ті, що погано переносять повітряне подорожування (в літаку).

A considerable number of stylistically neutral Ukrainian simple and compound words have very often word-groups or sentences for their semantic (but not structural) equivalents in English as well Cf.:

грамотний person who can read and write or well informed in smth.;

пополудні in the afternoon, post meridiem;

принатися/прискакати to come quickly running or riding (to come galloping);

383


обороноздатність the strength of the defensive capacity of a country;

перекотиполе rolling Яах(рослина) and rolling stone (про

людину);

пустомолот/пустомеля an idle tale-teller, copious speaker (chatterbox);

світогляд conception of a person's world/world outlook/one's

creed.

A great number of such and the like stylistically neutral words are given in any bilingual English-Ukrainian dictionary and never present any difficulty for the translator to check up their meaning.

2. A separate group of lexical units, which may sometimes have the same meaning but quite different outer/structural expression in English and Ukrainian is presented by diminutives. They have a very poor representation in English (only among some nouns) but there is a very large quantity of them in Ukrainian, where they exist practically among all parts of speech. These words may be used in English only as diminutives or they may express diminutive evaluation as well, which is regularly identified in context. It is difficult to say, for example, whether booklet, manikin or hillockare diminutives only or diminutives and evaluatives at the same time. As diminutives they mean брошура, карлик and горбок respectively, and as diminutive evaluatives they may express the meanings of книжечка, брошурка, чоловічок (small and handsome or scornful), горбочок (not high or pleasant hillock).

This distinction is almost always clearly identified and expressed in Ukrainian where diminutive suffixes may also point to an escalating gradation of a diminutive quality in a noun. This can be seen from each second or third outer form of the following nouns:

1. ручка 2. ручечка 3. рученька 4. рученя 5. рученятко 6.рученяточко 7.руця;

1. голова 2. головка 3. головочка 4. голівка 5. голівочка

6. голівонька/головонька;

1 дівчина 2. дівчинка 3. дівча 4. дівчатко б.дівчаточко

7. дівонька 8. дівчинонька, etc.

Similar meanings have to be expressed (and are to some extent expressed) in English with the help of lexico-syntactic means, i.e., by means of some additional adjectives containing the seme of smallness. Cf.: голівка small head; голівочка/голівонька small/little head; дівчинонька dear/lovely girl, lovely little girl, etc.

English diminutive and evaluative meanings are not always

384


clearly and fully expressed by isolated nouns, except for those which have corresponding suffixes as daddy, sissy, granny, and a few others whose direct Ukrainian equivalents are respectively татко / татунь, таточко; сестричка /сеструня/ сестронька; бабуся / бабка, бабуня, бабусенька, etc.

Diminutive and evaluative poetic and endearing (ласкаві) meanings of most other English nouns and their Ukrainian equivalents can be expressed (and identified) only or mostly in the form of word-groups:

small little fingers / dear little fin-       пальчики, пальчички, пальчи-
gers нятка

sweet/dear little flowers гарні / гарненькі / любі кві-

точ(нь)ки

little star (Cf. Twinkle, twinkle       зірочка/зіронька little star)(poet.)

sweet little lips, lovely little lips       вустонька, губи, губоньки,
(
poet, colloq.) губки, губенята/губенятка

sweet little girl, dear sweetheart       серденько (любка), любонька

No less, if not more, extensive is the use of the diminutive adjectives in Ukrainian which have no semantic and morphological/ structural equivalents in English because of which they have to be translated in a descriptive way, which can only partly express their subtle Ukrainian meanings. Cf. білесеньке личко a beautiful white little face, dear/lovely white little face; молоденький козаченько - а handsome and lovely youth, тоненькії брівоньки very beautiful thin little eyebrows, ясненький/яснесенький місяченько a very bright and lovely/beautiful little moon/dear beautiful little moon.

Diminutive and evaluative meanings of Ukrainian numerals and pronouns are expressed in English practically in the same way: двієчко/двійко гарненьких діточокімо nice little children/two dear little kids, трієчка a miserable C mark/a miserable satisfactory mark; нічогісінько (там не робиться) absolutely/practically nothing is being done there.

No need to emphasize that a miserable satisfactory mark or absolutely nothing by far from completely express the diminutive and evaluative meanings of трієчка and нічогісінько.

Diminutive and evaluative meanings of Ukrainian adverbs and verbs can be explicitly and implicitly expressed, though only to some degree, in the same descriptive way too. Cf.: тихесенько вітер віє ... (Г.Шевченко) the wind breathes very softly, сядьмо рядком та

385


поговоримо ладком (proverb) let us sit side by side and have a lovely talk/chat together; спатки/спатоньки, спатуні, спатунечкиіо have a little (sweet) sleep; їстиЯстоньки to have a nice/tasteful little bite/ dinner, supper, etc.

Neither has the English language any morphological means to express explicitly the augmentative and evaluative meanings of Ukrainian lexemes (mostly nouns). As a result, they acquire in English an objectively predetermined form of explicit expression by means of word-groups or sentences. For example, the pejorative (mostly contemptuous) meanings of a number of Ukrainian augmentative nouns will have the following English outer form expression: вовчище a big formidable wolf/a (big) monster of a wolf; дубище a very thick and tall/ ramous oak-tree; здоровило a healthy/robust fellow, a regular/robust maypole; п'янюга a miserable heavy drunkard, a disgusting inebriate, a three-bottle man, etc.

3. The third class of lexical units, which mostly require a different explicit/outer form presentation in the target language are culturally biased elements/specifically national notions. When in the form of words not belonging to regular internationalisms like lord, mister, shilling, etc. лорд, містер, шилінг, they are mostly transcribed or transliterated and shortly explicated in the target language. Cf.:

haggis (шотл.) геґґіс посічені й перемішані з вівсяним борошном та спеціями овечі потрохи, зварені в жирі в овечому кендюсі; muffin маффин, солодка здоба, випечена в чашкоподібній формі з прісного чи сходячого тіста (споживається гарячою); sheriff шериф, поліцейський начальник округи (США); бабка babka cooked noodles mixed with egg, sugar and raisins, backed in a pot (in oven) and served fresh/warm; веснянки vesnyanky Ukrainian songs hailing the coming spring; вишиванка vyshyvanka an embroidered Ukrainian linen/silk shirt; плахта plakhta thick checkered cloth wrapped by Ukrainian girls and younger women around the waist over the shirt (as a kind of skirt). All above-given structural transformations of lexical units through translation exemplify the objectively conditioned ways of expression pertained to the English or Ukrainian language respectively. The subjectively employed transformations of lexical units in the process of translation are predetermined not so much by the objective, i.e., national linguistic factors, than by the stylistic aims realized by the translator. These are employed to achieve the necessary evaluation or a higher degree of expressiveness. Thus, to render the meaning of (my) dear love the translator, guided by the context, is free to choose on his own will

386


one of the following Ukrainian semantic equivalents: люба, кохана, любка/любочка, серденько, дівчинонька, дівчина-рибчина, ясочка, зіронька, дружинонька. No less difficult may also be, for example, the choice of the most fitting in a Ukrainian context diminutive equivalent, say, for the adjective teeny (colloquially teeny - weeny) or its Scottish variant wee, which may have the following synonymous word equivalents in Ukrainian: малесенький, манюній, манюнький, манюсінький, манюпусінький, крихітний.

TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

  1.  Name the classes of sense units which do not undergo any
    structural transformation in the process of translation.
  2.  Expand on the nature of inner/implicit transformation of the
    source language/sense units in the target language.
  3.  Define the nature and types of outer/explicit transformation
    of the language/sense units in the process ottranslation.
  4.  Explain and exemplify the outer phonetic/phonological trans
    formation of some language units in the process of translation.
  5.  Give examples of some possible transformations of the
    English and Ukrainian simple/compound words and word-groups in
    cluding internationalisms and specific notions of national lexicon/cul
    turally biased elements.
  6.  Identify the grammatically/objectively conditioned transfor
    mations of sense units and point out the devices employed to achieve
    faithfulness in their translation.
  7.  Explain the reason of employment of stylistically conditioned
    transformations of language/sense units in the process of translating.
  8.  Explain the transformation which occurs through omissions,
    additions, extension, reductions, etc. in the target language in the
    process of translation.
  9.  Name the main transformations employed in the process of
    translating   Ukrainian   evaluative   lexis   (diminutives  and
    augmentatives).

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Analyse the semantic structure and translate the following English simple and compound words into Ukrai-

387


nian. Point out the difference (if any) in their outer form in the two languages.

Model: abduct викрадати силою чи обманом (особливожінку чи дитину), a simple word in English - an extended word-group in Ukrainian.

  1.  Abiology, abloom, acclamation, adore, adrift, agape, airborn,
    airsickness, all-clear, all-up, answerable, ashen, babyhood, bailable,
    blameful, carnation, chargeable, chemise, clockwise, coddle, cuff,
    deployment, diner, embark;
  2.  endanger, eventful, exuberate, fence, season, fishmonger,
    grandmotherly, haunter, headachy, header, head-phones, hurry-scurry,
    immissible;
  3.  jeopardize, jumping-rope, lucubration, lunate, matchwood,
    melodize, midmost, midsummer, misstatement, monologize, mother's
    mark, mythisize, name-child, needful, northerner/southerner, off-print,
    off-shore, outrank, overtalk (v);
  4.  overtask, parcook, pencraft, percipient, patchwork, playable,
    politicize, pot-valiant, pauperize, prison-breaker, prosify, propulsive,
    quantify, queenhood;
  5.  rebuff, reforest, reiterate, remand, readable, repayable, rus
    ticate, schoolable, salad-days, saddlefast, sea-born, seaworthy, sig
    natories, speaking-trumpet;
  6.  straddle, stampede, sugar candy, sunproof, sweetie, swing-
    door, war-whoop, swift-handed, washable, waterage, zipper.

Exercise II. Prior to translating the Ukrainian simple and compound words into English point out the influence of some prefixal and suffixal morphemes upon their semantic and outer structure in the corresponding English equivalents.

1. Аспірантка,   багатостраждальний,   багатшати,
байдикувати, бездощів'я, безлюддя, бліднути, будень, будь-коли,
буханець, вдосвіта, вдруге/втретє, веселитися, вибовкувати,
вигодинюватися, вигодовувати;

  1.  виголоднітися, вилежуватися, виплакувати, вихвалювати,
    віддавна, власноручний, вмить, востаннє, вранці, вслухуватись,
    глухнути, двометровий, десятирічний, дубочок, доверху,
    доношувати, донедавна;
  2.  дообідній, досі, досипати, досхочу, дохристиянський,
    дощаний, дужчати, жалкувати, задощити, зарікатися, заспівувати,
    манюсінький, найменшенька, нанівець, обіруч, обношуватися,
    одвіку, одомашнювати;

388


  1.  окатоличуватися, опам'ятатися, ощасливлювати,
    панькатися, переінакшувати, підбігати, поміцнішати, по-
    молодецькому, по-нашому, по-святковому, придивлятися, мчатися,
    притакувати, прицінюватися;
  2.  простоювати, ремісникувати, різдвяний, родичатися,
    розтовстіти, розцілуватися, самохіть, середньодобовий,
    свободолюб, словотвір, спохвачуватись, сокір/сокорина,
    тогочасний, торік, увірувати, хнюпитися;

6. холоднеча, худнути, циркач, чаювати, щодуху, найкраще,
щороку, щосили, ювіляр, якнайшвидше, якомога, ярмаркувати.

Exercise III. Translate the Ukrainian evaluative words into English. Distinguish, where possible, between the ways of expressing their purely diminutive or purely augmentative meanings on one hand and tender or coarse meanings on the other.

  1.  Ангеля/ангелятко, бабусенька, батечко, багатенько,
    бажаннячко, батіжок, бурячок, вівчарик, віничок, газетка, Ганнуся,
    гарбузик/гарбузяра, голубеня, горнятко, горішок, давненько,
    дитятко, дівчинонька, діжечка, діляночка, дрібнесенький(дощик),
    дубище, екранчик, житечко, журавлик;
  2.  жучище, забіяка, зайчик/зайцюга, здоровило, земелька,
    зміюка, зубки, зубиська, зятьок, каченяточка, жабера, їстоньки,
    кабанчик, кабанюра, катюга, кізонька, коник, корівка, коровисько,
    котичок, котяра, левисько, ліжечко, лисичка-сестричка, личко,
    літечко, любесенько, масельце;

  1.  матуся, місяченько, молодичка, ніженьки, ніченька,
    носяка, онучатко, орляка, оченята, очиська, півничок, пісенька,
    повнісінько, приярок, рибонька, рибище, рученьки, серденько,
    синочок, сонечко, сальце;
  2.  свинюра, тихесенько, точнісінько, тупенький, убоїще,
    україночка, усмішечка, фартушок, фіалочка, футлярчик,
    хатиночка, хлібець, худесенький, хутесеньке, цапок, цілісінький,
    цілуночок, цяцечка;
  3.  чепурушка, черешенька, чистесенько, чоботище,
    чортяка, чубисько, чумаченько, шаблюка, шакалюга, шахраїще,
    школярочка, штаненята, щасливчик, ямище, яруга.

Exercise IV. Define the possible ways of expressing the sense of the following English specific notions of national lexicon in Ukrainian.

1. Doughboy, kilt, backbencher, call-up (Amer.), corndodger,

389


borough, Dixie (Dixie Land), Empire City, exeat, gobbet, hastings, The Great Lakes, graduation school, headliner, hot-pot, jaw-breaker, Joe Miller, John Bull, K-ration, Labour Exchange, Lady Day, ladyship, landlordism, lovelock, master-spirit, matriculation, maypole, Number 10 Downing Street, okie, part-song;

  1.  Peeping Tom, penny-wise, penny-worth, pound-foolish, play
    off, play-by-play, policy-shop, poor law, porringer, poundage, priestcraft,
    the principality, proctor, prize-fight, pro-and-con, provided school,
    pussyfoot, remittence-man;
  2.  roadster, (the) Rockies, sandwich-man, salad-days, Scotch
    broth, scon, Stars and Stripes, Solicitor-General, secularist, sopho
    more, spa, sporran, squaman, standpatter, stateside, summerschool,
    teddy boy, teller (in parliament), tenner;
  3.  term-time; Tom, Dick and Harry, tommy-shop, tube (Lon
    don), tutti-frutti, twopence, toryism, Uncle Sam, under-secretary, union
    ist, Valentine (Day), V-Day/VE-Day, Victorian, votee (Amer.), Wardour
    Street English, walkie-talkie, Welsh rabbit/rerebit, Whitehall, write in,
    yeomanry, Yule-tide, log, zero hour.

Exercise V. Point to the difference in the outer forms of expression of the following Ukrainian culturally biased (specific) notions of national lexicon in English.

Арнаутка, бабка, борщ, боярин, вареники (з сиром, капустою тощо), вергуни, веснянки, вечорниці, вишнівка, гайдамаки, галушки (страва), гопак, гривня, ґринджоли, дівування, дримба, дружка, дядина, залікова книжка, заслати сватів, жупан, картопляники, киптар, кобзар, козаччина, кожух, коломийка, колядники, крашанка, кукурудзяні баранці, куліш, кутя, лантух, льох, маковія, обжинки, окріп, оселедець (козацький), паляниця, пампушки, парубкування, перепій (весільний), пиріжки (із сиром), писанка, плай, плахта, посипальники, рухівці, рушник, ряжанка, сирники, солонина/сало, січовик, січові стрільці, соломка (їстивна), толока, трембіта, троїсті музики, Хмельниччина (істор.), цябрина, чумакування, шулики', щедрівки/щедрування, «Ще не вмерла Україна», Дочка Прометея, Кобзар, Каменяр, розкуркулювання, герої Крут.

390


IV. SEMANTIC ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

LANGUAGE UNITS AND LEVELS OF THEIR FAITHFUL TRANSLATION

The theoretical principles of faithful translation and their realization through various devices of the target language testify to the fact that referential meanings of many language units can be equivalently expressed via the same level units of the target language. For example, the proper names of people and most of geographical names, like the international words can be faithfully translated at the level of words. The phraseological/idiomatic expressions and the bulk of words expressing specific nationally biased units of lexicon are mostly translated at the level of words-combinations/phrases and sentences. Though sometimes the lexical meaning of an idiom or a unit of specific national lexicon can be faithfully turned into the target language with the help of a single word as well (when international).

In other words, a considerable number of simple lexemes and word combinations, stable and idiomatic expressions can be faithfully translated when they are taken isolated, viz. at language level. Thus, the meaning of most pronouns and numerals remains unchanged whether they are used in context or taken as separate words at language level Cf.: ґЛгеетри, fifteen п'ятнадцять, fifty п'ятдесят, fifth/sixth п'ятий/ шостий, one-thirdодна третя, zero point nine нуль цілих дев'ять десятих; І я, he він, she вона, nobody ніхто, etc.

Similarly with many nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and function words which are monosemantic both in the source language and in the target language: the sky небо, the moon місяць, geese / swans гуси/ лебеді, lake озеро, the island острів, political політичний, fo/ac/счорний, white6\nm, bathe купатися, sing співати, sleep спати, легетут, often часто, firstly по-перше, among серед/ споміж, under під, or чи, that (conjunction) що; hallo! anno, ah ax, oh ox, even навіть, yet однак, etc.

A bulk of words belonging to the above-mentioned logico-gram-matical classes of words may also have two or more semantically identical referents, i.e., synonymous meanings. The latter are often stylistically marked and .should possibly be distinguished in the text under translation as well. Among these may be even such seemingly simple words as the English because бо, тому що, через те що; courage сміливість, відвага; dad/daddy тато, татунь/татусь; drake селезень/ качур; everywhere повсюди, скрізь or Ukrainian: дитя

391


baby/kid/child; осел ass, donkey; тьху! phew, pie, pshaw, pooh!; чиж/ик greenfinch, siskin. These words have one referent similarly to many different terms which are translated both at word level and at word-group/sentence level. E.g.: sprint спринт, біг на короткі дистанції; steeple-chase біг з перешкодами; service first stroke (tennis) удар, яким уводиться м'яч у гру.

A faithful conveying of a referential meaning at word level may often depend upon some extralingual factors as well. Thus, depending on the readers/listeners addressed, the translator/interpreter should use correspondingly either British or American lexical variants: lorry вантажна машина (Br. Engl.), truck (Amer. Engl.), tin консервна банка (Br. Engl.), can (Amer. English), ІітеїаЬІерозклас) (Br. Engl.), schedule (Amer. Engl.), sweets цукерки (Br. Engl.), candies (Amer. Engl.), bathroom ванна (Br. Engl.), туалет (Amer. English), maize кукурудза (Br. Engl.), corn (Am. Engl.), cloak-room роздягальня (Br. Engl.), coat-room (Amer. English), etc.

Regional peculiarities of the kind must be taken into consideration in order to achieve the necessary national orientation of a purposeful written or oral translation.

Most of compound English words having transparent componental semes are translated into Ukrainian either at the level of words (compounds) or at the level of word-combinations, the latter being formed from the componental parts which become separate words in Ukrainian: air-base авіабаза; but air-raid повітряний наліт; birthplace місце народження; cross-road перехрестя шляхів/ доріг; steamship пароплав; tooth paste зубна паста; hour-hand годинникова стрілка.

The translation of compounds may sometimes look like descriptive though: breadthways у ширину/завширшки; longwise у довжину/завдовжки; southwardna південь/у південному напрямку; tenfold десятиразовий; thousandfold у тисячу разів; westward спрямований на захід/у західному напрямку.

A similar approach is often made when translating many Ukrainian structural and semantic compounds into English: восьмина the eighth part of smth.; вузькоколійка the narrow-gauge railway; третина, the third part of smth./one-third of smth.; сімсотріччя the seven-hundredth anniversary.

Since the number of notions in any language does not coincide with the number of words expressing them, a word-level translation can not always provide a faithful rendering of any single word meaning. Thence, a large number of the source language words are to be

392


translated into the target language by means of word-combinations or even sentences: hi-jack силою змушувати пілотів міняти курс літака з корисливою метою; abound бути багатим на щось; agape роззявивши рота (від здивування); armistice коротке перемир'я / припинення воєнних дій; asyndeton пропуск сполучників; aurist спеціаліст із захворювань вуха; banting лікування ожиріння дієтою; briber той, хто дає хабарі; casualize переводити на тимчасову роботу; didacticism схильність до повчань.

Quite a few monosemantic words in Ukrainian are also notion-ally extended: вчадіти to be affected by the fumes/to die from carbon monoxide poisoning; доба day and night (24 hours); заполоч coloured threads for embroidering; літепло slightly warm/ed water; бути нівроку (to be) healthy looking and fleshy, beautiful, strong; нудьгувати to be despirited/to be in the dumps; нюшити to sniff the air (about dogs); окріп boiling/extremely hot water, періодизація division into periods; цяцькатися to take much trouble over smb./smth.

Various evaluating meanings (diminutive, augmentative, etc.) are expressed or rather conveyed in English and Ukrainian both at word level and at word-combination level, the former being predominant, as a rule, in Ukrainian: baggie мішечок; catkin котик (на вербі); coatee пальтечко; горбик hillock; квіточка floweret; чоловічок manikin.

Many Ukrainian diminutives expressing also the meaning of endearment through morphological means may have in English two realizations (morphological and lexico-syntactic): матуся mummy/ dear mum; татко dad (daddy), dear dad; сестричка sissy/little sister; книжечка booklet/little book; пташина birdie/little bird; хмаринка cloudlet/little cloud, small little cloud.

It must be emphasized, however, that more Ukrainian words expressing their evaluating meanings morphologically are rendered in English through lexico-syntactic sense units/word-combinations: будиночок a small house or a small little house; рученька a little hand or a small little hand; садочок a small garden or a small little garden/orchard, воріженьки perfidious/cunning enemies.

Higher degrees of diminutiveness and endearment in Ukrainian diminutive words which is expressed as shown above (through suffixes and prefixes) can be conveyed in English (though not always to an equal degree) with the help of lexico-syntactic means (at word-combination level): матусенька/татунечко dear/dearly loved (beloved) mummy/daddy; рученятка /рученяточка small little hands/dear little hands; манюсінький ґномик small/tiny little gnome;

393


найкращенька рибинка the most beautiful small/tiny little fish; двієчко діточок two small little babies/two dear kiddies; спатоньки to have a little sleep, have a sweet little sleep, etc.

Negative evaluating meanings, which are mostly expressed at word level in Ukrainian, can also be rendered into English lexico-syntactically (at word-combination level): бицюра (про чоловіка) а veritable man of a bull; собацюра a monster of a dog; рибисько а whale of a fish; ямище a veritable abyss; дідуган (pejorative) a venerable/staid old man, вітрюга heavy/strong wind, an almost stormy wind; дурощі (напр. куріння) monkey-business, etc.

It must be noted that some pejorative evaluating meanings can be expressed in Ukrainian and sometimes in English by morphological means. Consequently, these meanings are rendered at word level: heavy йшп/га/г/п'яничка/п'янюга; с/и//ага[тупак/тупиця, «ступа»; kinglet нікчемний король/королик, sluggard ледацюга/лежень.

These are by far all Ukrainian and English means which can together with the diminutive/augmentative affixes considerably influence the denotative and connotative (evaluative) meaning of some notional words. The beginning translator must be well aware of this fact while selecting equivalent versions for such kind of words in the target language. Still greater care should be taken when rendering the connotative meanings of words which are not morphologically manifested.

Ways of Conveying the Meanings of Polysemantic Language Units

Unlike words with evaluative and other connotation, the denotative meaning of a bulk of words can be identified at the level of word-combinations or sentences only. These words constitute a considerable part of present-day English lexicon and are referred to as polysemantic words. For example, the denotative meanings of the verb (or noun) part can be fully displayed in the word-combinations like: to part the fighting cocks, to part company with somebody, to part one's hair, to take part in something, the sixth part of the melon, to have a small part in the event, etc.

Sometimes it may be difficult to identify without larger context the proper meaning even of such a simple polysemantic word as your, which can be in Ukrainian either ваш, ваша, ваші/твій, твоя, твоє, твої or свій, своя, своє, свої respectively. The proper meaning of many other polysemantic words can be realized

394


already at word-combination level. This can be seen, for example, from the translation of the verbs to break and to come in the following sentences:

He shouldn't be surprised if        Він не здивувався б, коли б

they began to break the windows, вони почали бити вікна.
(Galsworthy)

Bossiney broke the silence. Боссіні порушив мовчанку. (Ibid.)

If Irene broke such laws what        Якщо Айрін порушила такі

does it matter? (Ibid.) закони, то що це означає?

When the evening came Car-         Коли настав вечір, Керрі

rie   hurried  eagerly  away, поспішила хутенько зник-

(T. Dreiser) нути.

«But don 'tcome near the wa-         «Але не підходь близько/не

ter, or else you may be attacked наближайся до води, бо на

by sharks. (J.AIdridge) тебе можуть напасти акули.»

Stilll other meanings of these and other verbs can be realized and consequently faithfully rendered into the target language only at sentence level as in the following examples: The first prize came to me. and the 2nd and the 3rd went to students of the Stanford and Berkely Universities. (J.London) Перша премія дісталась мені, а другу й третю одержали студенти Стенфордського і Берклійського університетів. But being very lonely I read everything that came my way. (Ibid.) Але будучи самотнім/нудьгуючи на самоті, я читав усе, що потрапляло мені до рук.

The verb come has some quite different realizations in set/idiomatic expressions, cf.: to come under one's eye/notice -привернути до себе увагу; to come under one's thumb -викликати підозру; to come under the yoke - примиритися з поразкою (вгнути голову); to come unstuck-провалитися, піти прахом; соте what may-що буде, те буде; to come Yorkshire over one - обдурити, обманути когось.

Some meanings of polysemantic verbs and other parts of speech are not quite easy to identify even at sentence level, as can be seen from the examples below:

«Shall I take you round the «Може, сер, я пошлю кухаря house, sir, while I send the cook повідомити його про це. доки я tQ_break it to him?» (Galsworthy) показуватиму вам будинок?»

395


Крістінбула четвертою за столом.

... коли б не якась копійка у моєї дружини, я не міг би стільки терти лямку (не протяг би, не витримав би так довго).

Christine made a fourth at the table. (Cronin)

... if it had not been for my wife having a little money of her own, I couldn't have carried on as I have done. (J.Priestley)

Translation of polysemantic words may often require a deep insight into content of a part or of the whole passage/text comprising some sentences. This can be partly seen from the meanings of the nouns stuff and run in the sentences below:

«But isn't there time before «Та невже у тебе не буде
your train to get all your stuff to- часу до відходу поїзда зібрати
gether?» (M. Wilson) всі свої манатки/речі?»

All that kind of antiwar talk you Усі ці патякання проти
hear nowadays from your fellows війни, які чуєш серед молоді, -
is the worst kind of subversive та це ж найгіршого штибу
stuff. (Ibid.) підривна діяльність.

Since it is always the concrete context that predetermines the real meaning of a polysemantic word, the translator has to study first of all the original passage/text thoroughly and only then suggest an equivalent which would fit in for the translation:

менший, ніж 1929 року, адже он які події розгортаються в Европі.

Now, of course, there was as Зараз, звичайно, роботи much business in machine tools вистачає, на станки попит не at least as there had been in 1929, what with this European stuff going on. (M.Wilson)

Ну а як воно покаже себе на важкому станку? Адже нас саме важкі станки цікавлять.

But what happens when he gets to the heavy stuff? And it's the heavy stuff we're interested.

(Ibid.)

«Oh, stuff it up your nose!» one of the companions said. (D.Carter)

«Then I'll finish up the grids and get ready for the run just as I was going to do.» (Ibid.)

«... I am going to give young Dr.Anthony Haviland the run of his goddamn life.» (Ibid.)

«Заткни пельку/замовкни!» -гримнув один із тієї компанії.

«Тоді я закінчу з захисними сітками і приготую їх до досліду, який я саме й мав намір проводити...»

«... Я цьому молодому докторові Ентоні Гевіленду дам такої нагінки. що він усе життя пам'ятатиме.»

396


Lately, we've had a run of Останнім часом ми
shocking bad luck at the Depart- отримали
кілька відмов у
ment. (Cronin)
 міністерстві.

Their stores were already run- У них уже закінчувалися
ning low.
(Stevenson) (завершувалися) запаси

продуктів.

«They seem to be running «Вони, здається, готують
wild». (J.AIdridge)
 бунт» (захопити владу)

It would be wrong to assume that only polysemantic notionals can realize their actual meanings at the level of word-combinations and sentences. Some meanings of functionals can also be identified only at the level of sentences or external word-groups. Among these may be even the meanings of conjunctions as, for example, that of and in the following sentence: The poem was long and he could not learn it by heart. Here and may have either the meaning of the coordinate conjunction / or the implicit meaning of the subordinate conjuction оскільки/тому. (Why could he not learn the poem by heart? - Because it was long.) - Оскільки/тому що вірш був великий, він його не вивчив напам'ять.

Similarly with some other functionals whose implicit meanings, functions and sometimes even their logico-grammatical nature can be clearly established only at the level of word-groups or sentences. This becomes clearly evident from the following sentences in which the lexical and logico-grammatical nature of the word but is most explicitly realized:

«He is but a boy!» «Та ж він me хлопчина/
(R.AIdington)
 дитина!»

All of us but a few have come Ми всі, за винятком/крім to this conclusion. (G.Greene) небагатьох, прийшли до

цього висновку.

But for his open eyes, he Якби очі не були
might have been asleep, розплющені, можна було
(Glasworthy)
 подумати, що він спить.

The contextual environment ofbuf. therefore, predetermines the lexico-grammatical nature of the word (and not only of this word), which may be adverb (We can not but try. - Нам залишається тільки ще раз спробувати) or conjunction (Never a week passes but he comes. - He минає і тиждня, щоб він не навідався.)

The word but is also used in different functions in idiomatic expressions. Cf.: «But me no buts. sir, interrupts the diddler, apparently in a very high dungeon.» (E.Poe) - «а ти мені не

397


«алекай» (не відхрещуйся), - грубо обірвав йогф голос причепи ніби/мов із глибокої темниці. The last but one -передостанній, but for - якби не/коли б не. but for your help we should not have finished in time-якби не твоя допомога, ми не зактчили б роботу вчасно; but then крім того: London is a busy place, but then it is also the place where you get the best entertainment. (CADE) Лондон - місто великої ділової активності, а крім того ще й місце, де можна найкраще порозважатися.

The choice of a definite meaning out of some inherent in the semantic structure of an English language unit can also depend upon the style of the matter under translation. For example, the idiomatic expression to loose one's reason and its synonyms to loose one's mind, to go out of one's head, to go insane are confined in their use to literary speech styles, while to go mad or to go crazy are used in colloquial and low colloquial speech styles, as a rule.

Similar stylistic restrictions are observed with the use of Ukrainian equivalents and analogies of this idiomatic expression too. Cf.:

literary/neutral style: зійти з розуму/рішитися розуму, з'їхати з глузду.

colloquial/low colloquial: блекоти/чемериці наїстися, здуріти, сказитися.

No need to prove that the lexical meaning of each of these variants, even when taken out of context, already predetermines at the same time the speech style, in which it can and should be used in the target language.

A considerable number of other sense units, however, which are endowed with particular emotive, stylistic or extralingual meanings, can not exaustively explicate these characteristics at the level of a word-group or even sentence, but only at the level of passage/ text. This becomes especially evident when translating belles-lettres/ publicistic and some other styles texts.1

Conveying the Meanings of Language Units at Passage/Text Level

The text as a term is in the true sense of the word a segment of written/oral speech or a whole work consisting of grammatically

1 See: Nida E.A. Componentat Analysis of Meaning. - The Hague - Paris: Mouton, 1975. Hoey M. Patterns of Lexis in Text. - Oxford: Ox.University Press, 1991.

398


\

and logically arranged language units forming with their meanings its general content. Text as a speech unit may be smaller or larger, but irrespective of its dimension it always remains a macrostructure, which is not an indivisible monolith but a harmonious unity of different language units. A larger text usually falls into several constituent parts -supra-phrasal units and different types and kinds of sentences. All of them due to their communicative completeness and logical succession1 constitute something of a semantic and structural backbone of any text. These parts together with their various meanings make the general contextual stream of the text, whose content can be fully and faithfully conveyed only when all contents of each block are fully and exaustively expressed. As the blocks/supra-phrasal units are made of sentences, hence, the necessary degree of faithfulness in any translation of texts/passages can be achieved only through faithful translation of all types of their ingredient sentences.

It must be emphasized, however, that it is not only content (the semantic plane), in other words, not only the lexical meanings of various sense units, that have to be fully and faithfully transplanted in the process of translation. No less important is to fully convey apart from many denotative meanings of language units also their connotative characteristics, as well as their stylistic and structural peculiarities. A faithful translation of supra-phrasal units or passages/ text of any speech style, therefore, presents a complex process, which involves a full and faithful expression in the target language of all the main constituent parts forming the semantic, structural, stylisitic and other planes of a text. In view of all this it will be expedient to emphasize that all characteristics (nothing to say about the denotative and the connotative meanings of words and the means of expression in general) are identified, as a rule, by way of a thorough analysis of the original text. This analysis inevitably involves apart from the particularities of content also the pragmatic toning/orientation, which can be exhaustively established, however, only at deep level structure of the communicative units.

It must also be added that despite the differences in their actualization, the planes of a text are impossible to separate from each other, since they are closely interconnected and form the surface and the deep structures complexity of any text. Hence it follows, that the characteristic features of each plane manifest themselves and are fully realized at text level, which can sometimes be restricted, as has

See: Москальская О.И. Грамматика текста. -М.: Вьісшая школа, 1981, р.14.

399


been said, to a supersyntactic unit/paragraph reflecting its m^in structural, stylistic, pragmatic and other peculiarities. These peculiarities should be rendered in the faithful variant of the target language text/ passage as well, though usually by other than in the target language means of expression.

But whatever the divergences in the means of expression of the source language and of the target language, and irrespective of the fact that far from all the characteristic features of any text are fully reflected in its main componental parts, the translation of a text can be succefully performed only on the basis of its constituent sentences. This is because all syntactic level units are endowed with predication and modality, they have mostly a stuctural and sense completion, they are stylistically and pragmatically in full conformity with the whole text. In view of all this only the sentence can fully meet the requirements laid before a unit of translation, when the object assigned to translation is a text which usually consists of different types and kinds of sentences joined in supra-syntactic structures.

Since a faithful translation of any passage/text is performed sentence after sentence, their ideas/thoughts, the main structural, stylistic, genre and pragmatic characteristics are mostly conveyed in a consecutive succession too. Their constituent words, word-groups and set expressions/idioms functioning as different parts of the sentence or forming constituent elements of the latter (or even being independent elements in the sentence) are all first translated as single units. In other words, prior to translating the sentence as a whole (provided it is not a one-member sentence, like Winter. Bitter frost. Evening time), its parts and functionally independent elements are to be translated as separate sense units. E.g.:

All day we had been sitting in Цілісінький день ми просиділи
the piano box waiting for the rain в ящикові з-під піаніно, чекаючи,
to stop. (E. Caldwell) доки перестане дощ.

As can easily be ascertained, only through translation of the component parts 1) All day, 2) we had been sitting, 3) in the piano box, 4) waiting, 5) for the rain to stop could the translation of the sentence be fully and faithfully accomplished.

Similarly in the following simple two-member sentence:
There was an old two-storey        Того року на ФілдінґАве-
yellow house on Fielding A venue    ню ще стояв старий де опо-
that year. (W.Saroyan) верховий жовтий будинок.

400


\

This sentence too could be translated faithfully into Ukrainian only after its component parts, which also function as parts of the sentence, were translated one after another, though not necessarily in absolutely the same, as in the source language, succession. Cf.: 1) that year, 2) on Fielding Avenue, 3) was, 4) an old two-storey yellow house. There is no need to adduce any further proofs in support of the existence of a preliminary stage of translation preceding the final one, i.e., complete and faithful translation of the whole communicative sense unit. One must acknowledge, therefore, the existence of translation at all main language levels represented by the corresponding sense units. Consequently, one can speak of the existence of some language units having their separate levels of translation. This was already exemplified more than once on the foregoing pages and it will be shown in the process of translating several supersyntactic level units/paragraphs a little further. And yet a language unit in which all possible meanings pertained to other language units, which are hierarchically lower in rank than the sentence and thus function as its componental parts, are fully realized at the level of the communicative unit or text as a whole. There will be more than one chance to ascertain in that in the process of the commented translation of an excerpt from D.Parker's short story Arrangement in Black and White below. Some other excerts representing different language styles and assigned for independent translation will also testify to the pointed above statements.

The selected passage to be analysed belongs to the belles-lettres style and consequently abounds in various features characteristic of it1. Besides it represents a dialogue with many colloquialisms peculiar of spoken American English. The authoress employed many other stylistic means to make the narration lively and the development of the plot dynamic and interesting. The story is a masterly piece of psychological motivation of each character's behavior and speech part. The text abounds in many shortened and elliptical sentences and other stylistic means which are used to create some pragmatic subtext which the translator has to comprehend and then fully convey with the help of some functionally relevant stylistic, syntactic and lexical/semantic means of the Ukrainian target language.

Before starting the commented translation of the text it is expedient to repeatedly make mention of the obligatory stages that

1 See: Коптілов В. В. Теорія і практика перекладу. - К.: Вища шк. Вид-во при Київ, ун-ті, 1982.-166с.

401


fthe

should precede the very process of translation. The first of them is to read through the passage/work selected for translation and to analyse it. All attention in the course of this analysis should be paid to picking out the language units whose denotative or connotative meanings present some difficulties for translating. After this all attension must be paid to choosing in dictionaries/reference books the possible semantic, structural and stylistic variants for the language units or signs as they are sometimes called1, which present difficulties for translating. The second stage implies a regular selection from the chosen variants, which are usually more than one, the most fitting into the given sentence/passage semantic, functional or stylistic equivalents and substitutes. Only when this preparatory work is completed, the translation proper can be started.

It must also be noted that the peculiar sentence structures, the tropes, the prosodic and other means in belles-lettres texts serve the aim of creating the necessary impact on the reader/listener. That is why the regular preparatory work on the text selected for translation always takes some time, the latter being often predetermined not only by the skill and theoretical grounding of the translator but by some other factors as well. These include the ease (or otherwise) of the author's style, the abundance or absence of difficult for translation linguistic phenomena in his work as neologisms, archaisms, dialectal material or any other obscure places created by some historic events or customs, culturally biased national notions and the like. Because of this the preparatory time needed for a translation proper to begin may vary from text to text. The main methods by which the «resistance» of the source language text may be overcome in translation (with particular attention to selecting the means of expression) will be shown further on the pages to come.

And now in accordance with the requirements of the first stage in the preparatory work for translation, read and thoroughly analyse the passage below paying attention to difficult or obscure (if any) places you come across in each separate sentence. Put the picket out sense units down and offer one or some suitable lexical/semantic equivalents for each of them. See to it that they also suit in the speech style of the corresponding sentences and in the excerpt of this D.Parker's story as a whole.

1 For further information on the meaning of various language signs зее:Комиссаров B.H. Слово о переводе. - M.: Междунар. отношения, 1973. - р.213

402


D.Parker ARRANGEMENT IN BLACK AND WHITE (An Excerpt)

  1.  The woman with the pink velvet poppies turned round the
    assisted gold of her hair
    1, traversed the crowded room at an inter
    esting gait combining a skip with a sidle, and clutched the lean arm
    of her host.
  2.  «Now I got you!» she said. «Now you can't get away!»
  3.  «Why, hello,» said her host. «Well. How are you?»
  4.  «Oh, I'm finely,» she said. «Just simply finely. Listen. I want
    you to do me the most terrible favor. Will you? Will you please? Pretty
    please?»
  5.  «What is it?» said her host.
  6.  «Listen,» she said. «I want to meet Walter Williams. Hon
    estly, I'm just simply crazy about that man. Oh, when he sings! When
    he sings those spirituals
    2. Well, I said to Burton, «It's a good thing for
    you Walter Williams is colored,» I said, «or you'd have lots of reason
    to be jealous.» I'd really love to meet him. I'd like to tell him I've heard
    him sing. Will you be an angel and introduce me to him?»
  7.  «Why, certainly,» said her host. «I thought you'd met him.
    The party's for him. Where is he, anyway?»
  8.  «He's over there by the bookcase,» she said. «Let's wait till
    those people get through talking to him. Well, I think you're simply
    marvellous, giving this perfectly marvellous party for him and having
    him meet all those white people, and all. Isn't he terribly grateful?»
  9.  «I hope not,» said her host.

  1.  «I think it's really terribly nice,» she said. «I do. I don't see
    why on earth it isn't perfectly all right to meet colored people. I haven't
    any feeling about it at all
    - not one single bit. Burton, - oh, he's just
    the other way. Well, you know, he comes from Virginia, and you know
    how they are.»
  2.  «Did he come tonight?» said her host.
  3.  «No, he couldn't,» she said. «I'm a regular grass widow
    tonight. I told him when I left, There's no telling what I'll do, I said. He
    was just so tired out, he couldn't move. Isn't it a shame?»
  4.  «Ah,» said her host.
  5.  «Wait till I tell him I met Walter Williams!» she said. «He'll
    just about die. Oh, we have more arguments about colored people.

1 the assisted gold of her hair- her hair had been dyed gold.

2 spirituals - Negro songs, religious in essence, like folk ballades.

403


I talk to him like I don't know what, I get so excited. «Oh, don't be so silly,» I say. But I must say for Burton, he's heaps broader-minded than lots of these Southerners. He's really awfully fond of colored people. Well, he says himself, he wouldn't have white servants. And you know, he had this old colored nurse, this regular old nigger mammy and he just simply loves her. Why, every time he goes home, he goes out in the kitchen to see her. He does, really, to this day. All he says is, he says, he hasn't got a word to say against colored people as long as they keep their place. He's always doing things for them - giving them clothes and I don't know what all. The only thing he says, he says he wouldn't sit down at the table with one for a million dollars. «Oh,» I say to him, «you make me sick, talking like that. I'm just terrible to him. Aren't I terrible?»

  1.  «Oh, no, no, no,» said her host. «No, no.»
  2.  «I am», she said. «I know I am. Poor Burton! Now, me, I
    don't feel that way at all. I haven't the slightest feeling about colored
    people. Why, I'm just crazy about some of them. They're just like
    children
    - just as easy-going, and always singing and laughing and
    everything. Aren't they the happiest things you ever saw in your life?
    Honestly, it makes me laugh just to hear them. Oh, I like them. I
    really do.»

Note. As could be ascertained, the excerpt contains several features characterestic of the belles-lettres style. This is also proved by some ways of expression and by syntactic peculiarities of speech pertained only to present-day colloquial English of the USA. The translator has to recreate and convey faithfully the content side, the style, the artistic and syntactic peculiarities, and the pragmatic intention/ the subtext only of D.Parker's highly artistic story. This can be disclosed through a complex analysis of the main planes of the excerpt. Such an explicatory analysis of the afore-cited sentences is also performed on the forthcoming pages.

404


Lexico-Semantic, Stylistic and Structural Analysis of Language Units/Sense Units of the Excerpt

The analysis of this excerpt, like any complex analysis of a text, should be started from the title, which is metaphorical by nature (Arrangement in Black and White). Here is a case when the real meaning of the title can be established only after a thorough semantic and stylistic analysis of the passage. Apart from this, some extralingual factors, as the once strained racial relationship between the whites and blacks in the USA, should be taken into account. And yet the title, as becomes clear from its component parts (Arrangement, between, Black, White) already discloses the main idea of the excerpt. At any rate it hints to the intention of the white woman character to get acquainted with a well-known Negro singer, performer of spirituals. This gives the clue to some suggestions conceiving the meaning of the title, which may have the following versions in Ukrainian: 1. «Влаштування зустрічі білої з чорним», 2. «Зустріч білої з нергом-співаком», 3. «Знайомство білої з кольоровим співаком».

None of these suggested titles, however, is felicious enough to be accepted as final, since neither of them fully expresses the main idea of the excerpt and the story as a whole. Each of the suggested titles fails to express the falsehood of the woman character who is not simply a white, but a racist white. Taking this negative feature of the character into considaration, one can offer some additional Ukrainian versions for the title, which might be more expressive and closer to the original sense: 1. «Біла на концерті чорного співака»; 2. «Біла на концерті кольорового співака»; 3. «Відвідини концерту кольорового співака білою «поклонницею» таланту»; 4. «Біла «поклонниця таланту» кольорового співака».

Out of these four offered versions only the last appears to be close to the content of the story and intention of the authoress. It expresses to some extent the falsehood and the double-dealing conduct of the woman character, which is partly reflected in the title. It also hints to the hidden negative features of the main character of the story, though even this Ukrainian version does not fully express the meaning of the original title. Nevertheless, it may be the beginning to the solution of this far from easy question and serve as a basis for other versions, which may be closer to the concept of D.Parker, who has given a most vivid portrayal of a regular mentally and psychologi-

405


cally split character proclaims her principle of respect to the equality of different races and acts, just on the contrary. This striking feature in the psychological state and behavior of the female character gives grounds for suggesting some more Ukrainian versions of the title, some of which may be really final: 1. «Поклонниця» таланту кольорового митця», 2. «Біла «поклонниця» таланту чорного співака», 3. «Вдавана поклонниця таланту», and even a single word version «Хамелеон».

The most fitting in comparison with the preceding four suggested titles may be considered the last two of these offered versions, one of which may be chosen (with some transformation) as absolutely acceptable in Ukrainian: «Вдавана поклонниця таланту» or «Палка «прихильниця» таланту».

The lengthy contemplation upon the title of the excerpt/story testifies to the difficulties facing the translator of belles-lettres, which may sometimes become insurmountable. In view of this, some losses, as a result of the great «resistance» of the original text, must be condoned (виправдані). Despite the difficulties, the translator should never desist from the efforts to select the most fitting target language variants for any language unit/sense unit of the source language.

It must be emphasized that the process of selecting the semantic and structural equivalents for certain sense units in the target language requires not only profound knowledge of the source language, but also, and not to a smaller degree, that of his native tongue. Hence, of paramount importance is the translator's skill in selecting among synonymous sense units of the source language the only suitable versions in the target language, as will be observed further, when analysing separate blocks of sentences from the excerpt. This aim is achieved via a thorough lexico-semantic, grammatical/structural and stylistic analysis of sense units during the process of translating each single sentence of the excerpt/passage below. It may also be interesting, and not only for an inexperienced translator, to follow the analysis beginning with the structure of the first primary predication word-group, which reads as follows: The woman with the pink velvet poppies turned round the assisted gold of her hair... The predicate turned roundmay be erroneously understood by the student as вінок навколо пофарбованих у золотавий колір кіс/волосся, which would be absolutely wrong, since turned here means повернула голову з пофарбованим у золотавий колір волоссям. A proof to

406


this is the second homogeneous predicate traversed (the crowded room) with an interesting gate combining a skip with a sidle. The Ukrainian versions/equivalents of this participial word-group may be:

  1.  енергійно боком проштовхалась через переповнену залу,
  2.  прожогом, бочкуючи, проштовхалась... These two variants are
    possible due to the sense of the word-group (combining)
    a skip with a
    sidle
    (in a word-for-word translation "боком з підскоком»). Equally of
    interest may also be the last homogeneous predicate with its conclu
    sion
    clutched the lean hand of her host, which should be transformed
    through addition into the following sentence:
    /, наблизившись до
    господаря, схопила його за худорляву руку.

The dialogue between the woman character and her host is of interest both from the structural/syntactic, stylistic and semantic points of view. All these dialogues are both abrupt, elliptical, and sentence-type, presenting in some places regular monologues. Their peculiar features, naturally, must also be maintained in Ukrainian. The highly emotional nature of speech presented in the dialogues of the woman character, her extensive use of subjective and objective modality often requires the employment of such means of expressing modality in Ukrainian as modal particles. This can be observed practically in most addresses of the woman, as in the following dialogues:

«Now I got you!» she said. «Ось ви і попалися мені!»
«Now you can't get away!» вигукнула вона. «Тепервамне

втекти!»

"Why, hello,» said her host. «А, вітаю,»-озвавсягосподар.

«Well. How are you?» «Ну. як ся маємо/як справи?»

Apart from the use of the expressive modal particles (ось, а, ну) the highly emotional speech of the woman character abounds in wrong forms of some words. Cf.:

«Oh, I'm finely.» she said. «О. в мене все красненько.»
«Just simply finely. Listen. I want відповіла вона. «Просто-таки
you to do me the most terrible красненько. Послухайте, я хочу,
favor. Will you? Will you please? щоб ви мені зробили страшенну
Pretty please?» послугу- Зробите? Будь-ласка,

зробите? Дуже вас прошу!»

The wrong use of finely instead of the correct form fine is not easy to translate into Ukrainian, where there is no corresponding cor-

407


rupted form of this adverb. Hence, the stylistically possible wrong imployment of the adverbкрасненько with the aim of compensating the English corruption in Ukrainian translation.

Certainly of some interest, but without any difficulty for translators, may be the oxymoron the most terrible favor which should be in Ukrainian simply страшенна послуга or страшенно велика послуга. Of interest is also the fifth sentence («What is it?»), which may have some versions, though not the word-for-word version «Що це?» or «Що це таке?» as the host meant some concrete idea of the noun «the favor». Correspondingly, the interrogative sentence may have one of the following four faithful variants: 1. «А яку (послугу)?»; 2. «А саме?»; З. «Що за послугу?»; 4. «Тобто?».

In the sixth block of sentences, certainly of interest from the point of view of translation, may be some word-groups and sentences, even the simple and constantly used concluding words «he said/she said» after the direct speech. These several times repeated English sentences, naturally, can not (for stylistic reasons) be translated word-for-word as «він сказав/вона сказала». Acceptable may be, depending on the context, the following versions: поцікавився він/вона, запитав він/вона, звернулася вона/він, вставила вона/він and sometimes an omisionof this tag sentence altogether.

Certainly of some difficulty in the sixth sentence may be the verb meet in the utterance / want to meet Walter Williams, where it has the contextual meaning of познайомитися; hence, the Ukrainian version must be Я хочу познайомитися з Волтером Вільямсом and not Я хочу зустрітися з Волтером Вільямсом.

No less interesting, though far from easy to render, are some other sense units in sentence 6 in the woman's dialogue. Among them is the sentence «Honestly, I'm just simply crazy about that man» in which there are some stumbling blocks worth being analysed. For example, «honestly» may have some faithful variants in Ukrainian: «чесно», «слово честі», «їй-богу», «правду кажу». Any of the first three versions may be used in this Ukrainian translation. As to the part of the sentence «I'm just simply crazy» (about that man), it may have two variants in this sentence: 1. «Я в нестямі від цієї людини» (and not - від цього чоловіка, which may have some other meaning) or 2. «Я просто божеволію від захоплення цим співаком." No direct (word-for-word) translation can be suggested for the sentence

408


«Oh, when he sings», which may have two faithful variants: 1. «О, як він співає» and 2. «О, як він тільки співає» (with the use of the emphatic particle тільки).

Some difficulty may arise when translating the utterance «Well, I said to Burton, when I left, it's a good thing for you Walter Williams is coloured» I said, «or you'd have lots or reasons to be jealous.»Its faithful version in Ukrainian can be achieved only through a deep inquiry into the content and style of the utterance. Probably the most difficult is to translate the repeated utterance «I said», which is a kind of an inserted sentence often used in narration in Ukrainian too, but only in present form of a definite personal sentence (in reported speech). Its form is «кажу» (cf.: А я оце кажу, А я оце сиджу та й думаю, etc). Hence, the only correct/faithful Ukrainian translation of this block of sentences may be as follows: « Ну/то ж я сказала Бертону, як ішла з дому: добре, кажу, що цей Волтер Вільямс кольоровий, а то в тебе було б багато підстав для ревнощів/ ревнувати.»

Two more utterances of the block are not easy from the point of view of translation either: 1. «I'd really love to tell him» which can be translated as «Я б дуже хотіла сказати» or «Я б обов'язково сказала йому» and 2. «І heard him sing» which can not mean «Я чула, як він співав», which is of no importance for the host or anybody, since to hear anybody sing is no great privilege whatsoever. Only her having attended some of the singer's concerts could be qualified in certain periods of the U.S. history as a bold deed. Because of this the sentence should be translated as follows: «Я б йому сказала, що була на його концерті/відвідувала його концерт.» In this way the woman could show herself in the eyes of the guest as a bold, progressive and devoted to arts person.

The concluding utterance in block six of sentences presents some interest as well having practically two neutral, i.e., semanti-cally equivalent for the context variants: «Будьте ж настільки ласкаві; будьте ж ангелом Божим... і представте мене йому/познайомте мене з ним.» The answer of the host (sentence 7) is pretty clear, but it requires a proper expression in Ukrainian where «Why, certainly» may be translated faithfully in some ways: 1. «Це можна, звичайно», 2. «Будь ласка, це можна» or even 3. «А чому ж, можна»/ «Звичайно ж», 4. «Обов'язково познайомлю».

The third utterance of this block of sentences «The party's for

409


him») may have at least two versions as well: 1. «Адже ця вечірка -в його честь»; 2. «Адже цей вечір влаштовано/влаштований виключно для нього»; 3. «Адже це його вечір».

In the eighth block of sentences of interest may be utterance 3: «Well, I think you're simply marvellous, giving this perfectly marvellous party for him and having him meet all those white people, and all.» In this utterance transformations are needed in some places, the first being that of the word-group «simply marvellous», which can not be translated as «просто чудовий», but only as a substantival word-group «ви просто чудо» or still more accurately «ви просто молодець/просто-таки молодець.» The participial construction/word-group «giving this perfectly marvellous party for him» can also be translated in two ways: 1. влаштовуючи цей чудовий вечір для нього or 2. що влаштували цей/такий чудовий вечір/ вечірку для нього.

Some difficulty may present the translation of the often used by the woman empty phrase «and all», which corresponds not to our «і все», but to «і взагалі» or «та й взагалі».

Certainly the most difficult may be the translation of the last utterance of the woman in the eighth block of sentences «Isn't he terribly grateful?» and the answer to it (sentence 9) «I hope not,» said her host.

When translated the woman's question word-for-word as «Він вам напевне страшенно вдячний?» and the host's answer as «Сподіваюся - ні,» the sense of the utterances would be completely perverted, i.e., wrong. This is because the woman made her emphasis on the adverb «terribly» (grateful). Consequently, the Ukrainian equivalent must be «Він має бути вам страшенно-таки вдячним, правда ж?» The host's answer «/ hope not» as a reaction to the emphatically stressed adverb must not be translated word-for-word either as «Сподіваюсь, ні» but as «Думаю, нема за що (бути аж страшенно) вдячним». This answer called forth the protesting reaction of the woman character who did not quite agree with the host by saying «I think it's really terribly nice - I do», which corresponds to the Ukrainian «А я вважаю, що все справді страшенно гарно... Певна/переконана на всі сто (відсотків)». The concluding sentence, as had been said already, is merely an empty phrase, often used by the woman to substantiate her assuredness.

Block 10 of the woman's utterances contains some sense units

410


which should be analysed semantically and stylistically with the aim of finding faithful Ukrainian versions for them. These utterances and word-groups are: 1. «Why on earth it isn't perfectly all right» чому це в біса погано/що в тому в біса/чорта поганого, щоб знайомитися з кольоровим. Here even a broader transformation is possible: хто щось може мати проти/заперечити проти знайомства з кольоровим; 2.1 haven't any feeling about it at all - у мене взагалі немає нічого проти цього or: у мене немає жодних упереджень проти цього, or even: я це вважаю нормальним. It goes without saying that only one of these synonymous versions is to be used. No less interesting from the structural/stylistic and semantic points of view are other utterances that follow. For example, utterance 11: «Did he come to-night?» which may have some faithful realizations: 1. «А він прийшов сьогодні?» 2. «А він тут/теж із вами?» 3. «А він теж на вечорі?» Any of these variants may be taken as a faithful Ukrainian version for this sentence, though not all of the woman's cunning contemplations are quite easy to render fully and accurately into Ukrainian, as in case of «There's no telling what I'll do.» Only a thorough analysis of the whole story helps comprehend what the woman character meant by saying so. It becomes clear from the deeper analysis of the text, what she wanted to say by that (she was eager to shake hands with the coloured singer). The Ukrainian variants of this utterance, consequently, may be only the following: 1. «Ти і не здогадуєшся/і гадки не маєш, що я надумалася зробити»; 2. ««Ти і гадки не маєш, на який крок я зважилася»; 3. «Ти собі навіть не уявляєш, що я сьогодні втну». 4. Ти навіть додуматися не здатний, на який неймовірний крок я наважилася сьогодні піти». Needless to emphasize, that any of these versions may well fit in the Ukrainian translation, though only one and no more can be used.

Some colloquial style utterances of the woman character may cause even difficulty for the translator, as it is with one utterance in block 12, where it contains a somewhat obscure/not quite transparent lexical meaning of the verb «move». Cf.: «He was so tired out, he couldn't move.» A thorough semantic analysis of the context proves that the verb's semantics was not in any way connected with the state of Burton's physical ability. What the verb «move» really means in this context is that Burton did not react in any way to what his wife said to him after having decided to make a very courageous (in her

411


judgement) «step», i.e., shake hands with the well-known coloured singer, whom she, as a half-racist, in reality, despises. Hence, taking into consideration the lingual and extralingual factors, the only correct/faithful translation of the utterance and its tag question («Isn't it a shame?») should have the following Ukrainian version: «Він був такий стомлений, що навіть не (від)реагував на мої слова.» The tag-question may have respectively one of the following three versions: 1. «Сором та й годі, чи не так?» or 2. «Аж сором, може ні/не так?» огЗ. «Просто ганьба, скажете-ні?»

Neither can there be only one single solution to the possible translation of the host's laconic and clearly evasive answer «Ah» (sentence 13) to the above-cited tag-question. His «Ah» may be interpreted as a neutral answer, not sympathising with the judgement of the woman. Consequently, the Ukrainian variants of it may be simply «A...» or «гм», «хм», etc. It is clear from the context, that the host did not support but sooner rejected that woman's «accusation» of her husband's lack of attention.

The fourteenth block of utterances, which is a regular long monologue of the woman character contains some interesting ways of expression, emphatic colloquial phrases and structures worth a more or less thorough analysis as well. Among them is already the first sentence emphatically uttered by the woman: «Wait till I tell him I met Walter Williams!», which contains wishful modality and is to be expressed with the help of some Ukrainian modal particles. The most fitting in this utterance will be хай/нехай-но: «Чекайте-но, хай я скажу йому, що познайомилася з Волтером Вільямсом!» or «Чекайте, хай-ноя скажу йому...»

The following utterance 'He'll just about die» presents no difficulty for translators due to its transient meaning, which enables to suggest some equivalent versions in Ukrainian: 1. «Він упаде на місці»; 2. «Він цього не переживе»; 3. «Він просто лусне (від сміху)». All these three variants are synonymous and fit well in the context. Consequently, each of them may be used in Ukrainian. The next utterance («Oh, we have more arguments about colored people») contains a grammatical and logical error in the use of the indefinite pronoun/adjective more instead of many repeatedly testifying to the woman's low (if any) education and her very low cultural level.

Probably one of the most interesting structural transformations must be performed to achieve faithfulness in translation in two utter-

412


ances that follow the previous one. Neither of the two, when transplanted, as they are placed in the original passage, would well fit semantically into a good Ukrainian literary version. Cf.: «I talk to him like I don't know what. I get so excited». 1. «Я розмовляю з ним, як не знаю хто». 2. «Я так збуджуюсь». When translated, however, beginning with the second utterance, with the substitution of some words for a more common Ukrainian way of saying, the target language literary variant becomes more natural and more expressive, and thus more acceptable to Ukrainian colloquial speech style:

  1.  «I talk to him like I don't know what. 2.1 get so excited.» Hence,
    it must be transposed into:
  2.  «Я як розійдуся/розпалюся, 1. то такого йому наговорю, що й
    сама не знаю, що».

This kind of transformation through the change of placement in the row of utterances makes the Ukrainian version more logically and stylistically grounded, because the woman, as anybody else in her place, got excited first and only then talked to him (Burton) «like nobody knows what». In view of this, her very mild reproach, instead of the naturally expected strong words of accusation or indignation, is much milder and weaker, and contrary to that, which might have been expected: «Oh, don't be so silly». These words disclose the double-dealing conduct of this woman character, who only wanted to camouflage her false inside. This can also be clearly seen from the Ukrainian variant of the utterance: «О, не говори нісенітниць,» -кажу я йому. These words, of course, are far from expressing any threat or strong reproach, as the woman character pretended.

Other utterances of this block containing peculiar features, which are important to know and still more to translate for a student and future translators, are as follows:

  1.  «he's heaps broader-minded» (hyperbolized), which will be
    more expressive and more faithful when translated antonymically as
    «він не такий обмежений»;
  2.  «Southerners» can be translated faithfully only in a descrip
    tive way as
    вихідці/жителі Півдня (південних штатів США);
  3.  «this regular old nigger (contemptuosly) mammy» should
    be translated as
    його стара нянька-негритоска;
  4.  «he just simply loves her» і він не те що, а просто-таки
    справді любить її;
  5.  «he does really to this day» і так до сьогоднішнього дня/
    донині.

413


Always important for the translator is to keep in memory the already solved problems concerning the rendition of some peculiarities of the source language or of the target language, as in the following two utterances: 1. «All he says is, he says, he hasn't got a word to say -»; 2. «The only thing he says, he sayshe wouldn't sit down with one, both these italicized colloquial structures have an identical translation: єдине, що він каже, то це каже ...

A very interesting structural transformation has to be performed on two clauses of one sentence, which follows the above-analyzed ones. Namely: «He's always doing things for them - giving them clothes and I don't know what all».

When translated without any change of placement of its clauses, the utterance will be structurally clumsy in Ukrainian: «Він завжди щось робить для них - дає їм одежу і сама не знаю що ще.» By changing the placement of its clauses, the utterance acquires the following form: «І чим він їм тільки не допомагає - і одежею, і сама вже не знаю, чим.» Thus, the transformation through the change of placement of some parts of the sentence makes the utterance sound absolutely Ukrainian (stylistically natural) and se-mantically transparent.

The choice of a lexico-semantic equivalent may sometimes cause trouble even in a seemingly explicit utterance. Cf.: «You make me sick talking like that,» where «sick» is semantically associated with sea-sick. At any rate, this meaning may prompt the hard thinking student-translator to use the verb нудити, which perfectly substitutes the English word-group «make sick» in the utterance above. Hence, the faithful Ukrainian version of it may be only: «Ой, мене вже нудить від твоїх розмов/балачок.»

The beginning translator must be aware of some peculiarities of the source language, which may have no equivalents or even analogies for some sense units in the target language. Among these are not necessarily the culturally biased national notions, dialectal, archaic, idiomatic or other elements. These may be simple grammar or phonetic mistakes/corruptions in a text/speech of characters often causing barriers for inexperienced translators, as in the following question of the woman character: «Aren'tI terrible?» (instead of «-4m I not terrible?»).

It goes without saying that irregularities of the kind may be observed only in speech of small Ukrainian children and almost never

414


in speech of our grown-ups. That is why the utterance can only be translated in a literary (correct) form: 1. «Може я не права?» or 2. «Скажи, я не маю рації ?» 3. «Невже я не маю рації?» Any other, even slightly corrupted Ukrainian versions are next to impossible to suggest in this case (like in other cases). As a result, the speech irregularity remains not completely expressed in Ukrainian. The short reply of the host («Oh, no, no, no. No, no».) can also have some interesting versions, which may be suggested by the translator: 1. «Hi, ні, ні. Де там, ні». 2. «Та ні, зовсім ні». 3. «Вважаю, що ні».

It may be even more difficult to select the right/faithful variant for the utterance, in which the woman character objects to her being not «terrible» to her husband and insists on the contrary: «I am», she said. «I know, I am» (i.e. «terrible»). This emphatically pronounced and rather assuring utterance in her own support can not be translated word-for-word as «Я є, я знаю, що я є (така)». The translator here must again resort to a structural transformation of the utterance in Ukrainian in order to make it sound absolutely natural for the readers. In this case the device of extension may be useful for «I am,» she said. «I know, I am.» Namely: «І не кажіть (і не перечте)», -випалила вона. «Я знаю, що я жахлива (з ним)». This transformation through extension of the complex sentence in the second part of the utterance, as well as the replacement of the verb «am» by «не кажіть/не перечте» makes the whole reply absolutely literary and quite natural for young as well as for old Ukrainian readers.

Similar transformations are necessary in the succeeding highly emotional utterances of the woman character. These utterances, though seemingly simple and easy to comprehend, are not so easy for inexperienced students to translate. Thus, the first utterance «Poor Burton!» is not simply «Бідний Бертон!» which will not fully express the high emotion of the woman character. Stylistically more fitting here would be «Бідолашний мій Бертон!» or «Бідний, бідний Бертон!» or «Бідний, бідний мій Бертон!» The latter would sound also more Ukrainian. The other two emphasized and emotionally pronounced utterances of the block that follow (1. «Now me, I don't feel that way at all. 2.1 haven't the slightest feeling about colored people.») are not less expressive. Hence, their Ukrainian versions may be as follows: 1. «Ось хоча б я.» or 2. «Взяти хоча б мене.»3. «Візьмемо ось/хоча б мене.» Each of these semantically synonymous versions of the English utterance is emphatically charged, and can be best

415


expressed through the modal particles хоча б plus the corresponding intonation. As to the second utterance («I don't feel that way at all»), it can also be translated into Ukrainian by at least one of the following four synonymous substitutes, each of which being equally acceptable: 1. «Я зовсім не така». 2. «Я зовсім не так думаю». 3. «Я абсолютно так не вважаю» or even 4. «У мене зовсім інше ставлення до кольорових».

As could be ascertained, transformation through extension (cf. «Now me» «ось хоча б я, взяти хоча б мене») is often the only way of adjusting the English peculiar expressions (and their expressiveness) to literary colloquial Ukrainian. Transformations of any kind help avoid literalism (cf. «Now me» is not тепер мене, тепер я), which would be absolutely unacceptable in any literary translation. A word-for-word translation (without any transformations with the aim of «adjusting» the English language and its peculiar features to the Ukrainian literary standards) is therefore an obligatory means in the process of translation. Because of this and due to the performed transformations, the utterance «I haven't the slightest feeling about colored people» also acquires a quite natural Ukrainian version (and sounding). When translated word-for-word, it would express an almost opposite meaning: «Я зовсім не відчуваю/ я не маю найменших відчуттів до кольорових». No need to emphasize that «відчуваю» (feel) does not in any way correspond to the real contextual implicit meaning of this verb, which can be seen from the following Ukrainian translation: «У мене немає ні/навіть найменшої відрази/зневаги до кольорових».

Practically the same, as in the initial utterance of the excerpt, is the meaning of the adjective crazyin the sentence that follows the previous one: «Why, I'm just crazy about some of them», which can have only the following realization in Ukrainian: «Ну я просто в нестямі від декого з них», though «в нестямі» may equally be substituted in this utterance for the semantically equivalent prepositional phrase «у захопленні». The essence of her «craziness», however, is far from real or sencere, which can be seen from the following utterance: «They're just like children - just as easy-going, and always singing and laughing, and everything». This utterance is not easy to translate first of all because of the concluding pronoun «everything», whose contextual meaning, naturally, is not «все» or «i все», or even «і все таке інше», but «собі». Only this pronominal

416


particle semantically completes the authoress' content of this utterance, which will then have the following wording in Ukrainian: «Ну, та вони ж просто як діти: такі безтурботні і завжди то співають, то сміються собі». The introduction of different Ukrainian particles (ж, та, то, собі) helps fully express the inner/psychological state of the woman character and makes the whole utterance sound as natural and as convincing in Ukrainian, as it is in the source language.

The use of particles helps express optative and grammatical modality in the next utterance («Aren't they the happiest things you ever saw in your life?»), in which the noun «things» may become a lexico-semantic stumbling block. Its contextual meaning here is «істоти» or «створіння». It is not easy to quickly choose the most suitable between these two practically equivalent lexically and stylistically variants. Taking into account the woman's falsehood and her doubledealing, any of the two variants may well fit in the context. Cf.: «.Хіба ж вони не найщасливіші істоти/створіння, яких вам траплялося будь-коли бачити на світі?» or «To хіба ж вони не найщасливіші створіння, котрих вам траплялося будь-коли бачити на білім світі?» Both these variants, naturally, are fully in line with the philosophy and conduct of the woman character, so brilliantly depicted by the authoress in her story. The choice of the suggested substitutes in the utterance may be well justified by the woman's concluding sentence of the excerpt: «Honestly, it makes me laugh just to hear them». Here the adverb «honestly» can scarely be substituted for one Ukrainian adverb «чесно» only. The deep context requires some other substitutions for it, namely «справді»/ «таки справді»/ «геть і правда» and even «їй-богу/їй-же богу». Neither can the verb laugh («they make me laugh») be translated in this excerpt as simply сміятися or still less as реготати. The deeper context prompts a quite different synonym, as the cunning woman considers the coloured people to be «like children», who could entertain the grown-ups like her by their behavoir. This is the main reason why the Ukrainian equivalent сміятися can not be used and should be substituted for the only suitable in this utterance synonym тішити. For this reason the verb «hear» can not (and does not) mean «слухати», but only «чути». Hence, the only possible, i.e., faithful translations of this utterance may be as follows: «Слово честі, мене просто тішить, коли я чую їх or «їй-богу, мене просто тішить, коли я їх чую.»

417


The final two utterances of block 16 present no great difficulty for translation with the exception of the concluding one: «I really do.» Here one of the already employed above versions may be helpful (as in «Oh, I like them. I really do.») «О, вони мені подобаються. Справі/.»

It must therefore be repeatedly emphasized in conclusion that the right choice of an appropriate target language synonym for a source language sense unit is always predetermined by some factors: a) by its semantics in the context; b) by the stylistic or genre peculiarities of the text; and c) by the texts' pragmatic orientation/ toning. Any disregard of these requirements may bring unnecessary distortions into the author's conception (and content).

The student, who has closely followed the above-performed translator's grammatical/structural, semantic and stylistic analysis of the excerpt from D.Parker's brilliant psychological story must have obtained a much clearer idea about the ways and means of achieving faithfulness in written translation. Naturally not all texts require such kind of deep and scrutinized analysis on the part of the translator and not always so much inventiveness as in the belles-lettres texts. Nevertheless, the beginning translator must be always on the alert and ready to do everything to overcome the many stumbling blocks that are often hidden even in texts belonging to other than the belles-lettres style. There will be a good chance to ascertain it while working at various texts on the forthcoming pages, which are assigned to semantic and stylistic analysis or to written/oral class and home translation. The samples of the analysis must be carefully studied first in order to establish the peculiarities characterizing the publicistic and newspaper style texts. Only in this way can a student acquire the necessary knowledge and skill in translation. Of great help in this can also be the practical use of the principal theoretical rules, which were given in the preceding chapters and which must be followed while working at any type of texts, extended syntactic unit or even at single/ isolated sense units.

418


SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

  1.  The monosemantic/referential meaning of the source lan
    guage units and principles of their faithful translation.
  2.  Give examples of hierarchically higher language units which
    are translated in the target language with the help of language units
    of lower language level.
  3.  Enumerate all possible ways of expressing the meaning of
    the source language compounds in the target language.
  4.  Point out the possible difference between the ways of trans
    lating sense units at language level (out of context) and their transla
    tion at speech level (when used in a contextual environment).
  5.  Identify the role of the source language context in the se
    mantic discrimination and faithful translation of sense units missing
    or having no corresponding lexical equivalents in the English, Ukrai
    nian or bilingual dictionaries.
  6.  Enumerate all known to you and possible ways of convey
    ing the evaluative and expressive meanings of the source language
    words/sense units in the target language.
  7.  Name the obligatory steps, which have to be observed before
    starting a written or oral translation/interpretation of a source language
    passage/work.
  8.  Prove the necessity of linguistic/semantic, historical, cul
    tural, etc. inquiries/investigations of the passage/work prior to or in
    the process of its rendering into the target language.
  9.  Argue for or against the need for making a list of synony
    mous contextual equivalents/substitutions or difficult/interesting syn
    tactic constructions of the target language in the process of translat
    ing the source language passage/work.

  1.  List and explain the requirements, which are necessary
    for a faithful expression/translation of stylistically marked elements
    of the source language passage/work to achieve a high quality trans
    lation.
  2.  Identify the most common features of the belles-lettres or
    publicistic/newspaper style texts and name the ways of their faithful
    expression/rendering in the target language.

419


EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Each block of sentences below contains a polysemantic noun, verb or adjective in bold type. Offer a corresponding Ukrainian equivalent - word, word-group or sentence to substitute them semantically and then translate each block of sentences into Ukrainian.

1. I'm going to put up the notice on Saturday. (S.Maugham) Praed comes in from the inner room putting up his handkerchief which he has been using. (B.Shaw) I mustn't be upset. It will put up my temperature. (D.Defoe) What did it cost to put up those columns. (J.Galsworthy) 2. Lawrence Hadley ran the photographic department. (A. Cronin) In her mind were running scenes of the play. (T. Dreiser) After a few minutes he settled himself at his desk to run through the rest of his mail. (A.Cronin) Although she kept her head down she felt the blood run into her face. (Ibid.) «I happened to run into their Mr. Smith the other day.» (Ibid.) «I thought I'd run down for an hour. Am I a nuisance?» (Ibid.) I decided to give up running for governor. (Mark Twain) The Board is no more run as before (K.Post) 3. Listen, children, I'm going out. If you finish your work, carry on with exercises I gave you. (P.Abrahams) Only fancy if he has a dear little boy to carry the family on. (J.Galsworthy) Well, all through the circus they did the most astonishing things, and all the time that clown carried on so. (Mark Twain) 4. She realized that hers (life) was not to be a round pleasure. (T. Dreiser) The fact that work of any kind was offered after so rude a round of experience was gratifying. Her imagination trod a very narrow round. It would be an exceedingly gloomy round, living with these people. (Ibid.) 5. «Is that all you're worrying about? About what's on my mind?» (M.Wilson) Here he was with only a casual acquaintance to keep his mind from himself. «No, I've changed my mind, I'm the paragon of husbandry again. She clearly had no idea how outstanding a mind she really had.» (M.Wilson) The thoughtful serious state of mind in which Mary found herself had been unclouded in her by a conversation she had with her father the evening before. (S. Anderson) 6. He forgot the presence of the farmer and his mind racked back over his life as a married man. (Ibid.) 7 «Who's speaking?» he asked mildly conscious of error on his part. (T.Dreiser) Some noise was heard, but no one entered the library for the best part of an hour. (W.Scott) She was part and par-

420


eel of his soul. This to him (Drouet) represented in part high life -a fair sample of what the whole life must be. (T.Dreiser) 8. Too much of a thing is good for nothing. (Proverb) «You know there's one thing I thoroughly believe in,» she said, «but I never eat more than one thing for luncheon». Then a terrible thing happened. (S. Maugham) «Well, John, how are things?» (A.Bennett) He was satisfied with the most things, and above all other things, with himself. (C. Dickens) «...what a wonderful thing that I am here.» (Ibid.) It is one thing to show a man that he is in an error and another to put him in possession of truth. (J.Locke) All things come round to him who will but wait. (H.Longfellow) 9. Keeping his back turned, he left the doorway and straddled a chair in a corner of the kitchen. If Uncle Dave will live here, we could build another room on the back. They shook hands, with Jim Nelson's back turned to the room. (J.Galsworthy) 10. Keep these two books as long as you wish. (S.Leacock) I shall always keep this dollar. «Well,» said the doctor, «I want you to keep very quiet.» (Ibid.) In the winter it should be kept in a warm place, where it can hatch out its young. (Mark Twain) This didn't keep the neighbours from talking plainly among themselves. (K.Porter) «You needn't keep on saying it round,» said Mr. Whipple. (Ibid.) June keeps after me all the time to tell her about what Uncle Dave is like. He kept his eyes fixed on his father's face. There was no medal for the Nelsons to keep, only a reddish-brown photograph taken in London. (J.Galsworthy) 11. Alice, having fully considered the matter, thought it most prudent to write to Lady M. You ought not to consider poverty a crime. (Ch. Bronte) Consider our hands! They are strong hands. (P.Jones) You consider your own affairs, and don't know so much about other people's. (D. Lawrence) 12. Fox introduced Erik to French and Larkin, two other assistants who had withdrawn to a corner to talk shop. The March night made him withdraw his overcoat. She wanted to withdraw from the people around her. Erik took advantage of this opportunity to withdraw from the project for the while. At last one third of those who had once been willing to sign the petition to the Board of Trustees now asked that their names be withdrawn. (M. Wilson) 13. Davon had said that he was recaptured and as he lay on the ground Adair hit him with a club. (F. News) The game is played with a ball the size of a tennis ball and a club that's a little shorter than for ice-hockey and a slightly bent at the end. (Sports News) The chess

421


club also meets once a week after school and is run by a teacher who is very keen on chess (Ibid.) They clubbed at Kain's who resided at the Statler Hilton Hotel, to talk on politics, to settle their affairs. (F. News) 14. Erik couldn't remove his eyes from Haveland's fair head. Erik turned: a fair slight girl in black suit stood next to him. He realized that he was greatly unfair. «It wasn't fair of you,» said Haveland. «But no one could say he hadn't been fair,» he insisted angrily. (M.Wilson) Fair play must be observed not only at the All-European level. (K.Post) 15. So long as Mary lived beside that monstrous man, and in that monstrous house he realised that he would never be at rest. She could endure anything so long as he took her to him in the end. A long silence ensued, then the sound returned swelling in from the distant hills more loudly. No matter what happened she must live for Denis in the long run. Long ago she had realized with a crushing finality that she was chained to a man of domineering injustice. (A. Cronin)

Exercise II. Translating the sentences below, be careful to choose for each common English root word in bold type a se-mantically corresponding Ukrainian equivalent.

1.1 couldn't take the chance of letting it be known that there was doubt. 2. There used to be some doubt about sensitization tests. 3. He took her hand gently, his anger dissolving, only a vague, disquieting sense of doubt remained. 4. In her voice there was a trace of doubt. 5. «What do you propose to do about Brian's bill?» «I doubt we can do anything». 6. O'Donnel had no doubts that Rutus would have facts to back up a complaint like this. 7. «That's good news,» O'Donnel decided to shelve his earlierdoubts. 8. One always has doubts in such cases. 9. He was a doubting Thomas without faith or hope in humanity and without any particular affection for anybody. (Dreiser) «I agree with the original diagnosis of a perforated ulcur». «No doubt at all?». (A.Huxley) 10. «The baby died, Joe, I think you heard.» «I think I know what you want to say.» «Don't you think things are going pretty poor round here?» «By the way, do you know Dr. Gringer?» «I have no influence with him» «But you have-he thinks the world of you.» (A.Cronin) She did not think much of his plan. (London) «You think all your geese are swans ... never met a painter who didn't.» (Galsworthy) She thinks small beer of painters. (Thackeray). 11. The driver turned once or twice with the intention of venturing a remark, but thought

422


better of it. (Ibid.) 12.... the old people minded the day when he was thought little of. (E.Yates) 13. You kept from thinking and it was all marvelous. (E.Hemingway) 14. Think today and speak tomorrow. (Proverb) 15. «I reckon you want to think twice before leaving my house.» (Cronin) He wondered, if the amputation to be performed tomorrow was necessary or not. «By the way, Doctor, the baby's umbilical cord has been cut short. I wondered, if you knew that or not.» He wondered if the older man was right or wrong. And so I became their wonder boy. (M.Wilson) 16. It was a nine days' wonder in the club. (Dreiser) 17. For a wonder he was not seasick. (C. Reade) 18. He ties his white neckcloth to a wonder. (Thackeray) 19. The seven wonders of the world. (Proverb) 20. «Are you sure about this date?» 21. «I'm not sure, I can explain, Mike.» 22. «I'm not sure I like the way we're doing this.» 23. Vivian was not quite sure what was happening. 24. «As sure as a gun - this is he.» H.Fielding) 25. «Well, I'm sure!» said Becky; and that was all she said. (Thackeray) 26. «Don't know, I'm sure.» (Ibid.) 27. They'll make for the camp as sure as fate». (A.Doyle) 28. «Bill,» he answered, nodding his head. «Sure, Pete, and no other.» (London) 29. Then I slipped down to the ground and crawled in among the trees, and, sure enough, there was Tom Sawyer waiting for me. (MarkTwain) 30. «I'm going to have a fight with Dad, sure as certain.» (D.Carter)

PUBLICISTIC AND NEWSPAPER STYLE TEXTS AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

Several characteristic features pertaining to the belles-lettres style texts are also observed in publicistic substyle works, which are mostly presented by articles on different subjects (social, political, economic, etc.) as well as in essays. The latter, though close to sketches or even to short stories by their composition, have distinctly different features of their own. The main of these are as follows: 1) brevity of expression; 2) the use of personal (author's) comment; 3) careful paragraphing; 4) strong logical and emotional argumentation; 5) extensive use of comparison and similes, epithets, sustained metaphors, etc.1

Like the belles-lettres texts the publicistic and newspaper texts can also be faithfully translated only by way of reaching equivalence

See: I.Ft Galperin. Stylistics. Moscow: Vyssaja Skola 1971, p. 287.

423


in the target language at the denotative, structural, stylistic and pragmatic levels of the source language text. Hence, when translating the excerpt of S.Leacock's brillaint essay Oxford as I See It below, care should be taken to select in the target language such kind of equivalents, which perform the same stylistic and pragmatic functions as in the source language texts. The student will certainly find no great difficulties in choosing equivalent structural forms of simple extended or composite sentences used by Leacock to create the necessary dynamism in the text of his essay. Certainly, the greatest difficulty will be found in selecting equivalents for some contextual meanings and functions of lexical and lexico-grammatical units, which help create humorous or ironic effect upon the reader and thus form the pragmatic orientation of the excerpt from this essay. Hence, the task will be to choose in Ukrainian not only lexico-grammatical and stylistic substitutions for some language signs and their meanings, but also some prosodic (intonation and stress) means to achieve the necessary fidelity of translation in the target language.

The clue to the pragmatic orientation of the excerpt is partly indicated by the author in the concluding words of the introductory paragraph where he promises to submit «the place (i.e. Oxford University) to a searching scrutiny.» The realization of this «scrutiny» on the forthcoming pages is performed, in fact, with great skill, which the translator will have to recreate correspondingly in Ukrainian as well.

The essay as a literary work aims at a psychological influence on the reader or listener in order to convince him in the reality and authenticity of the described topic/subject. This is achieved, as can be seen from the excerpt of S.Leacock's brilliant essay Oxford as I See It below, by means of the logical and emotional argumentation of the author's point of view, by the use of coherent logical syntactic structures and by often reference to historical events or prominent personalities, etc. Cf. «When I add to this that I had already visited Oxford in 1907 and spent a Sunday at All Souls with Colonel L.S. Amery1, it will be seen at once that my views on Oxford are based upon observations extending over fourteen years.»

All peculiar stylistic features of the essay including the author's individual style have to be faithfully reflected in the translation of each single sentence.

1 L.S. Amery - a member of Parliament, politician and Oxford university graduate.

424


Stylistically close to the style of essays are many newspaper and journal/magazine articles, dealing with social, political, economic and other subjects. They are aimed at acquainting the reader with some important or disputable problems of various social, political or economic aspects of life. The text of such articles is carefully paragraphed, as can be seen below, too; also it mostly consists of coherent sentences, which can not be omitted without mining the logical structure or sense of the paragraph, which it is the part of. This can be especially observed in the excerpt of the article on economy below. Other articles may contain elements of belles-letters style with emotionally coloured elements and several stylistic devices, as shown in the article on post-Chornobyl' life.

The bulk of newspaper space, however, occupy shorter and longer news items containing generally common lexical material and syntactic structures (cliches) having corresponding equivalents in the target language, and usually presenting no great difficulty for beginning translators.

The newspaper article on Chernobyl' is more like a belles-lettres short story with a vivid description of the situation in which many Ukrainians found themselves after several years of the world's most horrible technological disaster. The Ukrainian version of the articles, naturally, must also faithfully express the high literary qualities of the source language text.

All other Ukrainian articles that follow represent scientific (history) and didactic style texts, which have mostly lexico-grammatical and syntactic/or stylistic equivalents in English as well. Consequently, they can not present any difficulties in translating or interpreting them even in viva voce.

Exercise I. Translate the excerpt of S. Leacock's essay Oxford as I See It. Be sure to find and faithfully render into Ukrainian all characteristic features of its style. Make use of the ways of semantic and stylistic analysis employed in the translation of the belles-lettres text (Arranegment in Black and White) above.

  1.  My private station being that of a university professor, I was
    naturally deeply interested in the system of education in England. I
    was therefore led to make a special visit to Oxford and to submit the
    place to a searching scrutiny.
  2.  Arriving one afternoon at four o'clock, I stayed at the Mitre
    Hotel and did not leave until eleven o'clock next morning. The whole of

425


this time, except for one hour in addressing the undergraduates, was devoted to a close and eager study of the great university. At any rate I can at least claim that my acquaintance with the British university is just as good a basis for reflection and judgment as that of the numerous English critics, who come to our side of the water. I have known a famous English author to arrive at Harvard University in the morning, have lunch with President Lowell, and then write a whole chapter on the Excellence of Higher Education in America. I have known another one come to Harvard, have lunch with President Lowell, and do an entire book on the Decline of Serious Study in America. Or take the case of my own university. I remember Mr. Rudyard Kipling coming to McGill and saying in his address to the undergraduates at 2.30 p. m., «You have here a great institution.» But how could he gather this information? As far as I know he spent the entire morning with Sir Andrew Macphail in his house beside the campus, smoking cigarettes. When I add that he distinctly refused to visit the Palaeontologic Museum, that he saw nothing of our new hydraulic apparatus, or of our classes in Domestic Science, his judgment that we had here a great institution seems a little bit superficial.

  1.  To my mind these unthinking judgments about our great
    college do harm, and I determined, therefore, that anything that I
    said about Oxford should be the result of the actual observation and
    real study based upon a
    bona fide residence in the Mitre Hotel.
  2.  On the strength of this basis of experience I am prepared to
    make the following positive and emphatic statements. Oxford is a
    noble university. It has a great past. It is at present the greatest uni
    versity in the world: and it is quite true that it has a great future.
    Oxford trains scholars of the real type better than any other place in
    the world. Its methods are antiquated. It despises science. Its lec
    tures are rotten. It has professors who never teach and students
    who never learn. It has no order, no arrangements, no system. Its
    curriculum is unintelligible. It has no president. It has state legisla
    ture to tell it how to teach, and yet
    - it gets there. Whether we like it
    or not, Oxford gives something to its students, a life and a mode of
    thought, in America as yet we can emulate but not equal.
  3.  These singular results achieved at Oxford are all the more
    surprising when one considers the distressing conditions under which
    the students work. The lack of an adequate building fund compels
    them to go on working in the same old buildings which they have had

426


for centuries. The buildings at Brasenose College have not been renewed since the year 1525. In New College and Mandolin the students are still housed in the old buildings erected in the sixteenth century. At Christ Church I was shown a kitchen which had been built at the expense of cardinal Wolsey in 1527. Incredible though it may seem, they have no other place to cook in than this and are compelled to use it today.

  1.  The same lack of a building-fund necessitates the Oxford
    students living in the identical old boarding houses they had in the
    sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Technically they are called
    «quadrangles», «closes» and «rooms»; but I am so broken into the
    usage of my student days that I can't help calling them boarding
    houses. In many of these the old stairway has been worn down by
    the feet of ten generations of students: the windows had little latticed
    panes: there are old names carved here and there upon the stone,
    and a thick growth of ivy covers the walls. The boarding house at St.
    John's College dates from
    1509, the one at Christ Church from the
    same period. A few hundred thousand pounds would suffice to re
    place these old buildings with neat steel and brick structures like the
    normal school at Schenectady, N.Y., or the Peel Street High School
    at Montreal. But nothing is done.
  2.  It can hardly be due to anything in the curriculum or
    programme of studies. Indeed, to anyone accustomed to the best
    models of a university curriculum as it flourishes in the United States
    and Canada, the programme of studies is frankly laughable. There
    is less Applied Science in the place than would be found with us in
    theological college. Hardly a single professor at Oxford would recog
    nize a dynamo if he met it in broad daylight. The Oxford student is
    the merest amateur.
  3.  This is bad enough. But after all one might say this is only
    the mechanical side of education. True: but one searches in vain in
    the Oxford curriculum for any adequate recognition of the higher and
    more cultured studies. The more one looks at these things, the more
    amazing it becomes that Oxford can produce any results at all.
  4.  The effect of the comparison is heightened by the peculiar
    position occupied at Oxford by the professors' lectures. In the col
    leges of Canada and the United States the lectures are supposed to
    be a really necessary and useful part of the student's training. Again
    and again I have heard the graduates of my own college assert that

427


they had got as much, or nearly as much, out of the lectures at college as out of athletics or the Greek letter society or the Banjo and Magdalen Club. In short, with us the lectures form a real part of the college life. At Oxford it is not so. The lectures, I understand, are given and may even be taken. But they are quite worthless and are not supposed to have anything much to do with the development of the student's mind. «The lectures here,» said a Canadian student to me, «are punk.» I appealed to another student to know if this was so. «I don't know whether I'd call them exactly punk», he answered, «but they're certainly rotten». Other judgments were that the lectures were of no importance; that nobody took them; that they don't matter; that you can take them if you like; that they do you no harm.

  1.  I understand that the key to this mystery is found in the
    operations of the person called the tutor. It is from him, or rather with
    him, that the students learn all that they know: one and all are agreed
    on that. Yet it is a little odd to know just how he does it. «We go over
    to his rooms,» said one student, «and he just lights a pipe and talks
    to us.» «We sit round with him,» said another, «and he simply smokes
    and goes over our exercises with us.» From this and other evidence
    I gather that what an Oxford tutor does is to get a little group of
    students together and smoke at them. Men who have been system
    atically smoked at for four years turn into ripe scholars.
  2.  In what was said above, I seem to have directing criticism
    against the Oxford professors as such: but I have no intention of
    doing so. For the Oxford professor and his whole manner of being I
    have nothing but a profound respect. There is indeed the greatest
    difference between the modern up-to-date American idea of a pro
    fessor and the English type.
  3.  The American professor deals with his students according
    to his lights. It is his business to chase them along over a prescribed
    ground at a prescribed pace like a flock of sheep. They all go hump
    ing together over the hurdles with the professor chasing them with a
    set of «tests» and «recitations», «marks» and «attendances», the
    whole obviously copied from the time-clock of the businessman's
    factory. This process is what is called «showing results». The pace
    set is necessarily that of the slowest, and thus results in what I have
    heard Mr. Edward Beatty describe as the «convoy system of educa
    tion».
  4.  Now the principal reason why I am led to admire Oxford is

428


that the place is little touched yet by the measuring of «results», and by this passion for visible and provable «efficiency». The whole system at Oxford is such as to put a premium on genius to let mediocrity and dullness go their way. On the dull student Oxford, after a proper lapse of time, confers a degree which means nothing more than that he lived and breathed at Oxford and kept out of jail. This for many students is as much as society can expect. But for the gifted students Oxford offers great opportunities. He need wait for no one. He may move forward as fast as he likes, following the bent of his genius. If he has in him any ability beyond that of the common herd, his tutor, interested in his studies, will smoke at him until he kindles him to a flame. For the tutor's soul is not harassed by herding dull students, with dismissal hanging by a thread over his head in the classroom. The American professor has no time to be interested in a clever student. The student of genius merely means to him a student who gives no trouble, who passes all his «tests», and is present at all his «recitations». Higher education in America flourishes chiefly as a qualification for entrance into a money-making profession, and not as a thing in itself. But in Oxford one can still see the surviving outline of a noble type of structure and a higher inspiration. In one respect at least I think that Oxford has fallen away from the high ideals of the Middle Ages. I refer to the fact that it admits women students to its studies. Oxford... has not stood out against this change.

Exercise II. Translate the following newspaper articles into Ukrainian. Be careful to convey faithfully their peculiar features of style and expressiveness.

1. RADIATION, LONELINESS HAUNT CHORNOBYL'S NEIGHBOURS

The sunlight reflects dully off a sign along the road «ATTENTION: Forbidden Area». It is a wasteland disguised as rustic paradise.

This is a place where an invisible poison of radiation released during the 1986 Chernobyl' meltdown has seeped into the land and people's psyche. Yet some know no other home. «We were born here and we will die here,» says an elderly peasant woman. «There can be not other way. It is our fate».

It is a ghost-town life for many who remain in Ukraine's forbid-

429


den areas more than a decade after the world's worst nuclear accident. International health authorities estimate nearly five million people in Ukraine and neighbouring countries were exposed to wind-borne radionuclides. Thyroid cancer has increased greatly in children, but officials are unsure how many people have died or been affected by Chornobyl'-related cancer, chromosome damage or post-traumatic stress. The disaster still haunts Ukraine, taking 15 percent of its budget to operate damaged power complex, provide medical care for victims and pay other expenses.

Some people refuse to leave the contaminated areas, while others return years later out of economic desperation or a longing for their forefather's home. Authorities allow them to stay, and weekly food deliveries are sent to some areas. One forbidden zone is the Narodychi district, about 45 miles west of Chernobyl'. Here, past checkpoints manned by bored police, villages are abandoned, window shutters bang in the wind against crumbing houses, door-ways stand open like missing teeth. Silence is on the land, the whitewashed houses like scattered skeletons, the bones still there but the flesh gone. A few figures move furtively, dogs and people, birds startled up, like survivors of an apocalypse, only without the crude damage of war, fire or flood.

In Loznydtsya, where the population dropped from 200 to 60 after the accident, Maria Zymuha still opens up the village library for a few hours a day. It is a cold little room in the village's theatre, which closed years ago. Large drama masks symbolizing comedy and tragedy still hang on the building's facade.

2. OBSTACLES AND SOLUTIONS

The great war of ideas that has defined the twentieth century is finally over. The central ideals of democracy and market-based economic systems are now accepted in most of the world. At the most fundamental level, the idea that a self-appointed group of individuals can run a country is seen as folly. The transitions to democracy during the 1970's and 1980's, as well as those yet to come, are due to a variety of the quest for a higher quality of life by people everywhere. Although the recent trends outlined above highlight various ways that changes in political systems affect and are affected by economic factors, they also rebut any simple notion that economic change alone causes the development of democracy. The current situ-

430


ation in China is one of the clearest examples of the complex interactions of politics, economics, culture, and the demands for dignity and freedom by students, workers, and the emerging entrepreneurial groups.

Few people realize how complex it is to establish and run the institutional infrastructure essential to a modern society for it is through the constitutional, political, and governmental processes that the basic rules and structures that underlie market mechanisms are established.

Herman Bochi, the architect of Chile's economic transformation, has written that he needed over 500 trained people to introduce essential reforms in the governmental bureaucracy. Competent business managers, experienced entrepreneurs, accountants, bankers, and other professionals are also essential to a market economy. On the political side, well-trained and experienced legislators and political operatives at all levels, especially local government, are indispensable. Some of these values can be taught in the formal educational systems; others require national leadership, such as the exemplary, selfless role played by Vaclav Havel, the president of the Czech Republic.

3. POLL: AEU CITIZENS BACK EXPANSION

European Union citizens back the eastward expansion of their trade bloc, but have little idea what the ED bureaucracy is doing about it, according to poll results released Thursday Nov., 23. Conducted in all 15 EU nations between July and October, the poll found majorities support membership for Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Estonia and Latvia. But it found only one in five citizens who has even heard that EU governments plan to open talks next spring on a new treaty that will pave the way for expansion. Those negotiations will aim to play the financial groundwork for expansion and streamline cumbersome EU decision, making rules that were made for a union of fewer than a dozen members. Britain has fiercely guarded its sovereignty from encroachment by EU institutions and has won the right to opt out of EU labour laws and plans for a common EU currency. The poll found 27 per cent believe efforts to bring the union closer together were «very important», while 44 per cent said they were «fairly important». Sixteen percent said those efforts were not important, while the rest had no opinion.

431


4. ANIMAL DRIVERS STALK THE ROADS OF BRITAIN

Motorists are animals on the road and follow the law of the asphalt jungle when they get behind the wheel, a report out today says. The research shows that animal-like aggression is a major cause of accidents. Each day 13 people die and 800 are injured on Britain's roads and for every accident involving injuries there are up to ten more, in which there is only damage to vehicles. The report from the AA's University of Newcastle upon Tyne says, it is the animal-like desire to protect territory and to dominate the pack that makes motorists drive aggressively. When trying to overtake, for instance, many drives do not wait until it is safe but «challenge» other cars for dominance or block other vehicles as a way of protecting their territory. The report says: «It is necessary for only a few drivers to behave aggressively to protect what they regard as their territory for many others to feel threatened».

Most drivers admit they speed regularly but few say it is dangerous, the report says: «If serious inroads are to be made into current attitudes to speeding, the prevailing view that it is neither a crime nor dangerous must be changed. All drivers need to be convinced that speed is a weapon that can kill».

5. COMPANIES TO FORM UKRAGROMASHINVEST

KYIV. The cabinet has approved the charter of the Ukragromashinvest leasing company. The firm will lease and sell farming machinery to domestic agricultural producers. The decision was confirmed by the Deputy Industrial Policies Minister, March 12. The new company's statutory fund will include bank credits and state-owned stakes in 19 farm machinery companies. Its task is to create and introduce a mechanism to carry out leasing operations and provide equipment to producers of agricultural goods. The state will retain all the stakes for a five year term. Leasing revenues will be used to develop production at domestic farm engineering companies. Its statutory fund is valued at between Hr 20-30 mn. Kravchuk stressed that regional subsidiaries of Ukragromashinvest will be involved in the manufacture, sale and technical servicing of machinery and equipment supplied through leasing.

432


6. ODESA GAS DEBTS THREATEN CUT IN SUPPLIES

ODESA. The first Deputy President of Odesa Gas AT, Ihor Uchytel' spoke March 12 about gas provision to the region. He noted that «a critical situation has emerged concerning gas supplies in the oblast, while the northern part of Odesa is also threatened and may suffer a loss in gas supplies.» This critical situation has been caused by the accumulation of significant debts for consumed gas. The total gas debt for Odesa oblast stands at Hr 128.6 mn, including of Hr 123mn owed by Odesa. The main debtors are residential consumers and the local budget.

7. CEC DECIDES TO GIVE PRISONERS PLEBISCIT

KYIV. The Central Electoral Committee approved a decision to include Ukrainian prisoners to the number of voters eligible to vote at the parliamentary elections March 29. A total of 184 institutions in Ukraine hold more than 200,000 citizens. The CEC's resolution ruled to create polling stations in prisons by March 20 and establish relevant constituencies by March 23. Prisoners were not allowed to vote prior to this.

8. CRIMINAL CASES AFFECT MOST OF CANDIDATES

KYIV. Since the beginning of the election campaign, 16 criminal cases have been filed pertaining to crimes committed against candidates running as deputies to the VR. Candidates committed 2 crimes themselves, and in 2 other cases they were involved in car accidents. Five of the cases were registered in Kyiv and 4 took place in Vinnytsya. One candidate to the VR in Vinnytsya was accused of financial fraud, while another to the Kharkiv city council murdered his mother.

9. UUIE SUPPORTS ECONOMIC RAPPROCHEMENT

KYIV. The Ukrainian Union of Industrials and Entrepreneurs made two important statements March 11. Although the first one strongly criticized the policies of government ministries and NBU, the second supported the economic cooperation treaty signed with Russia last month. The first criticized high yield T-bills for distracting domestic investments for purely speculative purposes. The 44% discount rate squeezed businessmen by depriving them of credit resources. UUIE experts believe the economic cooperation treaty will

433


bring Ukraine economic benefits and provide firms like the L'viv bus plant, Motor Sich, TurboAtom and others with valuable orders.

Exercise 111. Translate the Ukrainian texts of publicistic and newspaper style into English. Be careful to convey their stylistic and pragmatic peculiarities.

1. ДЕЯКІ ПИТАННЯ ДЕРЖАВОТВОРЧОЇ ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ ІНТЕЛІГЕНЦІЇ (1917-1918)

Падіння царського самодержавства, яке для українців було уособленням і соціального, і національного гніту, викликало величезний ентузіазм серед демократично настроєної свідомої інтелігенції. З'явилися надії на відродження мови, культури, української державності.

За свідченням видатного діяча українського національного руху Д.Дорошенка, як тільки до Києва дійшла звістка про повалення самодержавства, члени керівної ради «Товариства українських поступовців» прийняли рішення заложити загальну організацію, яка об'єднувала б усі українські національні організації й стала на чолі руху.

Протягом перших днів Лютневої революції у Києві осередком українського політичного життя став клуб «Родина», членами якого з 1914р. були С.Русова, М.Ішуніна, Ф.Матушевський, С.Черкасенко, С.Єфремов, М.Лисенко, Л.Старицька-Черняхівська, М.Старицька, О.Стешенко. Вони ввійшли до первісного складу новітньої суспільної організації -Української Ради. Центральна Рада, яка виникла 3 березня 1917 p., спочатку виконувала функції органу, який координував діяльність існуючих суспільних і політичних організацій. З 9 по 15 березня засідання Ради вів Київський адвокат Ф.Крижанівський. На посаду другого заступника запросили літератора В. Науменка. Як голова Ради М. Грушевський виступив тільки 15 березня.

Прагнення до національного відродження охопило широкі народні маси. Члени Ради розуміли, що це проявиться в маніфестаціях українців, і взяли участь у їх підготовці. На 19 березня була запланована українська маніфестація у Києві. Комісію по її підготовці очолив Д.Антонович.

Маніфестація 19 березня зібрала близько 100 тисяч

434


учасників. «Це був грандіозний вибух національного почуття, демонстрація національної радості, слава визвольній революції», -згадував В.Винниченко.

2. ТРИДЦЯТЬ ТРИ НЕСКОРЕНІ УКРАЇНЦІ

Згідно з сумнозвісною ленінською національною політикою робилося все можливе, щоб ампутувати історичну пам'ять української нації, знищити остаточно нашу мову і культуру. Хто вважає, ніби зросійщення в Україні - це ледь не природний процес, хай оцінить подію 1951 року в Харківському університеті, коли студенти відмовилися складати іспити російською мовою. Тоді 800 з них було репресовано, а 33-х студентів на закритому засіданні суду було засуджено до смертної кари і розстріляно. Так діяла радянська влада проти української мови та її оборонців на нашій українській землі. Через 10 років після цієї трагічної події, 23 травня 1961 року, студенти Київського університету ім. Тараса Шевченка намалювали чи написали чорною фарбою число 33 на стінах, на підлозі, навіть у підвалах сімох приміщень університету. То був символ шани і пам'яті про тих 33-х нескорених українців. Хвала і слава вам, безіменні герої багатостраждальної України!

3. ПИЛИП ОРЛИК-ТВОРЕЦЬ ПЕРШОЇ УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ КОНСТИТУЦІЇ

Серед поборників української національної державної ідеї постать гетьмана Пилипа Орлика посідає особливе місце. Насамперед тому, що він є творцем однієї з перших в Європі державних конституцій під назвою «Конституція прав і свобод Запорізького Війська». Вона стала для свого часу маніфестом державної волі українського народу перед усім цивілізованим світом. Це був перший документ української державотворчої історії, в якому було гармонійно поєднано інтереси гетьманату та старшини як провідної верстви України та Запоріжжя, як військової сили, і відображено права і вольності українського народу.

Цей документ випереджав свій час. Своїми ідеями, демократичними засадами, змістом і державницькою спрямованістю «Конституція» випереджала і суспільну думку тодішньої Європи. Навіть французькі просвітителі ще тільки

435


наближалися до розробки тих громадянських ідей, які були закладені в «Конституції» Орлика 1721 року. «Конституція» стала реальною моделлю вільної, незалежної держави, яка б заснувалась на природному праві на свободу і самовизначення. «Конституція» складалася з 16 статей, які передбачали встановлення національного суверенітету і визначення кордонів Української держави, забезпечення демократичних прав людини, визнання непорушності трьох складових чинників правового суспільства, а саме - єдність і взаємодію законодавчої (виборна Генеральна Рада, що мала скликатися тричі на рік), виконавчої (гетьман, обмежений законом у своїх діях, генеральна старшина й обрані представники від кожного полку) і судова влада -підзвітна і контрольована. Такими в «Конституції» визначилися принципи побудови української держави. Кожна ж із статей формулювала конституційні норми в усіх галузях державного життя при головній умові - відторгнення майбутньої української держави від Росії.

436


NEW ITEMS FOR CLASS AND HOME WRITTEN OR ORAL TRANSLATION

1. HAZAR COULD INVEST US $78 MN INTO ODESA

ODESA. A delegation from Hazar construction company of Turkey is due to visit Odesa to hold talks on implementing a US $78mn investment project in the city. The news was revealed by the head of the city council's foreign economic development unit Konstiantyn Rzhepishevskyi March 10. He noted Hazar has to build a 5-star hotel in Odesa, a fun park and a cinema on condition the city lease land for the project on a long-term basis. The receiving а В + international credit rating guaranties the success of the project.

2. THE LEONIDS THROUGH THE AGES

COMET Р55ЯЕМРЕІ-ТиТТІЕ and its associated Leonids meteor storm have long been known to astronomers, but have a tendency to disappear for extensive stretches of time. The comet probably crossed Earth's orbit for the first time in 868 A.D., say astronomers. The first written account comes from Chinese astronomers in 902 A.D. Through the centuries, witnesses continued to record the appearances of the Leonids storm in awestruck terms. «Stars fell like rain,» reads one account. Observers generally failed to notice the cyclical nature of the event, however.

Following a particularly intense Leonids storm in 1833, in which 240,000 meteors per hour were estimated to have fallen over Boston during a 9-hour period, interest in the Leonids picked up. In fact, the Leonids storm is credited with sparking the formation of a religious revival movement that swept the United States in the 1830s.

In 1866, Ernst Tempel and Horace Tuttle calculated the comet's orbit to be every 33.3 years. That same year, the Leonids stalled Europe with another intensive storm, proving the accuracy of Tempel's and Turtle's calculations. Then, inexplicably, the Leonids storm faded from view for the next 100 years.

437


3. RUSSIAN CUTS CUSTOMS POINTS FROM 15 TO 4

MOSCOW. According to a report from Ukrainian News, the Russian government has reduced the number of customs border points at the Russian-Ukrainian border through which Ukraine can export goods like alcohol and cigarettes. The number has been cut from 15 to 4 and comes in the wake of protests from Russian domestic producers who are afraid that VAT-free goods from Ukraine will compete unfairly. VAT on goods between the two countries was scrapped Feb.

4. ITALIAN EMBASSY UNVEILS CARRA EXHIBITION

KYIV. The Italian Embassy and Ministry of Culture have teamed up to unveil an art exhibition of the works of Carlo Carra. The exhibition will run one week before heading to L'viv. This is the first event held by the Italian Embassy in accordance with the co-operation agreement it signed with Ukraine's Culture Ministry.

5. COMMITTEE APPROVES UKRTYTAN FOUNDING

KYIV. The anti-monopoly committee has given the green light for the creation of the UkrTytan corporation in Kyiv. The co-founders of the new corporation are the Zaporizhya titanium-magnesium integrated works, the Tytanium research institute and UkrKolyorProm, both of whom are state-run, and the Paton Institute of Welding. The main aim of the new company will be to raise funds for the modernization of production of titanium sponge at the Zaporizhyan integrated works and the installation of equipment to cast sponge ingots. The total value of the project is estimated at US $20mn. UkrTytan's president will be Volodymyr Bakumenko, general manager of the Zaporizhya titanium-magnesium plant.

6. NBU URGES TO INITIATE BANKING CHANGES

KYIV. The NBU has urged the VR to supplement its law on banks and banking with a new provision ordering commercial banks

438


to notify the former by April 1 whether they have increased their statutory funds to the mandatory level of ECU 1 mn. According to the NBU, two commercial banks have failed to comply with the demand, while 17 others have increased their statutory funds but failed to notify the NBU about changes made.

7. CONSULTANTS TO COMPILE BETTER MATEMAIL

KYIV. The organizing committee for the EBRD Congress approved a decision March 10 to attract leaders of international consulting firms operating in Ukraine to contribute their ideas in preparing analytical articles for inclusion in the official EBRD Congress catalogue Ukraine: Outlook for the XXI Century. A representative of the Newbiznet Kharkiv Regional Center for Business Development, Oleksandr Dudka, told EE March 11 that after reviewing information received from official state source and ministers, organizers decided to get a different point of view from international business «in order to make the publication more interesting». The firms will be asked to write analytical pieces on the investment attractiveness of different sectors, trading conditions and obstacles to trade. Two companies, Newbiznet and Computer Systems will translate these articles and produce 5,000 printed copies and 10,000 CD's which will be distributed amongst all the companies registered to take part in the congress in May.

8. PROJECT FOR NEW BUSINESS CENTER UNVEILED

KYIV. A presentation of the project for a new business center took place at the Kyiv Administration's Architecture Department March 11. The project was developed for Kyiv company H&F Forum by German ZBF-Berlin and Kyiv Architecture Union with the participation of architects from Austria and Australia. According to the project, a 4-star hotel, trading area, restaurants, cafes, and office will be built around the Lesya Ukrainka Ploshcha in Kyiv. The complex will cover an area of 42,000 sq. m. Construction of the business center with some investment funds from Germany is expected to start this autumn.

439


9. «ГАЛИЦЬКІ БУДИТЕЛІ» (Маркіян Шашкевич, Іван Вагилевич, Яків Головацький)

У пам'яті нащадків ім'я Маркіяна Шашкевича постає разом з іменами Івана Вагилевича та Якова Головацького - «Руської трійці» громадсько-літературного угрупування, об'єднання однодумців, яке в 30-х роках XIX століття розпочало подвижницьку справу відродження українства в Галичині. Ще в 1834 р. Шашкевич склав альманах своїх творів, під назвою «Зоря», писаних народною українською мовою, включивши до нього поезії своїх товаришів та народні пісні.

У жовтні 1836 р. було отримано дозвіл, а в грудні того ж року з'явилася датована 1837 роком сама книжка під назвою «Русалка Дністровая». Вона складалася із збірки народних дум, пісень, «ладкань» (веселі наспіви), з «передговором» (вступом) І.Вагилевича, оригінальних творів Шашкевича, перекладів сербського епосу та Краледворського рукопису, які зробили Головацький і Шашкевич.

Незважаючи на поміркованість поглядів «Руської трійці», реакція офіційних властей на видання «Русалки Дністрової» була досить суворою. 800 примірників збірки було затримано у Відні. Багато «небезпечних місць» побачила й львівська цензура і не допустила транспорт з тиражем у місто. Безумовно, «Руську трійцю» не можна порівнювати з «грандами» національної ідеї, їх сучасниками Т.Шевченком, П.Кулішем, М.Костомаровим. Одначе вони були першими, хто пробудив національну свідомість українців у Галичині, залучив їх до загальної справи народу, що перебував на історичному узбіччі. Вони «оживили» українську мову, зірвавши з неї пута книжництва, започаткували нову українську літературу в Галичині, їх хитання і непослідовність, можливо, не йшли від особистих рис характеру, а певною мірою були притаманні українству взагалі, яке дуже часто попри об'єктивні реалії в романтичному запалі виборювало для свого народу право на майбутнє, на щасливішу долю.

440


10. ЗА ПРАВО ЖИТИ

Після 17 з'їзду ВКП(б) 1934 р. машина політичного терору, яка з часу так званої пролетарської революції в Росії 1917р. ніколи не зупинялася повністю, діяла вже на всю потужність. Основний удар було спрямовано проти України. І це не випадково. Україна в стратегічних розрахунках російських більшовиків-шовіністів завжди розглядалася як вирішальний плацдарм. 1933 року в «загальній атмосфері загострення класової боротьби» покінчили життя самогубством дві провідні політичні постаті в Україні -комуністи Микола Хвильовий і партійно-державний діяч, соратник Леніна, Микола Скрипник, член Політбюро ЦК КП(б)У, тодішній заступник Голови Раднаркому і Голова Держплану УРСР. На цей самий рік припадає ще один вияв бурхливого «розквіту» української радянської нації- страхітливий голод, який забрав у могилу кілька мільйонів (називають цифру 8-9 мільйонів) українських життів і довів наш народ до людоїдства. 1932 рік був урожайний. Москва «спустила» Україні завищені плани хлібоздачі. Але «єдність партії та народу» була вже «повна», і партійно-державний апарат України, цілковито безконтрольний перед суспільством, висунув так званий зустрічний план - ще вищий. Хліб від українських селян вимели дочиста. Вимирали цілі села - по всій радянській Україні маяли чорні прапори смерті (не метафорично, а в прямому значенні слова: стихійно утвердилась практика вивішувати над обезлюднілими селами чорні прапори). А газети кричали про розквіт українського народу. Зібраний хліб лежав у «засіках батьківщини» і поза ними, просто неба. Лежав, і чимало його пропадало. А люди пухли й помирали з голоду і «держава трудящих, робітників і селян» не подала їм ніякої допомоги. Вона боролася з «українським націоналізмом». Терор значною мірою захопив і позаполітичну людність. Так, 22 червня 1944 р. суворо таємним наказом № 0078/42 Берії і Жукова було вирішено «вислати у віддалені місця СРСР всіх українців, що проживали під владою німецьких окупантів». На 22-му з'їзді КПРС Нікіта Хрущов згадував, що тільки численність української нації врятувала її від ще одного сталінського етапу «розквіту» - від переселення на безмежні простори Сибіру. Нація лежала біля ніг радянської Росії цілковито паралізована. (Ю.Бадзьо)

441


11. НА ПЛАЩАНИЦІ КРОВ ІСУСА?

Разюче відкриття, яке може перевернути всі уявлення про земне існування Ісуса Христа, зробили американські вчені з Центру передових технологій ДНК Техаського університету.

Ученим цього центру, повідомляє у новій книзі «Кров і плащаниця» Ян Вілсон, пощастило виявити сліди ДНК людини на знаменитій Туринській плащаниці - полотні, у яке, згідно з легендами, було загорнуто тіло Ісуса Христа після того, як його зняли з хреста.

На жаль, подані для дослідження зразки настільки малі, що сліди ДНК на них неможливо використати для подальших досліджень, заявив мікробіолог Техаського університету Леонсіо Гарза-Вальдес. «Однак, - наголосив він, - з певністю можна сказати, що ми виявили сліди людської крові і це - кров чоловіка». Рівень розпаду достатній, зазначив Гарза-Вальдес, щоб припустити, що власне плащаницю можна віднести до першого століття нашої ери, а розміщення слідів крові, рани на руках і ногах від розп'яття на хресті ясно свідчать про існування Христа, повідомляє ІТАР-ТАРС.

12. НОВА НАФТОВА МАГІСТРАЛЬ

Після заяви президента Азербайджану Ґейдара Алієва про те, що каспійська нафта у будь-якому разі пройде територією Грузії, до Тбілісі прибув керівник компанії «Шеврон Оверсіз» Річард Мацке. Він та керівник грузинської компанії «Нафтопродукти» підписали контракт про спорудження в Грузії нового трубопроводу та реконструкції існуючого.

Під існуючим мають на увазі трубопровід, що зв'язує грузинські міста Хашурі та Батумі. Його довжина 232 кілометри. Ця «труба» зв'яже Грузію з азербайджанським містом Алі-Байрамли. Остаточну здачу об'єкта намічено на першу половину 1999 року. А відновлювані роботи планують завершити до травня нинішнього року. Нафтопроводом транспортуватиметься нафта з казахстанського родовища Тенгіз, а також каспійська нафта.

Як заявив на прес-конференції Річард Мацке, діятиме також і залізнична транзитна переправа, якою за півтора року вже

442


перевезено більш як півтора мільйони тонн казахстанської нафти. Планують перевозити територією Грузії і скраплений газ та сірку. Нинішній проект - перша гілка трубопроводу, яка через Грузію зв'яже Каспійський басейн із зовнішнім світом. Нагадуємо, що на кінець року має стати до ладу трубопровід західного маршруту перекачування ранньої каспійської нафти. Як очікують, у червні Азербайджанський операційний консорціум схвалить остаточне рішення про маршрут доставки на Захід так званої «великої нафти». На думку експертів, цей маршрут пройде територією Грузії, звідти -до країн Західної Європи, Туреччини та України.

13. ВІЛЬНЮСЬКИЙ МІЖНАРОДНИЙ СУД НАД КПРС

Усе більше і більше відкривається страхітливих злочинів комуністичної імперії проти нашого народу. Це страшний і повчальний урок для нас живих.

Сьогодні завдяки відновленню української державності ми маємо можливість і повинні належно оцінити це жахливе минуле, засудити столітні варварства московської імперії на нашій святій землі. Україна рясно вкрита ще донедавна таємними похованнями, як биківнянські, і мабуть найзрозуміліше висловився Василь Симоненко у своєму запитанні: «Де зараз ви, кати мого народу?»

Багато наших батьків невинними розтріляли більшовики в ті страшні тридцяті. Ми, їхні діти, онуки, повинні засудити злочини більшовицьких нелюдів. На Міжнародному конгресі в листопаді 1995 року вже вирішувалося питання про трибунал для суду над комуністами-злочинцями. Але далі гучних слів і гнівного осуду конґрес так і не пішов. І ось, нарешті, червень 2000 року і перший міжнародний суд у Вільнюсі. Ідею організації міжнародного трибуналу над КПСС (Нюрнберг-2) підхопила Литва.

Для покарання фашистських вожаків потрібен був міжнародний процес. Подібний суд обов'язково повинен відбутися і над організаторами масових убивств невинних людей колишнім режимом.

Матеріалів для організації такого трибуналу є більш, ніж достатньо, починаючи від мільйонів смертей «куркулів» і їхніх

443


дітей на Соловках і в Сибіру 1929-1930 років і закінчуючи страхітливим голодомором 1933р., репресіями 1937-1938рр. та винищенням українців за підтримку діяльності ОУН. Нашим депутатам Верховної Ради, багато з яких схвалюють ідею створення трибуналу, необхідно розглянути питання про засекречені процеси над радянськими людьми і домогтися рішення владних структкр про широке висвітлення правди про ті підступні «судові» процеси, про вироки трійок без суду та слідства, про тортури заарештованих.

Справжня гласність, висвітлення всіх злочинів і конкретних злочинців - це не помста принижених і мучених, це наш обов'язок перед пам'яттю закатованих.

Орґанізацію в Україні суду над КПРС тепер вестиме Громадське представництво, якому вже зараз необхідно перш за все звернутися до прогресивного людства, до антикомуністичних комітетів тих країн. Де такі комітети є, аби вони вплинули на парламенти своїх держав.

Дуже добре було б, якби справу створення такого трибуналу своїм конкретним рішенням чи заявою офіційно підтримала влада нашої держави, адже колись навіть сам генсек комуністів М.С.Хрущов засудив злочини сталінізму!

444


A LIST OF LITERATURE USED AND RECOMMENDED

Ажнюк Б.М. Українські власні назви (антропоніми й топоніми) в англійському написанні. Мовознавство, 1993, №1.

Бархударов Л.С. Язьік й перевод. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1975.

Біблія або Книги Святого Письма. - Київ: - Видання Місійного Товариства "Нове Життя", 1992.

Граур А. Научно-техническая революция й задачи интернационализации научно-технической терминологии. - В кн.: Интернациональньїе злементьі в лексике й терминологии. -Харьков: Вьісш. шк. Изд-во при Харьков. ун-те, 1980.

Зорівчак Р.П. Фразеологічна одиниця як перекладознавча категорія. -Львів: Вища шк. Вид-во при Львів, ун-ті, 1983.

Карабан В.І. Посібник-Довідник з перекладу англійської наукової і технічної літератури на українську мову. Ч. І-ІІ - К.: Політична думка, 1997, 1999.

Комиссаров В.Н. Теория перевода. - М.: «Вьюшая школа», 1990.

Коптілов В.В. Теорія і практика перекладу. - К.: Видавництво Київ, університету, 1982.

Корунець І.В. Теорія і практика перекладу. - К.: Вища школа, 1986.

Корунець І.В. Принципи і способи передачі українських особових і географічних назв англійською мовою. Мовознавство, 1993, №3.

Кунин А.В. Фразеология современного английского язьїка. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1972.

Марчук Ю.Н. Проблеми машинного перевода. - М.: Наука, 1983.

Москальская О.Й. Грамматика текста. - М.: Вьісш. шк., 1981.

Найда Ю.А. К науке переводить. Принципи соответствий. -В кн.: ВопросьІ теории перевода в заруб, лингвистике. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1978.

Новий завіт (Проект). - Київ: Біблійні товариства, 1997.

Нойберт А. Прагматические аспектьі перевода. - В кн.: ВопросьІ теории перевода в заруб, лингвистике. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1978.

445


РецкерЯ.И. Теория перевода й переводческая практика. -М.: Междунар.отношения, 1974.

Семенец О.Е., Панасьев А.Н., История перевода. - К.: Либідь, 1989, 1991.

Сучасна українська літературна мова. Лексика. Синтаксис. За ред. І.К. Білодіда. - К.: Наукова думка, 1972.

Тисячоліття. Поетичний переклад України-Руси. - Київ, Дніпро, 1995.

Федоров А.В. Основи общей теории перевода. - М.: Вьісш. шк., 1983.

Чередниченко О.І., Коваль Я.Г. Теорія і практика перекладу (французька мова). - К.: Либідь, 1995.

Швейцар А.Д. Теория перевода. - М.: Наука, 1988.

McDowell Josh and Stewart. The Bible. Here's Life Publishers INC. San Bernardino, California, 1983.

Draper J.W. The Theory of translation in the 18.Century. In:

Franzel W. Geschichte des Obersetzens im 18Jahrhundert, Leipzig, 1914.

Gentzler E. Contemporary Translation Theories. - London and New York. Routledge, 1993.

Hoey Michael. Patterns of Lexis in Text. - Oxford: Ox.University Press, 1991.

Nida E. Componental Analysis of Meaning. - The Hague -Paris: Moton, 1975.

Pohling Heide. Zur Geschichte der Ubersetzung. In: Studien zur... Ubersetzungwissenschaft. - Leipzig, 1971.

Povey J., Walshe I. An English Teache's Handbook of Educational Terms. 2 nd Rev.Ed. - M.: Vyssaja Skola, 1982.

J.Seidl/McMordie W. English Idioms and How to Use Them. -М.: Вьісшая школа, 1983.

Rayevska R.M. Modem English Grammar. - К.: Вища школа. Головне видавництво, 1976.

British, Ukrainian and American newspapers, journals and dictionaries: К.Т.Баранцев. Англо-український фразеологічний словник. К.:Рад. школа, 1969.

Hornby A.S. Oxford Andvanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. -Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980.

Spears R.A., Georgeoliani D. Essential American Idioms. -Lincolnwood (Chicago): NTC Publishing Group, 1997.

446


Навчальне видання

Корунець Ілько Вакулович

ТЕОРІЯ І ПРАКТИКА ПЕРЕКЛАДУ

(АСПЕКТНИЙ ПЕРЕКЛАД)

Формат 60/801/16.Друк офсетний. Папір офсетний. Ум.друк.арк. 28.

Видавництво «Нова Книга»

Свідоцтво ДК №103

м.Вінниця, вул.Стеценка, 46/85

8 (0432) 53-71-88 E-mail: newbook@svitonline.com

Віддруковано на ДП «Державна картографічна фабрика» з плівок замовника. Зам №31, тир 1500 прим.

* * *

 Домашний театр з Dolby Surround активно заявив про себе лише останнім часом, коли відповідна техніка зявилася в магазинах поруч з блочним “Хай-фаем”. Чотирьохканальні AV ресивери, процесори Dolby Prologic, спеціалізовані гучномовці – сателіти і активні сабвуфери (супербасовики) залишають у споживача відчуття недоступності через порівнянно високу вартість, зовнішню складність і непевні критерії вибору. Цілком ймовірно, що саме це і створює ту стіну непорозуміння, на яку натикаєшся кожного разу, коли спілкуєшся з людьми, що не дуже розуміються на аудіо-відео апаратурі. І річ зовсім не в термінологічній плутанині. Найчастіше нарікають на дороговизну, на відсутність місця в квартирі, або просто зважають на те, що не на відеотеатрах світ клином зійшовся. І даремно! Тим більше зараз, коли в кінотеатрах знову черги за квитками, а на кіноекранах – світові премєри. Не треба бути крезом, щоб завести у себе вдома таке “диво”. Тай рахувати гроші прийнято не лише у нас. Сила силенна родин в усьому світі мають звичайні “домашні театри в одній коробці”. Згадайте легендарний “Home theatre in a box” від фірми Celestion. В такому наборі є все необхідне щоб за лічені хвилини перетворювати звуковий супровід відеофільму в охоплюючий вас з усіх боків звук Dolby Surround.

 Безперечно, слід зважати на те, що апаратура, яка входить до уніфікованого комплекту, відноситься до початкового рівня. Проте простота, компактність елементів і вдале співвідношення якості і вартості легко берути в полон покупця. Щоб “театральна” система стала ще зрозуміліше і блище, пропонуємо познайомитися з продукцією, яку зараз можна знайти в продажу.

Представлені комплекти (за рідким виключенням) відносяться до категорії Simply Cinema, тобто мають відношення і призначення суто для “віношних” справ. Всі вони мають вмонтований декодер Dolby Prologic (DPL), який відповідає за утворення багатоканального звуку, джерелом якого є VHS відео запоси з поміткою Dolby Surround або Hi-Fi Stereo. Знаючи, що власник такої аудіосистеми може використовувати її не лише для перегляду кінофільмів, а й як звичайний підсилювач, ті, хто розробляв цю техніку, не забули і про різні додаткові функції. Найчастіше місцем розміщення потужної електроніки, яка відповідає за керування, буває блок сабвуфера “самийвеликий агрегат, якій завжди має місце для додаткової жмені транзисторів”. Можливі варіанти систем навідь з повним відділенням електроніки від акустики. Для “однокоробкових” комплектів характерним є використання невеличких гучномовців. Не рідко використовують 5 однакових сателитів, що позитивно впливає на рівномірність акустичного поля. Нагадаю, що Dolby Prologic створює 4 окремих канали (лівий фронтальний, центральний, правий фронтальний, тиловий, який як правило складається з двох гучномовців); є ще й п’ятий вихід відфільтрований низькочастотний сигнал для сабвуфера. Малогабаритна акустика має обмеження в басах, проте просторові ефекти відтворює якнайкраще, що взагалі то від неї і вимагається. Декодер Dolby Prologic при розкладанні вихідного стереосигналу в каналі ефектів (тил) відрізняє частоти вищі за 7 kHz, як непотрібні; фронтальні канали зберігають повний діапазон. Крім регулювання гучності каналів, в де-яких системах є можливість зміни затримки в часі між фронтальними і тиловими гучномовцями в межах 15-30 мс. (частіше затримка постійна – 20 мс, цього достатньо в більшості випадків).

І нарешті головне: компоненти “міні-театрів” повністю зкореговані за всіма найбільш важливими параметрами і готові до роботи: підключай і слухай. Ось ми і дісталися до звука в усіх його кінопроявах: супербас-для створення особливого драматизму, тонально “гострі” сателіти – для просторової локалізації віртуальних джерел звуку з привязкою звукового образу до відеоряду. А всі разом – вони діють для вашого задоволення. При тестуванні ми звертали увагу, як на конструктивні особливості, так і на функції та зручність в керуванні. Ми обмежились прослуховуванням і переглядом характерних відеофрагментів (звуковий супровід Dolby Surround), а також провели лабораторні випробовування з вимірюванням параметрів акустики, оцінкою розділення каналів підсилювача. Небажане проникнення сигналу, наприклад, з центрального каналу в тиловий знижує точність локалізації, так що чим більше є перепона між каналами Db тим краще. А втім, чи не час поринути в оточуючий звук?

ББК 81.432.1-7

К68

УДК 802.0 (075)

ISBN 966-95804-0-4

Редактор: O.I. Tepex

Корунець І.В.

Теорія і практика перекладу (аспектний переклад): Підручник. -Вінниця. «Нова Книга», 2001 -448 с.

У пропонованому підручнику висвітлюється широке коло питань теорії та практики відтворення мовних одиниць і явищ лексикологічного і граматичного аспектів англійської й української мов. У теоретичній частині дохідливе англійською мовою викладаються короткі відомості про існуючі типи і види перекладу,|про історію розвитку принципів перекладу в Західній Європі та в Україні впродовж останнього тисячоліття^ Проте основна частина підручника відведена способам відтворення лексикологічних та граматичних труднощів англійської мови українською і навпаки. Зокрема: вірному/адекватному відтворенню різних типів власних назв людей, географічних назв і назв установ, компаній, корпорацій, назв газет і журналів, профспілок, політичних, спортивних, гуманітарних організацій, назв газет, журналів, тощо. Пропонуються вивірені способи відтворення ідіомів, значень реалій суспільного життя, класів інтернаціональної лексики, а також асиндетичних іменникових словосполучень і віддієслівних предикативних комплексів тощо. Підручник містить багато різноманітних вправ на закріплення теоретичного матеріалу.

 

ISBN 966-95804-0-4

 

©Корунець І.В.

© Вінниця, «Нова Книга», 2001

 

І.В.Корунець

ТЕОРІЯ І ПРАКТИКА ПЕРЕКЛАДУ

(АСПЕКТНИЙ ПЕРЕКЛАД)

ПІДРУЧНИК

За редакцією Тереха О.І.

Затверджено Міністерством освіти України

НОВА КНИГА

ВИДА.ВИШДТВО

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Передмова 8

I. Theoretical and Methodological Aspects of

Translation 10

Translation as a Notion and Subject 10

Significance of Translating/Interpreting 13

Translation in Teaching of Foreign Languages 15

Ways of Translating 16

Machine Translation 26

Kinds of Translating/Interpreting 28

Suggested Topics for Self-Control and Class Discussion 32

II. A Short Historical Outline of European and

Ukrainian Translation 34

Translation and Interpretation during the Middle Ages 38

Translation during the Renaissance Period 41

Translation during the Period of Classicism and

Enlightenment 42

The Epoch of Romanticism and Establishment of the

Principles of Faithful Translation in Europe 44

Translation in Kyivan Rus' during the 10th -13th Centuries

and in Ukraine during the 14th-16th Centuries 47

The Kyiv Mohyla Academy and Revival of Translation

Activities in Ukraine 52

Kotlyarevskyi's Free Adaptation of Virgil's Aeneid and the

Beginning of a New Era in Ukrainian Translation 54

Translation and Translators during the Late

19th - Early 20th Centuries 57

Translation during the Years of Ukraine's Independence

(1917-1921) and Soviet Rule 63

Translation and Translators in Post-War Ukraine. The

Development of the Principles of Faithful Translation 72

Translation in Ukraine during the Last Decade of the 20th

Century and the Role of the Vsesvit Journal 86

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 89

 

///. Lexicological Aspects of Translation 91

Methods and Ways of Translating Various Proper Names 92

Conveying the Names of Companies, Corporations, Firms 104

Topics for Self-Control and Class/Home Reviewing 113

Texts for Independent Oral and Written Translation 126

Units of International Lexicon and Ways of Rendering

Their Meaning and Lingual Form 128

Ways of Conveying the Lexical Meaning of Genuine

Internationalisms 135

Translating of Loan Internationalisms 140

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 141

Exercises for Class and Homework 142

Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation 146

News Items for Class Translation at Sight (in Viva Voce) 148

Units of Nationally Biased Lexicon and Ways of

Their Translation 151

Ways of Rendering the Meaning of Nationally

Biased Units of Lexicon 157

Exercises for Class and Homework 169

Texts for Independent Class and Home Translation 177

Translating of Idiomatic/Phraseological and Stable

Expressions 182

Transformations of Some Idioms in the Process of

Translating 196

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 198

Exercises for Class and Homework 198

IV. Lexico-Grammatical Aspects of Translation 208

Rendering of the Contextual Meanings of the Definite and

Indefinite Articles 208

Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Definite Article 210

Realization of Contextual Meanings of the Indefinite Article 215

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 221

Exercises for Class and Homework 221

Asyndetic Noun Clusters and Rendering Their

Meaning into Ukrainian 225

Approaches to Translating Asyndetic Substantival Clusters 226

 

Translation of Two-Componental Asyndetic Substantival

Clusters 227

Translation of Three-Componental Asyndetic Substantival

Clusters 232

Translation of Four-Componental Asyndetic Substantival

Clusters 237

Translation of Five-, Six- and Seven-Componental Asyndetic

Substantival Clusters 240

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 243

Exercises for Class and Home Translation 244

Translating of English Verbals and Verbal

Constructions/Complexes 252

Ways of Rendering the Lexico-Grammatical Meanings

and Function of the English Infinitive 253

Ways of Translating Infinitival Complexes 256

Ways of Translating the Objective with the Infinitive

Constructions/Predicative Complexes 259

Ways of Rendering the Meaning of the Subjective with the

Infinitive Constructions 263

Ways of Translating the Participles and Participial

Constructions 269

Ways of Translating Participial Constructions/Complexes 273

A. Ways of Translating the Objective with the Participle

Constructions/Complexes 274

B. Ways of Translating the Subjective with the Participle

Constructions/Complexes 276

C. Ways of Translating the Nominative Absolute Participial

Constructions/Complexes 280

D. Ways of Identification of Implicit Meanings in the Nominative

Absolute Participial Constructions 283

Structural Types of Ukrainian Language Units Conveying the Meaning of the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions... 285

Translation of the Gerund and Gerundial Complexes 295

Ways of Translating Gerundial Complexes/Constructions 299

Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 302

 

Ways and Means of Expressing Modality in English and

Ukrainian 308

The Lexico-Grammatical Expression of Modality

through Modal Verbs 310

English Modal Verbs Having not Always Modal Verbs

Equivalents in Ukrainian 334

Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 343

Exercises for Class and Homework 343

Transformations in the Process of Translation 361

Grammatically and Stylistically Prearranged

Transformations 367

Stylistically/Subjectively Predetermined Transformations 369

Ways of Conveying the Passive Voice Constructions 370

Objectively Required and Subjectively Introduced/Contextual

Transformations of Language Units 376

Objectively and Subjectively Conditioned Transformations

of Lexical Units in the Process of Translation 382

Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 387

Exercises for Class and Homework 387

V. Semantic Aspects of Translation 391

Language Units and Levels of Their Faithful Translation 391

Ways of Conveying the Meanings of Polysemantic

Language Units 394

Conveying the Meanings of Language Units at

Passage/Text Level 398

Lexico-Semantic, Stylistic and Structural Analysis of

Language Units/Sense Units of the Excerpt 405

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion 419

Exercises for Class and Homework 420

Publicistic and Newspaper Style Texts and Ways of

Their Translation 423

New Items for Class and Home Written or Oral Translation 437

A List of Literature Used and Recommended 445

 

ПЕРЕДМОВА

Підручник «Теорія і практика перекладу» розрахований на студентів перекладацьких відділень університетів та інститутів. Однак поаспектний виклад навчального матеріалу та система різноманітних вправ для його вивчення й інтенсивного закріплення дозволяє ефективно використовувати підручник в усіх гуманітарних і технічних вузах, де викладається переклад, а також у коледжах і гімназіях та в старших класах загальноосвітніх шкіл. Стане він у пригоді і всім бажаючим самостійно опановувати лінгвістичні основи письмового та усного перекладу з англійської мови на українську та навпаки. Цьому сприятиме і розподіл та виклад навчального матеріалу, а також пропоновані способи подолання багатьох лексикологічних, лексико-граматичних, семантичних і синтаксичних/структурних труднощів перекладу різних мовних одиниць.

У першому розділі розглядаються загальнотеоретичні й почасти методологічні питання перекладу, зокрема роль і значення перекладу для здійснення багатосторонніх зв'язків на різних рівнях розповсюдження ідей, при обміні інформацією та збагаченні національних мов, літератур і культур, при навчанні та вивченні іноземних мов тощо. В цьому розділі пояснюються також деякі перекладацькі терміни й поняття.

У другому розділі подається коротка історія розвитку євро-пеййБкого і зокрема українського перекладу від давнини до сучасності, що може зацікавити не тільки істориків.

Засоби вірного/адекватного перекладу різних мовних одиниць, понять і явищ англійської мови українською і почасти української англійською розглядаються в наступних розділах підручника. Так, у третьому розділі обґрунтовуються правила відтворення/перекладу різних назв, зокрема й географічних, інтернаціо-налізмів, реалій суспільно-політичного життя, усталених та ідіоматичних виразів англійської й української мов.

Лексико-граматичні питання перекладу є об'єктом розгляду в четвертому розділі, де прослідковуються засоби вираження й відтворення можливих контекстуальних значень означеного й неозначеного артиклів, об'єктивної (граматичної) та суб'єктивної модальності, англійських асиндетичних іменникових словосполучень і конструкцій/комплексів з віддієслівними формами а також різні види перекладацьких трансформацій.

8

 

Семантичні й почасти стильові аспекти перекладу подаються в підручникові безпосередньо через практику письмового й усного відтворення специфічних особливостей на відповідно підібраних для цієї мети текстових вправах у четвертому розділі. Окремі з цих вправ доцільно використовувати відповідно для письмового й усного підсумкового контролю знань і вмінь студентів. Проте головною метою введення тематичних текстових вправ є навчити й перевірити засвоєння теоретичних знань та їх реалізацію через навички письмового й усного перекладу різних типів тексту (зокрема й художнього та науково-технічного). Матеріали вправ можуть бути використані і на лекціях чи семінарських заняттях як наочний/ілюстративний матеріал до відповідних теоретичних тем аспектного перекладу та для тренувань письмового та усного перекладу з аркуша.

Оскільки теоретичні положення кожної теми розраховані на інтенсивне їх вивчення, закріплення і практичне застосування, всі правила перекладу в кожному розділі формулюються лаконічно доступною англійською мовою та ілюструються достатньою кількістю прикладів. Це дає викладачеві змогу виносити окремі теми на самостійне опрацювання студентами. Корисним для свідомого засвоєння найважливіших теоретичних положень можуть бути індивідуальні чи групові завдання студентам на самостійне відшукання ілюстративного матеріалу до окремих тем з відповідних англійських чи українських першоджерел.

Виклад переважної більшості теоретичних питань і положень у підручникові широко ілюструється різними словниковими прикладами і реченнями оригіналу та їх перекладу. Зважаючи на зміни й уточнення/синонімічні заміни й ін., внесені в окремі українські й англійські переклади з метою повнішої ілюстрації певних мовних одиниць/явищ, імена перекладачів не скрізь наводяться.

Автор із вдячністю прийме всі критичні зауваження та пропозиції спрямовані на поліпшення в подальшому пропонованого підручника.

 

I. THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

TRANSLATION AS A NOTION AND SUBJECT

Translation as a term and notion is of polysemantic nature, its common and most general meaning being mostly associated with the action or process of rendering/expressing the meaning/content of a source language word, word-group, sentence or passage (larger text) in the target language or with the result of the process/action of rendering. In other words with the work performed by the translator (cf. this is my translation). «Translation» is also used to denote the subject taught or studied, the examination in the subject (cf. we have translation in the time-table today; I have to pass translation tomorrow). «Translation» may refer to the title of the manual/ theoretical work on the subject (cf. I bought Translation by Ivanenko). Besides, the Romanization of proper nouns, geographical names, different internationalisms, etc., when Latin letters are used to convey the Ukrainian nouns, verbs, adverbs is «translation» too: Київ Kyiv, Бровари Brovary, Львів Lviv, Біла Церква Bila Tserkva, Полтава Poltava, Згурівка Zghurivka, Медвин Medvyn, algebra алгебра, geographerreorpadp, computer комп'ютер, opera опера, telephone (v) телефонувати, mechanically механічно, ignore ігнорувати, historically історично. «Translated» in this way, i.e., transliterated with the help of Cyrillic letters are many English and other foreign names and different terms. Cf.: Archibald Cronin Арчібальд Кронін, RobertFrosf Роберт Фрост, Ottawa Оттава, Mc/сНік, Susar/Сюзан, Helmut /<оп/Гельмут Коль, shilling шилінґ, pizza піцца, therapeutic терапевтичний, etc.

No less ambiguous is also the term «interpretation» which is synonymous to «translation» and is used to denote the way or manner of presenting the idea of the work in translation orally (as well as its aesthetic, religious, political, pragmatic background and other qualitative characteristics of the work under translation). These may be artistic, genre and stylistic peculiarities rendered by the translator in his particular way, which is somewhat different from that of the author's. The thing is that «interpretation», unlike «translation», admits some more freedom of the translator in his treatment (at least in certain places or cases) of the matter under translation. Hence,

10

 

the existence of free versifications (переспіви) and free adaptation (перелицювання) which are rightly treated as new creations (when they are of high artistic value). To the latter belong the famous free interpretations of Virgil's Aeneid in Ukrainian by I. Kotlyarevskyi or I. Franko's free adaptation of the German work Reineke Fuchs under the Ukrainian title «Фарбований лис», and many others both in our national literature and in world literature. Practically «adapted» (thought in a peculiar way and with the highest degree of faithfulness, i.e. interpreted according to our national literary tradition), are also Shakespearean masterpieces, Byronean writings and many other poetic and prose works. Consequently, «interpretation» may denote apart from the oral method of translation also a peculiar, pertained to a master of the pen and characteristic of him, as well as the only way of presenting a prose or poetic work in translation. («Interpretation» may also denote the style of a peculiar translator and his way of presenting a particular literary work).

Apart from the two mentioned above, there are some other terms in the theory of translation which may seen ambiguous to the inexperienced student. These usually common terms are: accurate or exact (to what degree?) translation точний переклад; faithful (or realistic) translation, адекватний/вірний переклад; faithfulness of translation/interpretation, адекватність/вірність перекладу/ тлумачення; fidelity (or faithfulness) of translation/interpretation вірність, адекватність перекладу; equivalent translation/interpretation еквівалентний переклад; free interpretation вільний переклад, перелицювання; free adaptation вільний переклад, переробка; free interpretation вільний переспів, перелицювання; free/loose translation вільний переклад, переказ; consecutive interpretation послідовний переклад, усне тлумачення; off-hand translation/ interpretation переклад/тлумачення без попередньої підготовки (з голосу чи з аркуша); rehash вільна переробка (вдала чи невдала) твору; sight translation/interpretation (translation at sight) переклад/ усне тлумачення з аркуша/тексту; simultaneous translation/ interpretation синхронний переклад; rough translation робочий варіант перекладу, чорновий переклад and some others.

Each of the above-mentioned terms may be understood and interpreted differently. Thus, «free interpretation» may mean both «free translation», «free adaptation» and sometimes even «loose translation». Similarly with the terms and notions as «faithful translation» and «equivalent translation» which are synonymous if

11

 

not identical by their general meaning thought not without some difference between them. The term «faithful translation» (адекватний, вірний переклад) is used to denote the highest level/degree of rendering the denotative or connotative meanings of words, the sense of word-groups and sentences, the content, the expressiveness, picturesqueness and the pragmatic subtext/intention of passages or works of the source language with the help of the available means of the target language. The term «equivalent translation» is nowadays practically used in the same meaning as «faithful translation» with one exception only: it also includes the necessity of quantitative and qualitative representation of all constitutive parts or elements of the source language units in the target language. Consequently, a «faithful translation» very often means the same as «equivalent translation» which can be best illustrated on single words, word-groups or sentences as the following: acre акр, democracy демократія, work праця, professors and students професори й студенти, fo work hard важко працювати, take part брати участь, throw light проливати світло, between Scilla and Charybdis між Сціллою і Харібдою, Ukraine celebrated her fifth anniversary in August 1996 Україна святкувала п'яту річницю своєї незалежності в серпні 1996 року.

Equivalent can also be considered the translation of the following English sentence which maintains in Ukrainian its main constituent parts, its content, expressiveness and picturesqueness: There was Penelope flying after me like mad. (W.Collins) За мною гналась, мов навіжена, Пенелопа.

In regard to the afore-said, there can be no equivalence but only faithfulness in the translation of such and the like English language units as: complexion колір обличчя, to take measures вживати заходів, little bird донощик («стукач»), live in the street рідко бувати вдома, one's sands are running out (idiom) тонко пряде/йому недовго ряст топтати, same here (colloq.) це ж саме (так само) і в мене (зі мною), те/це ж саме можу сказати і про себе or: це так само стосується і мене. In a large number of cases «translation» is traditionally applied to various substitutions of the source language constituents/images for the explicatory constituents and images of the target language, which helps achieve the necessary faithfulness in conveying their meaning. Cl: penny-in-the slot прилад/ пристрій-автомат для розрахунків за товари (торгівля); the land of golden fleece Австралія; red blood мужність, відвага, хоробрість

12

 

(когось); let George do it Іван киває на Петра (один спихає відповідальність на другого); agonic (геометрія) що не утворює кута, etc. Therefore, «faithfull» is not always «equivalent».

The term «translation» is used even to denote purely functional substitutions which have absolutely nothing in common with any expression/rendering of meaning of the source language sense units in the target language. A graphic example of this kind of «translation» can be the following passage: «There's the tree in the middle... It could bark... It says «Bough-wough»... «That's why its branches are called boughs». (L.Carrol, Alice in Wonderland). In Ukrainian: Он Фікус стоїть!.. Ми тому й прозвали його Фі-Кус, що він кусається. It goes without saying that the lexical meaning of «tree» is not «Фікус» and «Bough-wough» or «boughs» do not correlate with «кусатись» which they were substituted for in this Ukrainian translation by H.Bushyna.

Similarly «translated» i.e. functionally substituted are different English and Ukrainian metaphorically used nouns, verbs and set expressions as in the examples knight of the pencil журналіст/ кореспондент, baby-snatcher стара жінка, що одружилася з молодим чоловіком, the Square Mile Лондонське Сіті (фінансовий центр Лондона), the Square Mile of Vice (Сою, район нічних розваг міста Лондона), soft head недоумкувата людина (дурник), etc.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING

The importance of translating and interpreting in modern society has long been recognized. Practically not a single contact at the international level or even between any two foreign persons speaking different languages can be established or maintained without the help of translators or interpreters.

Equally important is translating and interpreting for uninterrupted functioning of different international bodies (conferences, symposia, congresses, etc.) to say nothing about the bodies like the E.E.C.(European Economic Council), the I.M.F.(lnternational Monetary Fund) or the United Nations Organization with its numerous councils, assemblies, commissions, committees and sub-committees. These can function smoothly only thanks to an army of translators and interpreters representing different states and working in many different national languages.

Numerous branches of national economies too can keep up

13

 

with the up-to-date development and progress in the modern world thanks to the everyday translating/interpreting of scientific and technical matter covering various fields of human knowledge and activities. The latter comprise nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecological environment, plastics, mining, chemistry, biology, medicine, machine building, electronics, linguistics, etc. In the present days translation of scientific and technical matter has become a most significant and reliable source of obtaining all-round and up-to-date information on the progress in various fields of science and technology in all countries of the world.

The social and political role of translation/interpretation has probably been most strongly felt in the 20th century when it provided the dissemination of political (doctrinal) ideas, of social and political knowledge in different fields of sciences.

Translating is also a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching national languages, literatures and cultures (operas, artistic films). The many translations of the prose, poetry and drama works of the world's famous authors into different national languages provide a vivid illustration of this permanent process. Due to masterly translations of the works by W.Shakespeare, W.Scott, G.G.Byron, P.B.Shelley, C.Dickens, W.Thackeray, O.Wilde, W.S.Maugham, A.Christie, H.W.Longfellow, Mark Twain, J.London, T.Dreiser, R.Frost, E.Hemingway, F.C.Fitzgerald and many other authors their works have become part and parcel of many national literatures. The works by Ukrainian authors have also been translated into English and some other languages, the process being increasingly intensified after Ukraine's gaining independence in 1991. Hitherto only the works of Ukrainian classics had mainly been published in some foreign languages. Among them are first of all T.Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesya Ukrainka, M.Kotsyubynskyi, V.Stephanyk, V.Vynnychenko, I. Bahryanyi, O.Honchar, O.Dovzhenko. Now the works of V.Symonenko, L.Kostenko, I. Drach, HryhirTyutyunnyk, V.Stus and others are also translated into various foreign languages and have become available for many readers abroad.

Whatever the type of matter is translated (belles-lettres, scientific or didactic, social or political, etc.) and irrespective of the form in which it is performed (written or oral) the linguistic and social or cultural significance of translation/interpretation remains always unchanged. It promotes the enrichment of lexicon and of the means of expression in the target language. Due to the unceasing everyday

14

 

political, economic, cultural and other contacts between different nations the lexicon of all languages constantly increases. Thousands of words and phrases, which were unknown in national languages before, become an integral part of their lexicon. Among them are units like steppe, Cossack/Kozak, Verkhovna Rada, hryvnia, different scientific/technical and other terms (кібернетика, комп'ютер, дискета, аудит, бартер, менеджмент, спонсор, моніторинґ, екологія, etc.). Consequently, translation/interpretation is a very effective means of enriching the national and international lexicon of all languages. But, as has been said, it is not only the word-stock (or rather the vocabulary) of languages that is constantly enriched. And it is not only separate words that are borrowed by national languages as a result of translating/interpreting; a lot of expressions and regular sentence idioms have come to national languages in this way as well. For example: the first/second, third reading (Parliament) перше/ друге читання, Olympic calmness олімпійський спокій, the Ten Commandments десять заповідей, to see a mot in one's eye бачити порошинку в чужому оці, to take part брати участь, time is money час - гроші, black ingratitude чорна невдячність, the Trojan horse троянський кінь, Judah's kiss поцілунок Іуди, and many others.

Among the adopted sentence structures are, for instance, the idioms God defend me from my friends; from my enemies I will defend myself захисти мене, Боже, від друзів, а з ворогами я сам упораюсь; an old dog will learn no new tricks на старості важко перевчатися; he laughs best who laughs last той сміється найкраще, хто сміється останнім, to be or not to be бути чи не бути, the game is not worth the candlerpa не варта свічок, etc.

These few out of many more sentence idioms are a testimony to the versatile influence of translators' activities upon the enrichment of languages through translation. The idiomatic word-groups and sentences of the source language almost always partly influence the placement of their component parts in the Ukrainian target language and thus facilitated their memorazing as well.

TRANSLATION IN TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

Translating as a means of teaching foreign languages has no independent value of its own for it is impossible to teach all aspects of a language in their complexity by means of translation only. Nev-

15

 

ertheless translation in foreign language teaching (and learning) can not and should not be ignored altogether since in many a case it remains not only the most effective but also the only possible teaching means in achieving the necessary aim. That is why translation is often resorted to in the process of teaching and presenting some important aspects of a foreign language.

Translation in teaching is employed by the teacher both at the initial, at the intermediary and at the advanced stage of learning/ teaching foreign languages. But irrespective of the level at which the foreign language is studied or taught, translation is both helpful and indispensable in the following cases:

1. When introducing even simple abstract lexemes or notions,

which can not easily be explained in a descriptive way or by actions

(gestures): think, hate, love, actual, invincible, generally, peace, turn,

friendship, image, dream, consider, feeling, firstly, immensely, at last,

gray, immense, strongly, beautifully, haggis, lordship, ladyship, etc.

2. In order to save time and avoid diverting the attention of

students by lengthy explications of the meaning of words, different,

word-combinations or sentences in the process of reading or listening

to an unfamiliar passage.

3. When checking up the comprehension of the lexical material

(new words, expressions) and in order to avoid the unnecessary

ambiguity which may arise in the process of teaching through «pic

tures», since a picture of a tree, for example, may be understood as

«a tree» or as a kind of tree (oak-tree, birch-tree, pine-tree, etc.).

4. While introducing at the lesson (usually at the initial stage

of teaching/learning) the new grammar/phonetical material, espe

cially the phenomena which do not exist in the native tongue

(e.g. the continuous or the perfect forms of the verb, different passive

constructions, infinitival, gerundial, and participal constructions (sec

ondary predication complexes).

5. When revising the lexical or grammar material studied at

the lesson/at previous lessons or answering questions like: 'What is

the Ukrainian for the «gerund», sequence of tenses, the «progressive/

perfect form» of the verb?' etc.

6. While discriminating the meaning of synonyms or antonyms

of the foreign language, for example: explain the difference between

great and large, small and tiny, tall and high, clever and foolish, etc.

7. When checking up the knowledge of students in written and

oral tests on lexical or grammar material.

16

 

8. When introducing idiomatic expressions which is mostly im

possible to teach and learn otherwise than on the basis of translating

(cf. Hobson's choice, to play hooky, look before you leap; when at

Rome; do as the Romans do: the game is worth the candle, etc.).

9. Before learning any text by heart (poems, excerpts of prose

or the roles of characters in plays).

10. When dealing with characteristic national figures of speech

(metaphors, epithets, similes, hyperboles, etc.) in the process of read

ing or translating the belles-lettres passages even at the advanced

stage of studying a foreign language.

11. When comparing the expressive means in the system of

the source language to those in the target language, etc.

Translation helps the student to master the expressive means in the source and in the target language. In the process of translating the student establishes sets of equivalent substitutes in the target language for the correspondent lexical, grammatical or stylistic phenomena of the source language. No wonder that the student at any stage of learning a foreign language, when not understanding some word, word-combination or sentence always resorts to intuitive translating of it into his native language.

WAYS OF TRANSLATING

Translating is unseparable from understanding and it goes along with conveying content and sometimes even the form of language units. As a result, the process of translation, provided it is not performed at the level of separate simple words, involves simultaneously some aspects of the source language and those of the target language. These are morphology (word-building and word forms), the lexicon (words, phraseologisms, mots), syntax (the means of connection and the structure of syntaxemes), stylistics (peculiarities of speech styles, tropes, etc.).

The level or the degree of faithfulness of translation is mostly predetermined by some factors, which may be both of objective and of subjective nature. The main of them are the purpose of the translation to be performed, the skill of the translator/interpreter, the type of the matter selected for translation, etc. Depending on these and some other factors, the following methods of translating are traditionally recognized in the theory and practice of translation:

1. Literal translating, which is to be employed when dealing

17

 

with separate words whose surface form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by original morphemes, lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some other languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning: administrator адміністратор, director директор, region регіон, hotel/motelготель/мотель, hydrometer гідрометр, Tom Том, etc.

It is easy to notice that in some words thus translated not only the morphemic but also the syllabic structure can sometimes be fully conveyed (cf. an-f/ан-ти, es-cort ес-корт, d/recf-огдирект-ор, ex-pres/d-enfeKC-прези-дент).

In many a case, however, the lingual form of the source language words is only partly conveyed in the target language. This happens when the common word is borrowed by each of the two languages in question from different source languages or when its lingual form is predetermined by the orthographic peculiarities of the target language: anti-alcoholic протиалкогольний, music музика, constitution конституція, zoology зоологія, atomic weight атомна вага, chemical process хімічний процес, national opera theatre національний оперний театр.

The literal translation in all the examples above provides an equivalent rendering of the lexical meaning of each language unit despite the augmentation in the number of morphemes/syllables in the target language (cf. atom/сатом-н-а, а/сопо//салкоголь-н-ий).

Close to the literal method of translating or rather reproduction is the so-called way of translator's transcription by means of which partly the orthographic and partly the sounding form of the source language lexemes/words is conveyed: archbishop архієпископ, card картка/карта, European європейський, Muscovite москвич/москвичка, organized організований, stylized стилізований, fnerapeuf/стерапевтичний.

Literal translating, however, can pervert the sense of the source language lexemes or sentences when their lingual form accidentally coincides with some other target language lexemes having quite different meanings: artist митець, художник (rarer артист); decoration відзнака, нагорода (and not декорація); matrass колба (and not матрац); replica точна копія (and not репліка), etc. Hence, literal translating has some restrictions in its employment and does not always help to render the lexical meaning of words or even morphemes

18

 

having often even an identical lingual form (spelling) in the source language and in the target language.

2. Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never conveys the orthographic or the sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative meaning only: fearful страшний, fearless безстрашний, helpless безпорадний, incorrect неправильний, mistrust недовір'я (недовіра), superprofit надприбуток, non-interference невтручання, weightlessness невагомість etc.

All the words above are practically translated at the lexico-morphological level, as their lexical meanings and morphological stems are identical to those of the English words (cf. help-less без-порадний, mis-trust не-довір'я, super-profit над-прибуток, etc.).

The overwhelming majority of other words, when translated verbally do not preserve their structure in the target language. That is explained by the differences in the morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages: abundantly рясно, bank берег (береговий), cliff бескид (скеля, круча), myself я, я сам/сама; автомат automatic machine/rifle, заввишки high/tall, письменник writer (author), череон/muto get/grow red, etc..

Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically impossible in literal translating, which aims only at maintaining the literal form.

Thus, the Ukrainian word автомат can have the following equivalent variants in English: 1. automatic machine; 2. slot-machine; 3. automatic telephone; 4. submachine gun (tommy gun). Similarly, the Englsih word ban/cwhen out of a definite context may have the following equivalent variants in Ukrainian: 1. берег (річки); 2. банк; 3. вал/насип; 4. мілина; 5. замет; 6. крен, віраж(авіац.); 1. поклади (корисних копалин). The literal variant/equivalent of the noun bank in Ukrainian can be, naturally, «банк» only.

Verbal translating, however, does not and can not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal translation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense, cf: / am reading now is not я є читаючий зараз but я читаю зараз; never say die is not ніколи не кажи помираю but не падай духом; to grow strong is not рости міцним but ставати дужим; to take measures is not брати міри but вживати заходів; first night is not перша ніч but прем'єра, etc.

19

 

Despite this, verbal translation is widely employed first of all at language level, i.e., when the lexical meaning of separate words is to be identified. A graphic example of verbal translation is presented in dictionaries which list the lexical meanings of thousands of separate words. Verbal translation is also employed for the sake of discriminating the meanings of some words at the lessons, with the aim of identifying the meaning of the unknown words (when translating sentences or passages). The student like any other person eager to know the name of an object or action/quality of the object, etc., employs verbal translation too when asking: What is the English for сніп/ відлига? What is the English for нікчемна людина/нікчема, хвалити Бога? What is the Ukrainian for cranberry/mistletoe? etc.

3. Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences. This way of translation is often employed both consciously and subconsciously by students in the process of translating alien grammatical constructions/word forms. Sometimes students at the initial stage of learning a foreign language may employ this way of translation even when dealing with seemingly common phrases or sentences, which are structurally different from their equivalents in the native tongue. Usually the students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences which have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of connection quite different from those in the target language. To achieve faithfulness various grammtical in translation, word-for-word variants are to be corrected to avoid various grammatical violations made by the inexperienced students. Cf. You are right to begin with*BU маєте рацію, щоб почати з instead of Почнемо з того/припустимо, що ви маєте рацію/що ви праві.

3. The interlinear1 way/method of translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units(sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often achieved through various transformations of structure of many sense units. For example, the sentence Who

1 «Interlinear» (from Latin interlineare) i.e., written/printed between the lines.

20

 

took my book? admits only one word-for-word variant, namely: Хто взяв мою книжку?

In interlinear translation, however, the full content of this sentence can be faithfully rendered with the help of two and sometimes even three equivalent variants: У кого моя книжка? Хто брав/узяв мою книжку? The choice of any of the transformed variants is predetermined by the aim of the translation, by the circumstances under which the translating/interpreting is performed or by the requirements of style (for example, in order to avoid the unnecessary repetition of the same form of expression/structure close to each other).

Interlinear translating is neither bound to nor in any way restricted by the particularities of word forms, by the word order or by the structural form of the source language units, which are usually word-combinations or sentences in the passage/work under translation.

As can be seen, the Ukrainian variants of the English sentence above (Who took my book?) bear no traces of interference on the part of the English language with its rigid word order in each paradigmatic kind of sentences. Neither is there any peculiar English word-combination transplanted to the Ukrainian sentences, as it often occurs in word-for-word translations. Hence, various transformations in interlinear translations, like in literary translations, are inevitable and they are called forth by grammatical/structural, stylistic and other divergences in the source language and in the target language. This can be seen from the following examples: The student is being asked now студента зараз запитують. She said she would come вона казала, що прийде. It will have been done by then на той час / до того часу це буде зроблено. His having been decorated is unknown to me мені невідомо про його нагородження (що його нагородили).

Transformations are also inevitable when there exists no identity in the form of expressing the same notion in the source language and in the target language: a trip коротка подорож; їздити на лижах to ski; to participate брати участь; овдовіти to become a widow/ widower, знесилитися to become/grow weak (feeble).

Very often transformations become also necessary in order to overcome divergences in the structural form of English syntaxemes which are predominantly analytical by their structural form, whereas their Ukrainian word-groups of the same meaning are mostly synthetic and analytico-synthetic by structure: books of my father книжки мого батька; Kyivstreet traffic regulations правила дорожнього руху

21

 

міста Києва; but: a task for next week завдання на наступний тиждень.1

Interlinear translating is widely practised at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language. It is helpful when checking up the students' understanding of certain structurally peculiar English sense units in the passage under translation. Interlinear translations of literary works, when perfected by regular masters of the pen, may become good literary variants of the original. But interlinear translations do not convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original. While performing the interlinear translation the student tries to convey completely the content of a source language sentence, stanza or passage. He quite subconsciously analyses the passage, selects in the target language the necessary means of expression for the allomorphic and isomorphic phenomena/sense units unknown to him and only after this he performs the translation. The interlinear method of translating helps the student to obtain the necessary training in rendering the main aspects of the foreign language. Thus, he masters the means of expression pertained to the source/target language. In the example below, taken from P.B.Shelley's poem The Masque of Anarchy, the interlinear translation conveys only the main content of the poetic stanza:

Men of England, Heirs of Glory, Люди Англії, спадкоємці слави,

Heroes of unwritten story, Герої (ще) не написаної історії,

Nurslings of one mighty mother, Сини однієї могутньої матері-вітчизни,

Hopes of her and one another! її надії і надії кожного з вас!

From this interlinear translation the reader can obtain a fairly correct notion of what the poet wanted to say in the stanza as a whole. But this translation does not in any way reflect the artistic beauty of Shelley's poem, i.e., the variety of its tropes, the rhythm and the rhyme, the musical sounding of the original work. Despite all that it still ranks much higher than any word-for-word translation might ever be, as it faithfully conveys not only the meaning of all notional words but also the content of different sense units, which have no structural equivalents in Ukrainian. Due to this the method of interlinear translation is practically employed when rendering some passages or works for internal office use in scientific/research centres

See more about transformations of the kind on pages 376-387 of this book.

22

 

and laboratories, in trade and other organizations and by students in their translation practice.

4. Literary Translating represents the highest level of a translator's activity. Any type of matter skilfully turned into the target language, especially by a regular master of the pen may acquire the faithfulness and the literary (or artistic) standard equal to that of the source language.

Depending on the type of the matter under translation, this method of performance may be either literary proper or literary artistic.

Literary artistic translation presents a faithful conveying of content and of the artistic merits only of a fiction/belles-lettres passage or work. The latter may be either of a prose or a poetic genre (verse).

Literary proper translation is performed on any other than fiction/belles-lettres passages/works. These may include scientific or technical matter, didactic matter (different text-books), business correspondence, the language of documents, epistolary texts, etc. In short, any printed or recorded matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors, etc.). But whether literary proper or literary artistic, this translation provides an equivalent rendering not only of complete content but also of the stylistic peculiarities of the passage/ work and its artistic merits/beauty, as in belles-lettres style texts.

Literary translations are always performed in literary all-nation languages and with many transformations which help achieve the ease and beauty of the original composition. The number of phrases and sentences in a literary translation is never the same as in the source language passage/work, neither are the same means of expression or the number and quality of stylistic devices per paragraph/ syntactic superstructure. All these transformations are made in order to achieve faithfulness in rendering content and expressiveness of the passage/work under translation. Transformations are also used to convey the features of style and in still greater measure the genre peculiarities of the works/passages under translation.

Literary proper/literary artistic translation of a larger passage/ work often requires linguistic, historical and other inquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, notions of specific national lexicon, neologisms, archaisms, etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philologic or historic inquiry. So, «Слово о полку Ігоревім» in a verbal or word-for-word translation would be "A Word about Ihor's Regiment which does not in any way correspond to the real meaning of this title, since the author meant under «Слово»

23

 

story, tale, saga, song. The word полк did not mean the military unit of today's armies (regiment) but troop, host, army. Therefore, the meaning of полк would be in Ukrainian дружина and the whole title would sound in contemporary translation as The Tale of the Host of Ihor, which corresponds to the real meaning of the title (оповідь, повість, пісня про Ігореве військо, i.e. дружину). That is why there exist today different translations of the title of this brilliant work. Among them are the following: 1) The Tale of the Armament of Igor. Edited and translated by Leonard Magnus. Oxford University Press, 1915.2) The Tale of Igor. Adapted by Helen de Verde. London, 1918.3) Prince Igor's Raid Against the Polovtsi. Translated by Paul Crath. Versified by Watson Kirkonnell. Saskatoon. Canada, 1947. 4) The Song of Igor's Campaign. Translated by Vladimir Nabokov. New York 1960. As can be seen, none of these titles conveys the meaning of the title fully, completely equivalently and faithfully, though some are close to it, especially that one suggested by Paul Crath (Prince Igor's Raid against the Polovtsi) and the V.Nabokov's variant The Song of Igor's Campaign.

In Soviet times this old Ukrainian literature masterpiece had an unchanged title The Lay of Igor's Host (suggested by a Georgian linguist). This translation does not differ greatly from the two mentioned above for «lay» is the Middle English poetic word for «song».

A similar approach aimed at a possibly fullest expression of the poetic content, i.e., flavour of the title can be seen in S.Garry's translation of M.Sholokhov's novel «Тихий Дон» sounding in English as rhythmic lines of a song - And Quiet Flows the Don or The Don Flows home to the Sea. The former title was used in the New York publication of the novel (1944) and the latter in its London publication that same year. It goes without saying that a verbal or word-for-word translation of the title as *The Quiet Don or *The Still Don would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title, which is strongly felt in its source language variant.

This poetic subtext of the Russian title is really expressed only in each of the two S.Garry's variants which could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel's content, into its main idea, and into the whole system of literary images of Sholokhov's work (as with the work mentioned before). It is no less difficult to convey the meaning and functions of colloquial, conversational, dialectal and other kinds of lexical units often used by many authors in their belles-lettres works. To translate them faith-

24

 

fully, one must consult reference books, dictionaries and often even the native speakers of the language, e.g.: dabster - dialectal for знавець/фахівець; daisy-slang for something or somebody nice, beautiful, first-rate (першосортне); put up (adj.) is colloquial for задуманий зазделегідь; спланований; ab ovo- Latin for від самого початку (Горацій), букв, «від яйця». Constant inquiries of all kinds are also necessary fo convey the expression side of the source language matter. It becomes especially imperative in versification which is explained by the condensed nature of poetic works in which thoughts and ideas are often expressed through literary means. To achieve the necessary level of faithfulness the translator has to render fully the picturesqueness, the literary images, the rhythm and the rhyme (vocalic or consorantal), the beauty of sounding of the original poem, etc. An illustration of this may be D.Palamarchuk's versified translation of W.Shakespeare's sonet CXV:

Those lines that I before have write do lie, (10) Even those that said I could not love you dearer: (11) Yet then my judgement knew no reason why (10) My most full flame should afterwards burn clearer. (11) Збрехав мій вірш, колись тобі сказавши: (11) «Моїй любові нікуди рости». (10) Я думав - ріст її спинивсь назавше, (11) Найбільшої сягнувши висоти. (10) The Ukrainian variant of the stanza reveals its almost complete identity with the original in the rhythmic and rhyme organization and in the number of syllables in each line. Though in the original their number alternates in reverse order (from 10 to 11) and in the translation - from 11 to 10. But this is in no way a rude violation, since the interchange takes place within the same stanza, though the translator could not fully reproduce the alternate (acbd) rhyme, which is feminine in the first (a) and third (c) lines and masculine in the second (b), and in the fourth (d) lines.

Most striking, however, are the syntactic alternations, there being no single line structurally similar to that of the original verse. All that becomes necessary because of the predominantly polysyllabic structure of Ukrainian words the number of which in the translation is only 19 as compared with 35 words in the source language. Besides, the Ukrainian stanza consists of notional words only, whereas in the original work there are also functionals (have, do, that, most, not, etc.). The notionalsform the artistic images and ideas

25

 

the number of which is somewhat larger in English. Since it was next to impossible to overcome the «resistance» of the source language verse, some losses in translation became inevitable. They are the result of the existing divergences in the grammatical structure or in the means of expression in the two languages, first of all in the greater number of syllables in the same words in Ukrainian, which is a tangible obstacle for the translators of poetry. That is why in order to maintain the poetic metre of the lines in the original stanza above the translator had to transform them. As a result, the number of inevitable losses in versifications is always larger than in prose translations. Nevertheless, D.Palamarchuk's versification is considered to be highly faithful and artistic, because it conveys, in the main, the following aspects of this Shakespearian sonet: its content, partly its types of rhythm and rhyme, its artistic images and tropes, as well as its picturesqueness and the pragmatic orientation/toning of the original sonet, nothing to say about its main content.

MACHINE TRANSLATION

Rendering of information from a foreign language with the help of electronic devices represents the latest development in modern translation practice. Due to the fundamental research in the systems of algorithms and in the establishment of lexical equivalence in different layers of lexicon, machine translating has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains restricted in the main to scientific and technological information and to the sphere of lexicographic work. That is because machine translation can be performed only on the basis of programmes elaborated by linguistically trained operators. Besides, preparing programmes for any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time, whereas the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level, i.e., at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the target language. Considerably greater difficulties, which are insurmountable for machine translators, present morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes, etc.). No smaller obstacles for machine translation are also syntactic units (word-combinations and sentences) with various means of connection between their components/parts. Besides, no present-day electronic devices performing translation possess the necessary lexical, grammatical and stylistic memory to provide the required stand-

26

 

ard of correct literary translation. Hence, the frequent violations of syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and sentences in the target language. As a result, any machine translation of present days needs a thorough proof reading and editing. Very often it takes no less time and effort and may be as tiresome as the usual hand-made translation of the same passage/work.1 A vivid illustration to the above-said may be the machine translated passage below. It was accomplished most recently in an electronic translation centre and reflects the latest achievement in this sphere of «mental» activity. The attentive student will not fail to notice in the italicized components of Ukrainian sentences several lexical, morphological and syntactic/structural irregularities, which have naturally to be corrected in the process of the final elaboration of the passage by the editing translator. Compare the texts below and find the inexactitudes in all sentences of the Ukrainian translation.

 

1. Communications and the EC

2. Public relations and telecom

munications must work hand in

hand to enable Europe really to

become one community. Martin

Bangemann looks to the 21st

century.

3. «Communications have been

the driving force behind the

creation and growth of global

companies.»

4. The European Commission

(EC) has expressed one vision

for the future of Europe in its

White Paper on Growth Com

petitiveness and Employment-

the Challenges and Ways

forward into the 21 st Century.

5. This document addresses

 

1. Повідомлення і EC

2. Суспільна інформація і

телекомунікація повинні

працювати рука в руці, щоб

дозволити Европу дійсно

стати одною співдружністю.

Мартін Бангеман дивиться до

21st століття.

3. «Комунікації були рушійна

сила ззаду створення і ріст

глобальних компаній».

4. Европейська Комісія (EC)

висловила одне бачення на

майбутній час Европи в Білій

Книзі наріст, конкурентно-

здатності й Занятість

Виклики і Шляхи Вперед у

21-го століття.

5. Цей документ адресує

 

1 Марчук Ю.Н. Проблеми машинного перевода. - М.: Наука, 1983.

27

 

the facts that, in the last 20 years, the European economy's rate of growth has declined from 4% to 2,5 % per year; unemployment has steadily risen; the investment ratio has fallen by 5%; and Europe's competitive position in relation to USA and Japan has worsened in regard to employment, export market share, research and development innovation and development of new products.

 

факти, що в останні 20 років норма (розряд) Европейської економіки (економії) росту знизилося від 4% до 2,5% за рік; безробіття постійно зросла; інвестиційне відношення впало на 5%; і конкурентно-здатне становище (позиція) Европи відносно США і Японії погіршувалося у відношенні зайнятості, експортної ринкової частки, дослідження і нововведення розвитку і розвитку нових виробів.

 

KINDS OF TRANSLATING/INTERPRETING

As has been noted, the sense of a language unit (the content of a whole matter) can be conveyed in the target language either in writing or in viva voce (orally). Depending on the form of conveying the sense/content, the following kinds or types of translating/interpreting are to be distinguished:

1. The written from a written matter translating, which rep

resents a literary/literary artistic or any other faithful sense-to-sense

translating from or into a foreign language. It may also be a free

interpreting performed in writing. The matter under translation may

be a belles-lettres passage (prose or poetry work), a scientific or

technical/newspaper passage / article, etc.

2. The oral from an oral matter interpreting, which is a regu

lar oral sense-to-sense rendering of a speech/radio or TV interview, or

recording which can proceed either in succession (after the whole

matter or part of it is heard) or simultaneously with its sounding. This

consecutive interpreting is a piecemeal performance and the inter

preter can make use of the time, while the speech/recording is pro

ceeding, for grasping its content and selecting the necessary means

of expression for some language units of the original matter. There

is also a possibility to interrupt (stop) the speaker/recording in order

to clarify some obscure place. As a result, consecutive interpreting

can take more or a little less time than the source language speech/

28

 

recording lasts. When it takes quite the same amount of time as the source language matter flows and the interpreter faithfully conveys its content, it is referred to as simultaneous interpreting/translating. Otherwise it remains only a consecutive interpreting. That can be well observed when interpreting a film, each still of which in the process of the simultaneous interpretation takes the time, allotted to it in the source language. In Ukrainian this kind of interpreting is called синхронний переклад. Therefore, simultaneous interpreting is performed within the same time limit, i.e., takes the same amount of time or a little more/less, than the source matter lasts.

3. The oral from a written matter interpreting is nothing

else than interpreting at sight. It can also proceed either simultane

ously with the process of getting acquainted with the content of the

written matter, or in succession (after each part of it is first read through

and comprehended). The former way of interpreting, if carried out

faithfully and exactly on time with the consecutive conveying of the

matter, may be considered simultaneous too. Usually, however, it is

a regular prepared beforehand kind of interpreting.

4. The written translating from an orally presented matter is,

as L.S.Barkhudarov points out1, a rare occurrence. This is because

a natural speech flow is too fast for putting it down in the target lan

guage (except for a shorthand presentation, which would be then a

regular translation, i.e. interpretation from a written matter). Translat

ing from an oral speech/recording is now and then resorted to for

training practices. When the matter to be rendered is produced at a

slower speed than the written translation, can naturally be performed

(and put down) in the target language.

DESCRIPTIVE AND ANTONYMIC TRANSLATING

Descriptive translating. One must bear in mind that it is the notional meaning of the source language unit and not always its morphological nature or structural form that is to be rendered in the target language. As a result, the target language unit, which equiva-lently/faithfully conveys the denotative/connotative meaning of the corresponding source language unit may not necessarily belong to the same language stratification level. Depending on the notion expressed by the source language word/lexeme, it may be conveyed in

1 See: Бархударов Л.С. Язьік й перевод. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1975, р. 46-48.

29

 

the target language sometimes through a word-combination or even through a sentence, i.e., descriptively: indulge робити собі приємність у чомусь, віддаватися втіхам; infamous той (та, те), що має ганебну славу; inessentials предмети не першої необхідності, предмети розкошів; вщерть up to the brim, full to the brim; в'язи the nape of one's head, the back of the head; окраєць crust of a loaf, hunk of a bread; окривіти (осліпнути) to become lame (grow blind). Therefore, the descriptive way of conveying the sense of language units implies their structural transformation which is necessary to explicate their meaning with the help of hierarchically different target language units.

Descriptive translating/interpreting is very often employed to render the sense/meaning of idioms/phraseologisms, which have no equivalents in the target language. Cf. in English: (as) mad as a hatter цілком/геть божевільний; all my eye and Betty Martin! нісенітниці! (дурниці!); like one (twelve) o'clock миттю, вмить, прожогом. In Ukrainian: зуб на зуб не попадати to feel very cold (to feel freezing); навчить біда коржі з маком їсти hard times make one inventive; наговорити сім кіп/мішків гречаної вовни to say much nonsense.

No less often is descriptive translation employed when dealing with the notions of specific national lexicon: haggis геґґіс (зварений у жирі овечий кендюх, начинений вівсяними крупами і спеціями впереміш із січеним овечим потрухом); porridge порідж (густа вівсяна каша зварена на воді чи молоці); Senate сенат (рада університету в Англії, складається переважно з професорів); sweet-meat солодка страва, приготовлена на цукрі чи медові.

Alongside the literal translating some explications of the meaning of specific national notions becomes sometimes necessary: вареники varenyky, middle-sized dumplings filled with curd, cherries, etc.; дума duma, Ukrainian historic epic song; кобзар kobzar, a performer of dumas to the accompaniment of the kobza (a mandoline-like four string musical instrument), the bandore (a flat multistringed Ukrainian musical instrument).

Descriptive translation is also employed in foot-notes to explain obscure places in narration. Cf. midland мідленд, діалект центральної Англії, a spiritual релігійна пісня америк. негрів.

Antonymic translation is employed for the sake of achieving

30

 

faithfulness in conveying content or the necessary expressiveness of sense units. It represents a way of rendering when an affirmative in structure language unit (word, word-combination or sentence) is conveyed via a negative in sense or structure but identical in content language unit, or vice versa: a negative in sense or structure sense unit is translated via an affirmative sense unit. Cf.: to have quite a few friends мати багато (немало) друзів; mind your own business не втручайся не в свої справи; take it easy не хвилюйся, не переживай; not infrequently часто; по time like the present лови момент (використовуй нагоду); я не нездужую нівроку (Т.Ш.) І feel/am perfectly well; не спитавши броду не лізь у воду look before you leap; немає лиха без добра, every dark cloud has a silver lining, etc.

The antonymic device is empolyed in the following cases:

1) when in the target language there is no direct equivalent for

the sense unit of the source language. For example, the noun «infe

riority» and the adjective «inferior» (like the verb phrase «to be infe

rior») have no single-word equivalents in Ukrainian. So their lexical

meaning can be conveyed either in a descriptive way or with the help

of their antonyms «superiority», «superior»: The defeat of the Notts

in last season's cup semi-finals was certainly the result of their physical

and tactical inferiority... (The Kyiv Post) Поразка клубу «Ноттінгем

Форест» у торішньому півфінальному матчі на кубок країни була •

наслідком переваги їхніх супротивників у фізичній і тактичній

підготовці (...була наслідком того, що гравці поступалися

супротивникові у фізичній і тактичній підготовці).1

The meaning of some English word-groups can also be conveyed in Ukrainian antonymically only: Baines was reading a newspaper in his shirt-sleeves. (Gr. Greene) Бейнз сидів без піджака і читав газету. Do you mind this? (M.Wilson) Ви не заперечуєте?

2) When the sense unit of the source language has two

negations of its own which create an affirmation: In those clothes

she was by no means non-elegant. (S.Maugham) У цьому вбранні

вона була досить елеґантна.

3. In order to achieve the necessary expressiveness in narration: I don't think it will hurt you, baby. (E.Hemingway) Думаю, вам воно не зашкодить, люба. A shell fell close. (Ibid.) Неподалік вибухнув снаряд. Не lurched away like a frightened horse barely

1 See more about transformations of the kind in part IV of this work.

31

 

missing the piano stool. (J.London) Він сахнувся вбік, мов сполоханий кінь, мало не перекинувши стільця коло піаніно (ледь обминаючи стільця біля піаніно).

4. In order to avoid the use of the same or identical structures close to each other in a text (stylistic aim and means):

Mrs. Strickland was a woman of character. (S.Maugham) Місіс Стрікленд була жінкою не без характеру (тобто, була жінка з характером). Most of the staff is not away. (M.Wilson) Більшість співробітників ще на роботі (ще не розійшлися). Savina said nothing. (Ibid.) Савіна промовчала (тобто нічого не відповіла).

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-CONTROL AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. The main terms and notions of the theory of translation/

interpretation.

2. Ambiguity of some terms concerning translation (free trans

lation vs. free adaptation/free interpretation, etc.).

3. Social and political significance of translating/interpreting.

4. Translating as a successful means of enriching national lan

guages, literatures, and cultures.

5. Translating/interpreting in establishing, maintaining, and

strengthening diplomatic, political, economic, scientific, cultural and

other relations between different nations in the world.

6. The role of translating/interpreting in providing the success

ful proceedings of international conferences, congresses, sympo

sia, meetings, etc.

7. Translating/interpreting and the progress of world science,

technology and dissemination of new ideas/doctrines.

8. Translating/interpreting while teaching and learning foreign

languages.

9. Literal, verbal, word-for-word translation and restrictions in

their use out of a contextual environment (cf. revolution оберт but

not революція).

10. The main difference between the interlinear and literary/

literary artistic kinds of translating.

11 The requirements to faithful prose and poetic translation/ versification.

12. The machine translation, its progress, present-day poten-

32

 

tialities and spheres of employment.

13.Kinds of translating/interpreting: a) the written from a written matter translating; b) the oral from an oral matter interpreting; c) the oral from a written matter interpreting; d) the written translating from an orally presented matter.

14. Ways and devices of translating (descriptive and antonymic translating).

33

Ш. LEXICOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION      

As it has been pointed out in chapter I, the process of written or oral translating presents in reality different forms of decoding or transformation which the source language units undergo at the phonetic, morphological or syntactic levels: Cf.: ambition [aembijn] амбіція, geologist геолог, metaphor метафора, participate брати участь, пеgоtiаblе те (той), що піддається погодженню; рученьки beautiful little hands, лісовик (mythology) forest demon, etc. No lingual, i.e., structural or semantic identity have in the target language many English and Ukrainian specifically national notions of lexicon (culturally biased words), which are also to be decoded, i.e., transformed Cf.: Number 10 Downing Street Даунінґ Стріт №10 (резиденція прем'єр-міністра Великої Британії), haggis зварений у жирі овечий кендюх, начинений вівсяною кашею впереміш із посіченими потрохами; кутя cooked peeled wheat, barley or rice mixed with ground poppy seeds, raisins and parceled kernels of nuts, honey and a little boiled water, etc.

Neither are there in the target language direct semantic or structural equivalents for many idioms and stable expressions of the source language. Hence, they must be decoded, i.e., transformed, Cf.: Tom, Dick and Harry перший-ліпший (з), будь-хто (з), to go to the altar одружуватися, виходити заміж; клепки не вистачає nobody home, he has got a screw loose, etc.

A considerable number of other source language units, however, may maintain their lingual form little changed or unchanged in the target language, as in many proper names and genuine internationalisms: Alfred Альфред/Ельфред, Robert Frost Роберт Фрост, Boston Бостон, president президент, affiх афікс, phoneme фонема, motor мотор, cybernetics кібернетика, export експортувати, soc/a/соціальний, nationally національно, etc. Such and the like words are, in fact, not translated in the true sense of the word but turned into the target language in their phonemic (sometimes also in their orthographic) form/structure. These and some other problems, which are of academic interest not only for the beginning translator but also for the teacher constitute the subject-matter of the succeeding chapters of this work.

91

 

METHODS AND WAYS OF TRANSLATING VARIOUS PROPER NAMES

There are no finally established rules yet as to how different kinds and types of English proper names should be translated into Ukrainian, though Ukrainian proper names of people and family names are mostly conveyed on the basis of their phonemic structure, i.e., are transliterated in English. E.g.: Антоніна Antonina; Віра Vira; Лаврін Lavrin; Роман Roman; Авраменко Avramenko; Лавріненко Lavrinenko; Панібрат Panibrat; Іван Ivan; Тамара Tamara; Семен Semen; Петро Petro, Саливон Salyvon, etc.

Far from all Ukrainian proper names can be conveyed by way of literal translating, however. This is because some of our vowels and consonants have no equivalent sounds/phonemes in English and must be substituted for approximately similar sounds. Among these Ukrainian sounds and sound combinations are first of all those ones, which are rendered with the help of the letters or letter combinations и, й, ий, ій, я, ю, є, Ї, or partly through the letters ж, щ, х, ч, ц and palatalized consonants.

Ukraine as a newly independent state makes efforts to get rid of her former colonial past. One of the ways to assure this internationally was the adoption of the Romanization System which enabled the conveying of our personal names, family names (onomastics) and also all Ukrainian geographical names (toponymy) in accordance with some rules. Their system practically does not contain diacritics, i.e., different signs over or under the letters. The only sign of the kind being the sign ' for palatalization (cf. Щербань Shcherban', Львів L'viv) which is not difficult to add after a letter. This makes the system convenient and assured for direct and unambiguous reconstruction of any Ukrainian name form or word standing for a specifically national notion (реалія). E.g.: kutya or kutia, kobzar, varenyky, etc. The adopted Romanization System will also serve well as an aid to correct pronunciation of Ukrainian proper names by the foreigners, capable of reading the Roman letters, which more or less correctly convey the sounding forms of any Ukrainian name. The adopted Romanization System is internally consistent and based on sound linguistic principles. It is to be strictly observed by the students of foreign languages and the people responsible for its absolute implementation in this country and abroad. This is how the system is presented:

 

Ukrainian

1. A a

2. Б б

3. В в

4. Г г

5. Ґ Ґ

6. Д д

7. Е е

8. Є є

9. Ж ж

10. З з

11.И и

12. І і

13. Ї ї

14. Й й

15. К к

16. Л л

17. М м

18. Н H

19. O o

20. П п

21. P p

22. С с

23. Т т

24. У у

25. Ф ф

26. Х х

27. Ц ц

28.Ч ч

29. Ш ш

30. Щ щ

31. Ю ю

32. Я я

33. Ь

Romanization

А а

В Ь

V/v W/w

H h

G g

D d

Е е

Ye ye

Zh zh

Z z

Y y

li

Уі/li yi/ii

Y y

K k

L I

M м

N п

О о

Р р

R r

S s

T t

U u

F f

Kh kh

Ts ts

Ch/Tch ch/tch

Sh sh

Shch shch

Yu yu

Ya ya

`

 

A practical realization of this system can be illustrated on many Ukrainian names with the following substitution of Ukrainian letters (and sounds) for the completely, approximately or similarly corresponding English letters or letter combinations:

/и/ as у: Кирило Kyrylo, Марина Maryna, Микита Mykyta, Бобрик Bobryk, Бровари Brovary, Бобир Bobyr, Винник Vynnyk, Микитенко Mykytenko, Суми Sumy.

/и/ as ii, і or yi. The choice of a letter/letter combination in English to Romanize the sound is predetermined by its environment and position in the Ukrainian name/surname. When preceded by a vowel, the sound /j/ is to be conveyed by the letter і (as in «naive»): Заїка Zaika, Мисаїл Mysail, Українка Ukrainka, Зінаїда Zinaida, Турбаї Turbayi /or Turbaii.

When the Ukrainian letter Ї initiates the proper name/surname, the sound expressed by it has to be conveyed through the yi letter combination: Ївга Yivha, їздець Yizdets, їжакевич Yizhakevych.

The voiced /й/ sound is also to be conveyed through the letter у: Йосип Yosyp, Йовенко Yovenko.

Very often the /й/ sound in Ukrainian is used with the preceding /i/ or /и/ sound. When preceded by the /i/ sound it is conveyed in English as ii or iy: Андрій Andrii/Andriy, Гулій Hulii/Huliy, Гафійка Hafiika/Hafiyka, Матвійчук Matviichuk/Matviychuk, Павлійчук Pavliichuk/Pavliychuk, etc. When the /й/ sound is preceded by /и/ it is to be conveyed as yi: Горовий Horovyi, Гулий Hulyi, Сірий Siryi, Коломийченко Kolomyichenko, Гнідий Hnidyi.

As to the sounds expressed by the Ukrainian letters я, ю, є they are to be conveyed through the English letter combinations ya, yu, ye respectively or through ia, iu, ie Cf.: ya: Яким Yakym, Ярема Yarema, but: Забіяка Zabiyaka/Zabiaka, Мусіяка Musiyaka/Musiiaka.

The sound expressed through the Ukrainian letter я in the final position of a word or traditional proper name can sometimes be conveyed in English by the ia rarely ya letter combinations. It is mostly observed in traditional proper names like Марія, Софія, Maria, Sofia, Юлія Yulia, Югославія Yugoslavia, Малазія Malasia, but: Кенія Kenya. Some common in English and Ukrainian proper names and also foreign place names may have йа for the ia letter combinations as well: Maria Марія/Мерайя, Malaya Малайя.

It is common knowledge that present-day English despite the existence of some less hard consonants like the /I/ after the IiI, /i:/ and /ai/ sounds (cf. little, leave, like, controlling, etc.) is practically devoid of palatalization. As a result, all Ukrainian palatalized consonants usually obtain a hard pronunciation in English: Альвіна Alvina, Бенедь Bened, Василь Vasyl', Близько Vlyzko, Гринь Hryn, Кость Kost; Кусько Kusko, Луцьк Lutsk, Редько Redko. In linguistic papers these and the like proper names, however, may have a sign for palatalization ('): Al'vina, Kost', Red'ko, Bened', Vlyz'ko, Luts'k, Lots', Kozlovs'kyi, Koval', Mel'nyk, etc.

As to the Ukrainian consonant phonemes, which have no direct equivalents in the English language, they can mostly be conveyed through analogous English sounds, sometimes formed by different letter combinations. Thus, the Ukrainian /г/ sound is to be conveyed through the similar though not identical voiceless English /h/ phoneme: Гаврило Havrylo, Григір Hryhir, Гайдай Haidai, Григораш Hryhorash, Громак Hromak, Гмиря Hmyrya. This sound is also observed in such nouns/proper names as hobby гоббі, maharajah магараджа, Hyderabad Гайдерабад, Huxley Гакслі, etc.

The Ukrainian /ж/ phoneme is conveyed with the help of the zh letter combination: Жук Zhuk, Жанна Zhanna, Божій Bozhiy, Журавель, Zhuravel', Жуйхліб Zhuikhlib, Женченко Zhenchenko, Журба Zhurba, Неїжмак Neyizhmak, Вражливий Vrazhlyvyi.

The Ukrainian /x/ sound is conveyed in English through the kh letter combination: Лахно Lakhno, Остахів Ostakhiv, Хома Khoma, Химии Khymych, Харків Kharkiv, Ховрах Khovrakh, Охрімчук Okhrimchuk.

As to the similar in the Ukrainian and English languages /ч/ sound it may be conveyed in two ways. Traditionally the letter combinations ch or tch always were and are still used for the purpose: Качанів Kachaniv, Клочко Klochko/Klotchko, Костюченко Kostyuchenko/Kostiutchenko, Кочур Kochur/Kotchur, Чернушенко Chernushenko/Tchernushenko, Чорний Chornyi/Tchornyi. Though the letter combination tch is less and less often used at present.

Similarly with the Ukrainian /шч/ sound which has no equivalent in English. Traditionally it was conveyed in English through the letter combination shch (sh+ch). The Ukrainian proper nouns and especially geographical names and names of public bodies containing щ can be conveyed as follows: Щаденко as Shchadenko, Щербак as Shcherbak, Щедрій as Shchedrii, Безпощадний as Bezposhchadnyi etc.

For all other Ukrainian consonant phonemes there are corresponding letters and letter combinations in English which convey more or less similar sounds, though they may belong in both the languages to the same articulatory zones (labial, dental, alveolar, etc.). For example, the Ukrainian /б/ and /п/ phonemes are substituted for the English plosives /b/ and /p/: Борис Borys, Бойчук Boichuk, Петро Petro, Панібудьласка Panibud'laska. The consonant phonemes /д/,/т/,/Н/, In/, Id, Iu/ and their palatalized variants /д'/, /т'/, /н7, /л'/, /с'/, /ц1/ are substituted respectively for the English alveolar Id/, /t/, /n/, /I/, Is/, /is/, though the latter, which is common knowledge to everybody, differ greatly by their articulatory characteristics from the Ukrainian phonemes. Cf.: Дорош Dorosh, Ткаченко Tkachenko, Німенко Nimenko, Льольо Lyolyo, Ціпко Tsipko, Цвіркун Ts'virkun, Циба Tsyba, Гороть Horot', Ковальчук Koval'chuk, Гаврись Havrys', etc.

Only approximate similarity can also be observed in most cases between the Ukrainian /в/ phoneme which is much closer when used in the initial position to the English /w/ than to its traditional substitute (in translations from the Ukrainian) /v/ phoneme as in the proper nouns like: Володимир Volodymyr, Вовчок Vovchok, Добривечір Dobryvechir, Убийвовк Ubyivovk. But Віль, of course, must be only Will. Consequently Вовченко, Вареник may also be Wowchenko, Warenyk and Вовчок also Wowchok.

When in the position between two vowels or between a vowel and a palatalized consonant, the Ukrainian /в/ sound somewhat resembles the English/v/ phoneme, however: Сиваченко Syvachenko, Винниченко Vynnychenko, Яворівський Yavorivskyi, Швайка Shvaika, Швидюк Shvydiuk/ Shvydyuk.

Undoubtedly the closest to the English consonant phonemes are the Ukrainian /к/, /ґ/ and /з/ phonemes. Cf.: Кавун Kavun, Зінаїда Zinaida, Зайченко Zaichenko, Ґудзій Gudziy/Gudzii. But there are no similar substitutes in English for our palatalized /дз'/ sound which will be read by the English native speakers as /dz/ only as in Ґедзь Gedz', Ґудзь Gudz', and others.

There is very little similarity, however, between the Ukrainian vibrant /p/ and the English /r/ phoneme belonging in both these languages to different articulatory zones. Nevertheless the English /r/ is always used in translations of proper names to substitute the Ukrainian /p/ and vice versa: Barbara Барбара, Robert Роберт, Rupert Руперт, Роман Roman, Новодворський Novodvors'kyi, Черкасенко Cherkasenko.

The methods of conveying English vowels in Ukrainian are also different. The choice of them and the sphere of their use may be predetermined by some lingual as well as extralingual factors. These are as follows: a) the position of the phoneme in the English word/ proper name; b) the environment of the phoneme; c) the origin of the proper name; d) the tradition (if any) of conveying the name in Ukrainian, when the name is common in the two languages e.g. of Biblical origin e.g.: Elias /і'Іаіжз/, Elijah, /I'laid'je/ Ілля (Ілія).

As to the possible substitutes for similar and divergent English vowel phonemes, some variants may be suggested in Ukrainian for short monophthongs formed at different tongue positions. The most common/traditional substitutes for English short monophthongs in Ukrainian the following vowel phonemes have to be investigated:

/ж/ for /a/ and lei: Angela Анджела/Енджела, Andy Енді/Анді, Amanda Аманда/Еманда, Patrick Патрік/ Петрік, Allison Еллісон, Аллісон; /Л/ for /а/, /у/ or even /о/: Ulrica Алріка (Ул/ь)ріка, Doug Даг, " Justin Джастін, Sudbury Садбері/Судбері, Ulster Ольстер;

/a/ standing in English for any vowel phoneme in unstressed position can be substituted in Ukrainian for the corresponding vowels too: Ada Ада, Alaska Аляска, Virginia Вірджінія, Rebekka Ребекка, Theodore Теодор, Salisbury Солзбері;

/о/ for lot: Dolly Доллі, Olive Олів, Oskar Оскар, Oxford Оксфорд;

/і/ for /і/: Iraq Ірак, Isabel Ізабел(а), Isolda/e Ізольда, Islam іслам;

/e/for/e/: Ebrington Ебрінґтон, Eckersl(e)y Екерслі, Edinburgh Едінбург, Eleonora Елеонора, Ellis Ел(л)іс.

It is common knowledge that either of these sounds may also convey other sounds in seemingly the same sounds environment. Cf.: Iden Айден, Ikey Айкі, or: Ede Ід, Eden Іден, English (family name) Інґліш or Енгліш.

Long vowel phonemes in all English proper names like in other words are substituted in Ukrainian for their corresponding short vowel phonemes:

/a:/ for /a/: Art Арт, Bart Барт, Clerke Кларк, Mark Марк, Carnegie Карнеґї, Gaby Габі; but Derby /da:bi/ Дербі;

/о:/for/о/: Allcorn Олкорн, Aubrey Обрі, Austin Остін, Paola Пола, Cornell Корнелл;

/u:/ and sometimes /ju:/ for /у/ю/: Cooper Купер, Judy Джуді, Muriel М'юріел(ь), Oona Уна, Ouse p. Уз, Hecuba Гекуба Purim Пюрім, Rubens Рубенс Uniat Уніат, UNESCO ЮНЕСКО;

/і:/for/і/: Aberdeen Абердін, Celia Сілія, Easton Істон, Eton Ітон, Deakin Дікін;

/э:/ for /e/ or even for /i/: Earl Ерл, Herbert Герберт, Irvin Ервін/ Ірвін; but: Pearl Harbor Перл-Гарбор/Пірл-Гарбор, Burton Бертон, Burma Бірма, Bert Берт, Burch Берч.

English diphthongs are usually substituted for corresponding Ukrainian vowel combinations, though not without exceptions:

/ai/ for /ай/: Brighton Брайтон, Idaho Айдаго, Ike Айк, Mike Майк, Pyke Пайк; but Miami Майамі;

/au / for /ay/: Down Даун, Howard Гауерд, Howell Гауел, Mowgli Мауґлі;

/ei/for/ей/, /a/: Ada Ейда, Mabel Мейбл, Mamei Меймі, Paisley Пейзлі;

/oi/for/ой/: Croydon Кройдон, Joyce Джойс, Roy Рой but: Troy Троя, Тоуе Той;

/эй/ for /oy/: Mo Moy, Owen Оуен, Rose Роуз, Snow Сноу, Sofia(Bulgaria) Софія.

Several English proper names containing the diphthong /ou/ have no /oy/ substitution for it in Ukrainian, however: Bruno Бруно, Buffalo Буффало, Toronto Т.оронто, Longfellow Лонгфелло, Рое По, Sophia Софія;

/еэ/ is substituted for/ea/: Ayrshire Ершір, Dalaware Делавар, Fairbanks м.Фербенкс, Gary м. Ґері, but: Ontario Онтаріо, Bulgaria Болгарія;

/ia/ for /і/, /ей/, /ія/: Cheshire Чешір, Madeira о-в Мадейра, Nigeria Нігерія, Victoria Вікторія, Virginia Вірджінія, Julie Джулія, Juliet Джулієт.

It is not always easy to select appropriate Ukrainian substitutes for some English consonant phonemes either. That is partly because some consonants may realize their meanings depending on their environment or position in the word (proper name). Besides, the selections of a substitute for an English consonant phoneme, may sometimes be predetermined in Ukrainian by the established tradition: so /p/ is substituted for /т/, /д/ or the sound /з/: Carmarthenshire Кармартеншір, Caruthers Карудерс/Карузерс, Brothers Брад(з)ерс;

/T/ for /т/ or /c/ sometimes /ф/ (in Greek names): Bath м. Бат, Faith Феіт/Феіс, Dartmouth Дартмут, but: Athos Афон, Carthage Карфаген/Картаґен, Korinth Коринф(т).

/N/ for /нг/: Arlington Арлінґтон, Bundung Бандунг", sterling стерлінг", Darlington Дарлінґтон, Long Лонґ, Goulding Ґоулдінґ, Springpark Спрінґпарк;

/Nk/ for /HK/: Bronx Бронкс, Sinclair Сінклер, SprinkCnpiHK, Winkie Вінкі;

/I/ for In/ or In'/: Larry Ла/еррі, Lotta Лотта, Noll Нолл, Percival Персівал(ь), Charles Чарльз, William Вільям, Clinton Клінтон, Underhill Андергіл.

Some componental phonemes may have traditionally established substitution in separate nouns. Thus,

/w/ may be IB/ or /y/: Washington Вашингтон, Wales Уельс, Westminster Вестминстер, Wilde Вайльд, Bowyear Бов'єр, Bristow Брістоу, Shaw Шоу, Snow Сноу, Mark Twain Марк Твен.

When used in various combinations, these and other English vowel and consonant phonemes are mostly conveyed in Ukrainian in accordance with the above-given reading rules. As a result, English proper names are either transcribed or transliterated (or partly anscribed and partly transliterated) in Ukrainian. Mostly transcribed names/surnames containing specific English vowel phonemes тісії are usually formed by different sound/letter combinations: Abe

уйб, Aileen Ейлін, Bab Беб, Chauncey Чонсі, Dwight Двайт, Eli

\ Ілай, Lewie Луї/Льюї, Queenie Квіні, Raiph Рейф, Russel Расл, Theobald Тіобольд/Теобальд, Uriah Юрайя/Урія.

Irrespective of the considerable divergences existing between the phonemic systems of the two languages, a number of English proper names are rendered into Ukrainian by way of transliteration only: Barbara Барбара, Norman Норман, Rita Ріта, Tristram Трістрам, Victor Віктор, Adams Адаме, Barker Баркер, Collins Коллінс/з, Clark Кларк, Cronin Кронін, Wilson Вільсон, Nelson Нельсон, Robert Frost Роберт Фрост etc.

A few English proper names are transliterated with the omission or addition of a letter or two in Ukrainian. This kind of rendering becomes necessary when dealing with specifically English spelling forms of proper names and to avoid the violation of the traditionally established spelling rules of the Ukrainian language: McDonald Макдональд, Macintosh Макінтош, McEnroe Макенро, Dinah Діна, Jupiter Юпітер, Judah Юда, Longfellow Лонгфелло, Williamson Вільямсон.

Some other English proper names of people and geographical names are rendered into Ukrainian partly through transcription: Brooking Брукінґ, Huntington Гантінґтон, Liverpool Ліверпуль, Newton Ньютон, Jackson Джексон, Aberdeen Абердін, Melbourne Мельбурн, Valentine Валентайн.

Besides, the exactitude of conveying English proper names in Ukrainian may be predetermined by some lingual and extralingual factors. The main of them are: absence in Ukrainian of corresponding phonemes and orthographic means to substitute some particular English sounds/letter combinations or the established tradition according to which some names are translated. It can already be seen on the following examples: Thorne Торн, Ethan Ітан, Faith Фейс/ Фейт, Fitzclarence Фіцкларенс, Graham Гре(йе)м, Galsworthy Ґолсуорсі, Goorka Ґурка, Hugon Гюґон, Hutchinson Гачінсон/ Гатчінсон, Ptolemy Птолемей, Whistler Віс(т)лер, Wriothesley Райетслі, and sevral others.

The bulk of all other English proper names, however, are also rendered into Ukrainian with the help of phonetical/phonological level units, i.e., either transcribed or transliterated. The degree of exactitude of their rendering depends on the existence/non-existence of appropriate or similar sounds in the target language. Care should be taken in order to avoid the influence of both the lingual and extralingual factors. For example, the well-known names as Adam, David can be translated into Ukrainian as Адам and Давид (Biblical or historical) or as Едем and Девід (common people's names). Similarly with Matthew, Paul, Rachel and some others which can be correspondingly rendered either as Матфей/Матвій, Павло, Рахіль or as Метью, Пол, Ре(й)чел, Pope John Paul II Папа Іван Павло Другий, etc.

Mostly translated, however, are the names of kings, queens, princes, princesses, tsars and tsarinas. These exceptions from the general rule are observed in the following names: King Charles/ George, Henry Король Карл/Георг, Генріх; Queen Elisabeth/Mary Stewart королева Єлизавета/Марія Стюарт; King James I (John, William) король Яків І (Іоанн, Вільгельм); Princess Ann/Margaret принцеса Анна/Маргарита; цар Олексадр/Микола/Павло Tsar Alexander/Nicolas/Paul.

Among the names of kings, queens, tsars, etc. are also some which are transliterated in the target language. These are mostly peculiar national names with no corresponding equivalents in other languages: King Horn король Горн; Prince Robert принц Роберт; цар Борис/Іван Tsar Boris/Ivan; король Болеслав King Boleslav, князь Мстислав Prince Mstyslav.

Nicknames of people are almost always translated irrespective of the language they come from: King Charles the Great король Карл Великий; King Edward the Confessor король Едуард Сповідник; King Richard the Lionheart/Lionhearted король Річард Левине Серце; Prince William of Orange принц Вільгельм Оранський; князь Мстислав/Святослав Хоробрий Prince Mstyslav/ Svyatoslav the Brave; князь Ярослав Мудрий Prince Yaroslav the Wise; цар Василь Темний Tsar Basil the Blind; цар Іван Грозний Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Contrary to this rule is the wrong translation in our mass media of Prince Charles of Wales as принц Чарльз, instead of принц Карл (according to the historically established tradition).

Indian chiefs' names and family names of American Indians, which became known mainly from J.F.Cooper's novels are translated, as a rule, too: (the) Arrowhead Гостряк Стріли; Dew of June, Червнева Роса; Chingachgook the Big Serpent Чінгачгук Великий Змій; the Deerslayer (the Pathfinger) Звіробій (Знайдислід, «Слідопит»); the Leather Stocking, Hawk's Eye Шкіряна Панчоха, Соколине Око; John Running Deer, Джон Тікаючий Олень; Pete Brown Feather, Піт Руда Пір'їна. But: князь Осмомисл Prince Osmomysl, Олександр Невський Alexander Nevskii.

The so-called generalizing or characterizing names used by many authors in their belles-lettres works to point out some determinant (usually negative) feature of their characters are mostly not translated but only transcribed or transliterated. Such are the characters, for example, from Ch. Dickens' works: Mrs. Porkenham (cf. pork and ham ласа/любителька добре поїсти, гурманка пані Поркенгем); Doctor Slammer (cf. to slam the door грюкати/грюкнути дверима лікар Слеммер); Тгасу Tupman (cf. tup-male sheep, ram баран, тупоголовий) Трейсі Тапмен; Nathaniel Winkle (cf. winkle sea snail used as food) морський равлик Натаніель Вінкель; Miss Witherfield (cf. wither, fade) в'янути, сохнути (в'януча стара діва) Міс Візерфільд

Some nicknames of this kind may naturally be translated, especially when used in humorous stories as, for instance, in Stephan Leacock's Guide the Gimlet of Ghent: A Romance of Chivalry: Carlo the Corkscrew Карло Штопор, Beowulf the Bradawl Беовульф Шило, Conrad the Coconut Конрад Кокосовий Горіх. But: Mrs. Afterthought місіс Афтерсот and not пані Розумна Заднім Розумом.

It must be emphasized that in recent decades there has been a general tendency in translation practice to transcribe or transliterate foreign proper names and not to translate them. In conformity with the tendency some proper names of people and place names which had hitherto been translated are now transcribed or transliterated. So Michael Faraday is no more Михайло Фарадей but Майкл Фарадей; George Washington is Джорж (and not Георг) Вашінгтон; Alessandro Volta is no more Олександр but Алессандро Вольта; Salt Lake City is no more місто Солоного Озера but місто Солт Лейк-Сіті; Leicester and Worcester are no more Лейсестер and Ворчестер but Лестер and Вустер; Hull is no more Ґуль but Галл, etc. This tendency should also be observed when dealing with some other proper names, including geographical ones. The latter, as may have been noticed, are conveyed in Ukrainian/English in the same way as the proper names of people, i.e., they are traditionally transliterated or transcribed: Arkansas Арканзас (ріка) but Аркенсо (штат США); Belfast/Chicago Белфаст/Чикаго, Dublin/Ottawa Дублін/ Оттава, San-Francisco Сан-Франциско, Бахмач Bakhmach, Бровари Brovary, Горлівка Horlivka, Ізмаїл/Канів Ismail/Kaniv, Лисянка Lysianka/Lysyanka, Суми Sumy, etc.

A considerable number of English geographical names are also rendered into Ukrainian by way of transcription only: Buckinghamshire Бакінгемшир, Capetown/Ohio Кейптаун/Огайо, Dashwood Дешвуд, Dundee-Данді, Freetown Фрітаун, Newfoundland Ньюфаундленд, Seattle Сіетл, Sutherland Сазерленд, Greenfield Ґрінфілд.

Many English place names, along with other geographical and proper names, are conveyed in Ukrainian partly with the help of transcription and partly via transliteration. This can be observed in the two-syllable names in the examples below. The first (1) group of the geographical names has the initial syllables transliterated and the closing syllables transcribed, whereas the second group (2) contains geographical names with the initial syllables transcribed and the closing syllables transliterated:

(1) (2)

Birmingham   Бірмінгем  Brighton         Брайтон

Kingstown      Кінгстаун  Greensboro    Ґрінзборо

Midway          Мідвей   Houston         Г'юстон

Sheffield         Шеффілд  Wyoming        Вайоминґ (штат США)

A few geographical names and some proper names of people have a traditionally established orthographical form which does not reflect in any way their pronunciation or their real orthographic form in the English language: the Arctic Ocean Північний Льодовитий океан; Maine Мен (штат США); Mexico Мехіко; New Orleans Новий Орлеан; Ulster Ольстер; Texas Техас (штат США), Lake Superior Озеро Верхнє.

Names of seas, oceans, bays, archipelagos, isthmuses, straits, channels, administrative territories and compound names of countries having the structure of word-combinations are always translated: the Atlantic/Pacific/Indian Ocean Атлантичний/Тихий/ Індійський океан; the Grampians (Appalachians) Грампіанські (Аппалацькі) гори; the Gulf of Mexico (Salonika) Мексиканська (Салонікська) затока; the Isthmus of Suez/Panama Суецький (Панамський) перешийок; New South Wales Новий Південний Уельс (Австралія); Strait of Magellan/Gibraltar Магелланова/ Ґібралтарська протока; Карпати/Карпатські гори the Carpathians/ Carpathian Mts.); Закарпаття Transcarpathia (Transcarpathian Region of Ukraine); Краснодарський/Ставропольський край Krasnodar/Stavropol Territory; Південо-український зрошувальний канал the South Ukrainian Irrigation Canal; Азовське/Каспійське море Sea of Azov, the Caspian Sea; Керченська Протока/Карські Ворота Strait of Kerch/Kara Strait; Курільські/Оркнейські о-ви Kuril(e) Islands/Orkney Islands, Stratford-on-Avon Стратфорд-на-Ейвоні, Ростов-на-Дону Rostov-on-Don.

The geographical names formed on the basis of common nouns which acquired the status of proper names are generally translated from English into Ukrainian and vice versa: Cape of Good Hope/ Cape May мис Доброї Надії/мис Кейп-Мей, Саре Verde Islands O-ви Зеленого Мису; Golden Gate Золоті Ворота (протока поблизу м.Сан-Франциско); Grand Bank(s) Велика Мілина (поблизу о-ва Ньюфаундленд); Great Slave Lake Велике Невільничне озеро; Northern Highlands Північне-шотландське нагір'я; the Rocky Mountains/the Appalachians Скелясті гори/Аппалачі/Аппалацькі гори.

Still other geographical names having single word and word-combination structures require some identifying element in the target language (an appositional noun, an adjective, etc.). These elements explain the nature and the real meaning of the geographical name in the target language: the Azores/the Seychelles Азорські/ Сейшельські о-ви; Idaho Falls місто Айдаго-Фолз; New England Нова Англія, Maine штат Мен, Massachusetts штат Массачузетс, Connecticut штат Коннектіка(у)т, Rhode Island (штат) Род-Айленд, Vermont штат Вермонт; Saint Vincent/Saint Helena Island о-ви Сент-Вінсент/Святої Єлени; the Saint Lawrence p. Святого Лаврентія; Sutherland Сазерленд (графство Шотландії); Буг/ Десна/Рось the Buh/the Desna/the Ros' (rivers in Ukraine); Верховина Verkhovyna (upland pastures in the Carpathians); Донбас Donets Basin/Donets coal field(s); Поділ Podil (lower part of Kyjy city, a city district); Херсонщина/Львівщина/Полтавщина Kherson/ Lviv/Poltava region/ oblast.

Foreign geographical names as well as many proper names of people are often reproduced in English not in the spelling form of the source language but in the traditionally established spelling form of the target language: Аахен (Germ. Aachen) Aix-la-Chapelle; Антверпен (Dutch Antwerpen) Antwerp; Варшава (Pol. Warszawa) Warsaw; Венеція (Ital. Venezia) Venice; Вогняна Земля (Span.) Tierra del Fuego; Гаага (Dutch den Haag) the Hague; Генуя (Ital. Geneva) Genoa; Італія (Ital. Italia) Italy; Кельн (Germ. Кціп) Cologne; Ліворно (Ital. Livorno) Leghorn; Лотарінгія (Fr. Lorraine) Lorraine; Майнц (Germ. Mainz) Mayence; Maas (Germ. Maas) Meuse; Мюнхен (Germ. Мьпспеп) Munich.

Ukrainian geographical names should be translated into English as close to their source language form as possible unless other of their forms are historically or traditionally established: Ананьїв Ananiiv/Ananyiv; Богуслав Bohuslav; Виноград Vynohrad; Моринці Moryntsi; Запоріжжя Zaporizhia/Zaporizhya; Кам'яний Брід Kamianyi/Kamyanyi Brid; Жуляни Zhuliany/Zhulyany; Чернігів Chernihiv; Щигри Shchyhry/Scyhry; Київ/Одеса Kyiv/Odesa; Хутір Михайлівський Khutir Mykhailivskyi.

The students must bear it in mind that some geographical names have in English their historically established forms/variants too: Кольський півострів Kola Peninsula, Ладозьке озеро Ladoga, Онезьке озеро Onega, Мала Азія Asia Minor, Середня Азія Central Asia, Неаполь (It. Napoh) Naples, Hebrides Гібриди/Гібридські острови (also Western Isles), etc.

of their forms are historically or traditionally established: Ананьїв Ananiiv/Ananyiv; Богуслав Bohuslav; Виноград Vynohrad; Моринці Moryntsi; Запоріжжя Zaporizhia/Zaporizhya; Кам'яний Брід Kamianyi/Kamyanyi Brid; Жуляни Zhuliany/Zhulyany; Чернігів Chernihiv; Щигри Shchyhry orScyhry; Київ/Одеса Kyiv/Odesa; Хутір Михайлівський Khutir Mykhailivskyi.

The students must bear it in mind that some geographical names have in English their historically established forms/variants too: Кольський півострів Kola Peninsula, Ладозьке озеро Ladoga, Онезьке озеро Onega, Мала Азія Asia Minor, Середня Азія Central Asia, Неаполь (It. Napoli) Naples, Hebrides Гібриди/Гібридські острови (also Western Isles), etc.

CONVEYING THE NAMES OF COMPANIES, CORPORATIONS, FIRMS

1. Traditionally, most names of companies (corporations, firms, etc.) are transcribed or transliterated and shortly explicated at the same time. This method is also employed when rendering the names of publishing houses, titles of most newspapers and magazines or journals, and of some public bodies. The translation may be performed either with the employment of a shorter or more extended explication. The former is practised when the name of the company (corporation, firm) is well-known or when translating at language level; the latter is resorted to when translating at speech/text level: Associated Biscuit Manufacturers англійська компанія по випуску хрустких коржиків «Ессошіейтед біскіт менюфекчерерз; T.Wall & Sons Co. Ltd. англійська компанія по виробництву м'ясомолочних продуктів і морозива «Т. Волл енд санз компані лімітед», but: General Motors/Standard Oil корпорація «Дженерал Моторз/Стандард Ойл».

It is much easier to translate the names of companies/corporations when their product is indicated as in the following examples: British-American Tobacco Co. об'єднана англо-американська компанія тютюнових виробів «Брітіш-американ тобекко компані»; British and Commonwealth Shipping компанія по забезпеченню морських перевезень між Великою Британією та її колишніми колоніями «Брітіш енд коммонвелс шіппінґ»; Campbell Soups Co. компанія по виробництву консервованих страв «Кемпбелл супе компані»; Coca-Cola Co. Inc. об'єднана компанія по виробництву безалкогольних напоїв «Кока-кола компані інкорпорейтід»; China Ventretech Investment Corp. китайська інвестиційна корпорація

104

 

«Вентретек інвестмент корпорейшин»; West Texas Intermediate Co. американська нафтова компанія «Вест Тексаз Інтермідіат Компані»; Volkswagen (VW) AG німецька акціонерна компанія по випуску легкових автомобілів «Фольксваґен Акціонер Ґезельшафт».

Ukrainian companies, firms and other state and private bodies performing the same or similar functions are translated according to the same rule (they are transliterated or transcribed and explicated at the same time). For example: Київська фірма «Світанок» Kyiv Svitanok civil services firm; виробниче об'єднання «Краснодонвугілля» «Krasnodonvuhillya Coal Production Amalgamation; Укргазпром Ukrainian Ukrhazprom natural gas importing and extracting body; «Київоблпобутрадіотехніка» Kyiv region Kyivoblpobutradiotekhnika home radio engineering services body (firm); акціонерне товариство «Білицька меблева фабрика» Bilychi Joint-Stock Furniture Factory Association; CD «Вента» (парфуми та косметика з Болгари) Bulgarian Venta Joint Venture (perfumes, makeup); Львівська взуттєва фірма «Прогрес» Lviv Prohres footwear firm.

2. Translation of the names of British/American publishing houses is performed according to the same rules: Associated Book Publishers лондонська книжково-видавнича фірма «Ассошіейтід бук паблішерз»; Cambridge University Press англійське видавництво наукової та довідкової літератури при Кембріджському університеті «Кембрідж юніверсіті прес»; Edward Arnolds (Publishers) Ltd. лондонське видавництво навчально-педагогічної та наукової літератури «Едвард Арнольдз (паблішерз) лімітед»; Harper & Row (USA) видавництво різної літератури «Гарпер енд Роу» (США).

Not infrequently, however, the names of British (American, etc.) publishing houses are scarcely indicated or not mentioned at all. Nevertheless in Ukrainian translation the identifying noun видавництво should necessarily be added: Penguin Books лондонське видавництво «Пенґвін букс»; Raphael Tuck & Sons Ltd. лондонське видавництво літератури з образотворчого мистецтва «Рафаель Так енд санз лімітед»; J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd. видавництво підручникової та довідкової літератури «Дж. М. Дент енд санз лімітед»; Slavic Gospel Press (USA) американське видавництво Біблій слав'янськими мовами «Славік Ґоспел Прес»; Randon House (USA) видавництво художньої літератури «Рендом Гаус» (США); Rand McNelly {USA) видавництво шкільних підручників

105

 

«Ренд Макнеллі» (США) ; Beacon Press (USA) американське видавництво підручників «Бікон Прес».

Names of Ukrainian publishing houses are rendered into English similarly: with the corresponding identifying noun Publishers or Publishing House added to it: видавництво «Український письменник»/»Дніпро» Kyiv/ Ukrains'kyi Pysmennyk/Dnipro Publishers (Publishing House): видавництво «Музична Україна» Muzychna Ukraina (musical works and notes) Publishers/Publishing House; видавництво «Школа» Shkola/Skola Publishers/Publishing House (primary and secondary school manuals, reference books, dictionaries); видавництво «Либідь» Kyiv Shevchenko University Lybid' Publishers (scientific literature and higher school manuals).

3. Transcribed or transliterated and mostly shortly explicated

in the target language are also the names of news agencies: (the

British) Reuters (News Agency) англійське інформаційне аґентство

«Рейтер»; UPl/France Presse інформаційне агентство ЮПІ (США),

Франс-Прес (Франція); інформаційне агентство Дінау Укрінформ

Ukrainian Dinau Ukrinform News Agency; інформаційне аґентство

Тарс/Новості Russian TASS/Novosti News Agency; but китайське

інформаційне аґентство Сінь-Хуа Chinese Communist New China

News Agency.

4. Names of theatres, cinemas, hotels are also mostly repro

duced through transcription or transliteration and explication at the

same time: Comedy Theatre театр «Комеді»; Dairy Lane музичний

театр «Драрі/Друрі-Лейн»; Commercial Theatre «Комерційний

театр» (розрахований виключно на касовий збір); the Continental

«Континенталь» (назва кількох лондонських кінотеатрів, у яких

демонструються переважно зарубіжні фільми); the Empire

кінотеатр «Емпайер» (великий лондонський кінотеатр); Большой

театр the Bolshoi Theatre or: the Moscow Bolshoi Opera and Ballet

Theatre; Київський державний український драматичний театр ім.

Івана Франка the Kyiv State Ivan Franko Ukrainian Drama Theatre;

(Київський) театр музкомедії the (Kyiv) Musical Comedy Theatre;

(Київський) театр юного глядача the (Kyiv) Young Spectators Thea

tre; кінотеатр «Київ»/ «Славутич» the Kyiv city Kyiv/Slavutych Cin

ema Hall.

5. Names of hotels are translated in the same way as the names

of cinema halls. When the names originate from common nouns (or

word-combinations) they may be transcribed, transliterated and expli

cated or translated: the Royal Court Hotel готель «Роял корт»; the

Mitre Hotel лондонський готель «Майтер» (Митра); готель «Київ»/

106

 

«Русь»/ «Україна» the Kyiv/ RusV Ukraina Hotel; the Opryland Hotel/ Restaurant (Nashville, Tennessee) готель/ресторан «Опріленд» (CLLJA, м. Нешвіл, штат Теннессі); the Westin Hotel (Calgary, Canada) Калґерський готель «Вестін» (Канада), готель «Колос»/ «Берізка»/ «Затишок» the Kolos, Birch Tree (Cosy Nook), Hotel; Лисянський готель «Колос» the Lysyanka Kolos Hotel.

The same way of translating is employed when dealing with the names of restaurants: the Banff Springs Restaurant (ab. Calgary) ресторан «Бенф Спрінґс», the Anatole Restaurant (Dallas) ресторан «Анатоль»; ресторан «Москва»/ «Дніпро»/ «Київ» the Moskva/ Dnipro/ Kyiv restaurant; ресторан «Вітряк»/«Мислівський» the Vitryak (Windmill)/Myslyvskyi (Hunter's) restaurant.

6. Names of newspapers, journals, and magazines require a special approach on the part of the translator. The thing is that in English some more extended explication may be needed for a particular foreign newspaper (magazine, journal) than in Ukrainian: газета «Голос України» the Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada Holos Ukrainy newspaper; «Народна Армія» the Ukrainian army Narodna Armiya/Armia paper/newspaper; «Независимость» a Ukrainian Russian language Nezavisimost newspaper/paper, «Молодь України» the Ukrainian youth Molod' Ukramy newspaper; «Буковина» the Bukovyna region(al) Bukovyna newspaper/daily; «Вечірній Київ» the Kyiv city Verchirniy Kyiv evening newspaper, but газета «День» The Ukrainian Day newspaper (published also in English).

Very often the body to which the paper belongs or which sponsors its publication may be indicated too: орган міністерства народної освіти України газета «Освіта» Ukraine's Ministry of Public Education and Culture Osvita weekly; газета Спілки українських письменників «Літературна Україна» the Ukrainian writers Union Literaturna Ukraina weekly.

Names of Ukrainian journals (magazines) are translated in the same way as the titles of newspapers: журнал «Вітчизна» Ukrainian writers' Vitchyzna/Vitcyzna (Fatherland) literary journal; журнал «Перець» Ukrainian humorous and satirical Perets (Pepper) weekly magazine; журнал «Жінка» Ukrainian Zhinka (woman) monthly/magazine журнал «Мовознавство» Ukrainian linguistic Movoznavstvo journal or: Ukrainian linguists' Movoznavstvo journal; журнал «Іноземні мови» Ukrainian teachers of foreign languages Inozemni Movy journal; журнал «Сучасність» Ukrainian Suchasnists' (modern literature and politics) journal.

The titles of English newspapers, journals and magazines are

107

 

traditionally less explicated in Ukrainian (like in Russian) translation: the New York Times газета «Нью-Йорк тайме»; Observer англійський соціально-політичний тижневик «Обсервер»; Washington Post газета «Вашингтон пост»; Business Week (орган ділових кіл США) журнал «Бізнес вік». The definite/indefinite article used before the titles of English newspapers/journals is mostly omitted in Ukrainian translation: The Teacher «Тічер» (щотижнева газета вчителів Великобританії); The Seaman «Сімен» (альманах профспілки моряків Великобританії); but: News of the World «Ньюс оф зе ворлд» (англійська недільна бульварна газета).

Several titles of foreign newspapers and journals may also be translated into English. Among them are the following: «Новое время» the Russian New Times English language journal; «Красная звезда» The Russian Army paper The Red Star (in Russia's English press, however, only Krasnaya Zvesda); «Полярная звезда» the Decembrists journal The North Star; but «Женьмінь-жібао» the Chinese Communist/ Peijing People's Daily.

7. Translation of the names of streets, avenues and squares is predetermined by several factors. Alongside the established tradition, the most important of these factors is the meaning of the component parts making up the name. When used in contextul environment, the names of streets, avenues, roads, and squares may often be simply transcribed or transliterated, since the nouns «street», «avenue», «road» or «square» are familiar to many Ukrainians: Dean Street Дін-Стріт; Milton Street/Oxford Street Мільтон Стріт/Оксфорд-Стріт; Wall Street/Fleet Street Волл-Стріт/Фліт-Стріт; Farringdon Road Фаррінгдон-Роуд.

When used out of context, however, the names of streets, avenues and roads require in Ukrainian an additional explanatory noun вулиця (бульвар, провулок): Midland Park Road вул. Мідланд-парк роуд; Narrow Lane вул. (пров.) Нерроу-лейн; Portobello Road вул. Портобелло-Роуд; Threadneedle Street вул. Треднідл-Стріт (центр Сіті), but Wall Street Вол-Стріт.

The streets (avenues) with numbers instead of the proper names always have the number translated and not given in figures: Sixth/Seventh Street Шоста/Сьома вулиця (Нью-Йорк); First (Third, Ninth) Avenue Перша (Третя, Дев'ята) авеню. The names of streets with no appositional «street/avenue» nouns in English must be added вулиця in Ukrainian translation: Cheyne Walk вул. Чейні-вок (у районі Челсі); the Mall/Pall Mall вул. Мел/Пел Мел (у центрі Лондона); Unwin Place/Portland Place вул. Анвін-Плейс/вул.

108

 

Портленд-Плейс.

Ukrainian names of streets (roads, avenues) are translated according to the common rule, the proper name being transliterated (rarely transcribed) and the explaining common noun вулиця, бульвар, провулок is translated: Андріївська/Польова вулиця Andriivska/ Polyova Street; бульвар Лесі Українки/Шевченка Lesya Ukrainka/ Shevchenko Avenue. In recent years, however, especially in the local English press more and more often our вулиця, бульвар, etc. are transliterated in English: vulyts'a/vulytsia Kostel'na, vulytsia Bohdana Khmelnyts'koho, ploshcha Peremohy, ploshcha Tolstoho, but майдан Незалежності Maidan Nezalezhnosti, etc.

When the noun вулиця, бульвар, провулокіз not used in Ukrainian, it should naturally be added in the English translation: Андріївський Узвіз Andriivskyi Uzviz Road/vulytsia; Лиса Гора/ Ярославів Вал Lysa Hora/Yaroslaviv Val Street/vulytsia; Нижній/ Верхній Вал Nyzhniy/Verkhniy Val Street (Road) or vulytsia.

The names of streets and squares given in honour of social, political or historical events/personalities, along with the names formed from regular common nouns, qualitative or relative adjectives, are mostly translated. This way of translating is especially common in written language when it is not connected directly with oral communication: бульвар Дружби народів The Friendship of Nations (Peoples' Friendship) Avenue/Bulvar; вулиця Верховної Ради/ Грушевського Verkhovna Rada/Hrushevs'koho Street/vulytsia (in English newspapers published in Ukraine).

The names of English squares are also mostly transcribed and explicated (by adding площа) whether the noun «square» is mentioned or not: Clerkenwell Green/Percy Circus пл. Кларкенвел-Ґрін/Персі-серкус; Elephant and Castle пл. Елефант енд Касл; Grosvenor Square (Hanover Square) пл. Ґросвенор-Сквер (Геновер-Сквер).

Some names of squares may be either transcribed/transliterated or translated from the English language as well: Parliament Square пл. Парлемент-Сквер/ Парламентська площа; Trafalgar Square пл. ТрафальІ'ар-Сквер/Трафальґ'арська площа; George Washington Square пл. Джорджа Вашингтона/Майдан Джорджа Вашингтона.

Names of Ukrainian squares are rendered in a similar way though they are more often translated into English. It happens when the name of the square originates from a common noun or is a stable word-combination denoting some historical or revolutionary event:

109

 

площа Богдана Хмельницького/Толстого Bohdan Khmel'nytskyi/ Tolstoi Square/Ploshcha; Контрактова площа Kontraktova Square/ Ploshcha; Голосіївська пл. Holosiivska Square/Ploshcha and also: Bohdana Khmel'nytskoho Square/Ploshcha.

Sometimes in oral and written practice both transliteration or transcription as well as regular translation may be employed. This becomes inevitable when the name of the square/street originates from a common noun or when it is necessary to avoid some misunderstanding. Besides, there may arise a need to clarify the lexical meaning of a proper name (or a component part of it) in the target language: пл. Перемоги (Київ) Peremoha (Victory) Square/Ploshcha; пл. Возз'єднання (Київ) Vozyednannya (Reunification) Square/ Ploshcha; Музейний провулок Muzeinyi Provulok (by-street).

Certainly of interest for our students may be the rule of translating such peculiar notions as житловий масив and адміністративний район in a city. Thus, Васильківський/Яготинський район is Vasyl'kivs'kyi/Yahotyns'kyi district/rayon, Шевченківський район м. Києва is Shevchenkivs'kyi district of Kyiv. Any житловий район in any city is always a residential area: (the) Syrets/Nyvky residential area in Kyiv Shevchenkivs'kyi district, the Oleksiyivka residential area in Kharkiv, the Kharkivs'kyi Masyv residential area (in Kyiv).

8. Names of public bodies, however, are mostly translated. These include political parties, trade unions, national and international bodies of different rank and functions: the British Conservative party консервативна партія Великої Британії; the Democratic (Republican) party демократична (республіканська) партія, the Labour (Liberal) party лейбористська (ліберальна) партія; Християнсько-демократична партія України the Christian Democratic Party of Ukraine orthe Ukrainian Christian Democratic Party/Ukrainian Christian Democrats; українська селянська партія the Ukrainian Farmer's Party, спортивне товариство «Динамо» Dynamo sports society, Асоціація легкоатлетів України Ukrainian Light Athletics Association. Similarly treated are also various names of English/American trade unions which may sometimes go under the names «association», «society», «organization», «brotherhood» or simply «union», which should always be translated as профспілка: the AFL-CIO (American Federation of Labour- Congress of Industrial Organizations) АФП-КВП (Американська Федерація Праці - Конгрес Виробничих Профспілок); Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers об'єднана профспілка робітників машинобудівної промисловості Великої Британії; British Transport and General

110

 

Workers Union профспілка робітників транспорту і некваліфікованих працівників Великої Британії; United Mine Workers Association/United Miners об'єднана профспілка шахтарів (США).

Some trade unions of the USA are amalgamated with those of Canada. This is always indicated by the word «International» which should not erroneously be taken for міжнародний/міжнародна and consequently has to be translated as об'єднана профспілка США і Канади: International Ladies Garment Workers Об'єднана профспілка робітників по пошиттю жіночого верхнього одягу США і Канади: International Longshoremen Association об'єднана профспілка портових вантажників (докерів) США і Канади.

Names of Ukrainian trade unions are translated in the same way as the English (or American) ones. They may also be rendered in their full official wording or somewhat shortened (without using the words «trade union»): профспілка робітників гірничорудної промисловості України Ukrainian Mines Workers Union or Ukrainian Miners; профспілка машинобудівників України Ukrainian Engineering Workers Union/ Ukrainian Engineers; профспілка працівників освіти, вищої школи і наукових установ Ukrainian Public Education, Higher School and Scientific Institutions Workers (Trade) Union. Similarly translated are also names of international organizations as International Monetary Fund (IMF) Міжнародний Валютний Фонд; ЄЕС (European Economic Council) Економічна Рада Європи (Рада Європи); Дніпровський Центр українсько-польських культурних, наукових і ділових зв'язків The Dnieper area Center for Ukrainian and Polish Cultural, Scientific and Business Relations, etc.

9. Special attention should be paid to the translation of the names of institutions, enterprises, geographical objects, etc., bearing honorary names. In English the honorary name precedes the enterprise/body which bears it, whereas in Ukrainian/Russian it always follows the name of the enterprise/body: Humboldt State College Державний коледж ім. Гумбольдта; George Washington Library Бібліотека ім. Джорджа Вашинґтона; Lafayette/Longfellow College Коледж ім. Лафаєтта/Лонґфеллло; but: Cape Kennedy/ Vandenberg мис Кеннеді/Ванденберга, бібліотека ім. Котляревського the Kotlyarevskyi library; Національна бібліотека України ім. академіка Вернадського Ukrainian Academician Vernadskyi National Library.

Note. Names of literary and scientific/peace prizes are mainly

111

 

translated in two ways - with the preservation of the name which the prize bears or with the transformation of the noun into a corresponding relative adjective: Nobel Prize Нобелівська премія (премія імені Нобеля); Pulitzer Prize Пулітцерівска премія (премія ім. Пулітцера); Taras Shevchenko Prize Шевченківська премія (премія ім. Т.Г. Шевченка); Rylskyi Translation Prize перекладацька премія ім. Максима Рильського.

English honorary names, therefore, are mostly transformed into relative adjectives in Ukrainian, whereas Ukrainian relative adjectives must be translated, where possible, as corresponding English nouns. This rule should also be observed when translating the names which contain the often used adjective державний. The latter, however, may sometimes be omitted in English, which should not be treated as a translator's mistake. The thing is that belonging of important institutions to state property in all countries is considered self-evident. As a result, two faithful translations of this kind of names are possible: Київська державна кіностудія ім. О.Довженка, Kyiv State Dovzhenko Film Studio, 2. the Kyiv Dovzhenko Film Studio; Львівський державний університет ім. Івана Франка. 1. Lviv I.Franko State University, 2. Lviv I.Franko University or: 1. Kyiv State Taras Schevchenko National University 2. Kyiv Taras Schevchenko National University.

The honorary names originating from common nouns or from those denoting historical/revolutionary events may be conveyed in two ways: 1) translated only or 2) transliterated/transcribed and explicated in brackets at the same time. Especially often this kind of names were used in Soviet times. Cf. Дзвонковецький колгосп «Смерть капіталізму»/ «Тихе життя» (Корнійчук) the Dzvonkove Smert' Capitalizmu (Death to capitallizm /Tykhe Zhyttia (Quiet Life) collective farm; Львівська фірма кондитерських виробів «Світоч» Lviv Svitoch (Torchlight) Confectionery Firm. Some names of our institutions which have recently changed their official status may be used with the definite article in the English translated variant1: Горлівський державний педагогічний інститут іноземних мов The Horlivka Foreign Languages Teachers' Training Institute (now University); Київський медичний університет ім. Богомольця Kyiv Bohomolets Medical University; Музична школа ім. М.Лисенка The M.Lysenko Musical School. It should be emphasized that the NNN-.NNNN-, etc. asyndetic word-groups are preferred in newspaper style

1 See: Povey J., Walshs I. An English Teacher's Handbook of Educational Terms. 2nd Rev. Ed - M : Vyssaja Skola, 1982.

112

 

whereas in spoken language or in belles-lettres works prepositional phrases are used to convey such and the like names of institutions: колишній Києво-Святошинський радгосп «Шляхом перемог» (the) former Kyiv Svyatoshyn Shlyakhom Peremoh (On the Road to Victories) state farm (newspaper style), but (the) Shlyakhom Peremoh (On the Road to Victories) state farm in Kyiv Svyatoshyn district (spoken English or belles-lettres style). When translating such and the like often used today complicated names of different institutions, the student should strictly stick to the rule: in English the honorary name, functioning as a relative adjective, follows the place name substituting the Ukrainian possessive and relative adjective formed from the place name. For example: Київський державний педагогічний університет імені М.Драгоманова Kyiv State M.Drahomanov Teachers Training University.

Similarly translated are also names of newly formed on the basis of former collective/state farms enterprises. Cf. Семенівське КСП (колективне сільськогосподарське підприємство) Semenivs'ke Cooperative Agricultural Enterprise; Рідкодубське приватне с/г Товариство The Ridkodub Private Farmers' Association/Joint Stock Agricultural Association, etc.

Any other approach to translation of such and the like word-group structures, including the descriptive translation, which is sometimes employed by inexperienced translators, will be stylistically incompatible and therefore wrong. Care should be taken to avoid the stylistically unjustified expression «the named after» which is to be used only in explanatory versions, as in the sentence «After Ukraine's gaining independence many state institutions were named after our most prominent patriots Hrushevskyi, Vynnychenko, The Heroes of Kruty, Petlyura, and many others.» Hence, the Lviv V.Stefanyk library, the Symyrenko Horticultural Research Centre and never «the named after» Symyrenko Horticultural Research Centre or «the named after» V.Stefanyk Lviv library. It must be repeatedly emphasized that the placement of the honorary name in English translations is strictly predetermined and can not be changed deliberately unless required by the speech situation (style) and content.

Topics for Self-Control and Class/Home Reviewing

1. The main rules of conveying different English sounds in

Ukrainian translations of proper nouns.

2. Rules and methods of Romanization of different Ukrainian

113

 

proper nouns in English (names/family names of people, place names, etc.).

3. Methods of conveying the nicknames of people in English

and Ukrainian (the general rule and exceptions).

4. Methods of translating the nationally generalizing names of

people as Mr.Knowall, Панібудьласка, etc.

5. Rules of translating the names of companies, corporations,

firms and their equivalent bodies in English and Ukrainian.

6. The rule of translating the names of institutions bearing hon

orary names in English and Ukrainian.

7. The rule of translating the names of hotels, guest houses,

hostels in English and Ukrainian.

8. Rules of translating the names of streets, squares, and resi

dential areas from Ukrainian into English.

9. The rule of translating the names of English/Ukrainian pub

lishing houses, news agencies, etc.

10. Rules of translating the names of public bodies into Eng

lish and Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Translate the following English proper names and surnames into Ukrainian. Substantiate your way of translation. Model: John Джон (common name), Іван/Іоан (Biblical name, name of the Pope, king or prince).

a) Abel, Adrian, Albert, Aloysius, Alvin, Ambrose, Ananias,

Anthony, Athelstan(e), Augustus, Aurelius, Balthas(z)ar, Barnard,

Bartholomew, Basil, Caleb, Christopher, Clarence, Cyril, Cyrus, Doug

las, Duncan, Edmund, Elijah, Emil(e), Enoch, Erasmus, Eugene,

Evan, Evelyn, Gabriel, Gaylord, Gerald, Giles, Griffith, Gustavus,

Harold, Hilary, Hugh, Ian, Ivor, Jacob, James, Joachim, Job, Jonathan,

Joshua, Lawrence, Leigh, Leonard, Luke, Mark, Matthew, Meredith,

Miles, Moses, Nicolas, Noah, Orville, Paul, Peter, Philenion, Ralf,

Sam(p)son, Silas, Simon, Solomon, Stewart, Timothy, Titus, Van,

Virgil, Vivian, Walter, Zachariah, Zeke.

b) Abigail, Adaline, Alberta, Agnes, Alexandra, Angelica,

Annabella, Aurora, Beryl, Camilla, Caroline, Charity, Daisy, Delia,

Eileen, Eleanor, Enid, Eudora, Eva (Eve), Georgia, Grace, Hannah,

Helen(a), Honey, Hope, Ida, Irene, Ivy, Jacqueline, Janet, Julia,

Katherina(e), Leonora, Una, Lolita, Lucia, Lydia, Marianne, Martha,

Mina, Myra, Nabby, Nadine, Orrie, Pamela, Patience, Paula, Pheny,

114

 

Regina, Rita, Sandra, Sawnie, Serena, Tabitha, Theresa, Una, Vera, Vida, Viola, Virginia, Wilhelmina, Winifred, Zenobia, Zoe.

c). Adams, Ade, Bamber, Seattle, Bingham, Bloye, Caldocot, Carliie, Cheeseman, Cohen, Cowie, Dalglish, Disney, Dooling, Eaton, Ellsworth, Evans, Fawley, Foche, Fowler, Gaulit, Gifford, Greaves, Gilmour, Hare, Hawley, Hooligan, Horrocks, Hurstwood, Irving, Julian, Kane, Keyworth, Knighton, Knickerbaker, Layman, Mathews, Maw, McEnrol, Methuselah, Meno, Merriweather, Nawrat, Ockham, O'Connor, Ogle, O'Grady, Otway, Palmer, Paisley, Plowdon, Pooley, Priscott, Quaker, Ramsay, Reeve, Rotthwell, Rushworth, Sounders, Sivers, Sowers, Statham, Teall, Thorndike, Drey, Uriah, Urduahart, Van Allen, Van Buren, Vane, Wainwright, Wallace, Warwick, Watt, Yaspan.Zangwill.

Exercise II. Translate the following Ukrainian proper names and surnames into English. Define the way they are rendered (transcribed, transliterated, partly transliterated or partly transcribed, etc.).

a) Амросій, Аркадь, Архип, Богдан, Валентин, Валерій,

Василь, Володимир, В'ячеслав, Георгій, Дем'ян, Дорофій, Йосип,

Мар'ян, Михайло, Олексій, Охрім, Пантелеймон, Пилип, Тиміш,

Филимон, Хома, Юрій, Юхим, Яким.

b) Анастасія, Борислава, Василина, Віра, Галина, Ганна,

Євпраксія, Жанна, Зінаїда, Іванна, Катерина, Ксенія, Лариса/Леся,

Лепестина, Люба, Людмила, Марися, Надія, Оксана, Онисія,

Павлина, Раїса, Соломія, Таїсія, Уляна, Фросина, Юлія,

Юхимина, Явдоха, Ярослава,

c) Андрійчук, Архипенко, Богданець, Вирвикишка,

Віталієнко, Горпищенко, Григораш, Де, Дем'янчук, Дерипаско,

Добридень, Дорожченко, Жлуктенко, Жуйхліб, Іллюк, Кирп'юк,

Марущак, Неїжмак, Непийпиво, Нетреба, Нетудихата, Охрім'кж,

Ольжич, Павлюченко, Печиборщ, Панібудьласка, Підкуймуха,

Підопригора, Реп'ях, Тягнирядно, Убийвовк, Федюнишин, Ховрах,

Цьох, Юрчишин, Янченко.

d) Suggest possible methods of translation into Ukrainian for

the following English generalizing/characterizing names:

Mrs. Bundle, Mr. Gila Bend, the Giggler, Mr. Happness, Curly Bull, Run Bill Pilgrim, Whistling Dick, Shark Dodson, Lord Rubudub, Lady Singsung, Pennifeather (from K.Vonnegut's works), Mr. Knowall (Maugham), Gimlet of Ghent, Beowulf the Bradawl, Mr. Sparrow, Don Back, farmer Meadowlark, philosophical Philip, Tom Lackford Promoter, Mr. Beanhead, Mr. Newrich, Lord Oxhead, Rollothe Rumbottle

115

 

(from S.Leacock's works). Mrs. Trotter, Mrs. Struggles, Alfred Jingle, Mr. Mallard, Mr.Walker, Mr.Copperfield, Mr.Gradgrind (from C.Dickens's works); Mr. Crabtree/Backbite, Mrs. Sneerwell (Sheridan).

e) Suggest your versions for the nicknames of the U.S. and Canadian sports clubs and translate the sentences into Ukrainian: 1) In sports many victories were never enjoyed for long and the losses lingered. 2) The New York Yankees sprayed champagne after John Wetteland closed out the World Series, but he soon departed to the Texas Rangers as a $24 million free agent. 3) Jimmy Key took the Baltimore Orioles' money. Jim Leyritz, whose home run fumed the Series, was traded to the Anaheim Angels. 4) Michael Jordan lifted the Chicago Bulls to a fourth National Basketball Association title. 5) John LeClair scored twice as the Philadelphia Flyers stretched the National Hockey League's longest current unbeaten run to 13 games with a 4-2 victory over the slumping Calgary Flames. 6) Tommy Albelin and Sandy McCarthy, with his first goal of the season, led the Flames. 7) The loss left the Panthers in a first-place tie with Philadelphia in the Atlantic Division. 8) The Blues had not beaten the Bruins since 1994. 9) NBA Roundup: Shaquille O'Neal scored 28 points in 28 minutes and Eddie Jones had 20 points and seven steals as the Los Angeles Lakers beat the Philadelphia 76ers. 10) Isaiah Rider scored 19 points while playing less than three quarters as the host Trail Blazers routed the Spurs.

Exercise III. Identify the methods of translation of the following holy names, festivities, and remembrance days of the Orthodox Church into Ukrainian. Use the English-Ukrainian dictionaries or part В of this exercise for the purpose.

A.Nativity Vigil, Nativity of Christ, Mother of God, First Martyr Stephan, St.Basil the Great/New Year, Jordan Dinner, Theophany, John the Baptist, Three Hierarchs, Meeting of the Lord, Meat Fare Sunday, All Souls Saturday, Cheese Fare Sunday, Great Fast, Sunday of Orthodoxy, Cross Veneration, Sunday Great Fast, Annunciation, Great Thursday/Friday, Easter Sunday/Monday, Saint Thomas, Ascension, Peter's Fast, Pentacost, Holy Spirit, Apostles Peter and Paul, Blessed Olha, Patron Saint Day, Saint Volodymyr, Prophet Elijah, Baptism of Ukraine (August 14, 988), Transfiguration, Dormition, Beheading of St. John the Baptist, Cross Elevation, Protection Mother of God, Remembrance Day, Synaxis of Archangel Michael, Autumn Nativity Fast, Entry Mother of God, Apostle Andrew, Saint Nicholas the Thaumaturgist, Conception of Mother of God.

116

 

В. Святий Вечір, Різдво Христове, Первомученика Стефана, Пресвята Богородиця, Святого Василя Великого/Новий Рік, Йорданська Вечеря, Богоявлення, Іоан Хреститель, Трьох Святителів, Стрітення Господнє, М'ясопусна Неділя, Поминальна Субота, Сиропусна Неділя, Неділя Православ'я, Великий Піст/ Хрестопоклоніння, Благовіщення, Страсний Четвер/П'ятниця, Великодня Неділя, Світлий Понеділок, Провідна Неділя/Проводи, Вознесіння, Петрівка, Трійця /День Св.Трійці, День Св. Духа, Св. апостолів Петра і Павла, Блаженної Ольги, Храмове Свято, Св. Володимира, Пророка Іллі /Спасівка, Хрещення України, Преображення, Успіння Пресвятої Богородиці, Усічення глави Св.Іоана Хрестителя, Воздвиження (Чесного) Хреста, Покрова (Св.Богородиці), Поминки, Собор Архангела Михаїла, Пилипівка, Введення Пресвятої Богородиці, Св. Апостола Андрія Первозванного, Св. Миколая Чудотворця, Зачаття Пресвятої Богородиці.

Exercise IV. Translate the following geographical names into Ukrainian and define the method each of them is rendered in part a) and part b):

a) the Channel Islands, the Cheviot Hills, Christmas Island,

the Commander Islands, the Crocodile River, Everglades National

Park (USA), the Grand Falls, Grand Falls (town), the Great Slave

River, the Great Sandy Desert (Australia), the Great Victoria Desert,

Hudson Bay, Idaho Falls, Kerch Strait, Maritime Territory (Russia),

Near Islands, the Niagara Falls, the White Nile, the White Mountains,

the Yellow River.

b) 1. The Rocky Mountains (the Rockies) are considered young

mountains: of the same age as the Alps in Europe, the Himalayas in

Asia, and the Andes in South America. 2. There are 48 areas in the

Rocky Mountains set aside by state and federal governments for

national parks. Among the world-wide known are Yellowstone Na

tional Park, Rocky Mountain National Park, Mesa Verde National Park,

and, of course, Grand Canyon National Park. In the Sierra Nevada

Mountains area best-known is the Yosemite National Park. 3. The

Appalachians are old mountains with many coal-rich valleys among

them. 4. The Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada Mountains

catch the largest share of rain off the Pacific Ocean. 5. At the border

of the Pacific Ocean lie the Coast Ranges, relatively low mountains.

6. The Grand Canyon cut by the Colorado River in the high Colorado

Plateau, is 1.6 kilometers in depth. 7. North of the Central Lowland

are the five Great Lakes and West of the Central Lowland are the

117

 

Great Plains. 8. The Mississippi is one of the world's great continental rivers, like the Amazon in South America, the Congo in Africa, or the Ganges, Amur, and Yangtze in Asia. 9. The winding Mississippi River and its various branches drain a great basin extending from the Appalachians to the Rockies about one-third the land of the United States. 10. Curving through the heart of the whole western half of the Central Basin is the Missouri River, chief western branch of the Mississippi, once the most destructive river in the United States. 11. The Missouri rises high among the snows of the Rocky Mountains. 12. Like the Mississippi all rivers - east of the Rockies finally arrive at the Atlantic. For this reason the crests of the Rocky Mountains are known as the Continental Divide. 13. The Rio Grande is the foremost river of the Southwest between Mexico and the United States. 14. The skyscrapers of New York, the steel mills of Pittsburg and the automobile assembly lines of Detroit which are symbols of industrial America form the «melting pot» of the country. 15. Detroit, heart of automobile industry, began as a waggon-making town, using wood from the forests that covered the peninsula between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. 16. The cargo tonnage which passes between Lake Superior and Lake Huron about equals the combined capacity of the Panama and Suez Canals. 17. From the eastern end of Lake Erie all the way across New York State flows the Hudson River which falls to New York harbour. 18. Great Salt Lake to the north of Salt Lake City in the State of Utah, contains an estimated six thousand millions of tons of soda.

Exercise V. Define the methods in which the following geographical names below have to be translated into English.

Алабама (p.), Алабама (штат США), Азорські острови, Апандські острови, Алжир (країна і столиця), Альпи, Амазонка, Азовське море, Аральське море, р.Буг, Говерла, Арктика, Атлантика, Багамські о-ви, Бенґальська затока, оз. Верхнє, Гавайські о-ви, Ґобі (пустеля), Ґрампіанські гори, оз. Гурон, м. Данді/Дербі, р. Дунай, Кривбас, м.Едінбурґ, оз. Ейре, м. Житомир/Запоріжжя, Ірландське море, м. Кельн, Лестер, Ліворно, Лідс, Маґелланова протока, гори Маккензі, острів Мен, р. Міссурі, р. Прип'ять, м. Мюнхен, м. Новий Орлеан, р. Огайо, оз. Онтаріо, Оркнейські о-ви, Піренеї, м. Ростов-на-Дону, Сахара (пустеля), Невада (пустеля і штат), Керченська протока, Кримський перешийок, ос. Святої Єлени, Сейшельські о-ви, Соломонові о-ви, р. Темза, м. Ворик, м. Франкфурт-на-Майні, м.Аахен.

118

 

Exercise VI. Translate the names of the following English and American trade unions into Ukrainian:

1. ACTW, Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers (USA).

2. AUEW, Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers (USA).

3. AAEE, American Association of Electrical Engineers. 4. AAA, Ameri

can Automobile Association. 5. ASLEF, Associated Society of Loco

motive Engineers and Firemen. 6. NUT, National Union of Teachers

(Gr. Br.). 7. SE, Scottish Electricals. 8. TGWU, Transport and General

Workers Union (Gr. Britain ). 9. UPOW, Union of Post Office Workers

(Gr.  Br.).  10.  UMWA,  United Mine Workers of America.

11. UAWU, United Auto Workers Union. 12. USWA, United Shoe Work

ers of America. 13. UTWA, United Textile Workers of America. 14. The

AFL - CIO, the American Federation of Labour - the Congress of In

dustrial Organizations. 15. UPS, United Parcel Service (USA).

Exercise VII. Translate the following names of Ukrainian trade unions into English. Define the method they are to be rendered:

1. Профспілка працівників будівельної промисловості України. 2. Профспілка працівників енергетичної промисловості України. 3. Профспілка працівників гірнично-рудної промисловості України. 4. Профспілка працівників м'ясо-молочної промисловості України. 5. Профспілка працівників машинобудівної промисловості України. 6. Профспілка працівників охорони здоров'я України. 7. Профспілка працівників освіти, вищої школи та наукових установ України. 8. Профспілка працівників суднобудівної промисловості України. 10. Профспілка працівників хімічної промисловості України.

Exercise VIII. Translate the names of the following English public bodies into Ukrainian:

a) 1. Amateur Athletic Association. 2. The British Field Sports Society. 3. Royal Geographical Society. 4. New Economic Foundation. 5. Greenpeace. 6. The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority. 7. Boy Scouts Association. 8. British Association for the Security and Cooperation in Europe. 9. British Institute of Public Opinion (Gullop Poll). 10. British Medical Association. 11. CPDS, Centre for Political and Diplomatic Studies (Oxford). 12. IATEFL International Association for Teaching English as a Foreign Language 13. Central Office of Information. 14. Department of Education and Science. 14. Department of Employment. 15. Duke of Humphrey's Library (Oxford Univ.) 16. Inner London Education Authority. 17. London County Council. 18. London Stock Exchange. 19. (Public) Record Office.

119

 

20. Royal Exchange. 21. Royal Mint. 22. Royal National Institute for the Blind/Deaf. 23. Joint Nature Conservation Committee environmental protection (Gr. Br.) 24. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. 25. UN Security Council. 26. CBIE Canadian Bureau for International Education. 27. The Democratic Party. 28. The Republican Party (USA). 29. The Royalist Party. 30. The Christian Democratic Party of Ukraine. 31. The Lovers of Beer Party (Ukraine). 32. The Women Admirers Party (Ukraine).

b) Find Ukrainian equivalents for the English public bodies below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian:

1. There is a broad consensus that the Social Security system needs reform, but little agreement on what should be done, and many of the important organizations in the debate are formulating their strategies. 2. The AFL-CIO, which has focused on Wall Street as an adversary in the campaign ahead, is seeking to protect a financial safety net for low-income workers, as well as to maintain a central role for government in public benefit programmes. 3. Even the AFL-CIO, however, favours investing Social Security money in the stock and bond markets, although it wants the money controlled by the government, and not put in the hands of private investors. 4. The Hong Kong Aircrew Officers' Association said pilots had been complaining of a loud buzzing in their ears that forced them to quickly change to another frequency to maintain contact with air-traffic control. 5. The strike was called by the Histadrut Trade Union Federation to protest tax increases, budget cuts and privatization plans of Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's government. 6. The meeting of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) ended Friday in Copenhagen. 7. The Ukrainian Union of Businessmen became a member of the International Organization of Employers (ЮЕ). 8. Abraham Katz, president of the U.S.Council for International Business and deputy chairman of the ЮЕ executive committee, noted at the meeting that the success of reforms in Ukraine is defined by the level and speed of investments, both domestic and foreign. 9. Residents of the Bukit Gombak public housing estate in the central part of the main island of Singapore have a powerful inducement to end their support for the opposition and vote for the candidate of the governing People's Action Party. 10. Janice Shields of the U.S.Public Interest Research Group and Chris Privett of the American Society of Travel Agents, blamed airline pricing policies for the wide range of prices, saying «there may be up to 100,000 fare changes a day». 11. Mr. Rajavi married Maryam,

120

 

a metallurgical engineer who had been a student leader in Tehran, and together they established the National Liberation Army, the military wing of the National Council of Resistance, a coalition of Iranian opposition groups abroad. 12. The International Monetary Fund's 2nd European Department mission to Ukraine yesterday conducted meetings with the government officials. 13. The European Union - Ukraine joint committee ended its four-day meeting in Brussels. The Ukrainian delegation was led by Roman Shpek, the head of National Agency for Reconstruction and Development (NARD). 14. 86 percent of the apartments in the high-rise blocks of Bukit Batok are being built and sold at much less than free-market rates by the government's Housing and Development Board. 15. Vancouver International Airport operated at only 10 per cent capacity Sunday and was struggling to get planes moving Monday. 16. National Railway trains were at a standstill, according to the Canadian Wheat Board, which sends most of its grain by train to the port of Vancouver.

Exercise (/.Translate the names of companies (corporations) below and define the method they are to be rendered:

a) 1. Allied Breweries. 2. British Aircraft Corporation. 3. British

Leyland Motor Corporation. 4. British National Oil Corporation.

5. British Overseas Airways Corporation. 6. British Shoe Corporation.

7. Educational Supply Association. 8. Elswick-Hopper Cycle & Motor

Co. 9. General Electric Co. Ltd. 10. Ashanti Goldfields Company Ltd.

(Ghana) 11. Philips Records Co. 12. Radio and Allied Industries Co.

13 Rugby Portland Cement. 14. Standard Telephones and Cables.

15 Triplex Safety Glass Co. 16. Typhoo Tea Ltd. Co. 17. ABC (Ameri

can Broadcasting Company). 18. CBC (Columbia Broadcasting Sys

tem). 19. NPR (National Public Radio).

b) Suggest the methods of translation into Ukrainian of

the names of English and foreign companies in the sentences

below.

1. Ask a middle-aged working man in the north of England what he and his friends contemplated doing when they left school 20 years ago and you get only two answers: They would work in the shipyards or the coal pits, for companies with names like Swan Hunter, British Shipbuilders, Cammell Laird and British Cod. 2. Ask a secondary-school graduate now where he or she is likely to wind up working and you will hear very different-sounding names: companies called Samsung, Daewoo, LG Electronics, Chunghwa Picture Tubes, Woo One, Tatung or maybe Poong Jeon or Sung Kwang. 3. It is a sign of one of the most dramatic changes in modern industrial

121

 

history: the growing dependence of Britain, a rich country that once ruled a great empire, on South Korea and Taiwan, once poor, developing countries, to solve the chronic problems of unemployment left behind when the coal mines and the shipyards closed.

Exercise X. Suggest all possible ways of approach to translating into Ukrainian the following titles of newspapers, magazines (journals):

1. Contemporary Review (literary-political monthly, Lnd.). 2. Contemporary Life (British farmer's weekly). 3. Daily Express, Daily Mail, The Daily Telegraph (and Morning Post), The Economist (all of conservative orientation). 4. Daily Mirror, Daily Sketch. 5. The Evening News, The Star, Evening Standard (Conservative dailies, Lnd.)., Scotsman (Edingb.), Yorkshire Post, Financial Times (Conservative), The Times (Lnd.). 6. Punch (satirical and humorous weekly), 8. The Guardian International. 9. Mainichi Shimbun (Japan). 10. Hong Kong Standard. 11. Korea Times (South Korea). 12. Ottawa Citizen (Canada). 13. Australia News. 14. USAToday. 15. Kyiv Post (Ukraine).

Exercise XI. Translate the following sentences containing the titles of American news media into Ukrainian:

1. American newspapers get much of their news from two news agencies - AP (Associated Press ) and UPI (United Press International). 2. The record for a Sunday paper in the United States is held by The New York Times. One issue on a Sunday in 1965 contained 946 pages, weighed 36 pounds, and cost 50 cents. 3. In 1986 a total of 9,144 newspapers (daily, Sunday, weekly, etc.) appeared in 6.516 towns in the United states. 4. Most of the daily newspapers are published, rain or shine, on Christmas, Thanksgiving, or the Fourth of July (Independence Day). 5. Among the twenty newspapers with the largest circulation only two or three regularly feature crime, sex, and scandal. 6. The paper with the largest circulation, The Wall Street Journal, is a very serious newspaper indeed. 7. The Wall Street Journal can be found throughout the country. Yet, one wouldn't expect The Milwaukee Journal to be read in Boston, or The Boston Globe in Houston. 8. Three of the better- known American newspapers The New York Times, The Washington Post and the Los Angeles Times not only collect but also sell news, news features, and photographs to hundreds of other papers in the U.S.and abroad. 9. In one famous example, an expose of the CIA in The New York Times, also appeared in 400 other American newspapers and was picked up or used in some way by hundreds more overseas. 10. «Picked up» is not quite right. Such stories are copyrighted and other newspapers

122

 

must pay for their use. 11. Some American papers are of international excellence, namely: The Christian Science Monitor, The (Baltimore) Sun, the St. Louis Dispatch, The Milwaukee Journal. 12. In a large international survey of newspaper editors, The New York Times was ranked by most as world's top daily. 13. Among the largest daily U.S.newspapers (1986) also are: (New York) Daily News, USA Today, The Washington Post, The Chicago Tribune, The New York Post, The Detroit News, The Detroit Free Press, The Chicago Sun Times, (The Long Island) Newsday, The San Francisco Chronicle, The Boston Globe. 14. There are more than 4,000 monthly, and over 1,300 weekly magazines in the USA.15. Quite a few of them have international editions, are translated into other languages or have «daughter editions» as National Geographic, Reader's Digest, Cosmopolitan, Vogue, Time, Newsweek, Scientific American, and Psychology Today. 16. Some American periodicals treat serious educational, political, and cultural topics at length. The best-known of these include The Atlantic Monthly, Harvard Educational Review, Saturday Review, Consumer Reports, The New Republic, National Review, Foreign Affairs, Smithsonian (published by the Smithonian Institution in Washington, D.C.), and, of course, Family Circle, Woman's Day, or National Enquirer.

Exercise XII. Translate the titles of the following Ukrainian and foreign newspapers, magazines and journals into English:

A. «Народна газета», «Українське слово», «Слово

Просвіти», «Освіта» «Голос України», «Урядовий Кур'єр»,

«Київська правда», «Літературна Україна», «Комерсант»,

«Молодь України», «Демократична Україна», «Сільські вісті»,

«Народна армія», «Київські Відомості», «Независимость»,

«Чорноморський моряк», «Шевченків край» (Звенигородська

райгаз.), журнали: «Дзвін», «Березіль», «Україна», «Вітчизна»,

«Дніпро», «Київ», «Всесвіт», «Слобожанщина» (письм. журнал,

Харків), «Холодний Яр» (письм. журнал, Черкаси), «Сучасність»

(літ.-політ. журнал), «Мовознавство», «Іноземні мови», «Слово і

час», «Іноземна філологія» (Львівський університет), «Теорія і

практика перекладу» (КНУ-т ім.Т.Шевченка).

B. Foreign Newpapers: «Жіцє Варшави»; «Парі Суар»

(Франція), «Франкфуртер Альґемайне», «Зюддойче Цайтунґ»

(Німеччина), «Паезесера», «Ґазеттаделло спорт», «Ла Републіка»

(Італія), «Известия», «АргументьІ й фактьі»» (Росія), «Борба»

(Югославія), «Правда» (Словаччина).

123

 

Translate the following names of news agencies into English: Агентство Великої Британії Рейтер (Ройтер), агентство Франс-Прес, Новості/АПН, Укрінформ, ДІНАУ Укрінформ, «Карпати» (Україна), агентство ПАП (Польща), агентство Ніппон судзін (Японія), агентство Сіньхуа (Китайська Нар. Респ.), Дойче Нахріхтена^ентур (Німеччина), С1-ЕН-ЕН, Ассошіейтед Прес (США).

Exercise XIII. Translate the names of the publishing houses into Ukrainian and define the method of translation employed in each case.

a) 1. A.& Black (Ltd.). 2. Andre Deutsch (soc. and polit. lit.,

Indep.). 3. J.Bartholomew & Son Ltd. (geogr. maps, atlases, Edinbr.).

4. Chapman & Hall (sci. and techn. lit., Lnd.). 5. W.& R.Chambers

Ltd. (dictionaries, manuals, reference books, Scotl.). 6. J.M.Dent &

Sons Ltd. (manuals reference books, guides', etc.) 7. William Collins

Sons&Co Ltd. (Dictionares, Lond). 8. Lund Humphries (dictionaries

manuals, etc,. Lnd.). 10. University of London Press. 11. Oxford Uni

versity Press. 12. The World Publishing Company (diet., sci. works.

USA). 13. Inter Vasity Press (sci. works, Illin. Univ. USA). 14. Macmillan

(sci. and hist, works, USA). 15. University of Oklahoma Press (USA).

16. Academic International Press (USA). 17. Harward University Press

(USA). 18. University of Wisconsin Press. (USA). 19. Longman (sci.

works, fiction, Ind.). 20. Foreign languages Publishing House (Mosc.).

21. Oxford University Press, Penguin Books (G.Brit.).

b) Suggest the way of translating into English the following

names of Ukrainian publishing houses: «Будівельник», «Веселка»,

«Вища школа», «Наука», «Дніпро», «Глобус», «Каменяр»,

«Карпати», «Музична Україна», «Смолоскип», «Феміна»,

«Український письменник», «Лан», «Знання», «Школа»,

«Україна», «Молодь», «Либідь» (Київський у-т), «Наукова думка»

(Акад. наук), «Баба Ґаламага» (прив. худ. літерат., Київ).

Exercise XIV.Translate the following sentences containing the names of well-known international corporations into Ukrainian:

1. Sony Corp. and Toyota Motor Corp. will invest 50 billion yen ($412.2 million) in a venture to make liquid-crystal-display panels. 2. Bankers Trust New York Corp. agreed to buy call options on 15 billion yen of Nippon Credit Bank Ltd. stock over the next three years. The options, if exercised, would raise the U.S.company's equity stake in Nippon Credit to nearly 4 per cent. 3. Japan's vehicle exports rose 42 per cent in August from a year earlier to 369,659

124

 

helped by a combination of a weaker yen and strong demand for sport-utility vehicles. It was the 15th consecutive monthly increase. 4. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corp. and Hong Kong Telecommunications Ltd. plan to extend their newly launched experimental high-speed line to Thailand in November. 5. Matsushita Electric Philippines Corp. will begin increasing the local content of US products because of concerns over the weakness of the Philippines peso. 6. Fletcher Challenge Ltd. of New Zealand's Canadian subsidiary sold its U.S.paper mill, Blandin Paper Co., to UPM-Kymmene Corp. of Finland for $650 million. 7. Cable and Wireless PLC bought an additional 5.75 percent stake in Asia Satellite Telecommunications Holdings Ltd. from Hutchison Whampoa Ltd. for 458.6 million Hong Kong dollars ($59.3 million).

Exercise XV.Translate the following Ukrainian names of enterprises and public bodies into English:

1. виробниче об'єднання «Закарпатліс»; 2. виробниче об'єднання «Донбас-антрацит»; 3. київська фірма побутових послуг «Світанок», 7. виробниче об'єднання «Укрмеблі»; 5. Укргазпром; 6. Укрмашинекспорт; 7. Виробниче об'єднання «Київукркабель»; 8. Фонд державного майна України; 9. творче виробниче об'єднання УТН; 10. Петровський машинобудівний завод (Донецьк); 11. Дніпропетровська фірма «Взуття»; 12. Нікопольський завод молочних продуктів; 13. виробничо-закупівельне підприємство «Хміль» (Житомир); 14. Ґенеральне аґентство з туризму Закарпатської області; 15. державне підприємство Туристичний комплекс «Пролісок»; 16. «Нафтохімік Прикарпаття»; 17. Івано-Франківське спеціалізоване управління механізації будівництва; 18. Білоцерківське виробничо-торгівельне трикотажне підприємство; 19. Ізмаїльська виробничо-комерційна фірма «Істр»; 20. Керченський металургійний комбінат; 21. «Львівоблплодоовоч»; 22. Акціонерне товариство «Глиноземний завод» (Миколаїв); 23. «Львівелектромаш»; 24. «Донецькнафтопродукт»; 25. «Будмаш» (Прилуки); 26. фірма матеріально-технічного забезпечення і збуту продукції «Донецьквугілля»; 27. державне підприємство роздрібної торгівлі «Вишенька» (Донецьк); 28. Українсько-російське спільне підприємство «Донецьковоч»; 29. туристична фірма «Гамалія»; ЗО. фірма по виробництву побутової техніки «Домогосподарка»; Лисичанське КСП; 31. Семенівське с/г товариство «Добробут», 32. КТТУ, Київське трамвайно-тролейбусне управління.

125

 

Exercise XVI. Translate the names of London hotels, hostels, inns and accomodation campuses into Ukrainian. Model:

Central House hotel сімейний готель «Сентрал гаус»; Acton Grange guest house пансіон «Ектон Ґрендж».

1. Lincoln House hotel, Glynne Court hotel, Duke of Leicester (hotel), Royal Adelpphi hotel, Olympic House hotel, Atlantic Hostel, Prince William hotel; 2. Hyde Park Rooms hotel, The Victoria inn, Green Court hotel, Half Moon hotel; 3. Pearl hotel, Fife Kings guest house, Forest View hotel, Sleeping Beauty motel, Elm Hotel, Fountain House hotel, High Trees Gatwick guest house; 4. Wembley Park hotel, International students house, Oxford Street Youth hostel; 5. University of Westminster (hotel), Cartwright University halls, Allen Hall summer hostel, International student residence, Hotel Saint Simeon, Holland House youth hostel, Hampstead Heath Youth hostel; 6. King's College London Hamstead campus, Ralf West Hall of residence.

Exercise XVII. Translate the following names of Ukrainian hotels, halls of residence, and guest houses into English.

1. Готель «Золотий колос», готель «Київ»/«Україна», готель «Дніпро»/«Славутич», готель «Київська Русь»/«Турист», готель «Братислава»/«Мир» (всі київські), готель Київського державного технічного університету будівництва й архітектури, готель Академії праці й соціальних відносин. 2. Будинок відпочинку «Берегове» (Закарпаття), пансіонат «Перемога» (Ворзель), будинок відпочинку «Будівельник» (Саки, Крим), будинок відпочинку «Водоспад» (Яремче, Закарпаття). 3. Пансіонат «Колос» (Пуща Водиця), пансіонат «Водник», пансіонат «Кооператор» (Закарпаття), пансіонат «Маяк» (Київський політехнічний інститут), пансіонат «Верховина» (Закарпаття), пансіонат «Аркадія» (Одеса), пансіонат «Джерело» (Пуща Озерна).

Texts for Independent Oral and Written Translation

Exercise XVIII. Translate the passages А, В, С, D in viva voce into English. Suggest appropriate ways of Romanization of different Ukrainian proper nouns in them.

А. Козацькому роду нема переводу.

Нізащо б не впізнали сьогодні запорожці серед димогарних труб заводів і фабрик та териконів, що нагадують віддалік єгипетські піраміди, свою Луганщину і землі, які вони

126

 

обживали 300 з гаком років тому вздовж берегів Сіверського Дінця, Лугані, Айдару, Деркула, Кам'янки. Саме вони заснували багатотисячний зимівник Кам'яний Брід - звідки й пішов у ріст Луганськ. Можна назвати й інші козацькі поселення: Рубіж (нині Рубіжне), Сватова Лучка (Сватове), Новий Псков (Новопсков), Білолуцьк, Щастя, Макарів Яр. Прямих нащадків запорозьких козаків на Луганщині тисячі, їх легко впізнати, наприклад, за прізвищами, про які дізнаємося в обласному адресному бюро. Між нас живуть: Нейздіймишапка і Покиньборода, Непийпиво і Святодух, Небийпідколіно і Молибога, Сороксобак... Донедавна був і носій такого чудернацького прізвища, що одразу й не вимовиш (прямо хоч до книги Гіннесса подавай) -Нашвидкоручтягнирядно!

B. Острог. Це місто древнє, одне із перших міст Південно-

Західної Руси-України. Вперше в історичних джерелах він

згадується під 1100 роком в Іпатіївському літописі. Основне

визначне місце Острога - княжий замок, зразок давньоруського

оборонного зодчества. Ансамбль замку зберіг основні будівлі.

Зараз у залах цієї унікальної архітектурної пам'ятки краєзнавчий

музей. У 30-ті роки заблищали позолотою всі п'ять бань величної

Богоявленської церкви. Оновлене і перше опорядження споруди.

У затишному сквері стоїть стела у вигляді розгорнутої книги, яка

встановлена 1978 року, до 400-річчя з часу заснування

Острозької слов'яно-греко-латинської академії і друкарні. Тут наш

першодрукар Іван Федоров випустив п'ять видань книг, у тому

числі унікальну «Острозьку Біблію», яка вийшла в світ 12 серпня

1581 року і стала великою подією у вітчизняній культурі. За

художнім оформленням Острозьку Біблію відносять до

книжкового мистецтва епохи Відродження.

C. Літопис Григорія Граб'янки. «Велика війна Богдана

Хмельницького» видано в Українському науковому інституті

Гарвадського університету. Це одна з найвідоміших козацьких

хронік, свідчення розвитку української свідомості та культури в

минулому. Твір, написаний 1710 року, вперше опубліковано в

Петербурзі наприкінці XVIII століття. Нинішнє видання містить

вступ англійською та українською мовами, фотоілюстрації й

велику бібліографію.

D. Поліглоти. Німець Шютце, що помер перед другою

світовою війною, говорив аж... 270 мовами. 230 мов знав

даньський учений минулого століття РасмусХрістіян Раск, 140-

професор Львівського університету Анджей Гавронський, близько

127

100 - академік М. Марр, 80 - видатний археолог Генріх Шліман, понад 60 - український науковець і письменник Агатангел Кримський.

Знання іноземних мов здавна вважалося за невід'ємну ознаку духовної культури. Київський князь Володимир Мономах писав у своєму «Поученні»: «Що знаєте доброго, того не забувайте, а чого не знаєте, того навчайтесь - як батько мій, перебуваючи вдома, знав п'ять мов, від того бо честь в інших країнах». Кількома іноземними мовами володіли видатний полководець і державний діяч України Богдан Хмельницький і гетьман Іван Виговський.

Чимало поліґлотів (від грецького «полі» - багато, глотта» - мова) є і в наш час. У Римському університеті працює професор Карло Тальїавіні, який досконало володіє 35 мовами, викладає 25-ма, а всього знає їх понад 120. «Батько» кібернетики Норберт Вінер вивчив 13 мов, професор Тартуського університету Пауль Арісте та викладач Московського Андрій Залізняк, родом з Чернігівщини, знають десь по 40 мов. До двох десятків знав їх український письменник-перекладач Микола Лукаш. Він автор чудових перекладів «Фауста» Ґете, «Декамерона» Боккаччо, «Дон Кіхота» Сервантеса та інших шедеврів світової літератури. Поліглоти визнають, що процес вивчення іноземних мов дуже складний, і в кожного з них свої власні методи.

UNITS OF INTERNATIONAL LEXICON AND WAYS OF RENDERING THEIR MEANING AND LINGUAL FORM

By internationalisms are meant such language units which are borrowed from one and the same source language by at least three genealogically different languages in the same or similar lingual form and identical meaning (cf. долар, атом, інтерес, директор, база, стадіон, театр, фізика, etc.). International, however, may be not only words and phrases/word-groups, but also morphemes - prefixes, suffixes and even inflexions, nothing to say about root morphemes as the English or Ukrainian words fund фонд, gas ґаз, lord лорд, ohm ом, park парк, pound фунт, smog смоґ and many others.

These morphemes are conveyed with the help of the translator's transcription (i.e. either transliterated or transcribed) sometimes, through, the combination of boh these methods may be and is employed.

Among the most often occurring international affixes in English

128

 

and Ukrainian are the following:

I. Prefixes: апІі-/анти-, ех-/екс-, inter-Днтер-, tгапs-/транс-, ul-

Іга-/ультра-; as in antibody антитіло, export (v. експортувати,

international інтернаціональний, transmission трансмісія,

ultraviolet ультрафіолетовий.

II. Suffixes: -ar/-ap, -er/-ep, -ізt/-ист/-іст, -ззіоп/-сія, -йоп/-ція,

etc. as in quasar/квазар, actor/актор, volunteer/волонтер,

humanist/гуманіст, constitution/конституція, agression/

агресія, humorist/гуморисі, etc.

III. Inflexions: -ит/-ум, (memorandum меморандум). -us/-yc, (ra

dius радіус), -а/-а (formula формула), etc.

The lexicon of each developed language comprises a very large layer of foreign by origin words, word-groups/phrases and even a small number of sentences. These lexical and syntactic level units have been acquired by the borrowing languages to designate notions hitherto unknown in them. The bulk of these borrowed morphemes, lexemes and syntaxymes are found in many languages of a culturally, historically, and often geographically common area as Europe, the Middle East or the Far East. They are used to designate notions belonging to different domains of human knowledge or activity.

Hence, there is distinguished: a) the social and political terminology comprising the most commonly used political, economic, philosophical, historical, sociological units of lexicon (audit, bank, constitution, parliament, party, president, barter, sophism, etc.). Here also belong terms designating international law, diplomacy, numerous literary terms (cf. drama, poet, metaphor, epithet, hyperbole, etc.); b) natural history/sciences terminology (physics, mathematics, genetics, chemistry) used not only in special but also in scientific and popular works and in mass media (chemical/physical reaction, genes, pneumonia, etc.); c) numerous technical terms (names of machines and their parts: motor, carter, starter, accelerator, battery), as well as names of different means of transport (bus, metro, taxi) and communication (fax, telegraph, telex, radio, e-mail), etc.

These and other words and phrases of the kind are referred to as internationalisms, or more precisely genuine internationalisms. The latter never considerably change their lingual (orthographic or sounding) form nor their internationally established meaning. (Cf.: motor мотор, audit аудит, therapeutic терапевтичний).

The main characteristic feature of genuine internationalisms, whether single words or words-combinations, is their semantic singularity. It means that their lexical identity and orthographic similarity

129

 

in the source language and in all target languages remains unchanged both at language level (when taken separate) and at speech level, i.e., when used in texts/speech.

Apart from many thousands of genuine international words and word-combinations, which retain in several languages an identical or similar lingual form and identical meaning, there exists one more group of international lexis called translation loan units of lexicon. These have also a generally common structural form (of word, word-combination) but rarely a similarity in their orthographic form or sounding. Loan internationalisms are mostly different terms designating scientific and technological notions, in the main: brake гальмо, citric add лимонна кислота', lead oxide окис свинцю; specific gravity питома вага; surplus value додана вартість; nonconducting непровідність; agreement узгодження; government керування, juxtaposition прилягання (gram.), etc.

Along with these two groups of word internationalisms there also exist many stable international phraseological/idiomatic expressions in each language's lexicon. Their fund is constituted by the so-called absolute and near equivalents having a common language of origin - Greek, Latin or modern. Absolute and near international equivalents of this subgroup retain in different languages of a geographical area the same (or nearly the same) denotative and connotative meaning, the same expressive force and picturesqueness: Heel of Achilles ахіллесова п'ята; sword of Damocles дамоклів меч; to cross/pass the Rubicon перейти Рубікон; the die is cast жереб кинуто; after us the deluge після нас хоч потоп; the fair sex прекрасна стать; tilt at windmills «воювати з вітряками» («донкіхотствувати»); the tree of knowledge дерево пізнання, etc.

The use of international idioms is restricted in all languages to belles-lettres, partly to social and political texts and to conversational speech style. These idioms are also occasionally used in didactic style and are practically not used in scientific and technical matter texts.

A separate subgroup of genuine internationalisms constitute proverbs, sayings and set expressions which are used in their foreign/original lingual form (they are predominantly of Latin, French, English, German origin). Due to centuries long usage they have become regular mots often referred to as barbarisms: sine qua non неодмінна умова; status in statu держава у державі; repetitio est mater studiorum (Lat.) повторення - мати навчання; sotto voce

130

 

тихо (впівголоса); finita la commedia (Ital.) настав кінець, крах (справі кінець); da ist der Hund begraben! (Germ.) ось де собака закопаний! O.K., all right (Engl.) усе гаразд; c'est la vie (Fr.) таке життя.

The number of these idiomatic/stable word-combinations unlike the fund of genuine internationalisms and translation loans remains practically unchanged. That is mainly because idioms/phraseological expressions penetrate into different languages through scholastic, literary and cultural channels, as a rule. This may be conditioned by some extralingual factors, which may facilitate in some important political situations their spontaneous appearance and penetration into several languages during a short period of time. For the last half a century there have appeared few stable expressions of this kind, e.g.: «the fifth column» (1936, Spain), «Iron Curtain» (1947), «peaceful coexistence» (1950's), «cold war» (1946, USA), «permissive society» (1967, Gr. Br.) and a few others.

The structural form of international idioms in most languages is identical or similar. The occasional absence of identity in their structural form is explained by the divergences in the grammatical systems and forms of expression in the source language and in the target language (cf. the heel of Achilles/Achilles' heel ахіллесова п'ята, the Pillars of Hercules/Hercules' Pillars (Herculean Pillars) геркулесові стовпи or стовпи Геркулеса).

Identification of International Lexicon Units

As has been noted, the units of genuine international lexicon are identified on the basis of their common in different languages lexical meaning and identical or only similar lingual form. Loan internationalisms, on the other hand, are identified mainly on the basis of their common sphere of use, their lexical meaning, functional significance and party - structural form.

The identification of genuine or loan internationalisms presents no difficulty so far as the monosemantic language units are concerned. That is explained by the terminological nature of the signs, which are used to signify social, political, scientific, technological, cultural and other notions (cf. parliament, theatre, theory, poet, arithmetic, artillery, botany, phoneme, suffix, theorem, proton, volt, decimal fractions, space probe, management, motor, computer, internet, electricity, etc.). These and many other internationalisms are monosemantic words or word-combinations.which constitute a peculiar layer of lexicon in quite different languages. They are characterized by a similarity of their lexical meaning, by an identity or similarity

131

 

in their orphographic and sounding form, by their denotative meaning and sometimes by their motivation. The meaning of these and a lot of other international words and phrases/word-groups of the kind does not change in any other contextual environment. Consequently, their nature is constantly monolithic.

The identification of the international meaning of some lexemes becomes much more difficult, however, when dealing with polysemantic language signs, which are a common feature in present-day English but less common in Ukrainian. That is because in English a lot of lexemes may often have one and the same lingual form for several notions, which is shown below in the vectorial representation of meanings pertained to the noun conductor:

 

Conductor

 

кондуктор

провідник

провід

громовідвід

диригент

керівник1

 

genuine internationalism international loan word international loan word international loan word pseudo-internationalism pseudo-internationalism

 

As can be seen, only one out of six lexemes above has a common lingual form and meaning in English and Ukrainian («кондуктор»). The same vectorial disposition of denotative meanings can be observed in several other polysemantic English words of the kind. Hence, in order to avoid mistakes in translation, one must carefully study the contextual environment of such and the like language signs. Though sometimes the corresponding vectorial meanings of polysemantic words can be identified already at word-combination level. Cf.: a fit of depression/depression fit приступ/припадок депресії: depression of trade занепад/застій у торгівлі; the structure of the sentence структура речення; a multi-storied structure багатоповерхова споруда (будова/будівля).

Naturally, not every adjunct (identifying word or word-group) forming a word-combination with a polysemantic word, can discriminate the real nature and meaning of the lexeme. Because of this care should be taken when translating such polysemantic words, which may have under the same lingual form either a genuine or a

1 An illustration of this pseudo-international meaning of the noun conductor can be seen in the following excerpt from The Economist journal (February 28, 1998): A spectacular example of Oxford Health Plans once fastest-growing HMO in America. The conductor Stephen Wiggins was forced to resign as chairman on February 24th.

132

 

pseudo-international, e.i., common, non-international meaning, the latter being realized in a definite context only. A few more examples of such words may be useful:

 

dramatic

industry

 

 

{

художній мистецький артистичний

театральний драматичний

хвилюючий яскравий раптовий непередбачений

індустрія

промисловість галузь промисловості старанність працьовитість

 

 

Civil

громадський цивільний

ввічливий чемний

практичний

Practical

доцільний фактичний

революція переворот

Revolution < оберт (навколо осі)  сівозміна (с/г)  кругообіг

 

Apart from the polysemantic words with several meanings, one of which is genuine international and the rest pseudo-international, i.e., non-international as in the examples above, there are also quite a few words in present-day English and Ukrainian which have an identical orthographic form but quite different lexical meaning: accu-rate точний, правильний, влучний but not акуратний: billet ордер на постій, приміщення для постою but not квиток; compositor складач (друк.) but not композитор; data дані but not дата; decade десятиріччя but not декада; decoration нагорода, прикраса but not декорація; Dutch голландський but not данський: fabulist байкар, вигадник but not фабуліст; intelligence розум, кмітливість but not інтелігенція: momentous важливий but not моментальний; matrass колба but not матрац (mattress): obligation зобов'язання but not облігація; potassium калій but not поташ; prospect перспектива but not проспект; production виробництво, випуск but not only продукція: replica точна копія but not репліка; spectre привид but not спектр, etc.

As can be ascertained, these English words quite accidentally coincide in their lingual form with some other borrowed words in Ukrainian. Thus, «replica», for example, has quite a different denotative meaning in Ukrainian than our репліка (cue, remark). So is the deno-

133

 

tative meaning of many other words, whose number by far exceeds that on the above-given list. These and the like pseudo-international words are often referred to as «false friends of the translator» (удавані друзі перекладача).

Unlike common lexical units, whose orthographic and sounding forms never coincide in the target language and in the source language, the lingual form of genuine international lexemes in all languages is always either identical or similar. It does not mean that the structural form of genuine internationalisms is necessarily always transplanted to the target language as it is observed in simple lexemes like drama, poet, opera, suffix, lord, kimono, sari, kiwi, motor, proton (драма, поет, опера, суфікс, лорд, кімоно, сарі, etc.).

More often the same genuine international lexemes in English and Ukrainian may have a different morphological structure. In Ukrainian they usually take derivational and often also inflexional affixes which is rarely observed in present-day English. As a result, most of genuine international words in Ukrainian are structurally more complicated than in English (cf. apathy-апат/я, dietic-дієтичний, form -форма, exploit - експлуатувати, economic-економічний), etc.

Some genuine international words, however, may be structurally more complicated in English than in Ukrainian: Cf.: Greek: analysis аналіз, diagnosis діагноз, sclerosis склероз, academician академік, geographer географ, mathematician математик, philosopher філософ, geologist геолог; Latin: appendicitis апендицит, tuberculosis туберкульоз, rheumatismus ревматизм, etc.

Hence, the structural models according to which different logico-grammatical classes of internationalisms are adopted in English and in Ukrainian mostly differ. On this ground relevant for the identification, as well as for the translation of any international word, remains its root morpheme, i.e., its sense bearing seme. Taking this into account, lexemes like anti-trade, arch-enemy, inventor consisting of international affixes and having common root morphemes are to be treated as non-internationalisms, i.e., as pseudo-internationalisms. The international nature/status of a source language lexeme is considered to be fully retained, when the root morpheme or at least the sense and lingual form (part of it) can be rendered in the target language. Consequently, the compounds consisting of a genuine international and a common root morpheme as school-male, coal-gas, washing-тасш'пе. etc. are to be defined in English as partly international, i.e., mixed-type lexical units. Similarly in Ukrainian: Газосховище, радіохвилі, водно-спиртовий.

134

 

WAYS OF CONVEYING THE LEXICAL MEANING OF GENUINE INTERNATIONALISMS

From what has been pointed out concerning the nature and componental structure of genuine internationalisms becomes clear, that a faithful rendering of their lexical meaning often requires considerable attention on the part of translators. At any rate, in the process of their translation several factors have to be taken into consideration both at language level and at speech level. These factors imply the lingual form, the lexical meaning, the structure, the source of origin and the orthographic presentation of internationalisms in both the languages. As a result, expresing of meaning of some internationalisms may not always be termed «translation» proper since it is a regular and complete transplantation of the source language units to the target language (cf. atom атом, plan план, professor професор, algebra алґебра, poetnoem, etc). Besides, translating of international lexemes may sometimes depend on the established model stereotype according to which they are generally adopted in the target language. Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of international lexemes, several ways of conveying their meaning can be suggested.

1. Literal Translating of Genuine Internationalisms. It should be pointed out that the lingual form of all componental parts in genuine international words and phrases is more often completely transplanted, when they originate from languages, whose orthographic systems have been arranged on phonetical principles. Hence, the authenticity of literal translating from languages as Latin, Greek, Italian, Ukrainian, partly Russian and Spanish will be always higher than that from the English or French languages, whose orthographic systems are based on the historical and etymological principles. It does not mean, however, that a less exact literal transplantation should be regarded as less faithful or inferior. Any of them is faithful enough when it conveys the form and meaning of internationalisms. In this view literal translating of genuine internationalisms should not be regarded as a mechanical substitution of each letter of the source language lexeme for a corresponding letter of the target language. In many a case a letter may be dropped or added (substituted for another) in the target language when it is not in full conformity with its sound or spelling systems. Nevertheless, there are many letter-to-letter transliterated genuine internationalisms in English and Ukrainian. Latin: angina анґіна, dentist дентист, symposium симпозіум,

135

 

gladiator гладіатор, microscope мікроскоп, rector ректор; Greek: poet поет, micron мікрон, electron електрон, stadium стадіон, drama драма, theatre театр; Italian: macaroni макарони, pizza піцца, concerto концерт, duet дует, solo соло; Spanish: armada армада, tango танґ'о, El Dorado ельдорадо, embargo ембарго, etc.

It would be wrong to assume that genuine internationalisms from other than the above-mentioned languages can not be fully or almost fully transliterated. Literal translating can faithfully convey the lexical meaning of many English, French, German and also other than European by origin lexemes: English: bulldog бульдог1, club клуб, mister містер, shelf шельф, shilling шилінґ, shrapnel шрапнель; French: chef шеф, festival фестиваль, chiffon шифон, franc франк; Germ.: Diktat диктат, Deutsche Mark дойч марк; Portugese: cobra кобра, flamingo фламінго; Czech: robot робот; Hindi: brahmin брамін, khaki хакі, sari сарі; Japanese: kimono кімоно, tsunami цунамі; Arabic: algebra алгебра, atlas атлас, harem гарем; African: banana банан, baobab баобаб, zebra зебра; Australian aboriginal: dingo дінго, kiwi ківі, etc.

Literal translation of some of these and other genuine internationalisms may not be fully trusted, perhaps, as it has been performed not directly from the original languages but through English, which is an intermediary language here. The existence of literal forms of genuine internationalisms from these languages, however, is beyond any doubt like those from Ukrainian (cf. steppe, Cos-sack/Kozak, hryvnia); or Russian (balalaika, samovar, vodka, etc.). Nevertheless, in many genuine internationalisms there is no absolute literal/orthographic coincidence in the source language and in the target language: basin басейн, monsoon мусон, waltz вальс, wine вино, salt сіль, степ steppe, devil диявол, muscle мускул, etc.

These divergences in the literal rendering are to be explained either by the influence of the intermediary languages or by the peculiarity of the target language admitting or not admitting the source language orthographic representation (cf. brahmin брамін, class клас, diet дієта, molecule молекула, etc.) or foreign signs by the target language.

2. Translating via Transcribing/Conveying the Sounding Structure

Many genuine internationalisms are also faithfully rendered into the target language in their sounding form. This kind of translating provides the rendition of the lexical meaning of a lot of internationalisms originating from English, French and some other languages, which have

136

 

their orthographic systems based on other than phonetical principles. Cf.: English: boom бум, box бокс, yeans джинси, knock-out нокаут, leader лідер, га/с/рейд, round раунд, frac/стрек; French: boulevard бульвар, bouquet букет, bourgeoisie буржуазія, bureau бюро, drape драп, prize приз, pince-nez пенсне, etc.

The English and French international lexemes above belong to the lexico-grammatical class of nouns. But the number of genuine internationalisms, whose lexical meaning is faithfully conveyed in their unchanged original lingual form is small. More units of the layer of lexicon in English and Ukrainian do not fully coincide in their orthographic, sounding and morphological (structural) form. This is to be explained by the differences in the phonetic and morphological systems of the two languages and also by the possible influence of a third language as an intermediary between the source/target language and the language from which the international lexeme originates. To render faithfully the denotative meaning and the lingual form of these genuine internationalisms other ways of translating are to be employed.

3. Translating by Practical Transcribing

International morphemes and lexemes are adopted in all languages according to the historically established traditions of their own. These find their expression in stereotype models for each lexico-grammatical class of words. As a result, any international word, whatever the language of its origin and irrespective of the source language, from which it is translated, will have one and the same lingual and structural form in the target language. Thus, whether it is bankruptcy in English, bankerott in German, banqueroute in French or bancarotta in Italian, it will always remain «банкрутство» in Ukrainian. Hence, only some degree of likeness is retained between the lingual form of bankruptcy and its Ukrainian equivalent «банкрутство». The adopted word has obtained in the target language an orthographic, sounding and morphological/structural form, which is only similar to that of English, French, German, or Italian. This kind of adopting internationalisms is traditionally called «practical transcribing» or translator's transcription.

Hense, some internationalisms may retain still less similarity/ likeness in their lingual form when they are translated from English into Ukrainian: bacne/огбакалавр, cocoa какао, crown корона/крона, dance танець, giant пїант, grade градус, nocus-росизфокус, mother-of-pearl перламутр, mosque мечеть, о/У олія, outpost аванпост, papa/папський, pound фунт (from German Pfund), etc.

137

 

The number of internationalisms making up this group is comparatively small in the two contrasted languages. The bulk of international lexemes, when conveyed by way of practical transcribing, still retain a considerable degree of lingual and structural similarity in the two languages. These are first of all nouns of Greek and Latin origin and also some adjectives, adverbs and verbs. They may often differ considerably in their morphological structure, mostly taking additional affixal morphemes in Ukrainian: ambition амбіція, apathy апатія, condenser конденсатщ, devil диявол, diplomacy дипломатія, hierarchy ієрархія, lecturer лектор., vegetarian вегетаріанський, condense конденсувати, criticize критикувати, stabilize стабілізувати, seriously серйозно, economic економічніш, etc.

Translating of genuine and mixed-type international compounds is performed on the basis of and in accordance with the lingual form and structure of their componental parts. As a result, English international compounds can be rendered in the following ways:

a) with the help of corresponding compounds having the same

international root morphemes as in the source language: electro-

biology електробіологія, f/Vm-acfor кіноактор, gas-meter газометр,

motor-cyclist мотоцикліст, radio-active радіоактивний, six-footer

шестифутовий, etc.

b) by word-combinations consisting of the same componental

parts as in the international English compound words but of different

than in the source language morphological structure and nature of a

componental part of speech: dance-music (N+N) танцювальна (adj.)

музика, gas-collector газовий (а.) колектор, nerve-centre нервовий

(а.) центр, olive-coloured оливкового (а.) кольору, police-station

поліційне (а.) відділення, radio-active element радіоактивний (а.)

елемент, telegraph-line телеграфна (а.) лінія, etc. Thus, only ra

dio-active and радіоактивний are adjectives in both languages.

Mixed-type compounds consisting of international and common Ukrainian root morphemes are translated in accordance with their complex nature. Their equivalents in Ukrainian, however, may be both compound words and word-combinations consisting of international and non-international (as in the original) component parts (or even simple words): gas-mask протигаз, taxi-cab таксі, river-basin басейн річки, toilet-table туалетний столик, torpedo-boat торпедний катер, turning-point поворотний пункт, etc.

4. Descriptive Translating of International Lexemes Many genuine international lexemes are semantically condensed and can be translated into the target language only in a de-

138

 

scriptive way. Depending on the nature of the lexemes, their translation may have two somewhat different realizations:

a) the lingual form of the source language lexeme/s can be

retained as the main lexeme/s of the target language word-combina

tion/sentence: civilizable той (та.те), що піддається цивілізуванню/

цивілізації; classifiable той (та,те), що піддається класифікації;

barony 1 .володіння барона; 2.титул барона; energize викликати

(збуджувати) енергію; examinee той, що екзаменується/складає

іспит; golf-club 1. клуб гравців з ґольфу; 2. ключка для гри в ґольф;

b) the lingual form of the internationalism is not or can not be

retained in the target language. It happens when the internationalism

has not been adopted yet by the target language. Thus, the noun epi

logue is a genuine internationalism in many European languages but

the adjective epilogic derived from it, though semantically quite pellu

cid, is unknown in Ukrainian. Besides, some internationalisms can be

substituted in the process of translation with the aim of achieving ex

pressiveness (for the reasons of style) or for the sake of explaining

their denotative meaning:    deputize (v)   виступати  (бути

представником) від когось; epilogic заключний, кінцевий; park (park

ing) ставити машину на стоянку; percenter лихвар («процентник»);

twopenny нікчемний/копійчаний (вартий двох пенні).

5. Translating by Way of Synonymous Substitution An international lexeme of the target language can be often substituted in the process of translation for another international lexeme of synonymous or close to it (or of the same) meaning. The substitutions are mostly performed in larger context, though sometimes they may also be carried out at language level. This kind of substitution becomes possible due to the existence in the target language of internationalisms borrowed by it at different previous historical periods. Such international lexemes are of the same logico-grammatical/ lexico-grammatical class. The faithfulness of translation achieved through this kind of synonymous substitutions may be usually established in a text only, though it may partly be traced at the word-group level as well. This can be seen from the following examples: athletics гімнастика and not атлетика, diagram схема and not діаграма, phase період and not фаза, fashion paper журнал мод and not журнал фасонів, base фундамент and not база, committee комісія and not комітет, gangster бандит and not ґанґстер, standard еталон and not стандарт; ангар garage and not hanger, бульвар avenue and not boulevard, графік plan/diagram and not graph, естрада variety and not estrade, party line політичний курс and not партійна лінія, national

139

 

есопотународне господарство and not національна економіка. The use of such and the like forms of internationalisms is always predetermined, naturally, only by context.

Translating of Loan Internationalisms

Forming a common fund of lexicon in different languages of a geographical area, the loan units usually retain an identical/similar surface structure, i.e., form of a word, word-combination or sentence. Like genuine internationalisms, they are constantly appearing in different languages as a result of unceasing progress in various domains of science, technology and culture. A great many of international loans have long become an integral part of each language's lexicon. Despite all that, they preserve in each national language the unity of their componental parts, i.e., their structural peculiarly, an absolutely identical notional meaning and a common sphere of functioning: loud-speaker: Germ. Lautsprecher, Ital. altoparlante, Ukr. гучномовець, Russ. громкоговоритель; steam-engine: Germ. Dampfmaschine, Ital. macchina a vapore, Ukr. парова машина, Russ. паровая машина; long/short waves (radio), Germ, lange/kurze Wellen, Ital. onde lunge/corte, Ukr. довгі/короткі хвилі, Russ. длинньїе/короткие волньї, etc.

A bulk of international loan words and expressions are used to designate various grammatical, lexicological, stylistic and other notions. Depending on their nature, as well as on their denotative meaning and their sphere of functioning, international loan units can be rendered into Ukrainian in one of the following three ways:

a) by direct translation of the componental parts without changing considerably their structural form cf.: coefficient of efficiency коефіцієнт корисної дії, conjugation/declension дієвідмінювання/ відмінювання (слів); genitive/dative case родовий/давальний відмінок; personal/possessive pronouns особові/присвійні займенники; prepositional government прийменникове керування; compound nominal predicate складений іменний присудок; literal/ verbal translation буквальний/дослівний переклад, etc.

Note. It is worth mentioning that some Ukrainian or Russian loan internationalisms may be genuine internationalisms in other languages and vice versa. Thus, підмет, присудок and other parts of the sentence are genuine internationalisms in English, German, Italian and in some other West European languages. Cf.: the subject, the predicate, the object; German: der Subjekt, das Pradicat, das

140

 

Objekt; Italian: il soggetto, il predicate, etc. Consequently, these and other loan internationalisms are practically rendered only with the help of the phonological level units, i.e., they are transcribed or transliterated in these three languages.

b) with the help of componental translation and some replace

ments, omissions or substitutions arising from the national peculiari

ties of the target language, i.e, depending on its stylistic mode of

usage. Thus, the equivalent of the English set expression foreign

trade is not іноземна торгівля but зовнішня торгівля, and living

standardis not життєвий стандарт but життєвийр/вень. Similarly

in other cases with single loan internationalisms. Cf.: homogeneous

parts of the sentence однорідні члени речення but not частини

речення; structure of matter is будова матерії but not структура

матерії, national anthem is державний гімн but not національний

гімн. Similarly with national serviceman військовослужбовець а не

національний службовець and parts of speech are частини мови,

but not члени мови.

c) with the help of descriptive translation as in the examples

like: digital computer цифрова обчислювальна машина; compound/

complex sentence складносурядне/складнопідрядне речення; in

volution (math.) піднесення до ступеня; pluralia tantum іменники,

що вживаються тільки в множині; singularia tantum іменники, що

вживаються тільки в однині; evolution (mathem.) винесення з-під

радикала (витягнення кореня), common fraction (mathem.) простий

дріб.

Suggested Topics for Self-Testing and Class Discussion

1. Types and kinds of genuine internationalisms as to their

form/structure and lexical meaning in English and Ukrainian.

2. The main way of distinguishing between the genuine

internationalisms and loan internationalisms.

3. The lingual form (expression) and meaning of some words

being the genuine internationalisms in one contextual environment

and pseudo-internationalisms (non-internationalisms) in some other

environment.

4. Express your point of view on the term and notion of «par

tial» or «half-internationalism». Use some examples from Exercise

III below to justify or reject the use of the suggested term.

5. Expand on the ways of translation of the genuine

141

 

internationalisms and exemplify: a) the method of their transliteration only; b) the method of their transcription only; c) the method of their transliteration and partial transcription or vice versa (as in compound words); d) the method of the translator's transcription; e) the descriptive method. Use the exercises below to illustrate the above-mentioned methods of conveying the meanings of internationalisms.

6. Identify and exemplify the pseudo-internationalisms referred

to as «the false friends of the translator». Use the exercises on the

forthcoming pages for the purpose.

7. Name the main criterion of distinguishing the genuine

internationalisms from loan internationalisms. Exemplify the latter

on simple lexemes/words and lexico-syntactic units (word-groups)

from different domains of social sciences.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. State whether the words below are genuine or pseudo-international. Substantiate your judgements:

adressee, adequate, admiral, algebraic, allergy, Alpine, annulment, archive, bamboo, botanist, bronchitis, capillary, cockatoo, cybernetics, dissymetric, ellipsis, epochal, evacuee, fantasia, geometer, hierarchical, hypotaxis, iambus, inductor, lectureship, morphemic, morphologist, non-metal, parallelepiped, parataxis, professorate, quixotry, reduction, rhematic, sable, scenery, sonorant, stereometry, subcommittee, sublieutenant, substantival (gram.), synthetic, systemic (gram.), technologist, utilize, vacuum, voltameter, waffle, zinc, xylonite.

Exercise II. Identify the genuine international and the pseudo-international (non-international) meanings in the following lexemes:

accumulator, accuracy, ambition, analyst, autocrat, balance, barbarity, buffet; calendar, civil, code, colours, co-ordination; damask, desperation, diminutive, dramatic, dynamic; effective, elementary, expedition; faction, fiction, film, figure, front; gentleman; harmonious, humanity, hypothetical; imitation, instrument; juridical; liberal, locomotive; marshal, medicine, minister; nation, natural; objective, officer, original; pamphlet, paragraph, petition, press, pygmy; racing, record, revolution; scene, storm; tank, tattooing, terror, twist; vector, vulgar; wag(g)on; zodiacal; frigit zone.

Exercise III. Translate the following English compounds. Point out which of their lexical equivalents in Ukrainian are com-

142

 

pound/simple words or word-combinations and which are partially/fully international or pseudo-international:

a) air-mechanic, administer, arch (n), barman-club-law, cof

fee-bean, dessert-knife, gas-main, lieutenant-colonel, mine-layer,

motiveless, paper-cutter, phrase-book, soda-fountain, soda-water,

submachine-gun, sugar-cane, tiger's-eye, cane-sugar, motoring,

mythicize, narcotism, number, orchestric;

b) day-school, field-hospital, fire-bomb, fire-brigade, fish-tor

pedo, hand-grenade, opium-eater, horsemaster, seeding-machine,

stamp-album, steam-turbine, stock-farm, telegenic, teleshow, talk

ing-film, tape-machine, travel-bureau, washing-machine, zenith-dis

tance;

c) boxing-match, consul-general, electro-dynamic, figure-art

ist, flag-captain, grammar-school, office-copy, orange-coloured, palm-

oil, party-club, press-corrector, press-box, radio-controlled, station-

master, sugar-refinery, tram-line, yacht-club.

Exercise IV. Translate the words and word-groups below into Ukrainian and identify which of them are genuine international or loan international, and which pseudo-international.

1. conjugation, co-ordination, subordination, the indicative (imperative, subjunctive) mood, syllabification (phonet.), proof-reader, spelling-book, versification; 2. The law of gravitation, the theory of relativity; addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, decimal fractions, equations, identity, root extraction (math.); 3. decontamination, engineering, hothouse effect, myopia, piston, storage-battery, traffic rules, welding; 4. horse power, income tax, black soil, land improvement, cereals, legumes; 5. growth rate, latitude, longitude, mass media, national economy, precipitation, weather forecast; 6. decathlon, pentathlon, fencing, penalty area, penalty kick, snow boarding, wrestling (sport); weightlessness, purification, traffic-light.

Exercise V. Translate the English words and word-groups below into Ukrainian. Point out which of them are loan internationalisms and which - pseudo-internationalisms (non-internationalisms):

a) abacus, actual, conductivity, corner-stone, copyright, decontaminate, equilibrium, ever-frost, refrigerator, hypersonic, ignition, jet-fighter, non-conductor, gymnasium, quadrilateral, ropedancer, sabre-rattling, second-class, self-preservation, shock-worker, self-defence, sleeping-bag, smoke-screen, smoking-carriage, sparking-plug, standard-bearer, subtitle, summarise, summation, superconductivity, supernatural, supersonic, superstructure, syndetic, thermostable,

143

 

thrashing-machine, tightrope-dancer, toolroom, turn-screw; argument, billet, bombard, buffet, brilliance, complexion, cream, cymbals, dispute, electric eye, ferment (v), genii, gastronome/r, implicitly, intelligence, liquor, locomotion, nocturnal, observation, occupant, officiant, partywall, replica, satin, satirize, technology, tripartite, unintelligible, zero-gravity, diesel locomotive, alternative current, .direct current, ionic rectifier, rate of exchange.

Exercise VI. Render the meaning of the English simple/ compound words below by substituting where possible the international lexemes for their synonymous international components in Ukrainian:

Model: jazz-band джаз(овий) оркестр, phrase-book словник ідіом.

1. athlete, school practice, cabin, configuration, debate, drawing-paper; 2. fashion-paper, gangster, guerrilla, idol; inch, jumper, lingo, motorist, music-case, music-hall, music-paper, navigation officer, new-fashion, occupational; 3. ration, saboteur, scenery, sound locator, storage-battery, symbol, tank, tank-truck, torpedo-boat, title-holder, training-college, variety, voluntaryism.

Exercise VII. Analyse and translate the international lexemes below. Define the possible ways of translating which help equivalently render the lexical meaning of the following genuine international words:

archaize, barbarize, blitzkrieg, cadet, caravanning, club (v), cocaine, compressible, congressional, corona, demonstrable, diagnose (v), disreputability, doctorate, electrifiable, epigrammatist, examinee, film (v), geologize, golf (v), incontrollable, landscaper, ladyship, lordship, mayoralty, monographer, monologize, navigable, outflank, overproduce, over-active, papery, pension (v), pulse (v), radio (v), robotics, realizable, schoolable, sportsmanship, studentship, syllabicate, teleview (v), uncivilizable, vandalize, verse (v), yacht (v).

Exercise VIII. Suggest corresponding Ukrainian variants for the following English sports terms which are genuine or loan internationalisms:

1. to feel fit; 2. modern pentathlon/decathlon, pantathlete/ decathlete; 3. aquatic sport, diving, sailing, rowing; 4. mountaineering; 5. cycling; 6. wrestling; 7. jumping; 8. tumbling; 9. weightlifting; 10. fencing; 11. skating, ski-jumping; 12. remedial (curative) gymnastics; 13. five-km event, to forge ahead, to move into the lead; 14. to win on points, to set up a record; 15. individual championship; 16. to make public the list of players; 17. track-and-field athletics,

144

 

medium/middle distance race, long-distance race, steeple-chase, relay-race, cross-country race, line-up, marathon race, high/Іоng jump, pole vault, discus/hammer throwing, javelin throwing, shot-put, trial run, running on the curve, joggling, final/speed race; 18. double game/ singles game, to deliver the ball, the right to serve, the toss/to toss, the racket; 19. left back/right back, right half-back/left half-back, outside right/outside left, right centre forward/left centre forward, left-centre back/right-centre back, goalie, to kick/hit the ball, to cheer for some team; 20. throw from running (the ball) at full speed, unhindered shooting, bouncing shot, two-hand overhead throw, a shot in the long/farther corner of the goal, a shooting for goals; 21. breast stroke/butterfly stroke, back stroke, front crawl stroke, to float/to float on back, competitive swimming, indoor/outdoor pool, inhalation/exhalation; 22. horizontal bar, sports gymnastics, callisthenics, tumbling, hoop, club, ribbon, skipping-rope; 23. to dodge the opponent, to keep the puck on the ice, to drop the puck, to work the puck, to pull out the goalie, face-off, to pull the opponent; 24. figure skating, speed skating, long-distance race, sprint, single skating, straight run, run in the curve, free skating, ice-dances; 25. giant slalom, downhill run, ski-jumping, relay race, ski-lift.

Exercise IX.Suggest possible ways of translation into English for each international word and proper name in the passage below.

ХТО ЩО ВИГАДАВ

1. Змивними туалетами користувалися ще за 2 тисячі років до нашої ери жителі острова Кріт. Каструлю-скороварку для швидкого приготування їжі під тиском винайшов француз Дені Папен (1679). Пневматичні шини, на яких їздять усі машини світу, були вперше застосовані для кінних екіпажів ще 1845 року в Англії Робертом Томпсоном. Для велосипеда такі шини вперше використав 1888 року ірландець Джон Данлоп. 2. Ручний фотоапарат веде свою історію від 1888 року, коли його винайшов у США Джордж Істмен (це прізвище залишилось у назві відомої фірми «Істмен-Кодак»), 3. Заслуга винаходу швейної машинки належить американцеві Еліасу Гоу (1846 рік), а не Ісааку Зінгеру, який лише вдосконалив її і пустив у масове виробництво (1851 року). 4. З початком ери електрики на межі нашого й минулого століть з'явилися і вентилятор (винайшов Ш.Вілер, США, 1882), пилосос - Гюберт Буг (Англія, 1891), пральна машина - Елва Фішер (США, 1906), електричний холодильник вперше виготовили

145

 

в Чикаго на фірмі «Домеле» (1913). Замок-блискавку вигадав 1891 року Вільям Джадсон, того ж року Кінґ Джіплет (США) запатентував безпечну бритву. Автором рецепту кока-коли є Джон Пелбертон (США, 1896), а мікрохвильової пічки- Персі Спенсер (1947). Понад 1000 винаходів належить Томасу Алва Едісонові: фонограф (1877), лампа розжарювання, удосконалений телеграф і телефон (1879), перша електростанція (1882) тощо. 5. Німець Ґабріель Фаренгайт вигадав 1714 року ртутний градусник. Норвежець Ерік Ротгаим-автор аерозольного балончика (1926). Відомий французький мандрівник і дослідник Жак-Ів Кусто разом з Емілем Каньяном мають патент на аквалані1 (1943). А таблеткою аспірину ми зобов'язані німецькому вченому Феліксові Гофманові. 6. Українці мають також світові винаходи. Прокопович П.І. придумав рамковий вулик (1828); Засядько О.Д. запровадив бойову порохову ракету (1817), а Кондраткж (Шангей) Ю.В. запропонував багатоступеневу космічну ракету (1929), В.Смакула (1936) - прилад нічного бачення.

TEXTS FOR INDEPENDENT CLASS AND HOME TRANSLATION

Exercise X. Identify the possible ways of faithful conveying the terms and units of international lexicon in the passages below and translate them into Ukrainian.

1.   Macroeconomic Policies

Macroeconomic policy management has a large impact on investor confidence in the reforming country. Economic volatility raises uncertainty for investors, who look for stability and predictability. The basic elements of macroeconomic policy management for effective reform are the following.

Fiscal Policies. An important indicator of prudent fiscal management is a low, predictable rate of inflation. A lack of control over inflation points to macroeconomic and fiscal unbalances. The most extreme manifestation of this problem, hyperinflation, leads to the introduction of shock programs as a basis for stabilization. When countries impose shock programs, recessions often result, posing difficulties for local workers and consumers. By bringing inflation under control, countries establish a necessary precondition for stability and growth. The stabilization programs implemented by the survey countries had this fundamental objective in mind. For example, Argentina endured many bouts of high inflation, followed by wage and price freezes to arrest them. The controls only halted inflation temporarily,

146

 

as the root cause - excessive spending by the public sector - was not addressed. Now that public spending has been brought under control with the Cavallo Plan, Argentine inflation has subsided. Real positive interest rates (i.e., interest rates higher than the rate of inflation) are important in maintaining stability in the balance of payments and are a key element of sound fiscal management.

Appropriate Exchange Rates. Appropriate exchange rate policy adjusts the value of the local currency on a steady, predictable basis, which, again, contributes to economic stability and investor confidence. Countries that experience high rates of inflation typically have overvalued exchange rates, because adjustments in the value of the local currency lag behind the rate of inflation. However, local currencies that are overvalued hurt exports, which are more expensive in international markets compared to the exports from countries with cheaper currencies. Exchange rate reform usually entails a devaluation of the local currency, making the country's export more competitive in terms of price and the country itself more attractive for private investment.

Prices and Wages. As noted earlier, price and wage controls are often used to control inflation. While they may have the desired effect in the short-term, they almost always unravel and end up creating more inflation. When governments repeatedly employ wage and price freezes, consumers and businesses adjust their behavior in anticipation of the next round of controls by hoarding goods, raising wage demands or raising prices, leading to yet higher inflation. In Poland, prices and wages were set by the government for many years under the system of central planning. One of the first steps of the Balcerowicz Plan was to free all wages and prices as of January 1, 1990. This step marked a major event in the Polish transition to a market-oriented economy.

Ukrainian Cosmonaut Aboard Space Shuttle

The historic first flight of a Ukrainian citizen aboard an American spacecraft was a major theme of recent consultation in Kyiv between officials of the Ukrainian National Space Agency (NSAU) and the U.S.space agency NASA.The visit was the fifth by a NASA delegation to Ukraine this year.

In press conference NSAU General Director Oleksandr Nehoda and NASA Deputy Administrator Arnold Nikogosyan outlined the program under which Kadenyuk personally conducted 12 of 16 biology experiments scheduled for the November mission. The experiments focused on the growth and reproduction of cells in space. Kadenyuk's

147

 

objective was to learn more about gravity's effect on life. The results of his work played an important role in the development of space technology, especially for long-term flights.

NEWS ITEMS FOR CLASS TRANSLATION AT SIGHT (IN VIVA VOCE)

Exercise XI. Translate the texts Into Ukrainian. Define the ways of conveying internationalisms and proper names in them. 1. Biometrics: Changing Face of Identity Methods

On a hot summer day recently, Johnny Johnson, a travelling salesman 100 miles from home, stopped at a Texaco station to cash a paycheck because someone here knew his face. Or rather, a certain machine knew his face. Mr. Johnson fed his check into a device that looked like an automated teller machine, and smiled for the pea-sized camera. The device, developed by a check-cashing chain called the Mr. Payroll Corp., compared Mr. Johnson's face with the picture it had on file. They matched and Mr. Johnson was given his cash. This machine is one of a new batch of devices that identify people through various bodily characteristics - faces, hands, fingers, eyes, voices, perhaps even smells - using a range of technologies known as biometrics, or the statistical measurement of biological phenomena. Biometrics has long been the province of spy thrillers and gee-whiz prophecies. But until recently it has rarely been used except to guard, say, the entrance to a nuclear plant or sensitive areas at the Central Intelligence Agency. This raises privacy concerns because these devices collect a lot of personal data. Already, there is a growing backlash against the use of fingerprints when issuing drivers licenses and cashing checks. But biometrics also has real potential to protect against thieves and impostors. One of the fastest growing financial crimes is the theft of identity, with a criminal stealing personal information - like a Social Security number - to tap into someone else's credit or bank account. «You can say that biometrics is inherently personal and therefore inherently violates my privacy,» said Ben Miller, editor of Personal Identification News, a leading trade magazine. «But biometrics can be a phenomenal enhancer of privacy.»

Exercise XII. Translating the texts into English, define the possible ways of conveying internationalisms and proper names in them.

148

 

A. Вік обчислювальної машини

Досі вважалося, що першу обчислювальну машину, яка вміла додавати й віднімати, сконструював 1642 року Блез Паскаль. Ця машина використовувалась у Франції для підрахунку податків. Однак недавно стало відомо, що першу обчислювальну машину побудував 1623 року Вільгельм Шикард, професор математики та астрономії університету міста Тюбінген поблизу Штутгарта. 20 вересня 1623 року (в рік народження Паскаля) Шикард повідомив свого друга Кеплера про створення обчислювальної машини, яку сам автор назвав «Обчислювальним годинником».

Б. 1901 року поблизу Пелопонеського півострова (Греція) на глибині 60 метрів виявлено уламки судна, яке затонуло близько 2000 років тому. Серед цих уламків було знайдено обчислювальну машину, в якій збереглося 20 зубчастих коліщат. Виявлення цієї обчислювальної машини, збудованої в І столітті до н.е., підказує, що дальші сліди обчислювальної машини треба шукати як у грецькій античній культурі, так і в арабській, звідки походить назва 'абак', що означає 'лічильник'.

B. Слова американських індіанців в українській мові

З Америки після відкриття її Христофором Колумбом 1492

року, хоч її, як тепер відомо, не раз відкривали й до того, вивозили не тільки золото. Завезено з Америки (головно іспанцями, які першими колонізували її) також низьку індіанських слів. Серед найбільш уживаних є: томат, шоколад, какао, які в мові мексиканських індіанців звучали так: таматль, чоколатль, какауатль. Дещо забуті нині слова табака (нюхальний тютюн) і табакерка походять від індіанського тобако. Слово ураган на перший погляд може здатися русизмом, але це не так. Воно походить від індіанськогохуракан (також імпортоване іспанцями). Однією з індіанських звичок, яку спостерігали європейці, було жування листя рослини під назвою кока. Звідси слово кокаїн -назва наркотичної речовини. Слова хіна, хінін (відомий засіб проти малярії з кори хінного дерева) походять від індіанського словак/на-'кора'.

Індіанського походження слово кураре - назва рослинної отрути, яка застосовувалась індіанцями для змазування стріл, а тепер використовується в медицині. Від перуанських індіанців запозичене відоме всім слово каучук - цей матеріал одержували з соку особливих рослин. Тваринний світ Америки представлений у нашій мові такими словами індіанського походження: пума,

149

 

яґуар, гагара, кайман, опосум (сумчастий ссавець), (уанако (тварина, схожа на верблюда), іґуана (велика ящірка). Запозичені індіанські назви птахів: кондор - американський гриф, ара - рід папуг, нанду-американський страус, колібрі. Є в українській мові і назви рослин індіанського походження: ананас (від нана), маїс (інша назва кукурудзи), їстівні рослини маніока, ямс. Від індіанців запозичене слово тотем (у перекладі - «його рід») - тварина, рослина, предмет або явище природи, що є релігійним символом роду. З пригодницьких романів нам відомі слова: томагавк -бойова палиця або сокира, пирога - вузький довгий човен, каное - також човен, пампа або пампаси - степ, вігвам - житло на зразок намету, кіпу- вузликове письмо. Як бачимо, наша мова увібрала в себе культурні здобутки багатьох народів і зберігає сліди опосередкованих контактів з багатьма мовами світу.

Г. Новий британський словник англійської мови

Найновіший і найповніший Оксфордський словник англійської мови, що побачив світ весною 1998 року, складається із 22 томів (кожен по одній тисячі сторінок) і важить 62,5 кілограми. Видавництво «Оксфорд Юніверсіті Прес», що засноване ще 1584 року, подає новий словник як свою «найґрунтовнішу» працю. Він містить 616.500 «словоформ», яким дано визначення, а також 2.412.400 цитат, що підказують, як англомовні автори використали ці форми і коли вперше вжили кожне слово.

Звичайно, при такому гігантському обсязі роботи по підготовці словника були використані найсучасніші методи й обладнання. Англійське відділення провідної в світі комп'ютерної фірми «Ай-Бі-Ем» і гігантська ЕОМ із США забезпечили технічні засоби, а науковий відділ обчислювальної техніки університету Ватерлоо в Онтаріо (Канада) допоміг у розробці проґрамного забезпечення. І все одно «перенесення» в пам'ять ЕОМ словникового запасу англійської мови з 1150 року до наших днів зайняло у редакторів Джона Сімпсона і Едмонда Вайнера цілих п'ять років.

Д. Історія виникнення Інтерполу

Хто знає, коли виник би Інтерпол, якби не випадок, що стався з правителем князівства Монако Альбертом І, який увійшов до анналів історії ще й як засновник знаменитого казино в Монте-Карло.

В останні роки свого життя монарх полюбляв посидіти в ігровому залі цього казино, стежачи за охопленими азартом людьми. Одного разу він побачив біля стола з рулеткою молоду

150

 

і вродливу жінку. Вони познайомились, і жінка, яка назвалася німецькою княгинею Софією, повідомила Альберту, що втекла з батьківського дому з коханим, але грошей у них немає, і своє майбутнє вони намагаються забезпечити великим виграшем в рулетку. Спочатку їм щастило, але потім фортуна відвернулась, і гроші знову закінчились. Розчулений цією невеселою розповіддю, монарх вирішив допомогти молодим людям. Його зустрічі з прекрасною німкенею ставали дедалі частішими, а прогулянки в стародавньому парку княжого замку - дедалі довшими. Але повернувшись одного разу після такої прогулянки, Альберт побачив, що його сейф з грішми і коштовностями відчинений і зовсім випотрошений. Зникла і чарівна Софія із своїм коханим.

Наступне поліцейське розслідування показало, що довірливий князь став жертвою міжнародного злочинного угрупування. Дуже розсердившись, старий монарх почав енергійно домагатися, щоб кримінальні служби різних країн об'єднали свої зусилля. Незабаром відбулася перша конференція поліцейських детективів європейських країн, а потім, 1923 року, виник і Інтерпол.

Е. Нові окуляри

Світове визнання здобули реабілітаційні окуляри, сконструйовані завідуючим кафедрою психіатрії Луганського медінституту, доктором медичних наук А.П. Чуприковим. Вони удостоєні диплома Міжнародної виставки винаходів і нових технологій у галузі медицини, що проходила в Женеві. Окуляри створюють кольорофотостимуляцію сітківки ока, а через неї заспокійливо діють на обидві півкулі головного мозку. Полегшуючи тим самим стан хворого, ці процедури з метою підняття настрою і здобуття душевної рівноваги після стресів, можуть приймати і здорові люди. Особливо корисні окуляри тим, чия діяльність пов'язана з великим емоційним напруженням.

UNITS OF NATIONALLY BIASED LEXICON AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

Each nation in the course of its historical development acquires a great number of features characteristic of the nation only and not pertained to any other, even to a genealogically related nation. The distinguishing features find their reflection in different aspects of material and spiritual life and are materialized in separate

151

UNITS OF NATIONALLY BIASED LEXICON AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

Each nation in the course of its historical development acquires a great number of features characteristic of the nation only and not pertained to any other, even to a genealogically related nation. The distinguishing features find their reflection in different aspects of material and spiritual life and are materialized in separate

151words and word-groups designating national customs, traditions, folk rites and feasts, administrative or political systems, etc. They may also designate peculiar geographical, geological or environmental conditions of a nation's life. No less peculiar may also be the cultural or religious traditions of a nation often expressed through certain proper names or names of saints(cf. Ukrainian Івана Купала, Маковія, or Ireland's St. Patrick, Scottish tartan, American Uncle Sam or the British John Bull, the British Lion).

Culturally biased, i.e., nationally specific are often elements in a governmental or election systems of a country (cf. the administration, secretaries and undersecretaries or primary elections in the

U.S.A.).

The monetary systems in most countries contain some nationally peculiar units as well (cf. shilling, penny, rouble, dollar, hryvnia). Culturally biased are mostly the titles of address and the ways of conduct, and, at last but not at least, some articles of clothing / footware (cf. the Scottish kilt, tartan, the Ukrainian вишиванка, кептар or the American Indians' moccasins).

Most peculiar are always national meals, beverages and even partaking of food, established as a result of a nation's agricultural traditions and consumption of peculiar products. The nationally biased notions as non-equivalent units of lexicon are also observed in some national systems of weights and measures (cf. English mile, ounce, Ukrainian верства, пуд). All in all, these notions are found in all languages, for example, in English: county, borough, butterscotch, custard, muffin, toffee, bushel, chain, furlong, inch, mile, pint, penny, shilling, pound, lady, mister, sir; lobby, speaker, teller (Parliament), Lord Chancellor, Number 10 Downing Street, Whitehall, etc. Ukrainian: кобзар, веснянка, коломийка, козак, запорожець, кептар, копа (яєць), пуд, січ, свитка, хата, лежанка, весільний батько, троїсті музики, вечорниці, борщ, вареники, галушки, кутя, медок, ряжанка, опришок, плахта, гривня; Russian: тройка, квас, щі, самовар, колхоз, совет (советский), спутник, Дума. The penetration of a nation's culturally biased specific notions into other national languages is realized in different historical periods through various channels and in most different conditions. The latter include first of all trade contacts in the process of which many notions are borrowed as designators for produce which they signify. The designators may be regular labels (or trade marks) like bacon, champagne, jam, jeans, Coca-Cola, corn-flakes, macaroni, vodka, spaghetti, sweater, tweed, whisky, pizza, etc.

Some other peculiar national notions /culturally biased notions can penetrate into the target language in the process of traditional bilateral economic and cultural contacts which may be maintained at different levels. The contacts in their turn may as well be multilateral which often facilitates an international circulation of some specific national notions pertaining to a certain language (or a number of languages). That was the way in which many a specific national term has become widely known (cf. Cossack/Kozak, steppe, bandoure/ pandore, hopak, polka, waltz, beefsteak, pudding, lunch, etc.).

Still other specific national notions become world-wide known through literary/historic works, through the press or by way of other mass media like the radio or television (cf. oasis, boycott, hryvnia, Labourist, pagoda, barter, management, picket, taboo, Tory, rickshaw, sauna, Soviet, etc.).

These and other specific national terms (and notions) found their way to different languages and in the course of some historical period many of them became internationalisms. Although some nationally specific notions signifying important or historical events or magnificent scientific/technological achievements may spread all over the world almost immediately, as it happened in 1825 with the Decembrists and later on with the Sovietisms like kolkhoz, kulak, collectivization, Gulag, cosmonaut and many others.

Therefore, the more important the specific notion is for a certain nation or the world as a whole and the more often it is used in everyday life of a community, the greater is the chance of its becoming an internationalism.

This is not the fate, however, of the overwhelming majority of other specific national notions in all languages, since the borders of a target language are open at any time only for the most important source language specific national notions. Hence, many specific notions referring to localisms i.e. being of exclusively local nature and circulation, remain within the boundaries of the national languages. They may sometimes be known even to a greater part of the national community. These may be archaic notions like the Ukrainian бунчук, виборний, осаул, тулумбас, сіряк or localisms like кулеша, плачинда, верета, пательня, бануш, etc. Besides, many other rather wide-spread and well-known specific notions within a national community may often be of minor importance for the target language communities, which live under different economic, social, cultural or geographical conditions. Our ordinary reader, for example, would pay little if any attention to the highly specific and unique for

153every Englishman notions like latkes, kedgerel (meals), proctor or whip (Parliament), the Eton and Harrow match, Charring Cross, the East End, or Bloomsbury. These culturally biased names are often mentioned in English fiction, especially in the works by the British authors as Conan Doyle, J.Galsworthy, A.Cronin and others. Hence, the names have to be explained to our readers in the footnotes or in commentaries to the novels, e.g.:

They were off immediately, Автомобіль зразу ж рушив, і without interference, swinging      вони без перешкод поїхали з out of the East End in the             Іст-Енду в напрямку до direction of Bloomsbury               центрального району (A.Cronin)                                    Лондона - Блумзбері.

When the war broke out he had    Коли вибухнула війна, він just left Eton... (J.Galsworthy)       щойно закінчив /тон (середня

школа для привілейованих).

The real meaning of the place names, having so much to say to any Londoner, is scarcely hinted to in the translations above. The East End, however, was and remains the workers' .part of London, whereas Bloomsbury as the central part of it was known during the late 19th - the beginning of the 20th century for the group of poets critical of bourgeois moral and aesthetics. Eton, the private secondary school for well-to-do families in Great Britain, is also well-known in the country, though it may be unfamiliar to our readers. Hence, an additional explanation of the proper names in the target language becomes necessary. Many other culturally biased English and Ukrainian national notions are also to be explicated in this way, e.g.: bingo б/нго   (азартна   гра   типу   лото,   популярна   серед пристаркуватих і одиноких людей, особливо жінок)', gin джин (ялівцева горілка, використовується для приготування коктейлів); mackintosh тканина «макінтош» (водонепроникна); Merseyside Мерсісайд (Ліверпуль з навколишніми містами й поселеннями обабіч гирла р. Мерсі); muesly, (food) «мюзлі» (страва на сніданок із подрібнених пшеничних та інших зерен з сухими фруктами, горіхами, родзинками тощо); пуд pood measure of weight equal to 16,38 kg; рушник rushnyk, embroidered towel used in every folk rite in Ukraine; суботник subotnyk, voluntary unpaid work for the public good in the former USSR on days off (usually on Saturday).

The proper meaning of some other specific national units of lexicon can be rendered without preserving their original lingual form: moonlighter підробітник - той, хто підробляє у вільний час, переважно вечорами (від moonlight місячне світло); teller - 1. уповноважений, що агітує в день виборів на виборничій дільниці голосувати за кандидата своєї партії 2. обліковець голосів в англійському парламенті чи на будь-яких зборах; whip організатор партійної фракції в англійському парламенті.

The meaning of the above-given English and Ukrainian specifically biased national notions has not been conveyed by way of translation proper. They have simply been explained in the target language. Sometimes each or some of the components, making up the unit of specific national lexicon, can also be directly translated. And yet it may turn insufficient for faithful rendering of their sense. Then an explanation of the specific national notion is added: alphabet soup «азбучний суп» (суп з макаронів, що мають форму літер абетки); bilateral school «двобічна школа» (поєднує в собі два типи шкіл: напр., технічну й сучасну середню); the upper sixth старший шостий (випускинй шостий клас у середніх школах Великої Британії}. Many specific national notions, which have to be explicated in English, exist in Ukrainian as well: виховна година educational lesson (on good behaviour and morality of students in school); учнівські правила school regulations/rules of pupils' conduct/behaviour at school; класний журнал register/form register and record book; студком students' committee in Ukrainian higher educational establishments.

Very often, however, it may be difficult for a foreign student to guess the genuine meaning of a specific national unit of lexicon even from the seemingly transparent lexical meaning of its component parts. To avoid misunderstanding or ambiguity a further explication becomes inevitable: Athens of the North Північні Афіни (Едінбурґ); bipartite system двотипова система освіти Великої Британії (передбачає існування шкіл двох типів: класичних і середніх сучасних); cubbing полювання на лисиць (у якому беруть участь початкуючі мисливці й молоді собаки-гончаки); question time день запитань (у палаті громад від 14.45до 15.30 щодня від понеділка по четвер; відповіді дають прем'єр-міністр і міністри); privy purse «приватний гаманець» (асигнування з державного бюджету на утримання монарха Великої Британії).

Not infrequently national specific units of the source language lexicon belonging to the social and political domain can be recognized by the target language speakers due to the existence of partly similar notions in their mother tongue. These kinds of notion are available in English and in Ukrainian as well: new penny/shilling новий пенні/шилінг, the Order of Merit орден «За заслуги»', Scout leader вожатий бойскаутів] медаль «За бойові заслуги» the Medal for Combat Valour; «Орден Ярослава Мудрого» the Order of Yaroslav the Wise; «Орден княгині Ольги» the Order of St. Princess Olha; класний керівник class tutor/form master; табель успішності й поведінки pupil's report/record card; залік з англійської мови an English (language) test; складати залік з чогось to take a test in/ on some subject.

Despite the fact that the referential meaning of such and the like units of specific national lexicon may be either similar or at least closely related in English and Ukrainian (cf. class tutor/form master and класний керівник, залік test), they are still far from identical in their particular meaning. As a result, they can scarcely be substituted for each other in the target language, which points to the notions being nationally biased by their nature.

This is not so with many other notions which only at first sight seem to be different in English and Ukrainian but in reality they are quite similar and can usually be substituted for each other: box (in Christmas box) різдвяний подарунок (cf. новорічний подарунок); Department of Education and Science (Gr.Britain) міністерство освіти (і науки); Department of Industry міністерство промисловості; Department of Energy міністерство енергетики; extension course курси підвищення кваліфікації; extramural education заочне/вечірнє навчання; distant education дистантне навчання.

Apart from these there are a lot more units of lexicon which have generally the same referential meaning in both the languages in question. For example: pancake, financial year, pie and many others can be fully substituted at language level for Ukrainian млинець/ оладок, фінансовий рік, пиріг, etc. The difference between the notions in the two language is confined to some insignificant details. Thus, the financial year in Gr.Britain begins on April 1 and ends on March 31 the next year; pies are stuffed with minced steak-and-kid-ney meat or with onions/sweet mincemeat (mixture of currants, raisins, sugar, candied peeled apples, suet, etc.) and not with peas, beans, ground poppy seeds, soft cheese/curds or boiled rice as in this country. But: pop-corn кукурудзяні баранці is practically identical in English and Ukrainian.

The details are, naturally, essential for our students to know and should not be ignored, as they reflect the peculiarities of each nation's customs, traditions or its way of life. The notions like these, on the other hand, may be common in the English and Ukrainian or some other languages exclusively, which finds its explanation in the bilateral or multilateral influences to which all languages are constantly exposed as a result of cultural, political and trade contacts between their nations. Hence, the similarity if not identity in some meanings of a number of English and Ukrainian specific units of lexicon can not be treated as culturally/nationally biased, i.e., specific. Though it is not excluded that some of these notions may become specifically national in reference to certain languages of other than the European area.

A considerable number of nationally specific/culturally biased units of national lexicon have found their way to other languages in the lexical meaning and lingual form of the source language. It has happened as a result of borrowings and a long use of the source language units in the target language. Among the borrowings of the kind are some Ukrainian units of culturally biased/specific national lexicon as well. The most well-known of them are the mentioned already Cossack/Kozak, steppe and also borshch, Kyiv chicken, oblast, vulytsia, hryvnia. The English/American units of specific national lexicon, which have become internationalisms are many more. Amongst them are such well-known notions as бойкот, віскі, джентльмен, джинси, клуб, леді, мотель, нокаут, пікнік, пінчер, раунд, рекордсмен, ринґ, смокінґ, спікер, тариф, фут, ярд, джаз, рок-ен-рол, гот доґ.кока кола, чіпси, миля, Скотланд Ярд, etc.

As it may be observed, the units of culturally biased/specific national lexicon are rarely similar by their nature and meaning in either of the two languages. Consequently, there must also exist various approaches to expressing their meanings in the target language.

WAYS OF RENDERING THE MEANING OF THE NATIONALLY BIASED UNITS OF LEXICON

The choice of the way of approach to expressing the denotative meanings of the units of specifically national lexicon is strictly predetermined by some definite factors, which may be both of a lingual and extralingual nature. To these belong first of all the semantic and structural complexity (or similarity) of the units of the culturally biased specific national lexicon of the source language. As a result,

157the methods of translating may also be predetermined by the specific notion being new and not yet quite known as well as by its long tradition of usage in the target language. The choice of the method of translating may partly be influenced by the sphere of circulation of the specific notion in the source language. Last but not least this choice can also depend on the translator himself and upon the aim or purpose of translating/interpreting. Hence, one may consequently assume the existence of several ways of conveying the lexical meanings of the culturally biased units of national lexicon. Each of these ways can be considered quite reliable, if it provides the faithful expression of the main and specific sense of the source language unit in the target language.

Since the nature, the structure, the sphere of employment and the denotative meaning of different culturally biased units of national lexicon are rarely of the same semantic «extension», their methods of translating can not be uniform either. Taking into account or rather depending on the afore-mentioned factors, the following methods of conveying the meaning of specifically national units of lexicon can be recognized as quite reliable:

I. By Transcription or Transliteration Exclusively

The units of the nationally specific lexicon, whose meanings

are rendered at the phonological level, usually belong to genuine

internationalisms and comprise social and political units of lexicon in

the main (cf. lord, lady, mister, shilling, kozak, hryvnia, etc.). This can

_.o be observed on the following examples: New classified rates per word       Нові тарифи на рекламу в for ads in hryvnias in the Kyiv       гривнях за слово в газеті Post. «Київ Пост»

«It's a poor coloured woman's place and you are a grand gentleman from Cape Town.» (RAbrahams) «You're a supercilious half-baked snob.» (Cronin) Andrew put out some bottled beer and asked Christine to prepare sandwiches. (Ibid.)

Це кімната для бідної

кольорової жінки, а ти ж

великий джентльмен із

Кейптауна.

Ти насправді зарозумілий і

обмежений сноб.

Ендрю дістав кілька пляшок

пива і попросив Крістін

приготувати йому сандвічі.

2. By Transcription or Transliteration and Explication of Their Genuine Nationally Specific Meaning

In many a case the lingual form of a unit of nationally specific lexicon conveyed through transcription or transliteration can not provide a full expression of its lexical meaning. Then an additional explication of its sense becomes necessary. It happens when the unit/ notion of the culturally biased lexicon is introduced in the target language for the first time or when it is not yet known to the broad public of the target language readers/listeners. The explanation may be given either in the translated passage/speech flow, where the culturally biased unit is used or in a footnote r- when a lengthy explication becomes necessary: They took her to the Tower of London. (Jerome K.Jerome) Downing Street is guarded outside by a single policeman. (London Illustrated) As the dawn was just breaking he found himself close to

Covent Garden. (O.Wilde) He said that Wall Street and Threadneedle Street between them could stop the universe. (R.AIdington)

Вони показали їй стародавню лондонську фортецю Тауер. Резиденцію прем'єр-міністра Великої Британії охороняє один полісмен. Щойно стало розвиднятися, а він уже був неподалік від ринку Ковент-Ґарден. Він сказав, що Волл-Стріт і Треднідл-Стріт1 удвох (об'єднавши сили) спроможні зупинити всесвіт.

It goes without saying that the transcribed or transliterated forms of Downing Street, Covent Garden or Threadneedle Street can not be sufficient for many foreign readers to obtain a fairly correct idea of what really each of them denotes. Hence, some explication of their specific connotative meaning in footnotes becomes inevitable. Footnotes or lengthy explications should always be used when the culturally biased notions are not yet well-known in the target language. For example, surfing when only transliterated/transcribed as серфінґ will not express its denotative meaning which it in reality is - «the sport of riding waves into shore on a surfboard». Hence, a combined translation must be resorted to: серфінґ (ковзання на широкій овальній дошці по високій морській хвилі до берега); similarly with snow boarding which denotes спуск із гори на широкій лижві.

The kind of explication, naturally, can be acceptable in a dictionary but scarcely acceptable in a broader text. That's why foot notes become helpful here, though a frequent usage of them should be avoided as well, since footnotes may divert the reader's attention from the content of the passage/work in which the specific national notions occur.

1 Треднідл-Стріт - вулиця в лондонському Сіті, де розташовані кілька головних банків Великої Британії.

A combined translation may often be resorted to when a short excerpt or sentence contains some specific notions of the kind: A number of restaurants and caf-    У Києві чимало ресторанів та eterias in Kyiv specialize in varenyky (dumplings), kulish (a thick meal stew) and other dishes. (News from Ukraine) No. 11 Downing Street is

guarded outside by a single policeman too. (London Illustrated)

кафетеріїв, що спеціалізуються на приготуванні вареників, кулішу та інших страв. Будинок N 11 на Даунінг стріт (резиденція міністра фінансів Великої Британії) охороняється знадвору також одним полісменом

Anybody in this country can see from the definition above that вареники are not simply dumplings, i.e., small balls of dough which can be cooked in soup or stew but a piece of flat dough wrapped around some salted/sweetish curd with fresh egg boiled and served hot with butter and sour cream. Varenyky can also be dumplings wrapped around mashed potatoes/stewed sauerkaut, etc. And also boiled and served hot with butter or small pieces of fried bacon and onions respectively1. Neither is куліш something like a thick meal stew. Besides, kulish apart from some other features, not reflected in the translation above, is not always and not in all regions of Ukraine prepared thick, it may also be thin (soup-like).

3. By Descriptive Explaining/Explication Only For some reason or other the orthographic form of a considerable number of sense units belonging to the nationally specific lexicon of the source language can not be rendered into the target language. That happens mostly when the transcription/transliteration can not be helpful in expressing the sense of the culturally biased national unit, or when it might bring about an unnecessary ambiguity in the target language narration/text cf.: matron завгосп у навчальному закладі (суміщає економку і медсестру); Pilgrim Fathers Батьки-прочани - перші колоністи з Англії, що прибули 1620 року до Північної Америки на вітрильнику «Мейфлауер»;

1 Note: in some American restaurants Ukrainian varenyky are called ravioli (Ital.).

prorogation офіційне розпорядження монарха про відновлення/ закінчення сесії парламенту Великої Британії; quartermaster старшина-стерновий у морській піхоті (and also квартирмейстер) в англ. армії.

It goes without saying that such lenthy explications of «матрона» or «Батьки прочани» as well as «квартирмейстер» may be considered superfluous, as their use in translation would aggravate to some extent the elucidation of their proper meanings.

There is no need to emphasize, however, that such lengthy explanations of specifically national notions are always required in the text of the translation/interpretation. And not are all culturally biased/specific units of national lexicon are so «heavily» loaded with information so that they have to be explicated in a footnote. Quite often an explanation within the target language text may be sufficient enough too, as in the following examples: 1 thought of Phuong who would Я думав про Фуонґ, яка зараз

be haggling over the price of fish in the third street down on the left before going for her elevenses to the milk-bar. (G.Greene)

No coffins were available, so they wrapped George in a blanket and in the Union Jack. (RAIdington)

The Tommies were numbered, formed fours, right turned and marched away. (Ibid.)

I've got some shepherd's pie for lunch today - that you used to like so much. (A.Cronin)

He's upset because we don't run Jim Crow buses. (B.Gerry)

Усі бачили, як ми у церкві на рушник стали. (П. Мирний) Пісок був теплий, як нагріта лежанка. (С. Руданський)

відчайдушне торгується за рибу на третій вулиці, в центрі лівої частини міста, перш ніж зайти до молочного бару біля одинадцятої і сяк-так/нашвидкоруч поснідати У них не було готових домовин, тож вони замотали Джорджа у ковдру та в прапор Великої Британії.

Рядових солдатів

порахували, вишикували по

чотири, повернули праворуч і

відвели геть.

Але ж я приготувала

картопляну запіканку з

м'ясом і цибулею, яку ти

колись так любив.

Він дуже засмутився,що в нас

не ходять автобуси тільки

для негрів.

Everybody saw me and you

being married in the church.

The sand was warm like a clay

stove of a country cottage.

161As can be seen, not all the details constituting the semantic structure of the translated above units of specific national lexicon have been fully conveyed in English and Ukrainian translations. Thus, the «clay stove» does not sufficiently explicate the proper role of лежанка, for any stove predominantly implies its being used for cooking. In reality, however, the «clay stove» was designed in Ukrainian country cottages (khata) for heating and wanning purposes only. Similarly with the former (historical) specific American racists' contemptuous unit «Jim Crow buses», which is not simply автобус для негрів because «Jim Crow» was a contemptuous name for a Negro. When translated into Ukrainian simply as негр (автобус для негрів) the collocation would loose its connotative (contemptuous) meaning which is inherent in it. The same uan be said about the Ukrainian culturally biased notion of рушник which is certainly not quite equivalent to the descriptive meaning of «embroidered in national colours towel», because it is an indispensable item in every folk rite like birthday, weddings or burials. Besides, рушник is used in Ukraine on any other solemn or ceremonial occasion. That is why its translation in the above sentence is not fully faithful. To convey the complexity of meaning contained by the national lexicon units of the kind, footnotes may be resorted to as well. That is one more proof of the difficulties which the student sometimes has while dealing with some specifically national units of lexicon, which are always culturally biased notions.

4. By Translation of Componental Parts and Additional Explication of the Units of the Nationally Biased Lexicon

The proper meaning of some specific units of the national lexicon can be faithfully rendered by way of regular translation of all or some of their componental parts and explication of the denotative meaning pertaining to the source language unit. The combined approach in the treatment of this group of specific national lexicon units is called forth by the complexity of meaning inherent in the source language units. It is also due to the inadequacy of componental translation, which does not reveal the essentials that are absolutely indispensable for correct comprehension of the real meaning of the culturally biased lexical units of the source language.

Due to this way of rendering the meanings of this kind of units practically involves two simultaneous performances. The first is a regular translation of the main, if not all, componental parts and the next, which follows it, is a more or less exhaustive explanation of the essence pertained to the specific national element of the source language. The extent of the explanation in the target language is predetermined by the nature of the specific unit of national lexicon, by the purpose of translation, and also by some characteristic possibilities of the text in which the unit is used. When translating at language level (out of context) the explanation may be practically unrestricted: Battle of Britain Битва за Англію (повітряні бої англійської авіації з гітлерівськими бомбардувальниками над територією Великої Британії, особливо в районі Лондона і Південної Англії 1940-1941рр.); bull's eye бичаче око (круглий великий різноколірний м'ятний льодяник); collective membership тимчасове колективне членство в лейбористській партії (наприклад, на час виборів) профспілок, кооперативних товариств; члени цих організацій автоматично стають членами лейбористської партії); ginger ale, імбірний ель/імбірне ситро (базолкогольний газований напій); inner Cabinet «внутрішній кабінет» (кабінет у вузькому складі) до якого входять керівники найважливіших міністерств на чолі з прем'єр-міністром.

Such and the like explanations can not, naturally, be made in the text of a translation, hence they are given usually in the footnotes:

«Well, I can tell you anything        «Ну, я тобі можу розповісти that is in an English bluebook,      все, що написано в англійській Harry.» (O.Wilde) «Синій книзі. »1 Labour Day was past, but            День Праці2 був позаду summer still pressed down on      (минув), а літня спека the city. (M.Wilson)                       продовжувала зморювати. Frances wanted very little: а         Франсіс хотіла зовсім небагато: salad, toast melba, no wine,         салат, грінки «мельба»3, без only ice water. (A.Cronin)              вина, а тільки воду з льодом.

When the lexical meaning of the unit of specific national lexicon is not so complex, it is usually explained in the target language text. The explanation, of course, is not always as exhaustive as it can be in a footnote:

Keep your fingers crossed for       Щоб мені була вдача, склади me! (M.Wilson) навхрест (хрестиком) _______                                пальці!.

1 «Синя книга» - збірник документів, що видається з санкції парламенту Великої Британії в синіх палітурках.

2 «День Праці» - офіційне свято в США (відзначається у перший понеділок вересня).

3 На ім'я австралійської співачки Н. Мельби.

163(I) Knew the Professor before he turned into a wooly West-Ender. (A.Cronin) Though veneered by his thirty years in the Civil Service - he had worked his way from boy clerk to principal - Gill was human underneath. (A.Cronin) I will be in the Ladies Gallery tomorrow night at half past eleven. (O.Wilde) Левкові чи не вперше за своє парубкування стало чомусь тоскно. (М. Стельмах) Згадав він поради свої... і сільські весілля, на яких він грав весільного батька. (М. Коцюбинський)

Я знав цього професора ще до того, як він став багатієм аристократичного Вест-Енда. Пройшовши за тридцять років служби в державному апараті від розсильного до завідуючого відділом, Джіл у душі і все ж залишався людиною. Завтра о пів на дванадцяту я буду на жіночій гальорці в палаті громад. It was probably for the first time in all his mature boyhood that Levko felt somewhat dull. He recollected the pieces of advice he had once given - and the rural weddings at which he would perform the honorary duty of the missing bridegroom's or bride's father.

A fuller and more detailed explanation of the kind of nationally specific notions as given above is not desirable, since it would considerably extend the text of the translation. That is why the student should be warned not to unnecessarily enlarge the explanation of the culturally biased notions, unless required for their exhaustive and correct comprehension. Laconism, therefore, should be the prevailing principle when dealing with the kind of specific national elements, but not to the detriment of explicitness/lucidity and faithfulness of translation.

5. By Ways of Word-for-Word or Loan Translation

When the componental parts making up the units of the nationally specific lexicon are at the same time the main transparent bearers of their proper sence expressed through their meaning, a faithful translation of such sense units may be achieved either by way of word-for-word translation or by way of loan translation. Each of these ways can be well exemplified in English and Ukrainian.

A.Translated word-for-word are the specific national units of lexicon as first (second, third) reading перше (друге, трете) читання (офіційне внесення законопроекту в англійський парламент); secondary grammar school (середня граматична школа); стінгазета wall newspaper; студентське наукове товариство Students' Scientific/Research Society; щоденник (учнівський) student's record book.

В. The denotative meaning of many units of the specific national lexicon may be rendered by way of loan translating as well: from English: Salvation Army (USA, Gr. Britain) Армія порятунку; the Order of the Garter/of the Bath орден Підв'зки/Лазні; the Order of St. Michael and St. George орден св.Михаїла і св.Георгія; fan club клуб прихильників/уболівальників (артиста, спортсмена тощо); from Ukrainian: орден Ярослава Мудрого the Order of Yaroslav the Wise/Yaroslav the Wise Order; орден св. княгині Ольги Київської the Order of St. Olga Princess of Kyivan Rus. The denotative meaning of these and many other English/Ukrainin specific units of national lexicon of the kind will undoubtedly be correctly understood by the target-language speakers. And yet neither of the two ways of translating can often provide an exhaustive expression of all the extralingual details of meaning inherent in most of the units in the source language. Thus, the aim and purpose of issuing our «wall newspaper», which was a regular practice in all state institutions of the former USSR as well as in this country today would scarcely be understood by the British or Americans. Neither do most of our people understand the whole complexity of meaningful semes pertained, for example, to the British Order of the Bath. Hence, such culturally biased notions are to be explicated more detailed in the target language. .

A considerable number of specific units of the national lexicon, both in English and in Ukrainian, consist of the component parts with seemingly transparent lexical meaning. But when conveyed verbally or word-for-word, however, they may lose their proper meaning together with their nationally specific nature. That happens, because the real connotative meaning inherent in the seems, bearing the national peculiarity can not be achieved via these methods of translation. For example, the «House of Lords» when translated as будинок лордів completely perverts the real meaning of the collocation as «House» here, like in the «Upper House» (or simply the «House» when capitalized) always preserves the connotative meaning of палата. Likewise with the «House of Commons» where both components are also endowed with a nationally peculiar meaning and can not be translated as будинок простих людей but only as «Палата громад».

This method of translating is also widely employed when dealing with former Sovietisms as «Герой Соціалістичної Праці», «соціалістичне змагання», etc. Here too the verbal translating of «праця», «змагання» like other notions of the kind would completely distort the proper sense of the collocations which they are components of. The variant *Hero of Socialist Work* would also be inadequate stylistically, because the componental part «work» belongs to the neutral style lexicon. Similarly in case with the former term «socialist competition» in which the noun component had nothing to do with the meaning or «competition» proper. Therefore, a faithful translation of the kind of units of lexicon is predetermined by the correct choice of equivalent units for the semes bearing the national peculiarity. The latter may be expressed both verbally/word-for-word and by means of translation loans, which should be resorted to when verbal translating ruins the national peculiarity of the source language culturally biased units. The number of English genuine translation loans in Ukrainian and Ukrainian in English is considerable. So is the number of verbal and word-for-word translations, as can be seen from some of the examples below: English: cornflakes кукурудзяні пластівці; English Industrial Revolution промисловий переворот в Англії (18-19 століть); skyscraper хмарочос;,supermarket універсальний магазин (універсам); brain washing промиваная мозку (ідеологічна обробка); oat-flakes вівсяні пластівці (геркулес). Ukrainian: карбованець karbovanets', гривня hryvnia, Верховна Рада Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's Parliament), Герой України Hero of Ukraine; заслужений діяч мистецтв України the Merited Worker of Arts/Ukraine's Merited Worker of Arts; голова районної/обласної Ради народних депутатів, Chairman of the District/Region Rada of People's Deputies; медаль за трудову доблесть the Medal for Labour Distinction; орден Богдана Хмельницького 1,11,111 ступеня the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi (First, Second, Third Degree).

It is worth mentioning that some of the above-given and other Ukrainian units of the kind may be translated into English either as asyndetic structures or as syndetic (prepositional) word-groups. The latter are absolutely predominant in conversational English, the former are more common in written (or official) language: заслужений учитель/артист України the Honoured Teacher/Artist of Ukraine or Ukraine's Honoured Teacher/Artist; медаль «За трудову відзнаку» the medal for Labour Distinction or the Labour Distinction Medal. But: герой України Hero of Ukraine.

6. Translating by Means of Semantic Analogies

Despite the differences in economic, social, political, cultural and in many cases also geographical/environmental conditions, under which the nation of the source language and that of the target language develop, some peculiar notions in both the languages may be identical or similar/analogous in their meaning and functioning. It happens due to the existence of common routine or habitual actions, common occupations, social services, food, etc., in these two language communities.

The appearance of analogous units in the national layer of lexicon of different languages may also be the result of bilateral or multilateral contacts and influences to which the nations may have been exposed for centuries. Consequently, similar/analogous national notions in different languages may appear as a result of direct or indirect (through an intermediary language) borrowings. No wonder that analogous units of national lexicon directly correlate in the source language and in the target language in their denotative meaning and mostly in the common sphere of their functioning - social, cultural, political, etc. Though far from all the analogies ever possess the absolute complexity of meanings inherent in the source language units. The connotative divergences and sometimes the spheres of use may not always fully coincide in the target language as can be seen from the following few examples. English: the City/Town Board of Education міський відділ освіти; pop com кукурудзяні баранці; gingerbread імбірний пряник, коврижка; shop-steward цеховий староста (голова профкому); stewed fruit узвар/компот; Well done! Well done! (sports) Мо-лод-ці! Мо-лод-ці!; come! come! Вгамуйся, заспокойся/ цить, цить, не плач. Ukrainian: залік preliminary/qualifying test/examination; дипломна робота graduation essay/project; курсова робота yearly essay/project; доцент principal lecturer/ reader, associate professor; курси вдосконалення refresher course; підвищення кваліфікації in-service training course; кватирка hinged window pane/pilot window; консультація tutorial.

No doubt some of the English /Ukrainian units in the list above are only functionally approximate analogies (cf. доцент principal reader/lecturer reader, associate professor, кватирка hinged window pane). Their complete denotative meaning can naturally be understood only from a larger context. Functionally analogous are also some nouns in the forms of address in both the languages as shown below:

Sir, she, being his wife will not,     Пане, їй, як дружині, згідно according to custom, mention      звичаю не можна називати ім'я his name. (M.R.Anand) свого чоловіка.

Грай, кобзарю] Лий, шинкарю] (Т. Шевченко) «То, прошу панів, наше пасовисько...» (І. Франко) «Oh, I beg your pardon. I'm terribly sorry, gentlemen» (Ibid.)

Innkeeper, pour! Play, minstrel, play!

Please, sirs, that's our pasture.

«Ax, перепрошую вас, дуже перепрошую, панове...»

As can be seen, the choice of an appropriate analogy in the target language is greatly influenced by the national/cultural traditions (cf. пани sirs/gentlemen; кобзар minstrel). The use of various analogiesin the target language is largely because of the existence of many translations and often repeated usage of them. Especially strong is the influence of translation of belles-lettres works and films, let alone the large scale Study of the source language at our schools as a foreign language. Under the influence of these and other factors the co-occurrence of some units of particular national lexicon in the target language may increase considerably. These units may soon become well-known to the majority of the target language speakers. It is in this way that many English and American culturally biased notions have become familiar in this country and some our culturally biased words (notions) have penetrated into the English and other languages. Many of these units of the specifically national lexicon have become regular internationalisms (cf. hryvnia, kozak, Kyiv chicken, borshch, etc.). Similarly the notions like долар, шилінґ, Торі, бренді, фунт, etc, and now also бартер, ваучер, дискета, транш, дефолт, аудит, саміт, комп'ютер, менеджмент, рокенрол, поп-музика and many others from the English/American culturally biased lexicon belong not only to our active vocabulary. They have penetrated into other languages as well despite the fact that they are still clearly recognized by the target language speakers as foreign borrowigns.

Sometimes a faithful translation of analogous units of the peculiar national lexicon can be achieved only with the help of an additional explications as in the examples like special school спеціальна школа (початкова або середня школа для дітей із психічними/ фізичними вадами); summer school літня школа (курс лекцій, семінарів, практичних занять для підвищення кваліфікації іноземних вчителів та студентів); caravanning проводити літній час/відпустку, подорожуючи в будиночку-причепі на колесах. - •

It is easy to notice that the denotative meaning of the first two of the above-given culturally biased units of national lexicon are practically identical in English and Ukrainian. The difference is in a few extralingual details only. Thus, «summer school» in Gr. Britain is not free of charge. Besides, it functions during the summer holidays when the rooms in schools and universities are not occupied by the students. One can assume, therefore, that the notions like these are only conventionally different . They are closer to regular semantic equivalents, though not devoid of some extralingual details in the source language. Our students must be aware of such differences when dealing with the kind of units of the specifically national lexicon of the source language. This can not be said, naturally, about caravanning, which is a purely American phenomenon as yet.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS-WORK AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Pick up the units of the English specifically national lexicon in the sentences below. Define their sphere of usage and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. You know as I do that some students are capable of making you, the teachers, look bad. These are atypical students. Some of our best lessons fall flat because of these students. (A.Dodding) 2. Some ignorant jackass on Fleet Street has got together a list of cures by Stillman. (A.Cronin) 3. Sir Robert was surprised and said that this Argentine scheme (Canal Company Scheme) was known to be a commonplace Stock Exchange swindle. (O.Wilde) 4. At this point of the story enters the Great Detective, specially sent by or through Scotland Yard. (St. Leacock) 5. You must certainly send it (the painting) next year to Grosvenor. (O.Wilde) 6. He himself had a job in Whitehall «of national importance». (R.AIdington) 7. Do you realize he's the first Distinguished Service Cross we've had in this town? (U.Gow, A.Dusseau) 8. The serious part of the dinner comprised roast beef and Yorkshire pudding, being served as sweet course before the meal. (Bennet) 9. Carrie established a little portable gas stove for the preparation of small lunches, oysters, Welsh rarebits, and the like... (T.Dreiser) 10.1 can't tell one tune from another. I don't know «Home Sweet Home» from «God save the King». (S.Leacock) 11. An alderman from Hampshire was reported as saying that «the recommended increase in school-joining age would possibly be raised to six years». (Herald Intern. Tribune) 12. «Come, come» he said, «you are flurried, Mr. Lockwood». (E.Bronte) 13. And potbellied little coloured children fought hunger and sleepness while Lanny tried to

169teach them the three R's. (P.Abrahams) 14. The lady looked somewhat surprised. His Lordship arrived first escorting Mrs. Mallaby. (A.Christie) 15. Down Whitehall, under the grey easterly sky, thelow-ers of Westminster came for a second in view. 16. And, removing their hats, they passed the Cenotaph. (J.Galsworthy) 17. She was busy loading the table with high tea. 18. He was afraid that as K.C.he would get no work. (S.Maugham) 19. Mr. Huges was on the Bench. (Gordon) 20. I can get you a seat in the Distinguished Strangers' Gallery. (.J.Galsworthy)

Exercise II. Definite the ways in which the Ukrainian units of the national lexicon are translated (or should be translated) intoEngflsh.

A. 1. President Leonid Kuchma issued a decree obliging college graduates to work in the State sector after graduation. 2. The Ukrainian Nuclear Power Industry Workers' Union addressed their demand to President Leonid Kuchma, Verkhovna Rada, and the Cabinet ol Ministers. 3. Resulting from the sale of 60 per cent of an emission of municipal loan bonds totalling 15.000 hryvnias, the Kharkiv municipality will purchase 20 used Mercedes minibuses. 4. She is one of the 20 top ballet stars who will take part in the Christmas season of international ballet at London Albert Hall, opening on Boxing Day. 5. Photo reproductions in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg show huge burial mounds of Chernihiv princes and boyars of the 11th-12th centuries. 6. The desire to create, invent and experiment leads schoolchildren of Lviv and the Lviv Region to the «Evrika» Junior Academy of Sciences». 7. In 1931 Arkadiy Filipenko was enrolled at the robitfak, worker's faculty, under the Lysenko Music and Drama School. 8. His first teacher - a kindly old herdsman - taught him to play on a simple reedpipe, sopilka, when he was only nine. 9. Then music and songs were performed by the Trio of Bandore Players. 10. Both families call the groom and the bride «knyaz and knyahynya» (prince and princess), the best men are «boyaryns», the bridesmaids are «druzhky». 11. The occasion was celebrated by Ukrainian-families with kutya (boiled peeled barley or wheat/rice with honey ar»d ground popy seeds). 12. There are several types of pysanky. one when the egg is painted in one colour; when with the aid of a special sharp tool one scratches the pictures on the painted egg (such-an egg is called «dryapanka» or «scrobanka»); when one puts thin fayers of wax on the egg while dipping the latter in paint, usually going from light colors to dark («krapanka»); when the egg is painted with oil paint («malyovanka»); and, finally, when with the help of a special instrument one draws a picture with wax, then fills it with different colours.

B. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following traditional folk rites, customs, and religious feasts of our people:

1. commemoration of ancestors; 2. Whitsuntide/Whitsunday, Pentacost; 3. the feast of Presentation; 4. to bless water; 5. stuffed cabbage (leafs); 6. Holy supper; 7. pious and righteous; 8. Epiphany; 9. the feast of the Annunciation; 10. Warm Alexis; 11. miracle-workers; 12. Willow Sunday/Palm Sunday; 13. «Passion Friday»; 14. Holy Shroud; 15. the Easter Matins; 16. the High mess; 17. unleavened bread; 18. Seeing off Sunday; 19. Forty Martyrs; 20. water nymphs; 21. Maccabees' Day; 22. the Feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord; 23. the Feast of the Assumption of the Holy Virgin; 24. Twelfth-day; 25. the pre-Christmas fast; 26. The Birthday of the most Holy Mother of God; 27. The Elevation of the Holy Cross; 28. The Feast of Intercession of the Most Holy Mother of God; 29. The Archangel Michael's Day; 30. St. John the Baptist.

C. Read the Ukrainian passage below, identify the culturally biased notions in it and translate it into English.

Іран живе за власним відліком часу і має свій календар (сонячна хиджра), яким встановлено новий рік 20 березня -дня переходу пророка Могаммада з Мекки в Медину 621 року. Хоча Іран є однією з мусульманських країн, проте святкування Нового року (Ноуруза) походить ще з доісламських часів. Ноуруз (в буквальному перекладі «новий день») припадає на період весняного рівнодення, що означає з давніх давен у багатьох народів пробудження природи. Наші пращури, дажбожителі, теж пов'язували з весною своє новолітування. За іранським звичаєм на святковому столі має бути сім речей, назви яких починаються з літери «с» (за перським правописом): часник, гроші (щоб наступний рік був багатий), яблука тощо. Обов'язково присутні дзеркало (аби в ньому було видно лише добро), живі рибки у воді (символ життя), Коран (священна книга мусульман) і миска з зеленими паростками пшениці. І у нас, в Україні, існує звичай до Великодня посеред столу разом із пасками ставити проросле збіжжя. Традиційними до Ноуруза вважаються також добре знайомі українцям писанки. Цей давній звичай фарбувати або розписувати яйця має глибокі корені, що беруть свій початок з дохристиянських та доісламських часів (в Ірані, як і в Україні, яйце є символом життя). І хоча техніка розпису яєць в Ірані відрізняється від виготовлення традиційних українських писанок,

171сам факт свідчить про спільне в культурі двох народів.

Exercise III. Read carefully the sentences containing some American/British nationally peculiar notions and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

A. 1. USAir has gone to «sporks», a combination of fork and spoon to cut down on the number of utensils used. The USA Today asked some Road Warriors who are best described as «grumpy gourmands» because they probably eat more meals on jets than at home. Here's what they say: «The scrambled eggs were OK, moist with decent flavour. The waffles were almost soggy. The coffee was good, but they always serve it in a Styrofoam cup, which drives me crazy.» (J.Y.Oakton) 2) «Breakfast was a Cheddar cheese omelette, it not only appeared to be stable - as compared to some that swim in unidentifiable liquid - but it also tasted like Cheddar cheese and eggs. It was enough cholesterol to have caused a block in my arteries, but it was good.» 3) «I had the grilled chicken, it was a good portion, but it was dry with a fake, smoked flavour. The salad was fresh and cresp. But it was served in a bowl, not on a plate. The wheat roll was moist and served with real butter. For dessert, I had chocolate cake. But, it was too sweet, which was good.» (K.W.) 4) «I had two choices for breakfast: cold cereal or an omelet. I had Quaker Oat Square, a small carton of 2 milk, low-flat peach yoghurt, orange juice and a banana.» 5) «This time, the plate had an ample amount of grapes, pineapple and orange slices, but only one strawberry. I didn't eat the yoghurt or the dry cereal, but I did have a warm blueberry muffin.» 6) «They served a health-food concoction that tasted like the cardboard box it came in. It was a sort of corn-flavored, crispy, chiplike thing, it had no flavour at all. We also had fruit. I like that they serve milk, but I hate that low-fat stuff, it insipid - all airline food is insipid.»

B. Translate the list of meals of a common American restaurant.

1. Traditional barbeque foods: smoked brisket and ham, or turkey; pig picking pork, smoked chicken wings, baby back ribs (half-slab, full slab), spare ribs (short ends, long ends); grilled chicken and greens; Texas chicken, a boneless breast grilled with spicy Texas sauce, topped with thinly sliced smoked brisket and melted Cheddar cheese; burnt ends, smoked apple sausage or brisket. Smoked ribs... tender meaty ribs basket with maple - mustard, glaze, slow roasted and then lightly grilled; hickory chicken... 1/2 chicken smoked and basted with the original BBQ (barbecue) sauce; burnt ends... tender chunks of twice-smoked brisket drenched in our famous sauce;

Texas-size beef ribs marinated, slow-smoked and flame-grilled. 2. Garnishes: BBQ baked beans, cole slaw and potato salad, whole wheat, white bread or buns, pickled and barbecue sauce. 3. Apetizers: cheese and assorted crackers, French onion soup, onion straws, corn fritters (hot and fresh long ends), a hickory-grinned chicken breast sliced and served atop, fresh veggies and greens, with our honey-mustard dressing; assorted relishes; vegetable tray with dip. 4. Accompaniments: dirty rice, tossed salads. 5. Desserts: creamy cheesecake, chocolate peanut butter, ice-cream pie; old fashioned cheesecake, apple fritters served hot with powdered sugar and sweet honey butter.

Exercise IV. Suggest appropriate English variants for the following units of Ukrainian specific national lexicon:

голова колгоспу/сільради, дружинник, суботник, січовик, січові стрільці, запорожець, герої Крутів, тризуб, універсали (Центр. Ради); залік, залікова книжка, відкритий урок, педрада, табель успішності, похвальна грамота/лист, курсова/дипломна робота; кобза, кобзар, бандурист, гопак, повзунець(танець), веснянки, коломийки, боярин, дружка, весільний батько, бублик, вареники, галушки, голубці, бабка, коржі з маком/шулики, борщ, куліш, ряжанка, узвар, грубка, лежанка, піч (у хаті), скриня, свитка, кожух, кептар, вишиванка, плахта, чобітки, льох, хата, гривня, карбованець, десятина, «бігунець», профорг студентської групи, крашанка, писанка, думи, «Ще не вмерла Україна».

Exercise V. Explain the proper meaning of the particular English national notions below and translate them into Ukrainian.

A. №10. Downing Street, Whitehall, the Upper House, the Commons, the woolsack, speaker, teller, whip (Parliament), division of Parliament, the White paper, the Stock Exchange; John Bull, the British Lion; lobby; ladyship, lordship, peerage, coroner, proctor, bacon, Yorkshire pudding, frankfurters, hot dogs; ale, gin; crown, farthing, guinea, sixpence, private/independent school, comprehensive (grammar, modern) school, the 6th form; jeans, jersey, pullover, leggings, stretches, tweed; calumet, wigwam; bushel, foot, inch, pint, sheriff.

B. Suggest possible ways for faithful conveying the meaning of peculiarly American government offices and their principal officials in the passage below. Identify the ways of translation which you employ for the purpose.

The United States, unlike most other countries of Europe, Asia

173and America has no «government» but only an «administration» or to be more precise, a «president's administration». The latter in its turn has no ministries and consequently no «ministers» but departments and secretaries performing the functions of ministries and ministers. Traditionally established in the USA are the following thirteen departments: Agricultural Department, Commerce Department, Defence Department, Educational Department, Energy Department, Health and Human Services Department, Housing and Urban Development Department, Interior Department, Justice Department, Treasury Department, and Veterans Affairs Department. Each of these government institutions is headed respectively by an appointed leader, as announced by the presidential secretary. The only exception is the Justice Department which is headed not by a secretary but by the Attorney General. Almost all Secretaries have their Assistant Secretaries performing the functions of deputy ministers in other European and American governments. Exceptions from the list include only four departments which have Deputy Secretaries instead. These are Commerce Department, Housing and Urban Development Department, Educational Department and Treasury Department. Still other departments in the U.S. administration government have Under Secretaries performing the duties of assistant secretaries which correspond to the government positions occupied by deputy ministers in other countries. To these departments belong the Commerce Department and Veterans Affairs Department. Secretary of the Interior Department, contrary to all others, has an Inspector General for the first assistant. But certainly the most peculiar are the duties of the Interior Department which include building roads, and overseeing the national park system, and not keeping law and order and fighting criminals, which the ministries of the interior are responsible for in other countries. These functions are performed in the U.S.A. by the F.B.I. (Federal Bureau of Investigation).

Exercise VI. Pick out the nationally specific English notions in the text below and then translate them in viva voce into Ukrainian.

The former Beatle Paul McCartney was awarded a knighthood in the New Year's honours list. Among other showbiz figures receiving honors. Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, the composer of «Evita», «Phantom of the Opera» and «Jesus Christ Superstar» becomes Lord Lloyd Webber allowing him to sit in the House of Lords. Among others recognized: The actress Joan Collins, best known for her role as Alexis in the television show «Dynasty», received an QBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire), white the playwright Alan Ayckbourn was knighted. Frederick Forsyth, whose best-sellers include «The Day of the Jackal», becomes a Commander of the Order of the.BriBsh Empire, which entitles him to add the initials CBE after his name. The racing driver Damon Hill, the current Formula One world champion, was given an QBE for services to auto racing, Exercise VII. Read through the text on the British Parliament below and translate it point by point in viva voce into Ukrainian.

The Glimpse of Great Britain and Its Parliament Life

1. Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland as the country is officially called ranks among the oldest constitutional monarchies in Europe. The country's first constitution, the Magna Charta, was signed under the pressure of her Parliament by the despotic King John Lackland, son of King Richard the Lion Hearted, as far back as June 10,1215. The Magna Charta had a great influence on the country's parliamentary life and traditions which have remained unchanged for centuries. Thus, the Palace of Westminster where Parliament is held and which was built anew and rebuilt for several times is in the same place for more than 1,000 years. Besides the Parliament consists of two Chambers or Houses - the Upper Chamber or the House of Lords and the lower Chamber or the House of Commons.

2. The Upper House consists of over 1,100 Members belonging to one of the three unequally represented groups of peers: 1. Hereditary Peers. Marquises, Earls, Viscounts, Barons (almost half of all peers), and Peeresses in their own right (ab 20); 2. Life Peers and Life Peeresses; 3. Archbishops (2) and Senior Bishops (20).

The House of Lords is headed by the Lord Chancellor who is also the minister of Justice and Head of the High Court.

3. The House of Commons consists of 659 elected MPs (1997 elections). The House is headed by the Speaker. The number of seats in the House, however, covers the need of only two-thirds of the elected MPs, the rest using the «front benches», the «cross benches» and the «back benches».

4. There are nine Royal British orders of Knighthood. The highest of them is the order of the Garter, which was founded by King Edward III in 1348. It consists of two parts - a collar gold chain worn around the neck with St. George killing the Dragon, and an eight-pointed star with the words Honi sort qui таї у pense (in French) meaning: Shame on them who think badly. The order is conferred to

175the members of the Royal family and 25 knights. The only commoner to have received the order was Sir Winston Churchill in 1957. This order gives the bearer the right to be buried in Westminster Abbey. The next important order is that of the Bath established during the reign of Henry IV (1399-1413). The name of the order comes from the ceremony of bathing (the symbol of purity) before being given. There are three different degrees of the order, the highest being the first: 1) G.C.B. (Grand Cross of the Bath); 2) K.C.B. (Knight Commander of the Bath), 3) C.B. (Commander of the Bath). The highest military award in Great Britain is the Victoria Cross instituted by Queen Victoria in 1856 to mark the victory in the Crimean War. It is a bronze Maltese Cross with a Lion in its centre and the inscription «For Valour» under it. The cross is made from the metal of the Russian guns captured in Sevastopol during the Crimean War in 1855. 5. Several traditional ceremonies are held in the capital of Great Britain attracting the attention of many Londoners and their numerous domestic and foreign quests. One of them observed every day is the changing of the Household Guards quartered in the Chelsea and Wellington Barracks near the Buckingham Palace. The Brigade of Guards of the Queen (and the Royal family body-guards) consists of two regiments representing the nationalities of the United Kingdom. The English Grenadiers wear the bear skin caps twenty inches high. The Scots Guards wear a wide black ribbon on the back of their uniform colour 15 cm wide and 25 cm long.

All the Guards wear scarlet or red tunics and black trousers except the Scots Guards wearing their traditional regimental cloth. The Irish Guards wear a triple row of brass buttons and distinctive plumes. The second ceremonial event which can be seen at 11 a.m. every weekday and at 10 a.m. on Sundays is Mounting the Guard. In this ceremony the Household Cavalry (the Royal .and Life Guards) take part. They wear breast and back shiny plates made of steel armour. The third ceremony is observed only once a year on the second Saturday in June at ab. 11.15a.m. and is called Trooping the Colour. The ceremony marks the «official» birthday of the Queen and presents an inspection parade of the Queen's own troops. This spectacular ceremony with the Queen riding side-saddle on a highly trained horse ahead of the Guards is watched by many hundreds of

people.

Among other old traditions the most prominent are the ceremony of the Keys which is over 700 years old (since 1215 when King John was forced to sign the Magna Charta) and Lord Mayor's Show. The latter goes back to the mayoralty of Richard (Dick) Whittington, who was mayor four times (1396,1397,1406 and 1419). The Lord Mayor rides from the City in a splendid six horses-spanned coach through the streets of London and stops at Law Courts where he is presented to the Lord Chief of Justice, who hands him his sword of office after receiving a solemn promise to carry out his duties faithfully. The procession4hen continues to Westminster, and then returns to the Mansion House, the official residence of the Lord Mayor.

TEXTS FOR INDEPENDENT CLASS AND HOME TRANSLATION

Exercise VIII. Read the stories A, B, C, D, E below, pick out the units of the English culturally biased lexicon and translate the stories into Ukrainian.

A. AN ENGLISHMAN'S DAY

An Englishman's day - and who better to describe it than an Englishman's wife? It begins when, ignoring me, he sits down to breakfast with his morning paper. As he scans the headlines (or the racing results) there is nothing he likes better than his favourite breakfast of cornflakes with milk and sugar (porridge if he lives in the North) followed by fried bacon and eggs, marmalade and toast, the whole accompanied by tea or coffee. But whether he in fact gets such a meal depends on the state of my housekeeping budget! After breakfast, except on Sundays and (in many cases) Saturdays which are holidays, he sets off to work by train, tube, car, motor scooter, motor bike or even on his own two feet. The time he sets out depends in large degree upon whether he is what might colloquially be termed a «striver» (one who works himself), a «driver» (one who sees..that others works) or a «thriver» (one who profits from others work). If he is a «striver», he will jostle along with thousands like him on the 7.20, probably still reading his paper (or somebody else's) and studying the successes (or otherwise) of his favourite team.

The «drivers» customarily depart about an hour later while the «thrivers» travel up to the City in great style about an hour later. But be he «striver», «driver» or «thriver»-, he will enjoy his tea or coffee break around about 11. The tea or coffee is usually brought to the factory bench or office desk.

Then, at mid-day, everything stops for lunch. Most offices and small shops close for an hour, say from 1 to 2, and the city pavements are thronged with people on their way to cafes. Factory workers usually eat in their canteens.

The usual mid-day meal usually consists of two courses - a meat course accompanied by plenty of vegetables, followed by a sweet dish, perhaps fruit pudding and custard with tea or coffee to finish. Most Englishmen like what they call «good plain food, not messed about with». They must be able to recognize what they are eating. Otherwise they are likely to refuse it. Usually they like beef steaks, chops, roast beef and Yorkshire pudding and fried fish and chipped potatoes.

They are in the main not overfond of soup, remarking that it fills them without leaving sufficient room for the more important meat course. Then back to work again, with another break in the middle of the afternoon, once again for tea or coffee, sometimes with a cake or biscuit.

The working day finishes at time between 4 and 6, with the «thrivers» usually first home and the «strivers» last. On arrival home, many Englishmen seem to like to inspect their gardens before their evening meal.

This goes under various names - tea, high tea, dinner or supper depending upon its size and also the social standing of those eating it. Usually a savoury meat course is followed by stewed fruit or cake and tea. His evening meal over, the Englishman might do a bit of gardening and then have a walk to the «local» for a «quick one». The «local» means the nearest beer house while a «quick one» means a drink (alcoholic, of course!) taking anything from half-an-hour to three hours to imbibe! There is plenty of lively, congenial company at the «local» and he can play darts, dominoes, billiards or discuss the weather or the current situation.

But if the Englishman stays at home, he might listen to the radio, watch television, talk, read or pursue his favourite hobby. Then at any time between 10 and 12 he will have his «nightcap» - a drink accompanied by a snack - and then off to bed ready for tomorrow. (S. Andrews)

B. You Say Pasta, We Say Noodle It's too soon to declare peace in the world's pasta wars. But the combatants finally sat down together at the table. U.S. pasta-makers have been angered over European Union subsidies, which sometimes made Italian pasta cheaper than American brands on U.S. grocery shelves. Afew months ago, the U.S. International Trade Commission decided there was merit to American pastamakers' com-

plaints about being hurt by Italian and Turkish imports. No settlement has been reached yet. Italy's MenconLwas quick to recall how national pride was pricked earlier this year by a claim from some U.S. experts that pasta could be bad for some people, especially the overweight. Focusing on the common goal of increasing pasta consumption, savvy spaghetti sellers aren't overlooking any market. C. Fast Food Burgers

Two quick service restaurants specializing in burgers are attracting locals and foreigners alike. If you're looking for a tasty, cheap meal in a convenient location, Kentucky Beirut Chicken and Boston Burger, both located in the center of Kyiv, measure up Kentucky Beirut Chicken wins on the burger front. Their Lebanese-seasoned burgers - it's a secret recipe, - are crave-indicing. They come on crisp buns with a variety of fixings that are in the plate option. A plate is like getting a full meal deal at McDonald's, only in Kyiv it includes a hamburger or cheesburger, French fries, pickles and coleslaw. KBC's drawback is Boston Burger's saving - French fries. While KBC's tend to be soggy and too cool, Boston Burger's are perfect, string-like morsels. Boston Burger's hamburgers are fine, but they're missing a special touch. They're simply a bland hunk of meat, with wilted lettuce and ketchup. KBC has an advantage in that it cooks as food is ordered, whereas Boston Burger premakes a bunch of sandwiches, which means they sometimes are served lukewarm and not-so-fresh. Until the Big Mac makes its way to Kyiv, Boston Burger and Kentucky Beirut Chicken will fill that fast-food burger whole in your stomach.

D. the Candymaker's Witness

A candymaker in Indiana wanted to make a candy that would be a witness, so he made the famous throughout America Christmas Candy Cane on which he incorporated several symbols for the birth, ministry and death of Jesus Christ.

He began with a hard candy stick of pure white, which symbolizes the Virgin Birth and the sinless nature of Jesus; and hard to symbolize the Solid Rock, the foundation of the Church, and the firmness of the promises of God. This candy cane was made in the form of the letter «J» to represent the name of Jesus, who came to earth as our Savior. It could also represent the staff of the «Good Shepherd» with which he reaches down into the ditches of the world to lift out the fallen lambs who, like all sheep, have gone astray.

Thinking that the only white candy was somewhat plain, the candymaker stained it with red stripes. He used three small stripes to show the stripes of the scourging Jesus and the large red stripe was for the blood that was shed by Christ on the cross so that we could have the promise of eternal life.

Unfortunately, in America the candy became known only as a sweet Candy Cane - a meaningless decoration seen at Christmas time. But the meaning is still there for those who «have eyes to see and ears to hear».

E. Scotland

It is one of those places where civilization has not tramped all before it. Scotland has uniqely combined the untouched beauty of nature with the kind of facilities that guarantee comfort.

Your impressions from Scotland very much depend on you, on how open you are to new cultures and traditions of this country. Start your trip with the cities and then go deep to the Highlands. Step by step you will be unweiling the quiet magic of this miraculous place and falling in love with its unforgettable authenticity, which gets smoothly with modernity. Tartan is no longer just an echo from the past. Any bank or football team has its own tartan. Any local family can have a tartan by just registering it at the Scottish tartan Society. And it is not only fashion that reflects a changing consciousness. Over the last 10-15 years Scots seem to have become more conscious of their national identity, just as we Ukrainians have. They do not only debate their more independent status, but wear kilts more often - for weddings and for parties, even for work. They feel proud and comfortable on these double-pleated skirts, even when they have to pay something in the region on of 600 USD for a full outfit.

Exercise IX. Translate the passage below into English. Explain the ways you employed to convey faithfully the notions of the specifically Ukrainian national lexicon. 1. Кобзар О.М. Вересай

Старий уже був Грицько Вересай. Він брав кобзу і простував на церковний майдан Калюжинців. Поводирем сліпого ставав малий онук Остапко, що мусив жербати, бо кріпацького хліба вистачало сім'ї лише до Різдва. У М'ясниці гуляли весілля, на які запрошували Остапкового батька Микиту Вересая, котрий гарно грав на скрипці. Після тяжкої хвороби 4-річний хлопчик осліп. Дід переконував онука, що для закріпаченої людини - то захист, хоч не бачитеме, що діється на нашій зболеній землі. А через десятиліття саме пісня «Про правду і неправду» понесла славу Кобзаря Остапа Вересая по Україні і за її межі. Коли влітку 1874 року в Києві відбувався визначний в історії кобзарства III

Археологічний з'їзд, на який з'іхалися учені з усієї Европи, французький професор Н. Рамбо назвав знаменитого виконавця народних дум і пісень «Гомером в українській свиті». Завдяки своєму мистецтву Остап Микитович побував у царському палаці в Петербурзі - прийшов зі скаргою на тяжку долю селянина, наївно думаючи, що цар допоможе.

Спливли роки. У Сокиринці на Чернігівщині, як до Канева на могилу великого Шевченка, приходять люди вклонитися співцеві..

2. Мандрики

Це печиво пекли у Петрівський піст або на Петра. На це свято годилося шанувати пастухів і підпасків, їх частували і дарували мандрики («мандриги») - сирні пампушки. Вірили: хто з'їсть їх у Петрівку, того весь рік минатиме лихоманка. Після Петра вже переставала кувати зозуля, що й породило приказку: «Зозуля мандрикою вдавилась». Особливо смачними були мандрики із сиру, відтопленого із сколотини (маслянки), тобто сироватки, яка залишилася після збитого із сметани масла.

3. Обряд з кашею

Щоб відзначити таку важливу для сім'ї подію, як хрещення дитини, у хаті влаштовували святковий обід, відомий у народі під назвою «христини». За північноукраїнською традицією баба-повитуха приносила круто зварену кашу, накривала її хлібом-сіллю або млинцем і пропонувала розбити горщик тому, хто покладе більше грошей. Гості скидали їх новородженому - «на мило», «на воза», «на коня», «на люльку», «на віночок». Дарували й полотно на пелюшки, хустинки.

Хрещений батько клав більші гроші і розбивав горщик качалкою або тричі підіймав його і за останнім разом ударяв об кут стола. Якщо каша 'ціла, не розвалилася, - це на достаток і щастя, її годилося скоро схопити і з'їсти, «щоб дитина говорила скоріше», «щоб дитя на ноги хваталося швидко». Частування кашею було насичене й іншими діями, супроводжувалося примовками, наприклад: «Роди, Боже, жито й пшеницю, а куму й кумі дітей копицю». Хлопчику бажали, «щоб орач був, щоб не злодій був». Дівчинці - «щоб хлопці поважали й любили» і т.ін. Обряд з кашею - багатозначний ритуал. У ньому реалізувалася ідея входження дитини в сім'ю.

181TRANSLATION OF IDIOMATIC/PHRASEOLOGICAL AND STABLE EXPRESSIONS

Idiomatic or phraseological expressions are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences having mostly the meaning, which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts1. An indispensable feature of idiomatic (phraseological) expressions is their figurative, i.e., metaphorical nature and usage. It is this nature that makes them distinguishable from structurally identical free combinations of words Cf.: red tape (free word-comb.) червона стрічка - red tape (idiom) канцелярський формалізм (бюрократизм); the tables are/were turned (free word-comb.) столи перекинуті/були перекинуті - the tables are turned (idiom) ситуація докорінно змінилася; супротивники помінялися ролями/місцями; play with fire гратися з вогнем (free word-comb.) гратися з вогнем (біля багаття) - наражатися на небезпеку (idiom).

On rare occasions the lexical meaning of idiomatically bound expressions can coincide with their direct, i.e., not transferred meaning, which facilitates their understanding as in the examples like: to make way дати дорогу; to die a dog's death здохнути як собака; to receive a hero's welcome зустрічати як героя; wait a minute/a moment зачекайте хвилинку/ один момент; to tell (you) the truth правду казати/правду кажучи; to dust one's coat/jacket витрусити пальто/ піджака - дати духопеликів.

Some proper names can also be endowed with figurative meaning and possess the necessary expressiveness which are the distinguishing features of idioms2: Croesus, Tommy (Tommy Atkins), Yankee, Mrs. Grundy, Jack Ketch, etc. These, proper names have acquired their constant meaning and can not be confused with usual (common) proper names of people. As a result their transferred meaning is conveyed in a descriptive way. So Mrs. Grundy means світ, люди, існуюча мораль; Jack Ketch кат; Croesus Крез, надзвичайно багата людина; Tommy Atkins англійський солдат; Yankee (in Europe) янкі/американець, etc.

Idiomatic/phraseological expressions should not be mixed up with different fixed/set prepositional, adjectival, verbal and adverbial

1 See: Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского язьїка. - М.: Международ. отношения, 1972. Martin H. Manser A Dictionary of Contemporary Idioms. - London, Pan Books Ltd, 1983.

2 See: CollinsV.N.ABook of English Idioms. -Л.:Учпедгиз, 1950. Англо-український фразеологічний словник Склав К.Т. Баранцев. - Київ: Рад. шк., 1969. phrases the meaning of which is not an actual sum of meanings made up by their constituent parts either: by George, by and by, for all of, for the sake of, cut short, make believe; or compounds like: topsy-turvy, higledy-piggledy; coordinate combinations like: high and dry, cut and run, touch and go; Tom, Dick and Harry, etc. These and a lot of other stable expressions can very often be treated as standardized collocations. Their meaning can be rendered in a descriptive way too, like that of genuine idiomatic expressions: fifty-fifty так собі; ні добре ні погано; О.Квсе гаразд, на належному рівні; cut short обірвати, присікти/припинити щось (поїздку), обірвати (розмову).

Such and the like stable expressions, like most of other standardized collocations, have usually a transparent meaning and are easier to translate than regular idioms (the so-called phraseological fusions). Meanwhile it is next to impossible to guess, for example, the meaning of the English idiom Hobson's choice from the seemingly transparent meanings of its componental parts. Only a philological inquiry helps establish the meaning of the name and the real sense of the idiom - «no choice whatsoever», «acceptance of what is offered» жодного вибору.

Similarly treated must also be many other English and Ukrainian picturesque idioms, proverbs and sayings, which have national literary images and reflect the traditions, customs, the way of conduct or the mode of life of a nation. Their meaning, due to absence of similar idioms in the target language, can be rendered descriptively, i.e. through a regular explication. The latter, depending on the semantic structure of the source language idiom, may be sometimes achieved in the target language with the help of a single word. Cf.: English: an odd/queer fish дивак; Canterbury tale небувальщина, вигадка; blue bonnet («синій берет») шотландець; ніде курці клюнути crammed; зубами тертяка вибивати to be chilled. Most often, however, the meaning of this kind of idioms is conveyed with the help of free word-combinations: to dine with Duke Humphrey залишитись без обіду (нічого не ївши); to cut off with a shilling позбавити когось спадщини. Similarly in Ukrainian: ноги на плечі to go quickly (or very quickly) on one's feet; зуби з'їсти на чомусь to have great experience in something; кивати/накивати п'ятами to run away quickly/hurriedly.

It goes without saying that none of the phraseologisms above can be translated word-for-word since their constituent images would lose their connotative, i.e., metaphorical meaning in the target language. So, пообідати з герцоґом Гамфрі or обрізати шилінґом

половина

in their

could be understood by the Ukrainian language spe& „u на плеч/ literal meaning. The same can be said about our idiom ^ ^/Ould never та й гайда, i.e., *with one's legs on the shoulders whid1 ^ language be understood, when translated literally, by the Eng'1   n mechani-native speakers. Therefore, the componental images ^ rjpg about a cally transplanted to the target language, may often " complete destruction of the idiomatic expression.        , jdioms may The choice of the way of translation of this kind ° у tne exist-be predetermined by the source language context of tjC/stable ex-ence/absence of contextual equivalents for the idiorn^ pelow units pression in the target language. Thus, in the exampl^ ^e ne|p of a of this kind can be translated into Ukrainian either witf1  jca| expres-single word or with the help of a standardized phrased0 sion: to give a start здригнутися; to give ft підбадьорювати, морально підтримувати когось; tf7 sel (facet) жінка (прекрасна стать; жіноцтво; слаб1^ людства), the Holy Mother Богоматір. 0|location af-Not infrequently the meaning of a standardized csynonymous ter V.V.Vinigradov like that of a regular idiom may hav^ ^Ojce Of ^ne single word equivalents in the target language. The ^e standard-equivalent is predetermined then by the meaning of ntence where ized collocation/phraseologism and by the style of the 5^0зпечувати; it is used: to make sure упевнитись (пеконатися), з& ^раплятися; to make comfort втішатися; to take place відбуватись-the world and his wife усі.                                           5 which have Similarly treated are also traditional combinatio11 equivalents in the target language several stylistically neutral fr0 дати, йти на (words or word-combinations) as: to run a risk ризи^У Op ризик, to apply the screw натиснути (на когось); to   .^, potato швидко позбутися когось, обірвати стосУ припинити знайомство.                                              ue idiomatic/ Faithful translating of a large number of picture5^cnjevec| on|y phraseological expressions, on the other hand, can be > language a by a thorough selection of variants having in the tar0 picturesque-similar to the original lexical meaning, and also th^1 j on common

jm_

the mean-gener-

a раптово

ness and expressiveness. This similarity can be in the source language and in the target language c° ages as well as on the structural form of them. As a f05 ing of such idioms is mostly guessed by the student5'

ally facilitates their translation.

A few examples will suffice to prove it. English

grass widow

(widower) солом'яна вдова (вдівець); not to see a step beyond one's nose далі свого носа нічого не бачити; measure twice and cut once сім раз одміряй, а раз відріж; not for love or money ні за які гроші/ ні за що в світі; Ukrainian: не знати/тямити ні бе, ні ме, ні кукуріку (not to know chalk from cheese); вночі що сіре, те й вовк all cats are grey in the dark, який батько, такий син, яка хата, такий тин (яблучко від яблуні далеко не відкочується) like father, like son; not a cat's/dog's chance жодних шансів/можливостей, etc.

It often happens that the target language has more than one semantically similar/analogous phraseological expression for one in the source language. The selection of the most fitting variant for the passage under translation should be based then not only on the semantic proximity of the idioms/phraseologisms but also on the similarity in their picturesqueness, expressiveness and possibly in their basic linages. The bulk of this kind of phraseological expressions belong to the so-called phraseological unities. (Vinogradov). Here are some Ukrainian variants of the kind of English phraselogisms: either win the saddle or loose the horse або пан, або пропав; або перемогу здобути, або вдома не бути; many hands make work light де згода, там і вигода; гуртом і чорта побореш; гуртом і батька добре бити; громада т великий чоловік; a man can die but once від смерті не втечеш; раз мати народила, раз і вмирати; раз козі смерть; двом смертям не бути, а одної не минути; hastle makes waste/the more haste, the less speed тихше їдеш - далі будеш, поспішиш -людей насмішиш, хто спішить-той людей смішить.

A number of phraseological units, due to their common source of origin, are characterized in English and Ukrainian by partial or complete identity of their syntactic structure, their componental images, picturesqueness and expressiveness (and consequently of their meaning). Such kind of idioms often preserve a similar or even identical word order in the source language and in the target language. Hence, they are understood and translated by our students without difficulties: to,cast pearls before swine кидати перла перед свиньми; to be 00/77 under a lucky star народилася під щасливою зіркою; to cherish/warm a viper in one's bosom пригріти гадюку в пазусі; to be/fall between Scilla and Charybdis бути між Сціллою і Харібдою/ між двох вогнів.

One of the peculiar features of this type of idiomatic expressions is their international nature. Only few of them have phraseological synonyms of national flavour, being thus restricted to corre-

185spending speech styles, whereas international idioms predominantly belong to the domain of higher stylistic level: Genuine Internationalisms National/Colloquial Variants

The apple of discord яблуко The bone of contention. The розбрату, яблуко чвар                 bone of discord Strike the iron while it is hot           make hay while the sun shines куй залізо, доки гаряче                 коси коса поки роса

neither fish nor flesh ні риба ні м'ясо to cross the Styx канути в Лету; піти в непам'ять

ні Богові свічка, ні чортові шпичка; ні пава, ні ґава to turn one's toes up простягти/витягнути ноги

National/colloquial variants of international idiomatic substitutes, therefore, always differ considerably by their picturesqueness, expressiveness and their lexical meaning. They are only semanti-cally analogous to genuine equivalents, which may sometimes lack absolute identity in the source language and in the target language (to cross the Styx канути в Лету; to drop from the clouds з неба впасти; neither fish nor flesh ні пава ні ґава).

As can be seen, some international idiomatic expressions slightly differ in English and Ukrainian either in their structural form and lexical idiomatic meaning or in the images making up the idioms. Thus, the idiomatic expression to fish in troubled waters has in English the plural of wafers whereas in its Ukrainian equivalent has a singular form, wheras the component to fish is detalized and extended to ловити рибку (рибу) в каламутній воді; the Society of Jesus is орден єзуїтів, (but not the Order of Jesus) and the Babel of tongues is вавілонське стовпотворіння and not *Вавілон мов.

Slight divergences are also observed in several other English and Ukrainian international equivalents: the game is (not) worth the candle (singular) варта гра св/чок (plural). The idiom a sound mind in a sound body, on the other hand, has a reverse position of its component parts: у здоровому тілі здоровий дух.

Therefore, each of the above-given idiomatic expressions has either a different form of a component/image, a different word order or a slightly different lexical meaning of a componental part. And yet despite the pointed out divergences such and the like idiomatic expressions/phraseological units do not cease to be absolute equivalents in either of the two languages.

Apart from the kinds of idiomatic expressions singled out on the foregoing pages, there exists in each language a specific national layer of idiomatic/phraseological expressions comprising also proverbs and sayings, which are formed on the basis of componenta! images pertaining solely to a concrete national language. Such idioms are first of all distinguished by their picturesqueness, their expressiveness and lexical meaning of their own. Due to their national particularity, these idioms/phraseologisms can not and do not have traditionally established literary variants in the target language. As a result, their structural form and wording in different translations may often lack absolute identity. In their rough/interlinear or word-for-word variants they mostly lose their aphoristic/idiomatic nature and thus are often subject to literary perfection: the moon is not seen when the sun shines місяця не видно, коли світить сонце/ місяця не помічають, коли світить сонце; it is a great victory that comes without blood велика та перемога, яку здобувають без пролиття крові or найбільша та перемога, яка здобувається без пролиття крові.

Similarly translated are some Ukrainian national phraseologisms into English: один дурень зіпсує, що й десять розумних не направять what is spoiled by one fool can not be mended by ten wisemen; малі дти - малий клопіт, великі діти -великий клопіт small children - smaller troubles, grown-up children - grave troubles.

Isomorphic is also the existence in both the languages of a number of idiomatic expressions which are of regular sentence-type structure containing some common componental parts. Hence, their lexical meaning, nothing to say about their componental images, their picturesqueness^nd their expressiveness are identical as well. This is predetermined by their common source of origin in English and in Ukrainian: if you run after two hares, you will catch neither якщо побіжиш за двома зайцями, не впіймаєш жодного; a drowning man will catch (snatch) at a straw потопаючий хапається за соломинку (і за соломинку вхопиться, хто топиться); Bacchus has drowned more men than Neptune Вакх утопив більше людей, ніж Нептун (вино загубило більше людей, ніж море) he who spares the rod spoils the child хто жаліє різку, той збавляє дитину.

As can be noticed from these examples, some English and Ukrainian idiomatic expressions are far from uniform lexically, structurally, and by their componental images, picturesqueness and expressiveness. They do not always spring from the same source of origin either. Because of this a faithful translation of phraseological/

187idiomatic expressions depends upon some factors the main of which

are as follows:

1) whether the idiomatic expression in the source language and in the target language is of the same/different source of origin;

2) whether the idiomatic expression has in the target language only one, more than one or all componental images in common;

3) whether the componental images, when translated, are perceived by the target language speakers;

4) whether the structural form of the idiomatic expressions can be retained in the target language without any transformations;

5) whether there exists an analogous/similar in sense idiomatic expression in the target language, etc.

All these and some other factors should not be neglected when translating idiomatic/phraseological expressions from and into English. In fact, here exists a regular interdependence between the lexical meaning, the origin, the picturesqueness and the expressiveness of idioms on the one hand and the method of their translating

on the other.

Taking into account these and some other factors, the following ways of faithful rendering the idiomatic/phraselogical expressions are to be identified:

1. By Choosing Absolute/Complete Equivalents This is the method of translating by which every componental part of the source language idiom is retained in the target language unchanged. The componental parts include all notionals and also the lexically charged functionals which contribute to the lexical meaning of the idiomatic/phraseological expression. The notional components also create the main images (the picturesqueness), the expressiveness and the figurative (connotative) meanings of idiomatic expressions. Translating with the help of equivalents is resorted to when deating with idioms which originate from the same source in both the languages in question. These sources may be:

1) Greek or other mythology: Augean stables авгієві стайні (занедбане, занехаяне місце); Cassandra warning застереження Кассандри (застереження, на які не звертають уваги, але які збуваються); Hercules' Pillars (the Pillars of Hercules) геркулесові стовпи (Ґібралтарська протока); a labour of Sisyphus сізіфова праця (важка і марна праця); Pandora's box скринька Пандори/ Пандорина скриня (джерело всіляких лих); the Trojan horse троянський кінь (прихована небезпека); Aladdin's'lamp Аладдінова лампа; between Scilla and Charybdis між Сціллою і Харібдою;

2) ancient history or literature: an ass in a lion's skin (назва однієї з байок Езопа) осел у левовій шкурі; to cross (pass) the Rubicon перейти Рубікон (прийняти важливе рішення); the die is thrown/cast жеребок кинуто (рішення прийнято); the golden age золотий вік (золоті часи); / came, I saw, I conquered прийшов, побачив, переміг;

3) the Bible or works based on a biblical plot: to cast the first stone at one першим кинути у когось каменем; to cast pearls before swine розсипати перла перед свиньми; the golden calf золотий телець/ідол; a lost sheep заблудла вівця; the massacre (slaughter) of innocents винищення немовлят; the ten commandments десять заповідей; the thirty pieces of silver тридцять срібняків; prodigal son блудний син.

A great many absolute equivalents originate from contemporary literary or historical sources relating to different languages (mainly to French, Spanish, Danish, German, Italian, Arabic). English: Time is money час - гроші; self made man людина, що сама проклала собі шлях у житті; my house is my castle мій дім - моя фортеця. French: after us the deluge після нас хоч потоп; the fair sex прекрасна стать; the game is worth the candle гра варта свічок; more royalist than the king більший монархіст ніж сам король; to pull the chestnuts out of the fire вигрібати каштани з вогню; one's place in the sun місце під сонцем; Spanish: blue blood блакитна кров; the fifth column (introduced by E. Hemingway) п'ята колона; to tilt at the windmills (introduced by Cervantes) воювати з вітряками; Italian: Dante's inferno Дантове пекло; finita la commedia ділу кінець; Arabic: Aladdin's lamp лампа Аладдіна; German: da 1st derHund begraben ось де собака зарита; Sturm und Drang буря і натиск.

Some mots belonging to prominent English and American authors have also turned into regular idiomatic expressions. Due to their constant use in belles-lettres they have become known in many languages. Especially considerable is the amount of Shakespear-ean mots: better a witty fool than a foolish wit краще дотепний дурень, ніж дурний дотеп; cowards die many times before their deaths боягузи вмирають багато разів; something is rotten in the state of Denmark, etc. не все гаразд у Данському королівстві; vanity fair (J. Bunyan) ярмарок марнославства/суєти; to reign in hell is better than to serve in heaven (J. Milton) краще панувати в пеклі, ніж слугувати в раю; the banana republic (O. Henry) бананова республіка; the last of the Mohicans останній з могікан; to bury a hatchet (F. Cooper) закопати томагавк (укласти мир); the almighty dollar (W. Irving) всемогутній долар; never put off till tomorrow what you can do today ніколи не відкладай на завтра те, що можна зробити сьогодні; the execution of the laws is more important than the making of them (T. Jefferson) закони виконувати важче, ніж їх створювати/писати; the iron nee/(J. London) залізна п'ята (ярмо); gone with the wind (M. Wilson) пішло за вітром/знесено вітром; the cold war (W. Lippamn) холодна війна; Iron Curtain (W. Churchill) залізна завіса, etc.

Translating with the help of monoequivalents, as the absolute equivalents are sometimes called, is very often made use of when dealing with the sentence idioms containing the subject, the predicate, and some other parts of the sentence, though some minor alterations in their structure/word order may not be excluded altogether. Such alterations, however, do not change either the denotative meaning or the componental images, the picturesqueness, expressiveness or connotative meaning of idioms: appetite comes while eating апетит приходить під час їжі; kings go mad and the people suffer from it королі божеволіють, а народ страждає (cf. пани скубуться, а в мужиків чуби тріщать); the last drop makes the cup run over остання краплина переповнює чашу; let the cock crow or not, the day will come співатиме півень, чи ні, а день настане; money is the sinews of war гроші - «м'язи» війни; of two evils choose the least із двох лих вибирай менше; out of the mouths of babies speaks the truth (wisdom) устами немовлят говорить істина/мудрість; the pen is mightier than the sword перо могутніше за меч; Caesar's wife must be beyond suspicion (Caesar) Цезарова дружина не повинна бути під підозрою/повинна бути поза підозрою; the invasion of armies is resisted, the invasion of ideas is not (Hugo) вторгненню армій можна чинити опір, вторгненню ідей – ніколи etc.

As has been said, the target language variants of phraseological monoequivalents may sometimes slightly differ in their structure or in the order of words from the source language idioms (cf. let the cock crow or not співатиме півень чи ні). These minor changes in the structural form, however, do not influence in any way the meaning and the expressiveness or picturesqueness of absolute equivalents in the target language.

Not only regular idioms but also many so-called standardized word-combinations, which may often originate in the two languages from a common source, can be translated by absolute equivalents.

Due to this, they retain in the target language the semantic identity and the componental structure of the source language units: fo give help подавати/надавати допомогу; fo win/gain a victory здобути/ здобувати перемогу; to make an attempt зробити спробу; to throw light проливати світло, etc.

Standardized word-combinations, as will be shown below, can also be translated in some other ways, which is an obvious testimony to the unchangeable inconsistency of the way identified as «translation by means of loans» («кальки», «калькування»).

2.Translation of Idioms by Choosing Near Equivalents

The meaning of a considerable number of phrase idioms and sentence idioms originating in both languages from a common source may sometimes have, unlike absolute equivalents, one or even most of their components different, than in the target language. Hence, the quality of their images is not identical either, though not necessarily their picturesqueness and expressiveness (if any): baker's/printer's dozen чортова дюжина; the devil is not so black as he is painted не такий дідько/чорт страшний, як його малюють; a lot of water had flown/run under the bridge багато води спливло відтоді; love is the mother of love любов породжує любов; too much knowledge makes the head bald від великих знань голова лисіє; in broad daylight серед білого дня; as snort as a dog's tale короткий, як осінній день; as pale as paper блідий мов стіна, measure twice cut once сім раз одміряй, один раз одріж.

The slight divergences in the near equivalents as compared with the source language idioms can manifest themselves also in some other aspects, as for example:

a) in the structure of the target language variant (cf. to make a long story short сказати коротко);

b) in the omission (or adding) of a componental part in the target language (cf. a lot of water had run under the bridge since then багато води спливло відтоді);

c) in the substitution of a feature (or image) of the source language phraseological/idiomatic expression for some other (more fitting or traditionally expected) in the target language: as pale as paper блідий мов стіна; baker's/printer's dozen чортова дюжина; everything is good in its season все добре в свій час (cf. добра ложка до обіду);

d) in the generalization of the features of the source language idiomatic expression: one's own flesh and bone рідна кровинка;

e) in the concretization of some features of the original: a voice in the wilderness глас волаючого в пустелі; you can nof eaten an old bird with chaff старого горобця на полові не впіймаєш; to follow like St. Anthony's рід ходити (за кимось) як тінь/переслідувати когось.

Similar componental substitutions, both semantic and structural, can be observed in regular standardized collocations and in comparative proverbs or saying as: to do harm завдати шкоди; to do one's duty виконувати свій обов'язок; to throw/shed light проливати світло; (asj busy as a bee працьовитий, мов бджола; (as) slippery as an eel слизький як в'юн; as cool as a cucumber холодний як крига (лід); golden opportunity чудова можливість, to shed crocodile's tears плакати крокодилячими слізьми.

Therefore, faithful translation may be achieved by different methods. Moreover, it must be evident now that «translating by means of loans» may refer to any method of rendering phraseologisms/idi-oms which are or may become regular loans in the target language.

Consequently, translation of idiomatic expressions «by means of loans» does not always fully justify the essence of the term as such.

3. Translation by Choosing Genuine Idiomatic Analogies

An overwhelming majority of English idiomatic expressions have similar in sense units in Ukrainian. Sometimes these lexically corresponding idiomatic expressions of the source language may also contain easily perceivable for the target language speakers combinations of images as well as similar or identical structural forms. These idiomatic expressions, naturally, are in most cases easily given corresponding analogies in the target language. As a matter of fact, such expressions are sometimes very close in their connotative (metaphorical) meaning in English and Ukrainian as well. Any common or similar traits of idiomatic expressions are the main proof of their being genuine analogies. The latter in each of the two languages comprise also proverbs and sayings as well as the so-called standardized and stable collocations: he that mischief hatches mischief catches хто іншим лиха бажає, сам лихо має/хто іншим яму копає, сам у неї потрапляє; to nave the ready tongue за словом у кишеню не лізти; to keep body and sole together жити надголодь/зводити кінці з кінцями; like mistress, like maid яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає; fnere is no use crying over spilt milk що з воза впало, те пропало; beaf a dead horse товкти воду в ступі.

Many of such and the like idiomatic expressions may often have two and more analogous by sense variants in the target language. The choice of an analogy rests then with the translator and is predetermined by the style of the text: not for love or money ні за що в світі/ні за які скарби в світі; don'f teacn your grandmother to suck eggs не вчи вченого; не вчи рибу плавати; яйця курку не вчать, etc.; ne that lies down with dogs must rise up with fleas з ким поведешся, того і наберешся; скажи мені, хто твій друг, і я скажу тобі, хто ти; a crooked stick throws a crooked shadow який Сава, така й слава/який батько, такий син, яка хата, такий тин; don't cross the bridges before you come to them не поспішай поперед батька в пекло; не кажи гоп, доки не перескочиш; first catch you hare then cook him не скуби, доки не зловиш; скажеш «гоп», як перескочиш. The number of analogous (similar by sense) expressions for an idiom in the target language may reach a regular row as it is the case with the Ukrainian phraseological expression і на сонці є плями/людини без вад не буває. This idiom may have the following substitutes in different contextual environments: every man nas a fool in his sleeve; every man has his faults; every bean has its black; every man has his weak side; Homer sometimes nods/sleeps; no man is wise at all times; it is a good horse that never stumbles; a horse stumbles that has four legs, etc.

4. Translating Idioms by Choosing Approximate Analogies

Some source language idiomatic and stable expressions may have a peculiar nature of their componental parts or a peculiar combination of them and thus form nationally peculiar expressiveness and picturesqueness of componental images. The latter constitute some hidden meaning, which is mostly not quite explicit and comprehensible, not transient enough for the foreigner.

As a result, there exist no genuine phraseological analogies for the units in the target language. Since it is so, their lexical meaning can be expressed by means of only approximate analogies or through explication, i.e., in a descriptive way. These analogies are only to a slight degree similar to the source language idioms, although they may be no less picturesque and expressive than the source language variants: Wnd words butter no parsnips годувати байками солов'я; to lose one's breath кидати слова на вітер; to make a cat's paw of something чужими руками жар вигрібати; а joint in one's armour ахіллесова п'ята (вразливе місце); fne sow loves bran better than roses кому що, а курці просо; more power to your elbow ні пуху, ні луски!; to come off scot free вийти сухим з води; to be finger and thumb водою не розлити (cf. нерозлийвода); to be from Missouri (Amer.) вірити тільки своїм очам; it is six and half a dozen не вмер Данило, так болячка задавила; what's Hecuba to me моя хата скраю; to get the blues місця собі не знаходити/ сумувати, etc.

No need to emphasize that selection of approximate analogies for a translator is no easy task, as the source languages idioms/ phraseologisms often bear some characteristics of a language's traits having no correspondence^ the target language. Cf.: The answer's a lemon так не буде, такне вийде.

Many idioms have obscure origin/etymology and selecting of approximate equivalents as any other corresponding semantic variants often requires a linguistic investigation on the part of the translator. For example: to be in the cart means to be closed in a cage as a convict (for some crime) and be exposed to general scorn of one's compatriots (as in old times in England). It may be translated into Ukrainian as бути в стані/ситуації хоч круть хоч верть, потрапити в безвихідь.

5. Descriptive Translating of Idiomatic and Set Expressions

The meaning of a considerable number of idiomatic as well as stable/set expressions can be rendered through explication only, i.e., in a descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of meaning contained in the source-language idiom, it can be expressed in the target language in some ways:

1) by a single word: out of a clear blue.of the sky раптом, зненацька; to pall and peel (to peel and pall) грабувати/оббирати; poor fish йолоп, бевзь, нікчема; red blood мужність, відвага, хоробрість; to sell smoke піддурювати, підманювати; to seta-limit to smth. обмежувати, стримувати; to set at large звільнювати (випустити на волю); to go aloft померти;

2) undoubtedly the most frequent is rendering the sense of idiomatic/phraseological expressions with the help of free combinations of words as in: to run amock нападати зненацька на першу-ліпшу людину; school miss школярка, соромлива, недосвідчена дівчина; to sell someone short недооцінювати когось; to sham Abraham удавати з себе хворого (прикидатися хворим); to shoot Niagara вдаватися до ризикованих дій, short odds майже рівні шанси; to sit above the salt сидіти на почесному місці; the sixty-four dollar question найважливіше, вирішальне питання; a stitch in time своєчасний захід/вчинок, своєчасна дія; to go to rack (wrack) ruin загинути; зовсім розоритися; to go west/West пропасти, зникнути, зійти зі сцени (переносно);

3) when the lexical meaning of an original idiomatic expression is condensed or when it is based on a nationally specific notion/ structural form alien to the target languages, the idiomatic expression may be conveyed by a sentence or a longer explanation: a wet blanket людина або обставина, що розхолоджує; well day (well-day) день, коли у хворого не погіршувався стан здоров'я (час між приступами гарячки, малярії тощо); wise behind млявий, що погано міркує; white elephant подарунок, якого важко позбутися (те, що приносить більше турбот, ніж користі); yes man (yes-man) людина, що з усіма згоджується, тільки підтакує (підтакувач); to cut off with a shilling залишити без спадщини; fight like Kilkenny cats битися до взаємного знищення; to accept (the Stewardship) of the Chiltern Hundreds (Parliament) скласти з себе обов'язки члена британського парламенту.

It must be added in conclusion that some English idiomatic/ set expressions have a rather transparent lexical meaning and are easy for our students to translate into Ukrainian: to treat one like a lord щедро частувати (як лорда) когось, цяцькатися з кимось; with all one's steam/with all speed щодуху, дуже швидко; with a founded air ображено, з виглядом ображеного; with flags flying/with flying colours тріумфально, переможно; with a good reason не без підстав, недаремно; to be half way between something посередені (бути на середині між чимсь), іти назустріч комусь/чомусь; not born yesterday досвідчений (у житті).

Depending on the speech style of the passage/work, in which the idiomatic/phraseological expressions are used, and taking into account the nature of them (literary, colloquial, historical) some modifications of the above-given methods of translations and even new variants of translation may be suggested by the translator. Nevertheless, the aim of translation will always remain the same, viz. to fully render in the target language the lexical meaning and where possible also the structural peculiarities, the picturesqueness, the expressiveness, and the connotative meaning (if any) of the source language idiomatic or stable expressions in the target language. How it may be achieved can be seen on the examples of rendering the meaning of some national idioms.

TRANSFORMATION OF SOME IDIOMS IN THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATING

As has already been pointed out some phraseological expressions singled out by the Acad. V. Vinogradov as unities and having mostly a transparent meaning may reflect various national features of the source language. The latter may be either of lingual or extralingual nature, involving the national images, their peculiar pic-turesqueness or means of expression with clear reference to traditions, customs or historical events, geographical position of the source language nation. Such phraseological expressions are often of a simple or composite sentence structure. Being nationally distinct, they can not have in the target language traditionally established equivalents or loan variants. As a result, most of them may have more than one translator's version in the target language. It may be either a regular sense-to-sense variant (an interlinear-type translation) or an artistic literary version rendering in which alongside the lexical meaning also the aphoristic nature, the expressiveness, the picturesqueness, the vividness, etc. of the source language phraseologism/idiom.

Taking into account the aims pursued and the contextual environment of the idiom, there must be acknowledged at least two main levels of translating the national idioms:

1) the level of the interlinear rendering, i.e., sense-to-sense translation only, which is quite sufficient to faithfully express the lexical meaning of most of these phraseologisms/idioms;

2) the literary/literary artistic level at which not only the sense but also the expressiveness, the vividness, the picturesqueness and the aphoristic nature (if any) of the idioms should possibly be conveyed as well.

Faithful translation of national idioms/phraseologisms is mostly achieved via deliberate transformations of all kinds performed by the translator. The transformations are aimed at making the national images, the sense and structure of these phraseologic expressions easier for the target language readers/listeners to comprehend .Such transformations, therefore, adjust in many a case the source language idiom as a sense unit to the requirements of the target language bearers. Here are some examples of translation with the help of transformations of particularly English phraseologisms performed first (1) at the interlinear (sense-to-sense rendering) level and then (2) at the literary/literary artistic level: the wind cannot be prevented from blowing 1. вітрові не перешкодиш віяти; 2. вітрові не скажеш не віяти/дути; вітру не затулиш; he that doesn't respect, isn't respected 1. хто інших не поважає, сам'поваги не має; 2. поважатимеш інших, поважатимуть і тебе; it's an equal failing to trust everybody and to trust nobody 1. однакова вада - довіряти всім і не довіряти нікому; 2. довіряти кожному і не довіряти нікому - однакова вада; the pleasures of the mighty are the tears of the poor 1. розваги всесильних/ багатих - то сльози бідних/ знедолених; 2. вельможні скачуть - убогі плачуть; що панські жарти, то людські сльози; they must hunger in winter that will not work in summer 1. той голодує взимку, хто не працює влітку; 2. шукаєш влітку холодок - знайдеш узимку голод, or: лежатимеш на печі - не їстимеш калачі.

No need to emphasize that some successful literary artistic translations/variants of specifically national idioms may in the end become regular translation loans of the target language.1

Transformations become absolutely inevitable when the English phraseologisms or mots contain a passive voice structure, the introductory it/there, or some other analytical constructions, as for instance, those with the auxiliary verbs (do, does, etc.). Cf.: there is no love lost between them вони недолюблюють одне одного/глек розбили; Does your mother know you are out? Молоко на губах ще не висохло/ще не доріс. Can the leopard change his spots? Горбатого могила виправить. Though sometimes transformations may become necessary to make the denotative and connotative meaning of idioms/phraseologisms easier for the target language bearers to comprehend. Thus, neither the sense-to-sense nor the literary variant of the proverb the moon is not seen when the sun shines (місяця не видно, коли світить сонце/сяє сонце - місяця не видно) can fully express its connotative (and denotative) meaning when the proverb stands for somebody or something eclipsing with his or its importance (fame, size, etc.) somebody or something meant by the «moon». All in all, however, there are few such sentence-type phraseological expressions which need some additional explication in Ukrainian. More often the content of the kind of phraseologisms/idioms is clear already at language level, i.e., out of context, which enables their literary translation. This can be observed from a few more examples below: what matters to a blind man that his father could see що з того сліпому, що його батько був зрячим; it is too late to shut the stable door when the horse is stolen пізно зачиняти конюшню, коли коня вкрали; when two ride on one horse

1 See more about translation loans in: Зорівчак Р.П. Фразеологічна одиниця як перекладацька категорія. -Львів: «Вища шк.» Вид-во при Львівському ун-ті, 1983.

one must sit behind коли двоє їдуть на одному коні, комусь/одному з них сидіти/їхати ззаду/двоє не можуть сидіти спереду..

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Comment on the main lingual and extralingual factors influencing the translation of phraseological/idiomatic and set expressions.

2. Define the nature of phraseological/idiomatic expressions translated by choosing absolute equivalents.

3. Point out the difference between the absolute and near idiomatic/phraseological equivalents. Illustrate it with some examples

of your own.

4. Comment on the genuine idiomatic/phraseological analogies. Give a few English and Ukrainian idiomatic expressions of the kind.

5. Comment on the nature and ways of translating approximate idiomatic/ phraseological analogies.

6. Comment on the possible ways of translating national idiomatic expressions. Say, whether the cast iron nature of such idiomatic expressions can ever be maintained in their sense-to-sense

translation.

7. Comment on the descriptive method of translating idioms. Give examples of some descriptively translated by you English/Ukrainian phraseological/idiomatic expressions.

8. What kind of idiomatic/phraseological expressions are the easiest/most difficult to translate and why? Give your own reasons for that and illustrate your judgement with some examples of your own.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS-WORK AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Define the nature of each idiom below depending on the way it is to be translated into Ukrainian:

1. an eye for an eye, and tooth for a tooth; 2. custom (habit, use) is a second nature; 3. he laughs best who laughs last; 4.. let bygons be bygons; 5. like two drops of water; 6. look before you leap; 7. my little finger told me that; 8. a new broom sweeps clean; 9. no bees, no honey; no work, no money; 10. (one) can't see before one's nose; 11. (one) can't say boh to the goose; 12. to pick one's chestnuts out of the fire; 13. a prodigal son; 14. (as) proud as a peacock; 15. to return like for like; 16. to see smth. with the corner of one's eye; 17. there is no smoke without fire; 18. a tree of knowledge; 19. a voice in the wilderness; 20. to wipe off the disgrace; 21. to wipe one/smth. off the face/surface of the earth; 22. with open arms; 23. with a rope round one's neck; 24. whom God would ruin, he first deprives of reason; 25. it is a bold mouse that nestles in the cat's ear; 26. fire and water are good servants but bad masters; 27. he who is born a fool is never cured; 28. beauty is a fading flower; 29. a bad beginning makes a bad ending (Greek); 30. a full belly makes a dull brain; 31. the belly is not filled with fair words; 32. bread and circus; 33. fair words fat few; 34. between the devil and the deep; 35. like water off the feathers of a duck; 36. what is writ is writ; 37. no sweet without sweat; 38. first come, first served; 39. eyes are bigger than the stomach; 40. not blink an eye; 41. work like a dog; 42. walk on air; 43. work one's fingers to the bone; 44. Alpha and Omega; 45. physician, heal thyself; 46. the salt of the earth.

Exercise II. Suggest Ukrainian near equivalents for the idiomatic expressions below. Use part b) of the exercise for the purpose:

a) 1. To kill two birds with a stone. 2. A good beginning makes a good ending (A good beginning is half the battle). 3. To kiss the post. 4. To know as one knows one's ten fingers/to have something at one's finger tips. 5. To laugh the wrong side of one's mouth. 6. To lay something for a rainy day. 7. He that diggeth a pit for another should look that he fall not into it himself. 8. To lick one's boots. 9. Lies have short legs. 10. Life is not a bed of roses. 11. To make one's blood run cold. 12. Measure twice and cut once. 13. More royalist than the king. 14. As naked as a worm. 15. Nobody home. 16. No sooner said than done. 17. Not to lift a finger. 18. An old dog will learn no new tricks. 19. Old foxes need no tutors. 20. To buy a pig in a poke. 21. To play one's game. 22. To pour water in (into, through) a sieve. 23. To praise smb. beyond the skies/the moon. 24. As pretty as a picture. 25. As handsome as a paint. 26. Not to have a penny/a sixpence/a dime to bless oneself. 27. Not to have a shirt (rag) to one's back. 28. Not to know A from B. 29. To put spokes in one's wheel 30. Pride goes (comes) before a fall/destruction. 31. To promise mountains and marvels. 32. One fool makes many. 33. The voice of one is the voice of none. 34. One step above the sublime makes the ridiculous. 35. On Monday morning don't be looking for Saturday night. 36. As pale as a corpse (as ashes, death). 37. Let George do it.

b) 1. Одним ударом (махом) двох зайців убити. 2. Добре

199розпочати - півділа зробити. 3. Поцілувати замок. 4. Знати, як свої п'ять пальців. 5. На кутні сміятися. 6. Відкладати щось на чорний день. 7. Хто іншому яму копає, той сам у неї потрапляє. 8. Лизати п'яти (комусь). 9. Брехнею далеко не заїдеш (весь світ пройдеш, та назад не вернешся). 10. Життя прожити - не поле перейти (на віку, як на довгій ниві). 11. Кров у жилах холоне. 12. Сім раз відміряй (одмір), а раз відріж (утни). 13. Більший католик, ніж папа римський. 14. Голий, як бубон. 15. Не всі вдома (однієї клепки не вистачає). 16. Сказав, як зав'язав (сказано-зроблено). 27. Пальцем не поворухне. 18. Старого не перевчиш (вченого вчити - тільки час марнувати). 19. Не вчи вченого. 20. Купити (купувати) кота в мішку. 21. Танцювати під чиюсь дудку. 22. Носити воду в решеті. 22. Підносити когось до небес. 24. Гарна, як квітка (як яблучко). 25. Гарний, як червінець. 26. Не мати шеляга/копійки за душею. 27. Сорочки на плечах не мати. 28. Ні бе, ні ме, ні кукуріку. 29, Вставляти палиці комусь в колеса. ЗО. Гордість (пиха) до добра не доводить. 31. Обіцяти золоті гори. 32. Дурість заразлива. 33. Один у полі не воїн. 34. Від великого до смішного-один крок. 35. Шукати вчорашнього дня. 36. Білий, як стіна (як крейда, як полотно). 37. Іван киває на Петра.

Exercise III. Suggest Ukrainian single word equivalents for the following English phraseological and set expressions: 1. all for naught; 2. a shot in the blue; 3. a simple innocent; 4. to sink to destitution; 5. the small of the night (the small hours of the night); 6. soft in the brain (head); 7. Before you can say Jack Robinson; 8. mother's strawberry/mark; 9. breathe one's last; 10. by word of mouth; 11. tender years; 12, to the end of time; 13. to the purpose; 14. white liver; 15. will and testament; 16. with a bold front; 17. with a faint heart; 18. with a good grace; 19. with one's tongue in one's cheek; 20. a young Tartar; 21. you try us; 22. as the crow flies.

Exercise IV. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Define the ways in which the idioms in them are to be translated. 1. «I feel on the top of the world. I feel like a million dollars.» (Maugham). 2. The sole object of their lives is to be always playing with fire. (O. Wilde) 4. Joe felt he wanted putting himself into George's shoes. (J. Brian) 5. Don't talk rot. (D. Cusak) 6. «Don't think I am trying to pry into your affairs», - went on the politician. (T. Dreiser). 7. «The other chap, Profond, is a queer fish. I think he's hanging round Soames' wife, if you ask me!» (J. Galsworthy) 8. Little Jolyon was born with a silver spoon in his mouth. (Ibid.) Keep your eye upon him in the meanwhile, and don't talk about it. He is as mad as a March hare. (Ch. Dickens) 10. The proof of the pudding is in its eating. (S.Maugham) 11. A bird in the hand was worth two in the bush. (Ibid.) 12. Walter knew which side his bread was buttered. (Ibid.) 13. Why not cure unemployment by a National Slum Clearance effort, and kill the two birds with one stone. (J.Galsworthy) 14. However, I must bear my cross as best as I may: least said is soonest mended. (B. Shaw) 15. Oh, well, it's no good crying over spilt milk. (S.Maugham) 16. Her absence had been a relief. Out of sight was out of mind! (J. Galsworthy) 17. «He'll never set the Thames on fire»,-said Soames. (Ibid.) 18. «Silly little thing to try to put a spoke into my wheel.» (S.Maugham) 19. The apple of discord had, indeed, been dropt into the house of Millbornes. (T. Hardy) 20. The poor man's alarm was pitiful. His bread and butter was at stake. (J. London) 21. «I shall let sleeping dogs lie, my child». (J. Galsworthy) 22. The boy is very dear and the apple of her eye. (Ibid.) 23. You've landed yourself in a helpless mess. And I wash my hands of you. (A.Cronin) 24. You know the expression: «She has made her bed, she must lie on tf.»(lbid.) 25. «After all, the proof of the pudding's in the eating». 26. «Yes, I couldn't make head or tail of it.» 27. «You can twist her round your little finger.» 28. «Oh, I don't care a hang about that.» 29. «He says you just eat out of his hand». 30. «By God, if you had, that old hag would have had you out of the play, you're in now before you could say knife». 31. «She almost wished he wasn't going tomorrow so that she could have the pleasure of turning him out bag and baggage». 32. And to dare to treat her like that, a twopenny halfpenny little man in the city.» 33. «Poor lamb, he must be as poor as a church mouse». 34. Oh, well, in for a penny, in for a pound.» 31. «I never slept a wink all night for thinking of you,» he said. 35. «It's quite obvious that you don't care two straws for me.» 36. «That was quite another pair of shoes». 37. «After all sh*e must be tolerant, he was only a boy, and if you must cross your t's, she was old enough to be his mother». 38. «Wish me luck», he whispered, as he turned from her to enter the lift. It's almost too good to be true.» 39. «She had never seen him in evening clothes before. He shone like a new pin». 40. «...she wanted him to have his money's worth». (S.Maugham) 41. Ask them - for pity's sake to stop the gramophone (A.Cronin)

Exercise V. Compare each English idiom with its corresponding Ukrainian equivalent below. Other all possible ways in which they can be translated.

1. like teacher, like pupil; 2. let the dead bury the dead; 3. he who keeps company with the wolves, will learn to howl; 4. the morning sun never lasts a day; 5. to keep a body and soul together; 6. murder will out; 7. of all birds give me mutton; 8. one could have heard a pin drop; 9. one today is worth two tomorrows; 10. one rotten apple decays the bushel; 11. people who are too sharp cut their own fingers; 12. pie in the sky; 13. pigs grunt about everything and nothing; 14. pitch darkness; 15. to play a dirty (mean, nasty) trick on one; 16. to point out a mote in one's eye; 17. to poison the fountains of trust; 18. a pretty penny; 19. a pretty little pig makes an ugly sow; 20. to keep one's tongue between one's teeth; 21. to make it hot for one; 22. to make mince meat/to make meat of smth.; 23. more power to your elbow; 24. to pull one's leg; 25. every dog has his day; 26. this is too thin; 27. to run with the hare and hunt with the hounds; 28. a saint's words and cat's claws; 29. one's sands are running out; 30. never bray at an ass; 31 .to find a mare's nest; 32. sounding brass; 33. to talk through one's hat; 34. to talk a dog's (horse's) hind leg off; 35. to touch bottom; 36. company in distress makes sorrow less; 37. tit for tat; 38. tomorrow come never; 39. weeds want no sowing; 40. we got the coach up the hill; 41. what's Hecuba to me/to you; 42. when bees are old they yield no honey; 43. the wind in a man's face makes him wise; 44. scratch my back and I'll scratch yours. 45. To kill the goose that laid the golden egg.

Exercise VI. Translate in viva voce the following phraseological/idiomatic expressions, proverbs and saying into English. Define the ways in which their meaning can be faithfully conveyed:

1. який Сава, така й слава; 2. що було, то загуло; 3. з ким поведешся, того й наберешся; 4. на світі нема нічого вічного; 5. ледве зводити кінці з кінцями; 6. шила в мішку не сховаєш; 7. найкраща риба -ковбаса /гарна птиця ковбаса; 8. тихо, яку вусі /чути,, як трава росте; 9. не відкладай на завтра те, що можна зробити сьогодні; 10. одна паршива вівця всю отару поганить; 11. хто сміється, тому не минеться; 12. краще жайворонок у руці, ніж журавель у небі; 13. людям язиків не зав'яжеш; 14. темно, хоч в око стрель; 15. підвезти воза /підкласти свиню; 16. чуже бачити аж під лісом, а свого й під носом не помічати; 17. підірвати довір'я до себе; 18. грошей добру копійку /грошей дай Боже; 19. всі дівчата, мов квітки, а звідки погані баби беруться; 20. тримати язик за зубами/ ні.пари з уст; 21. дати прочухана /нагріти чуба; 22. не лишити каменя на камені; 23. ні пуху, ні луски; 24. морочити комусь голову; 25. козак не без долі /і в наше віконце ще загляне сонце; 26. білими нитками шито; 27. служити і вашим, і нашим; 28. м'яко стеле, та твердо спати; 29. недовго (комусь) ряст топтати; ЗО. не водись з дурнем; 31. попасти пальцем у небо; 32. пусті слова /балачки; 33. верзти нісенітницю; 34. наговорити сім мішків /кіп гречаної вовни; 35. узнати/спізнати, по чім ківш лиха; 36. в гурті і смерть не страшна /поділене горе - півгоря; 37. око за око/зуб за зуб; 38. обіцянка-цяцянка, а дурному радість; 39. дурнів не орють, не сіють (а вони самі родяться); 40. знайте нас: ми кислиці - то з нас квас; 41. а яке мені діло/ моя хата з краю; 42. був кінь, та з'їздився; 43. біда вимучить, біда й навчить; 44. рука руку миє. 45. Зарізати курку, що несла золоті яйця.

Exercise VII. Choose in part B of the exercise below the corresponding English equivalents (відповідники) for the following Ukrainian idiomatic/phraseological expressions and substantiate the way in which you decided to translate them.

A. 1. виїденого яйця не вартий; 2. я не я, і хата не моя/ моя хата з краю; 3. купається /плаває, як вареник у маслі; 4. як тільки язик повертається; 5. як сніг на голову; 6. лупцювати, як Сидорову козу; 7. (дивитися) як цап /баран на нові ворота 8. спіймати облизня; 9. чув дзвін, та не знає, не він; 10. як чугуївська верства (високий); 11. чого я там не бачив; 12. спасти на думку; 13. отримати прочухана; 14. рости, як із води; 15. здоров'я -найдорожчий скарб; 16. розбити глек із кимсь; 17. розв'язувати руки комусь; 18. сім п'ятниць на тиждень; 19. кашу маслом не збавиш; 20. водити за ніс (когось); 21. морочити комусь голову / піддурювати когось; 22. від долі не втечеш/у всякого своя доля; 23. клепки не вистачає (комусь); 24. верзти нісенітницю; 25. справи йшли як по маслу; 26. з вірогідного джерела/ з вірогідних джерел, із свіжих рук; 27. буря в склянці води; 28. гроші /гаманець, або життя; 29. не їла душа часнику, не буде й смердіти.

В. 1. is not worth a straw; 2. it does not concern me/it is not business of mine; 3. one lives in luxury/on the fat of the land; 4) how dare(s) one say so; 5. to come plump upon one/ to come like a bolt from the blue; 6. to beat the life out of one; 7. to look/ be astounded, to be very surprised; 8. to fail face/be a complete failure; 9. that is mere hearsay/rumor; 10. (as) tall as a maypole; 11. I've nothing lost there; 12. to bring back (call) to memory; 13. to grow (take) one's gruel; 14. to overgrow; 15. good health is above wealth; 16. to have a quarrel with one/to break off with one; 17. to give rein/to give full scope (swing) to one; 18. to keep changing one's mind; 19. plenty is no plague; 20. to pull (one) by the nose; 21. to pull one's leg; 22. every bullet has its billet; 23. (one) has not all his buttons/one has a screw loose, one is a little wanting, one is not right up there; 24. to talk nonsense/bunkum; 25. things went swimmingly/without a hitch, work like butter; 26. straight from the horse's mouth/ straight from the tin; 27. a storm in a tea-pot/tea-cup (Am. a tea-cup/tea-pot tempest); 28. to stand and deliver; 29. people throw stones only at trees with fruit on them.

Exercise VIII. Suggest suitable Ukrainian versions for the following English proverbs, sayings and catchwords (крилаті слова та вирази):

1. actions speak louder than words; 2. all that glitters is not gold; 3. work and no play makes Jack a dull boy; 4. a bad workman always blames the tools; 5. barking dogs seldom bite; 6. beauty is only skin deep; 7, creaking gate hangs long; 8. don't cross the bridge until you come to it; 9. don't put the cart before the horse; 10. the early bird catches the worm; 11. every dog has his day; 12. forbidden fruit is sweetest; 13. if a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well; 14. its easy to be wise after the event; 15. it's never too late to mend; 16. it never rains but it pours; 17. more haste less speed; 18.no gain without pain; 19, necessity is the mother of invention; 20. never look a gift horse in the mouth; 21. no news (is) good news; 22. one swallow doesn't make a summer; 23. out of sight, out of mind; 24. paddle your own canoe; 25. the proof of the pudding is in the eating; 26. the road to hell is paved with good intentions; 27. the spirit is willing but the flesh is weak (The Bible); 28. still waters are deep; 29. time and tide wait for no man; 30. too many cooks spoil the broth; 31. when the cat's away the mice will play; 32. where there's a will, there's a way; 33. while there's life, there's hope; 34. you can't run with the hare and hunt with the hounds; 35. you may lead a horse to water, but you can not make him drink; 36. man proposes and God disposes; 37. give a man a fish and he eats all day. Teach him catch fish and he eats for a lifetime; 38. education makes people easy to lead but difficult to drive, easy to govern but impossible to enslave; 39. good advice comes from the aged; 40. an old man is like a child; 41. early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise; 42. there is no place like home; 43. one today is worth two tomorrows; 44. a man is old as he feels, a woman is old as she looks; 45. many a good cow has a bad/evil calf; 46. one's eyes drop millstones; 47, a forgetful head makes a weary pair of heels-; 48. great talkers are all little doers; 49. a great ship asks deep water/s; 50. great weeds grow apiece; 51. to have not a penny to one's name/ to have not a shirt to one's back; 52. keep your mouth shut and your ears open; 53. spare the rod and spoil the child; 54. a sparrow in the hand is better than the pigeon on the roof; 55. a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush; 56. birds of a feather flock together; 57. the ass is known by Its ears; 58. a bird is known by its note, and a man by its talk; 59. a bitten child dreads the dog; 60. a burnt child dreads the fire/a scalded cat/dog fears cold water; 61. the face is the index of the mind; 62. a fair'face may hide a foul heart; 63. far from eye, far from heart/seldom seen, soon forgotten; 64. to fear as the devil fears the holy water; 65. to fiddle while Rome is burning; 66. one's fingers are (all) thumbs; 67. fish begins to stink at the head; 68. fools will be fools; 69. a fool when he is silent is counted wise; 70. friends may meet but mountains never; 71. friends are thieves of time; 72. God helps those who help themselves; 73. man is known by the company he keeps; 74. a good Jack makes a good Jill; 75. every god has his way; 76. fine feathers make the bird; 77. don't have too many irons in the fire; 78. while there's life there's hope; 79. the wish is father to the thought; 80. a word is enough to the wise; 81. a rolling stone catches no moss; 82. Rain at seven, fine at eleven.

Exercise IX. Offer corresponding Ukrainian versions for the following English proverbs and sayings:

A. speak of devil and he will appear; to teach the dog to bark; you can not wash charcoal white; velvet paws hide sharp paws; he that will strive, must rise at five; life is not all cakes and ale; little thieves are hanged, but great ones escape; physician, heal thyself rule with the rod of iron; like teacher, like pupil; like master, like land; like father, like son; like master, like servant; like author, like book; like mistress, like maid; like priest, like people; as the tree, so the fruits; as old clock crows, so doth the young; like begets like; as is trie gardener so is the garden; like carpenter, like chips; as is the workman, so is the work; like likes like; like draws to like; like cures; like sayings.

B. Offer English semantic analogies/equivalents for the Ukrainian proverbs and sayings below. Use part A for the purpose where necessary.

Який учитель, такий і учень; який господар, таке й поле; яка хата, такий тин/ який батько, такий син; який автор, така й книжка; який, піп, така й парафія/ зі злої трави - лихе сіно; тернина грушок не родить; яке коріння, таке й насіння; яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає; яка пряжа, таке й полотно; по роботі пізнати майстра, який Яків - стільки й дяки; який пастух, така й череда, які сбмі, такі й сани; яка грушка, така й юшка; рибак рибака впізнає

205здалека; видно пана по халявах; який їхав, таку й здибав/стрів; малі злодії попадаються - великі вириваються.

Exercise X. Translate the story below into Ukrainian. Use the list of idioms below where necessary for the purpose.

Up, Up and Away

On Monday, out of the clear sky, the local travel agent telephoned Janice to tell her that she had won two tickets to the Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta in New Mexico.

Janice and John, her husband, had always wanted to go ballooning at the festival, but they thought that such a trip was beyond their reach. She was walking on air when she telephoned John to tell him the good news. At first, John thought that Janice was joking and full of hot air, but when he realized that she was not building castles in the air, his annoyance vanished into thin air. As soon as John came home from work, Janice and John eagerly talked about the trip. Soon their plans grew by leaps and bounds. Janice's head was in the clouds all the time because she was anticipating the trip and her first balloon ride.

Two weeks before the trip, Janice was rushed to the hospital. After examining her, the doctor burst her bubble when he said that she would need an operation. The doctor's decision went over like a lead ballon. Janice was devastated. Now their balloon vacation was up in the air. She knew that without the free tickets, the cost of the trip would be sky high. But Janice was lucky. The operation was not serious, and she begged the doctor to let her go on the trip. One week later, Janice and John took their dream trip. They were on cloud nine as their balloon rose into the blue sky. Janice smiled and thought: sometimes it pays to reach for the sky.

Idioms to the story:

1. The sky's the limit - there is upper limit;

2. Out of the clear blue sky - suddenly; without warning;

3. Go sky high - go very high;

4. Walk on air - be very happy; euphoric;

5. By leaps and bounds - rapidly;

6. Full of hot air - talking nonsense;

7. Go fly a kite - go away and stop bothering me;

8. Burst one's bubble - disillusion someone;

9. Have one's head in the clouds - be unaware of what is going on;

10. Up in the air- undecided; uncertain;

11. Out of thin air - out of nowhere; out of nothing; high;

12. Vanish into thin air - disappear leaving a trace;

13. On cloud nine - very happy;

14. Reach for the sky - aspire to something; set one's goals

15. Beyond one's reach - more than one can afford;

16. Under a cloud of suspicion - be suspected of something;

17. Go over like a lead balloon - not well received by

others;

18. As high as a kite - very happy;

19. Breath of fresh air - new, fresh, and imaginative approach;

20. Build castles in the air-daydream; make plans that never

come true.

IV. LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

RENDERING OF THE CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES

The article, both the definite and indefinite, is a functional word serving to identify or determine the noun (cf. to work-the work), the superlative degree of its quality (thetallesttree) or the order of nouns in a word-group (the first step) or in a row of similar nouns. In some prepositional phrases and word-combinations the definite and indefinite articles, however, may change their lexico-grammatical nature (become a particle), as in the expression the more, the better (чим більше, тим краще), or acquire some peculiar grammatical, functional and lexical meaning (the Browns/Petrenkos подружжя Браунів/ Петренків); the article may be lexicalized as in the Alps/the Carpathians Альпи/Карпати, at the baker's/butcher's у пекаря/ м'ясника (в хлібному /м'ясному магазині). Such and the like lexicalized articles, naturally, in no way weaken or lose their determining, i.e., grammatical function. As a result, their lexical meaning is inseparable in these cases from their functional meaning. The determining and lexicalizing nature of the definite and indefinite articles also manifests itself in several set expressions (cf. in the cart, in a word, what a pity, all of a sudden, etc.)

1). On several other occasions the definite/indefinite article may acquire some lexical meaning in contextual environment (only for a time) and thus serve as a peculiar means of «expressive connotation»1 . This kind of articles is each time endowed in different contextual environments with some quite different meaning, which may be, nevertheless, of implicitly different semantic and lexico-gram-matical/logically-grammatical type, as for instance, that of a demonstrative, possessive, identifying, indefinite or some other pronoun: Cf.: He lived more poorly than an artisan. (S. Maugham) Жив він бідніше за будь-якого ремісника. Carot never sold a picture. (Ibid) Каро не продав жодної картини/ні однієї картини.

2) That of an adjunctive/identifying adjective and a specifying or modal particle:... and she had acquired a reputation for neatness

1 See: Rayevska N.M. Modern English Grammar. - Київ, Вища школа, Головне вид-во, 1976, p. 86.

208

 

and accuracy (Maugham) і вона здобула за ретельно виконану роботу солідну репутацію. She would have called him a fish. (Carrol) Вона назвала б його просто карасем.

3) A distinctly nominal or rather nominalizing meaning. The latter can be explicitly illustrated in the following sentence. He (Mr. Gills) took it (the bottle) up and having surveyed and smelt it said with extraordinary expression: «The?» «The», returned the instrument maker. (C. Dickens)

The real meaning of thus emphasized article can be disclosed only in the sentence that follows, where Mr. Gills fills the glass with liquour and drinks it. Without the broader context it would certainly be impossible to guess what this definite nominalizing article stands for in the extract. Nor is it always easy for our students to identify in some sentences the rhematic and the thematic function of articles and to express their meaning. Therefore, the occurrence of lexically meaningful articles is not occasional or accidental, for it is predetermined by context. Due to this, the number of lexically meaningful articles in different speech substyles often varies. Their occurrence can also depend on the personal taste of the author who may be more or less inclined to use them in his narrative. But whatever their quantity, none of the lexically meaningful articles should be ignored or overlooked in the passage under translation and its meaning must be correctly rendered in the target language.

In order to faithfully convey each kind of the aforementioned meaningful articles, the student will be advised first of all to subject the whole passage, which is to be translated, to a thorough content analysis in order to select possible lexical substitutes for the articles in the target language. The substitutes in languages like Ukrainian (or Russian), which have no functionals of the kind, can differ by their logico-grammatical nature, as well as be contextually synonymous. Because of this the choice of the contextually equivalent substitutes depends much on the translator who, when selecting a fitting lexical equivalent for the article, has to take some factors into consideration. These include first of all the semantic factor playing a predominant role, and the stylistic factor eliminating an unnecessary repetition of the same equivalent substitute in sentences close by. In other words, the co-occurrence of the same synonymous substitutes must be strictly regulated. Besides, the translator has to keep it in mind, that some contextual meanings of the definite article may seem similar to those of the indefinite article and vice versa. Hence, the translator should be no less attentive to the style of his target lan-

209

 

guage passage which in its turn will help him achieve a faithful translation of sentences or the passage as a whole, where both the defining and the nominalizing lexically charged articles are used.

When conveying the lexical meanings of the definite and indefinite articles into Ukrainian, attention should be paid to their functional meanings in the sentence/word-combinations. Thus, the meanings of the definite article are usually expressed through different Ukrainian attributive pronouns, adjectives, participles, adverbs or cardinal/ordinal numerals. The meaning of the numeral one, on the other hand, is always expressed only through the indefinite article, which is historically derived from this part of speech. Cf.: Most of felllows in the Quarters share a studio. (Maugham) Багато хлопців з латинського кварталу орендують удвох одну студію.

The nominalizing articles are mostly rendered through the parts of speech having the functions of attributes to the noun: «...I believe that a young person in a city tea-shop has left her situation. (Maugham) ...Гадаю, водній із кав'ярень якась офіціантка зникла.

The emphatically used articles, on the other hand, have usually particles for their contextual equivalents in Ukrainian: But I must content myself with a few paragraphs. (Maugham) Жаль, що можу обмежитьсь дише кількома епізодами.

The rhematic use of the articles introducing the new information, a new core of an utterance, and its thematic use repeating the already known information about an object or event is often disclosed in Ukrainian sentences by other than lexical means, as will be shown further. Still, the bulk of meanings which the lexically charged articles can acquire due to their syntagmatic environment in speech are those of pronouns. This can also be seen from the citied illustrations on the forthcoming pages.

REALIZATION OF CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

The definite article when endowed with the lexical meaning in a sentence or passage can have various realizations in Ukrainian. It is expedient to begin with the most common of them which may be the following:

210

 

1) as the demonstrative pronoun цей (ця, це, ці):

 

What his sister has seen in the man was beyond him. (J.London)1

The thought was fire in him. Martin came back and looked at the beady eyes ~ sneering ....

 

Що його сестра знайшла у цьому чоловікові, він не міг збагнути.

Ця думка пекла його, мов вогонь. Мартін опритомнів і, глянувши в ці злі, хитрі очі....

 

2) as the demonstrative pronouns такий (той, та, те, ті), той самий, (саме той, та сама), такий самий:

 

«Sometimes there is the impression that the IMF is on the same side of the barricades with the forces which are out to reverse the course of development back to Soviet times.» Ukrainian president said. (Kyiv Post)

Prime Minister's dismissal had been rumored from the date of his appointment. (Ibid.)

But surely Ruth did not understand it, he concluded. How could she, living the refined life she did?

He was amazed at the man's sympathy with the life and his incisive psychology.

The fellow behind us in the crowd was talking again. (E.Caldwell)

....and when I could see again, the fellow who stayed with me was dragging me down the street. (Ibid.)

 

«Іноді створюється таке враження, що МВФ стоїть на одному боці з тими самими силами, які намагаються повернути курс розвитку до радянських часів», - заявив президент України.

Чутки про зняття прем'єр-міністра поширювалися від самого початку його призначення.

Рут навряд чи розуміла цей твір. Та і як вона могла зрозуміти, живучи таким витонченим, яку неї, життям?

Його вразила така любов цієї людини до життя і її психологічне проникнення.

Той самий хлопець із натовпу позад нас тепер озвався знову.

...а коли мені розвиднілось в очах, саме той хлопець, що зостався зі мною, тяг мене за собою.

 

1 All cited instances in illustration of the lexical meaning of articles, unless indicated otherwise, have been picked up from J.London's works and their translations in Ukrainian.

211

 

3) as the possessive pronoun /"/', їхні, свій (своя, своє, свої):

 

The room was situated over the laundry...

«Why don't you eat?» he demanded, as Martin dipped dolefully into the cold, half cooked oatmeal mush.

...Mr. Higginbotham sneered throughout mealtime at the «literary» person they had discovered in the family.

 

Його кімната була/ знаходилась над пральнею...

«Чому ти не їси?» - запитав він, бачачи, як неохоче Мартін копирсає свою недоварену вівсяну кашу.

...містер Хіггїнботем під час обіду стільки кепкував з «писаки», що виявився у їхній родині.

 

4) as the identifying pronoun весь, вся, все/цілий:

 

Не looked up, and it seemed that the room was lifting...

The romance and beauty, and high vigour of the books were coming true.

Her trained ear detected the overemphasis of the tyro...

«What the hell you guys blocking the street?» (E.Caldwell)

 

Він підвів голову і йому здалося, що вся кімната ходить ходором...

Вся романтика і краса, всі високі поривання, про які він читав у книжках, виявились правдою.

її витончене вухо враз вловило всі перебільшення новачка...

«Якого біса ви, волоцюги, запрудили всю вулицю?»

 

5) as the relative pronoun який (яка, яке, які):

 

Не caught himself imagining the wonder of a caress from such a hand, and flushed guiltily...

She did not know the actual fire of love.

 

Він подумав, яку насолоду повинні приносити пестощі такою рукою, і зніяковіло зашарівся...

Вона не знала, яке то справжнє полум'я коханая.

 

6) as the indefinite pronoun якийсь (якась, якесь), певний:

 

For the moment the great gulf that separated them then was bridged. He was played by the low comedian, who had intro-

 

Ha якусь мить через велику безодню, що розділяла їх, був наведений міст. Його роль виконував такий собі комік з

 

212

 

duced gags of his own... (О.    фарсовими         вибриками

Wilde) власного штибу.

7) as the identifying attributive pronoun сам, сам собою, інший/

Інша:

But the man did not seem to know of the content of the great mind.

The toil meant nothing to him.

...which was new to him, for of the women he had known -that was the only way he thought.

 

Та, очевидно, сам бібліотекар нічого не знав про творчість цієї великої голови.

Сама собою праця нічого не важила для нього.

.... і це було нове для нього, бо про інших жінок, яких він знав, він інакше взагалі не думав.

 

 

 

8) as an adjective or adjectivized participle (according to the

contextual meaning):

Martin Eden did not go out to hunt for a job in the morning.

He had worked the day before in the basement and the money had been kept all the time. (E.Caldwell)

9) as a particle emphasizing or some other part of speech:

But the story was grand just the same, perfectly grand.

The man above us was talking to several persons in the crowd. (E.Caldwell)

The next afternoon, accompanied by Arthur, she arrived in the Morses carriage.

 

Мартін Іден не пішов наступного ранку шукати роботи.

Напередодні він також працював у підвалі фабрики і ще не витратив зароблені гроші.

the attributive pronoun, numeral

А так це оповідання -чудове, ну просто чудове.

А той чоловік над нами огризався до людей з натовпу/ сперечався з людьми з натовпу.

На другий же день в супроводі Артура вона приїхала до нього в кареті Морзів.

 

10) very often when the noun in the sentence has another attribute the clearly explicit lexical meaning of the definite article remains superflous:

He lay where he had fallen,         Він лежав, де впав, і звідти and from there he watched the    спостерігав за чоловіком у

213

 

man   in   the   red   sweater.     червоному светрі. (J.London)

Here the man in the red sweater may be translated as той чоловік у червоному светрі but the postpositive attribute у червоному (светрі) has a stronger force of definiteness than the prepositive lexically charged article. As a result, the meaning of the article remains implicit, though strongly felt.

Similarly in the sentence below where the lexically charged definite article is also suppressed by the attributive prepositional noun:

From the first mention of the 3 першої миті, як місіс

dance by Mrs. Cowperwood and Каупервуд та Анна заговорили

Anna, Ailen had been conscious про вечори з танцями, Ейлен

of a desire toward a more effec- закортіло блиснути (показати

tive presentation of herself than себе) ще яскравіше, ніж це їй

as yet. (T.Dreiser) вдавалося досі.

The definite article in the sentence above is substituted for the contextual noun вечори (з танцями) instead of ті танці as in the original sentence.

11) In many a case the definite article may point to thematic functioning of the noun, which is usually signalized by its initial position in the sentence and pointing to the core of the utterance presenting the basic, known already elements in the sentence:

The street lights were fewer Лампіонів на вулиці тепер

now. (J. Steinbeck) горіло менше.

The old man stared at the Старий з острахом дивився

open door. (Ibid.) на прочинені двері.

The night was getting colder А ніч усе холоднішала і

and more raw all the time, ставала щодалі вологішою/ і

(Е. Caldwell) ставало щодалі вологіше.

The dog had gone back to his Тут собака заходився знову

slow, spiritless barking, спроквола і неохоче

(J. Steinbeck) погавкувати.

They silently passed the stu- Повз майстерню вони

dio. (J. Fowels) пройшли мовчки.

The rheme, the new notional element in the utterance, is more frequently indicated in English by the indefinite article determining

214

 

the noun in the initial position. When translated into Ukrainian, however, the rhematic noun, as has long been noticed1, occupies a terminating position in the sentence/clause (when the utterance is a composite sentence):

There was an old twostorey Того року на Філдінґ Авеню ще

yellow house on Fielding Av- стояв старий двоповерховий

enue that year. (W. Saroyan) жовтий будинок.

A dog growled in one of the Коли чоловіки проходили

yards as the men went by. (J. повз один з будинків, у його

Steinbeck) дворі загарчав собака.

A light fog began to drift У повітрі потяглися

through the air, and the stars легенькі пасма туману, /вони

were swallowed in it. (Ibid.) заволокли й поглинули зірки.

A train hooted mournfully, Тужно загув поїзд, і, обігнув-

and in a moment it rounded а ши за якусь мить округлий вигін,

bend and pushed its terrible light кинув свої страхітливі сліпучі

down the track. (Ibid.) пасма світла на колії.

A correct selection of thematic and rhematic nouns, identified by the definite and indefinite articles and by their respective placement in the sentence, facilitates the faithful conveying of the logical sentence perspective in the target language.

REALIZATION OF CONTEXTUAL MEANINGS OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

Strange as it may seem but very often, almost predominantly, the indefinite article is endowed in speech/text with lexical meanings, which may coincide with those of different pronouns. The only exception is made for the meaning of the cardinal numeral «one» from which the indefinite article historically originates. No wonder that the contextual meanings of the lexically charged indefinite article can sometimes be, as will be seen further on, quite unexpected. The most frequent and common of these meanings can be expressed, as has been mentioned already, in one of the following ways:

1) by the cardinal numeral один (одна, одне): He said something about а         Він тут розповідав щось про

1 See: Бархударов Л.С. Структура простого предложения современного английского язьїка. - М.: «Вьісш. шк.», 1966, p.p. 192-195.

215

 

schooner that's gettin' ready to go    одну шхуну,

off. (О. Wilde) відпливати.

 

яка готується

 

2) In some contexts, however, the indefinite article may ac

quire a lexical meaning which corresponds either to the Ukrainian

cardinal numeral один, to the ordinal numeral перший or to the in

definite pronoun якийсь (якась, якесь). The indefinite article may

also mark the rheme of the utterance as in the sentence: Only for an

instant he hesitated, then his head went up and his hand came off.

(J. London) In this sentence any of the above-given substitutes may

be quite faithful, since the cardinal or ordinal numeral and the indefi

nite pronoun are equally fitting in the utterance, which in Ukrainian

will have another position:

Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки якусь мить... Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки першу мить... Він був у нерішучості (вагався) тільки одну мить... Similarly in the following sentences:

It was only fora moment. Це тривало тільки одну/

(J. London) якусь мить.

3) By the indefinite pronoun якийсь only, without the attendant

meanings of the cardinal or ordinal numerals:

He saw her come down the aisle, with Arthur and a strange young man. (J.London)

Sometimes, when with her, she noted an unusual brightness in his eyes, and she liked it. (Ibid.)

Він бачив, як вона пройшла партером у супроводі Артура і ще якогось незнайомого молодика.

Часом, коли він бував з нею,

вона помічала якийсь

особливий блиск в його очах, що подобався їй.

4) when the lexically meaningful indefinite article precedes the noun under logical stress, it functions as the demonstrative pronoun, which is translated into Ukrainian as цей, ця, це:

 

This was his programme for a week. (J. London)

Here was a man who could do anything, was the message she read there. (Ibid.)

How can a man write so badly?.. (E. Hemingway)

 

Це була його програма на цей тиждень.

Ця людина здатна на все-ось що вона прочитала в його погляді.

Як може ця людина (цей чоловік) писати так погано?..

 

216

 

5) As one of the possessive textual meaning):

He did not go home immediately, and under the tree, where he kept his vigils, he looked up at a window and murmured. (J. London)

When she returned with the grammar, she drew a chair near his. (Ibid.)

 

pronouns (according to their con-

Він (Мартін) не рушив зразу додому, а пішов до знайомого дерева, став на звичне місце проти її вікна і прошептав схвильовано.

Коли вона (Рут) повернулася з граматикою, вона присунула свій стілець до його стільця.

 

6) As the negative ргопоипжоден or the negative perticle ані (when the determined noun is preceded by the negative particle not):

You were not following а Ви не чули жодного слова/

word. ані слова.

Не hadn't a penny. Він не мав жодного пенні

(S. Maugham) (ані пенні).

 

7) as the relative adjective цілий which is lexically equivalent in the sentences below to the Ukrainian identifying pronoun весь (вся, все):

Мартін узяв напрокат друкарську машинку і цілий (весь) день вчився друкувати на ній.

...(його) доробок за день дорівнював доробкові якого-небудь модного письменника за цілий тиждень.

Martin rented a typewriter and spent a day mastering the machine. (J. London)

- (his) day's work was the equivalent to a week's work of

the average succesful writer. (Ibid.)

 

8) More common in Ukrainian contextual substitutes for the lexically meaningful indefinite article are, however, different relative adjectives, the most often used being справжній:

It is sweet to feel that you are really and truly a woman. (Ibid.)

This small sum seemed a fortune. (Ibid.)

 

Приємно відчувати (себе), що ти є справжньою жінкою.

Ця маленька сума здалася (Мартіну) справжнім (цілим) скарбом.

 

9) The contextual meaning of the indefinite article may some-

217

 

times be expressed in Ukrainian through different adverbs:

He had the conviction that he         У нього було таке переконання,

could sit in a draught if he     що він міг сидіти навіть на протязі,

wanted to. (J. Galsworthy) якби того захотів...

There is a great difference.         Це зовсім різні речі/зовсім

(O.Wilde) інша річ.

The above-given lexical realizations of the determining and identifying functions of the definite and indefinite articles would be incomplete without the illustration of some other meanings, which they may acquire in contextual environment. The choice of the se-mantically fitting substitute for the definite or indefinite article then rests entirely with the translator, who is well acquainted with the text/ work under translation. Since the style of the text may often influence or predetermine the choice of the necessary synonym, care should be taken in order not to neglect the possible ways of expression in Ukrainian either. Thus, the lexical meaning of the indefinite article a in the sentence - I didn't dare show my face at Court for a month. (O. Wilde) - could be faithfully expressed in Ukrainian either through the identifying pronoun весь or by its lexical equivalent at sentence level, which is the relative adjective цілий. But the translator of The Picture of Dorian Gray (R. Dotsenko) has suggested for this particular case a more acceptable contextual version: Я добрий місяць і носа не наважувався показати при дворі.

10) The broader context often predetermines the employment

of lexically equivalent variants which could scarcely ever be offered

for a narrow context. The kind of contextual substitutes can be seen

in the examples below, where Ukrainian demonstrative and other

pronouns, adjectives, numerals, etc., are contextually/semantically

enforced by emphatic or modal particles. Thus, the contextual mean

ing of the indefinite article below is expressed through an adjective

enforced by an emphatic or some other particle or group of particles:

He was not to remain a sailor. Бо ж він не буде простим

(London) собі матросом..

Не seemed to think it a dis- Він вважав це чи не за

tinction. (Ibid.) особливу відзнаку.

11) The contextual meaning of the indefinite article may be

expressed through the interrogative or indefinite pronoun also en

forced by some emphatic particles:

- a penniless young fellow, а         ...молодик без шеляга за

218

 

mere nobody, sir, a subaltern in а душею, - власне ніщо, сер,

foot regiment. усього лишень якийсь

піхотний офіцерик... What a lovely day! (La Mure)         Який же гарний день!

Note: Apart from the above-cited contextual meanings of the definite and the indefinite articles there may be some other (implicit) meanings of them. Thus, the definite article may sometimes have the following additional realizations in Ukrainian:

a) that of a pronominal word-group of an emphatic force:

I want you to get rid of the Я хочу, щоб ви врешті-решт

dreadful people you're associ- перестали спілкуватися з усіма

ated with. (O. Wilde) тими покидьками.

The identifying definite article may include in its semantic information some specifying function and meaning too:

The Chinamen were already Там уже метушились госпо-

busy in their shops. (Ibid.) дарі китайських крамничок.

Some implicit contextual meanings of the modifying and identifying definite article the can often be given a true and faithful explication i.e. realization in translation only after a thorough study of the broader content as well. Cf.:

After a moment's hesitation, Стрікленд роздумував

Strickland scrambled to his feet, недовго. Випростав затерплі

and together they went to the ноги, і вони вдвох подалися до

Bonchee de Pain. іншого благодійного

(S.Maugham) закладу під назвою

«Хлібодар».

The MacAndrews, who were Полковник Мак-Ендрю з

childless and in easy circum- дружиною, бездітні й добре

stances, arranged to undertake забезпечені, взяли на

the care of the children, and Mrs. утримання її дітей, так що місіс

Strickland had only herself to pro- Стрікленд заробляла тільки на

vide for. (Ibid.) себе.

b) Sometimes the article may substitute an implicit identifying/

interrogative pronoun and a particle expressing the contextual mean

ing of the emphatically used noun with the definite article. This can be

seen in the following exclamatory sentence:

219

 

The pity of it! The pity of it! Як жаль! Який жаль!

шкода! Дуже шкода!

The picture of contextual realizations of meanings pertained to the determining and identifying articles would be incomplete without some illustrations of their «deep», as one might call them, or interpharasal and superphrasal meanings, which the articles may acquire in some contexts. The interphrasal meaning of the definite or indefinite article may be elicited already from its contextual meaning at the level of the sentence. Cf.:

I looked at her mouth for an Я позирав на її вуста - чи expression that could give me не майне там бодай тінь її a clue to what she felt. (Maugham) душевного стану.

The meaning of the noun with the indefinite article (an expression) is clearly perceived from the content of the sentence where it may also be substituted tor якийсь вираз/хоч якийсь вираз.

More or less transient is also the meaning of the underlined noun with the definite article in the following sentence:

Of the threat she said noth- Власне ж про саму погрозу

ing. (O.Wilde) вона промовчала/не сказала

нічого.

In some cases, however, it is next to impossible to translate a noun with the implicit meaning of its identifying or specifying article without an inquiry into the broader context of the whole work, as in the following sentence:

They sent me to Amsterdam Мене вірядили до

to try for a scholarship, and І Амстердама на конкурс, який

won it. (Maugham.) обіцяв стипендію в художній

школі, і я здобув її.

It goes without saying that such a descriptive translation of the noun (a scholarship) could be offered only by a translator well acquainted with the content of the preceding sentences or even of the whole paragraph.

There are, naturally, many more contextual realizations of the lexical meanings, pertaining to the definite and the indefinite articles, which they may acquire in a text/at speech level.

In view of the diversity of possible lexical realizations, which the English articles may have in speech, the student will be warned to employ not only their single word equivalents to express their meanings in Ukrainian. A thorough study of the broader context may sometimes help to find a more fitting substitute for a lexically charged

220

 

indefinite or definite article in Ukrainian. Thus, in the sentence He had a face that reminded me of a frog. (W.Lewis) the bold type indefinite article a can not be denied the meaning of the demonstrative pronoun таке. All this must be borne in mind when dealing with the lexically meaningful articles in the sentences of the exercise below. Unfortunately, the restricted space of the manual makes it impossible to give regular passages with the implicit (contextual) meanings of the definite and the indefinite articles.

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. The most general contextual realizations of meanings of

the nominalizing and emphatic articles. The means of expressing

their meanings in Ukrainian.

2. The most common contextual meanings of the definite arti

cle and means of expressing them in Ukrainian.

3. The most common contextual meanings of the indefinite

article and means of expressing them in Ukrainian.

4. Ways of conveying the rhematic and thematic contextual

meanings of the definite and the indefinite articles in Ukrainian.

5. Other possible contextual meanings of the definite and in

definite articles and means of their expression in Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Analyse the sentences and substitute the definite article for an appropriate Ukrainian demonstrative pronoun. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

I. This was the man Dorian Gray was waiting for. (O. Wilde) 2. He had met the woman at last - the woman he had thought little about, not being given to thinking about women. (Ibid.) 3. Eight Street Bridge is the place. (J.London) 4. - and at the instant he knew, he ceased to know. (Ibid.) 5. That's the Barney, that has the ugly daughter. (W. Maken) 6. «You've heard of Rancocanty?»- «I'm the man». (G. Byron) 7. «The Mr.Jardyce, sir, whose story I have heard?» (C. Dickens) 8. When she smiled, he saw the Pat he had known, the Pat smiling at him from worn photo, that still lay in the pocket-book against his heart. (J. Lindsay) 9. If I ever saw a man hopelessly hard up it was the man in front of me. (H. Wells) 10.1 was brought up by

221

 

my paternal aunt, Miss Frobisher, the Miss Frobisher of the Barton Chapel Case and the Woman's World Humanity movement. (Ibid.)

Exercise II. Substitute the definite article for an appropriate possessive pronoun. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. He had uttered a mad wish that he himself might remain young, and the portrait grow old - . (O. Wide) 2. It was his beauty that ruined him, his beauty and the youth that he had prayed for. (Ibid.) 3. «Take the thing off the face. I wish to see it.» (Ibid.) 4.1 know the age better than you do, though you will prate about it so tediously. (Ibid.) 5. The next night, of course, I arrived at the place again. (Ibid.) 6. At last, liveried in the costume of the age, Reality entered the room in the shape of a servant to tell the Duchess that her carriage was waiting. (Ibid.) 7. - and you have often told me that it is personalities, not principles, that move the age. (Ibid.) 8. «He began to talk about the house». (J.Fowles). 9. In England he never quite capitalized on the savage impact, the famous «black sarcasm» of the Spanish drawings. (Ibid.) 10. The friendship, the rapport (взаємовідносини) became comprehensible - . (Ibid.)

Exercise III. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Give your reasons for the choice of the indefinite pronoun (or cardinal numeral) to express the lexical meaning of articles.

1. «A Mr. Forsyte to see you, sir». (J. Galsworthy) 2. «By the way, have you any spare clothes you could give the wife of a poor snipe? -. (Ibid.) 3. He was moving slowly on the Bond Street, when a little light lady, coming from the backwater, and reading as she went, ran into him behind. (Ibid.) 4. Haviland looked at him for a moment and then hung up his hat and coat. (M.Wilson) 5. «I saw a Mrs. Danvers on the twelfth floor at two o'clock», he said. (D. du Maurier) 6. There was a woman sitting before the fire. (K.Mansfield) 7. There lay a young man, fast asleep - sleeping so soundly, so deeply, that he was far, far away from them both. (Ibid.) 8. In a few minutes a man came in, and George explained that the cook was sick. (E. Hemingway) 9. «We're going to kill a Swede. Do you know a big Swede named Ole Anderson?» (Ibid.) 10. As he swung, head down, into Talgarth Street he was conscious, suddenly, of a man running. (A. Cronin) 11. «- not to be acquainted with a Jarndyce is queer, ain't it, Miss Flite?» (C. Dickens). 12. Every old gang has a Billy in it. (S. Leacock) 13. «What a fool Rawdon Grawley has been to go and marry a governess!» (W. Thackeray) 14. After a pause Lord Henry pulled out his watch. (O. Wilde) 15. When all that is settled, I shall take a West End theatre and bring her out properly.

222

 

(О. Wilde) 16. A woman in a fluttering shawl was creeping slowly by the railings, staggering as she went. (Ibid.) 17. At last he heard a step outside, and the door opened. (Ibid.) 18. When a government makes a bad mistake of judgement, the electorate turns against it as soon as it feels the effect. (J. Galsworthy)

Exercise IV. Analyse the sentences below. Identify how the contextual meanings of the bold type articles are realized in Ukrainian (as an identifying pronoun, a relative adjective or any other semantically/contextually suitable word). Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Desperately he came to a halt in front of one decent picture hanging on the walls. (A. Huxley) 2.1 honestly think if a person's an artist nobody ought to have any feeling at all about meeting him. (D. Parker) 3. Life worried and bored him, and time was a vexation. (J. London) 4. He is a man. (Ibid.) 5. He was over to San Francisco yesterday looking for a ship. (Ibid.) 6. «What's that?» he replied to a question from Olney that broke in upon his train of thought. (Ibid.) 7. «Yes, she is a peacock in everything but beauty», said Lord Henry. (O. Wilde) 8.1 have not laid eyes on him fora week. (Ibid.) 9. They are always telling that it (America) is the Paradise for women. (Ibid.) 10. Were people to gape at the mystery of his life? (Ibid.) 11. «An eternity», she tells me... (Ibid.) 12. There is hardly a single person in the House of Commons worth painting - . (Ibid.) 13.1 want to place her on a pedestal of gold, and to see the world worship the woman who is mine. (Ibid.) 14. Then he discovered Henley and wrote a series of sea-poems on the model of Hospital Sketches. (J. London) 15. For a generation ... the Old Hundredth (night club) has maintained a solid front against all adversity. (F. Fitzgerald) 16. So when a young man at the office suggested that we take a house together in a commuting town, it sounded like a great idea. (Ibid.) 17. «You can tell me the truth without giving me any of that lip.»(W. Saroyan)

Exercise V. Substitute the articles in bold type for the appropriate particles (вже, навіть, просто, саме, таки, ще, etc.). Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1.1 believe some pictures of mine had made a real success at the time... (O. Wilde) 2. It was the passions about whose origin we deceived ourselves that tyrannised most strongly over us. (Ibid.) 3. You are the type the age is searching for -. (Ibid.) 4. It seems to be the one thing that can make modern life mysterious or marvellous to us. (Ibid.) 5. Conscience is the trade-name of the firm. (Ibid.) 6. «You are the one man in the world who is entitled to know everything about

223

 

me - . (Ibid.) 7. «Years ago, when I was a boy», said Dorian Gray -. (Ibid.) 8. The very thought of it stirs me. (J. London) 9. -when that was over and he had failed to kill his loneliness but only made it worse, he had written to her, the first one, the one who left him. (E. Hemingway)

10. «I suppose, it's the thing to do», Macomber agreed. (Ibid.)

11. «She went into a house-» «Intoahouse!» Michael dived his ciga

rette-case. (J. Galsworthy) 12. -1 have this coloured laundress. She is

a real character. (D. Parker) 13. - He says he wouldn't sit down at the

table with one (Negro) fora million dollars. (Ibid.) 14. She is more than

an individual. (O. Wilde) 15. «That's better», the sheriff said. «That's a

civil answer». (W. Saroyan) 16. «You should go and see Claud Brains.

He's a real genius». (J. Galsworthy) 17.1 have no doubt it was not an

accident, Dorian. (O. Wilde) 18. What a girl! (T.Dreiser) 19.... «but I

shall have to ask them what the name of the country is, you know»

(L. Carroll) 20. It sounded an excellent plan, no doubt, and very neatly

and simply arranged. (Ibid.) 21. That will be a queer thing, to be sure!

(Ibid.) 22. «Ah, that's the great puzzle!» (Ibid.) 23. «What a curious

feeling»! said Alice. 24. Either the well was very deep, or she fell very

slowly. (Ibid.)

Exercise VI. Point out the difference in the lexical meaning expressed by the indefinite and the definite articles signalizing respectively the rheme and theme in the sentences below. Pay attention to the place which the rhematic and thematic nouns occupy in their Ukrainian variants.

1. As he passed the bronze statue of the Four Moors a man's figure emerged from an old house on the opposite side of the shipping basin. 2. The man approached unsteadily along the water side, shouting an English song. (E. Voynich) 3. As they passed by the gateway of the Uffizi, he crossed the road and stooped down at a dark bundle that was lying against the railings. (Ibid.) 4. The bundle moved, and answered something in a low, moaning voice. (Ibid.) 5. «What a fool Rawdon Grawley has been to go and marry a governess!» (W.Thackeray) 6. «But there was something about the governess too. Green eyes, fair skin, pretty figure». (Ibid.) 7. It was as John had said - he and she just wanted to live and the past was in their way - a past they had not shared in, and did not understand. (J.K.Jerome) 8. I've written a lot of them (his sayings) down in a book for fear of losing them. 9. It is only fair that at the back of the book I would be allowed a few pages to myself to put down some things (Ibid.) 10. It was an early morning of a sunny day. (Ibid.) 11. He remembered suddenly the early morning when he slept on

224

 

the house-boat after her father died-. (J.Galsworthy) 12. He wrote a pamphlet on Malt on returning to England - . (Ibid.) 13. She ... took an interest in the pamphlet on Malt: was often affected, even to tears. (Ibid.) 14. There came a morning at the end of September when aunt Ann was unable to take from Smither's hands the insignia of personal dignity. (Ibid.) 15. The morning after a certain night on which Soames at last asserted his rights and acted like a man he breakfasted alone. (J.Galsworthy)

ASYNDETIC NOUN CLUSTERS AND RENDERING THEIR MEANING INTO UKRAINIAN

Present-day English abounds in asyndetic noun clusters which are very often used in newspaper and scientific matter/texts. They are word-groups consisting of two, three or more nouns (functionally equivalent to word-groups) like yarn production, yam production figures; the House of Commons debate; mother and child care. New Deal and Great Society programs.'

Irrespective of the number of components in these clusters or their structure, they are always in subordinate relation to each other, i.e., they function as adjunct (attributive component) and head (nucleus). The former occupies the left-hand (initial) position and the latter -the right-hand (closing) position in the cluster. The subordinate relation between the parts of the binary asyndetic substantival cluster can be graphically presented as follows: yarn -> production, the House of Commons -> debate, mother and child -> care, cotton yam -> production, New Deal and Great Society -> programs.

In many such and the like noun clusters the head components may have a compound noun or a word-group structure too: Sahara -> oilwells, US -» open tennis champions, The placement of head may be reverse: Stormont<r- a Social Democratic and Labour Party MP. Many asyndetic noun clusters have often extended adjuncts and extended/expanded heads as in examples Upper Clyde Shipbuilders -> shop stewards; Noise Advisory Council -> working group representative; the Suez Canal Zone base -> agreement negotiations.

The semantic interrelation between the componental parts in asyndetic noun clusters may often be rather complicated.

1 The illustrative examples of asyndetic noun clusters on this and on the forthcoming pages have been picked up in British and American papers: The Guardian, Financial Times, USA Today, from The Time magazine and others.

225

ASYNDETIC NOUN CLUSTERS AND RENDERING THEIR MEANING INTO UKRAINIAN

Present-day English abounds in asyndetic noun clusters which are very often used in newspaper and scientific matter/texts. They are word-groups consisting of two,  three or more nouns (functionally equivalent to word-groups) like yarn production, yam production figures; the House of Commons debate; mother and child care. New Deal and Great Society programs.'

Irrespective of the number of components in these clusters or their structure, they are always in subordinate relation to each other, i.e., they function as adjunct (attributive component) and head (nucleus). The former occupies the left-hand (initial) position and the  latter- the right-hand (closing) position in the cluster. The subordinate relation between the parts of the binary asyndetic substantival cluster can be graphically presented as follows: yarn —> production, the House of Commons -* debate, mother and child -> care, cotton yarn -> production, New Deal and Great Society -> pro- grams.

In many such and the like noun clusters the head components may have a compound noun or a word-group structure too: Sahara

-> oilwells, US -> open tennis champions, Stormont -> a Social Democratic and Labour Party  MP. Many asyndetic noun clusters may have extended adjuncts and extended/expanded heads as in examples Upper Clyde Shipbuilders -> shop stewards; Noise Advisory Council -> working group representative; the Suez Canal Zone base

—> agreement negotiations.

The semantic interrelation between the componental parts in asyndetic noun clusters is often quite complicated.

1 The illustrative examples of asyndetic noun clusters on this and on the forthcoming pages have been picked up in British and American papers: The Guardian, Financial Times, USA Today, from the Time magazine and others.

 

225

 

 

So is the structural complexity of many asyndetic substantival clusters, which may make their identification as two-, three-, four-, etc. componental word-group uncertain. In other words, a difficulty may arise as to how the asyndetic clusters should be treated - as the NN, NNN, or NNNN, etc. word-groups. This is of importance not so much for the allotment of a substantival cluster, which can partly be seen from the following examples: wage increase підвищення заробітної платні/зарплати; 10 per cent wage increase підвищення зарплати на 10% or десяти відсоткове підвищення зарплатні; US policy політика США; US foreign policy зовнішня політика США; the House of Common's debate дебати в палаті громад; the recent House of Commons debate недавні/останні дебати в палаті громад.

The adjectival components, therefore, can extend the asyndetic noun cluster and change the starting point of their translation without changing in any way their asyndetic nature. Neither do they change the quantitative correlation of noun components in the clusters. Thus, the House of Commons debate, the Scottish League Cup-tie, the US foreign policy, etc. are two-componental NN-type asyndetic substantival clusters. Proceeding from this, the components like North-West, the U.S.A., the U.K., Long Kesh and the like are to be treated as single heads or single adjuncts, since they function as a single Compound or Nabbreviate</N proper- еіс- Hence, the word-groups, as these below, are three-componental only: the Long Kesh concentration camp (Nprop. +NN), the US foreign policy statement (Nabbrev.+ AN+N).

It goes without saying that each lexeme in the asyndetic substantival clusters adds some new meaning to its general semantic structure. Hence, the more lexemes the cluster consists of, the more unlike the other ways of approach to its translating there may be.

APPROACHES TO TRANSLATING ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

As has been pointed out, there may be different approaches to rendering the lexical meaning of asyndetic substantival clusters. These approaches are predetermined by the following main factors: 1) by the number of nouns making up the cluster; 2) by the structure of the adjunct and head (or both these components); 3) by the semantic relations between the constituent parts of the asyndetic substantival cluster which may be local, temporal and others by nature; 4) by the presence or absence of the preceding adjective, participle, possessive pronoun or ordinal numeral.

226

 

Besides, a quick and correct rendering of meaning of any type of asyndetic substantival clusters mostly depends on the choice of the right component (or its part) from which the translation has to be started.

TRANSLATION OF TWO-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

There can be suggested some ways of faithful translation of asyndetic noun/substantival clusters into Ukrainian. Each of these ways may be predetermined by one of the following three factors: 1) by the lexical meaning of the component parts; 2) by their structural form and 3) by the meaning of the cluster as a whole. Hence, translation of two componental asyndetic NN-structure clusters may start:

1) with the head noun: board members члени правління; economy regime режим економії; policy change зміна політики; payment imbalance нестійкість/незбалансованість платежів;

2) beginning with the adjunct (functioning as an adjective) or with the head (functioning as a noun): dinner-time break обідня перерва/перерва на обід; school reform шкільна реформа/ реформа школи; student groups студентські групи/групи студентів; currency reform грошова реформа/реформа грошової системи; liberation movement визвольний рух/рух за визволення.

The number of thus translated asyndetic substantival word-groups in present-day English is considerable. Having often a dual meaning and nature, some Nadjuncts may be treated both as A+N- and as N+N-components of asyndetic substantival clusters.

Of similar nature are also the substantival clusters with prefixed adjuncts which are translated, as a rule, beginning with the head noun which is characteristic of the NN-type asyndetic noun clusters: anti-apartheid legislation законодавчі акти/закони про заборону апартеїду, anti-trade union act закон (спрямований) проти профспілок; non-smoker compartment купе для некурящих/ для некурців.

3) the meaning of some asyndetic substantival clusters with compound adjuncts can be rendered into Ukrainian in a descriptive way as well: nine-men defence захист із 9 гравців (спорт); two-thirds majority більшість у дві третіх голосів; top-drawer family родина, що вдягається у дорогу одіж; the under-16 country match матч сільських спортсменів віком до 16 років. Some adjuncts of asyndetic noun clusters often have a composite structure. They may consist of words belonging to different parts of speech which consti-

227

 

tute either a regular phrase/word-group or a hyphenated conglomeration of words. This kind of word-groups are usually translated in a descriptive way too: the lame duck policy невдала/збанкрутіла політика; dead ball situations ситуації, за яких м'яч команді не зараховується; rob Peter and pay Paul policy політика виплати одній категорії населення за рахунок пограбування іншої; Manchster -travel-to-work area район Манчестера, звідки дістаються на роботу комунальним транспортом.

Asyndetic substantival clusters of the NN-, NNN-, etc. structure are often preceded by adjectives, participles, bahuvrihi formations, pronouns, numerals, etc., used in the function of attributes. They usually form with the N/NN components distinct sense units, which may often predetermine the way of approach to the translation of clusters. For example, in the substantival clusters as final press conference, English amateur champion, London cab drivers, striking mine workers the attributive (adjectival) components modify the NN head components forming with them word-groups of the A+NN structure. In examples like a Democratic Party member, the Tory Government policy, toxic action results the attributive components form close sense units of the AN+N structure with the head noun. This structure of the word-group, i.e., asyndentic noun cluster, and the semantic interrelation between its components predetermines the choice of the approach to translating it. As a result, the meaning of the A+NN-type substantival clusters can be rendered into Ukrainian by the following main approaches:

1) beginning with the initial adjective after which the head noun and its adjunct noun is translated in succession: English amateur champion англійський чемпіон-непрофесіонал; leading world jockeys провідні (найкращі) жокеї світу; public protest meeting загальні збори/мітіні1 протесту; junior hospital staff молодший медперсонал лікарні; British health service англійська служба охорони здоров'я/ служба охорони здоров'я Великої Британії;

2) beginning with the adjective after which the following noun (adjunct) and then the head noun is translated in succession: final press conference заключна пресконференція; London cab drivers лондонські кебмени/таксисти; Royal Shakespeare company Королівська шекспірівська трупа; six-week summer holiday півторамісячна літня відпустка; major autumn campaign головна осіння кампанія London undergroud tunnels лондонські підземні тунелі;

3) a considerable number of lexically transparent asyndetic substantival clusters of the A+NN-type are translated in reverse or-

 

der, i.e., beginning with the head noun after which the attributive component and the adjunct noun is translated in succession. The choice of this approach of translating the A+NN-type asyndetic substantival clusters becomes possible due to the existence in Ukrainian of identical semantic units formed with somewhat different grammatical means: European Cup-winners Cup кубок еропейських володарів кубків; Local authority staff штати місцевих органів влади;

4) some asyndetic clusters of the type may be semantically condensed. As a result, more words are needed in the target language to render their meaning, i.e., they are to be translated in a descriptive way: Royal Berkshire polo ground королівський стадіон для гри в поло в Беркширі; London Evening News лондонська вечірня газета «Івнінґ ньюз»; Royal Air Force військовоповітряні сили Великої Британії. The A+NN asyndetic substantival clusters may sometimes be translated in two ways: a) by preserving the componental structure of the English word-group; b) by transforming the initial adjective into a noun and changing the order of components: Maltese NATO base 1) мальтійська військова база МАТО; 2) натівська військова база на Мальті; 3) військова база МАТО на Мальті.

Much simpler is the approach to translating the AN+N-type of asyndetic noun clusters in which the initial adjective (A) and the following adjunct noun form a sense unit of their own. The AN-type sense unit functions as a syntactically and semantically single at-.tributive component of the head noun. Translation of the AN+N type asyndetic substantival clusters predominantly starts with the head noun, after which the attributive component and then the adjunct noun is translated in succession: the Republican Party candidate кандидат у президенти від республіканської партії США; toxic action results наслідки токсичної дії (інтоксикації); dense fog patches пасма/латки густого туману; British Lion film фільм англійської кінокомпанії «Брітіш Лаен»; human resources planning планування людських резевів.

As has been already mentioned some attributive components in English are of dual nature (cf. cannon ball, speech sound). As a result, they can be conveyed either as relative adjectives or as nouns: Labour Government policyполітика лейбористського уряду/політика уряду лейбористів', London district chairman голова лондонського окружної ради/голова окружної ради Лондона; salary structure design проект реструктуризації/впорядкування зарплатні.

A number of AN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters are

 

228

229

 

 

translated in a descriptive way too. It becomes necessary when the asyndetic noun cluster is used to denote a specifically British/American feature, which needs an explanation in the target language: Civil disobedience campaign кампанія громадянської непокори (кампанія протесту населення Північної Ірландії проти дискримінаційної політики англійської уряду супроти/проти католицької меншини); Industrial Relations Act закон про взаємовідносини в промисловості (закон косерваторів, яким обмежувалось право на страйки).

Two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters may often have other than AN+N or AN+NN-type structure of components. These may be of the N+AN, or A+AN+N/AN configuration. The approach to their translating may consequently vary to some extent as well. The asyndetic clusters with the N+AN structure of the componetns may be translated in the following ways:

1) beginning with the AN head sense unit: US military bases військові бази США; NATO nuclear weapons атомна зброя (країн) HATO; UN General Assembly Генеральна Асамблея ООН.

2) A similar approach should be employed when dealing with the N+AN or N+QN/N+VingN structure substantival clusters with the initial proper names components as in the following word-groups: the Avior Airline general manager генеральний директор авіокомпанії «Авіор ерлайнз»; New Times editorial staff редакційні працівники (журналу) «Нью-Таймз»; Burnt Oak public library публічна бібліотека (в) Бернт-Оук. The asyndetic substantival clusters can be conveyed beginning with the initial noun which turns in the target language into an adjective: the Opposition Liberal Party опозиційна ліберальна партія; world public opinion світова громадська думка.

Other approaches to rendering the meaning of similar type N+AN asyndetic substantival clusters are not excluded either. Thus, the Burnt Oak public library may also be translated as Бернтоукська публічна бібліотека; Shakespeare Memorial Theatre as шекспірівський меморіальний театр (у Стратфорді).

It goes without saying that the descriptive way of translating is preferred, when the asyndetic noun cluster is used out of context: finance over haul bill законопроект про перевірку надходжень коштів на фінансування передвиборної кампанії претендентів на пост президента США; the Wednesday black belt пояс повного затемнення сонця в середу.

Extensively exemplified in the newspaper and scientific mat-

230

 

ter speech styles of present-day English are also A+AN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters with preceding adjectivai, participial and other modifiers in the function of attributes. To render their meaning, different approaches are employed, each being predetermined by the semantic correlation between the componental elements in the target language asyndetic noun cluster. Among the approaches the following are most frequent:

1) starting with the head noun, proceeding to the adjunct (AN) unit and concluding with the adjunct noun: major Western states interests інтереси провідних західних держав; the ten-kilometre international road race міжнародні змагання з бігу на 10-кілометрову дистанцію;

2) starting with the initial adjective or participle, proceeding to the head noun and concluding with the adjunct (AN) unit: thrilling second round replay захоплююча повторна гра другого кола; efficient public transport system рентабельна система комунального транспорту;

3) starting with the head noun (or sense unit), proceeding in a reverse order of components to the sense unit with the adjunct noun and concluding with the initial adjective, which becomes a noun in Ukrainian: Scottish Labour Party resolution резолюція лейбористської партії Шотландії; the Chechen fighters activities виступи бойовиків (у) Чечні;

4) descriptive translating can also be resorted to when dealing with this type of asyndetic substantival clusters: International Social Security Association міжнародна Асоціація (з питань) соціального забезпечення.

Two-componental AN+AN-type asyndetic substantival clusters irrespective of the structural forms of A or N components are predominantly translated starting with the head AN sense unit. The A component of the head sense unit is usually the starting point: Big Business multi-national firms багатонаціональні фірми великого бізнесу; First Aid Nursing Yeomanry корпус медсестер швидкої допомоги; Old Age Pensioners Joint Committee спільна комісія/ комітет пенсіонерів за віком.

The descriptive way of conveying the sense of AN+AN-type asyndetic substantival clusters may often become necessary to avoid ambiguity or in order to explain some national specific notions as in the examples Labour Party Young Socialist молоді соціалісти, члени молодіжної організації лейбористської партії; living fire central heating центральне опалення методом постійного підтримання

231

 

вогню/підігріву.

Since the relative adjective and the noun in English has often the same orthographic form, it may sometimes be difficult to distinguish them at first sight as in case with the world in the cluster The Next World Esperanto Congress. Here the word world may mean both світ and світовий. Because of this translation of the cluster will have two faithful variants in Ukrainian: 1. наступний з'їзд есперантистів світу, 2. наступний всесвітній з'їзд есперантистів.

TRANSLATION OF THREE-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

Second place as to their occurrence in the newspaper and scientific/technical matter texts is occupied by the three-componental NNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters. They split like the extended two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters into two main subgroups as well. The first subgroup constitute the NN+N-type clusters, i.e., the ones with two initial nouns forming a close sense unit having the function of an adjunct to the final head noun. The second subgroup make up the N+NN-type clusters in which the final two nouns form the head component to the initial adjunct noun. The meaning of the NN+N-type subgroup of substantival clusters can be faithfully rendered into Ukrainian by employing several approaches. Their choice is predetermined by the semantic interrelations existing between the component parts of the cluster and by the way in which the meaning is to be expressed in Ukrainian. And yet some approaches to translating the three-componental NN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters are more frequently employed than the others. Among these is the 3-1-2 components approach, i.e., starting with the head noun and proceeding to the initial and then to the second noun, both of which form together an NN sense unit: Suez Canal area район/ регіон Суецького каналу; West Coast dockers докери західного узбережжя (США); flat rate increase ріст/підвищення квартирної платні; science research council рада з наукових досліджень; Labour Party leadership керівництво лейбористської партії; Scotland Yard spokesman представник Скотланд-Ярду.

Note. Some NN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters can be translated in two ways: a) starting with the head noun or b) starting with the NN-type sense unit, the adjunct, whose initial noun turns in Ukrainian into an adjective: Trade Union funds 1 .фонди/кошти

232

 

англійських тредюніонів; 2. профспілкові фонди/кошти; Tory Government policy 1. політика уряду торі/консерваторів; 2. політика консервативного уряду; town centre development 1. розвиток центру міста; 2. розвиток міського центру.

A considerable number of the NN+N-type asyndetic substantival clusters are translated in a descriptive way. It becomes inevitable when some components are nationally/culturally biased words/ expressions denoting a specifically English national feature which must be explained: Clun Forest sheep кланфорестська порода овець (із короткою вовною); venture scout leader командир загону бойскаутів старшого віку; Mill Hill School Міл-Пл-Скул, чоловіча привілейована приватна середня школа в Лондоні; Race Relations Act закон про расові взаємовідносини/стосунки (обмежує в'їзд кольорових із колишніх колоній до Великої Британії'); a labour disputes commission комісія, що розглядає суперечки між профспілками та підприємцями/роботодавцями. Some NNN (and also the NN) substantival clusters can be translated with the help of a single word: coal face workers шахтарі; sheet metal workers прокатники, Russia leather юхта; land improvement work меліорація; land improvement workers меліоратори.

In rarer cases expressing the meaning of the NN+N-type subgroup of asyndetic substantival clusters can be performed consecutively, i.e., in the order in which the components are arranged in the cluster. Cf.: bullet proof shirts/jackets куленепробивні обшивки/ жилети; child guidance clinic дитяча консультація-поліклініка.

There are also NN+N-type clusters whose meaning can be rendered in the reverse order to the components' arrangement, i.e., starting with the head noun and proceeding to the second and to the initial noun: labour movement figures дані про.міграцію робітників/робочої сили; Manchester City Council (муніципальна) рада міста Манчестера; the target language peculiarities особливоті мови перекладу.

The semantic relations between the head and the adjunct NN sense unit may require some other approach to their rendering into the target language as well: a mile event run змагання з бігу на (одну) милю; (the Russian) Міг space station (російська) космічна станція «Мір»

When the componental parts of asyndetic substantival clusters are of compound or word-group/phrase structure, their meaning is usually more complicated than that of simple components noun clusters. Due to this they are often translated in a descriptive way: white collar steel industry strike страйк службовців сталеливарної промисловості (Великої Британії); bread-line old age pensions

233

 

пенсії людям похилого віку, яких вистачає тільки на хліб/на прожитковий мінімум.

The allotment of a substantival cluster to a componental type may sometimes be difficult because of its complicated structure and meaning. Thus, it is difficult or almost impossible to identify the asyndetic substantival clusters like The Great Britain-Australia clashes as a two-componental NN-type word-group, because of the meaning expressed by the adjunct: Great Britain-Australia (clashes) (протиріччя між) Великою Британією та Австралією. Similarly with the substantival cluster The Notts County centre forward (центрфорвард команди «Нотс-Каунті») which despite its complicated first component Notts County may be regarded as a three-componental asyndetic substantival cluster. This assertion can be substantiated by a more extended translation of the cluster центральний нападник команди/футбольної команди «Нотс-Каунті» (Ноттінгемшир Каунті).

Translation of this and other (N+NN) subgroup of asyndetic substantival clusters is no less dependent on the semantic interrelations existing between their componental parts than in the previous NN+N subgroup. It is not surprising, therefore, that the meaning of the bulk of the N+NN subgroup of asyndetic substantival clusters is rendered starting with the NN head group or rather with its initial/ adjunct noun and proceeding in the reverse order to the initial/adjunct noun: friends meeting house будинок зустрічі друзів; Derry development Commission комісія з проблем розвитку міста Деррі; Glasgow autumn holiday осіннє свято в Ґлазґо/міста Глазго.

The last asyndetic noun cluster like some others of the kind may also be understood somewhat differently, namely, as «свято осені в Глазго». Two variants of translation may also be suggested for the noun clusters like The Macclesfield Tory candidate 1. кандидат торі від Маклесфілда; 2. маклесфілдський кандидат консервативної партії; New Cross Labour Club 1. клуб лейбористів у м. Нью-Крос; 2. нью-кроський лейбористський клуб.

Note: Club in this word-group may also mean party members, i.e., лейбористи м. Нью-Крос or Нью-Кросська лейбористська парторганізація.

Among other approaches to translating the three component N+NN-type asyndetic substantival clusters the following are to be pointed out:

1) beginning with the initial adjunct noun of the N+NN-type sense unit: London trade Unions Лондонські трейдюніони/ профспілки; state

 

security police державна таємна поліція or таємна поліція штату; Attica state prison в'язниця «Аттіка» штату Нью Йорк;

2) beginning with the head noun - to the initial adjunct noun and to the adjunct noun of the head: Attica state prison в'язниця «Аттіка» (штату Нью-Йорк) 2) or in the 3-1-2 order: в'язниця (штату Нью-Йорк) «Аттіка»;

3) beginning with the head noun and preceding to the first adjunct noun, i.e., in the 3-2-1 order: U.S. Senate seat місце в сенаті СТА; Rand Daily/Mail newspaper газета «Дейлі мейл» провінції Ренд (Південно-Африканська республіка);

4) beginning with the adjunct noun and proceeding to the head noun after which the second noun in the cluster is translated, i.e., in the 1-3-2 order: worid weight lifting championship світовий чемпіонат штангістів; Rand Daily Mail newspaper ренденська газета «Дейлі мейл»; the millionaire press owners мільйонери - володарі преси/ газетні магнати; London delegate conference Лондонська конференція делегатів;

5) widely represented among the N+NN subgroup word-groups are substantival clusters whose meanings are rendered into Ukrainian beginning with the NN-type sense unit and concluding with the initial noun (N) as in the word-groups a Government reserve scheme резервний проект уряду; Andersonstown police station поліцейське відділення/дільниця Андерсонстауна; Manchester housing estate житловий фонд Манчестера;

6) in still other cases the meaning of N+NN subgroup of substantival clusters can be rendered into Ukrainian only in the 3-1-2 order of components arrangement: retail trade associations спілки роздрібної «торгівлі; the Hertfordshire County Council рада Гертфордширського графства.

It should be emphasized once again that some of the N+NN-model substantival clusters given above can be translated in two ways, depending on the treatment of the adjunct component as noun or as adjective: AI-Anon family groups 1. групи родин Ал-Анона; 2. ал-анонські групи родин/сімей; the Sheffield district committee 1. комісія Шеффілдського району; 2. шеффілдська районна комісія.

The choice of the approach to a faithful translation, which could faithfully express an asyndetic substantival cluster's meaning can be prompted, of course, by the context in which the cluster functions, and by the style of the text under translation;

7) amply exemplified in this, as in the preceding NN+N subgroup of asyndetic substatival clusters are word-groups whose mean-

 

234

235

 

 

ing can be faithfully rendered in a descriptive way only: a rubber bullet gun гвінтівка для стрільби гумовими кулями; September amateur stakes вересневі любительсьскі/непрофесійні призові скачки; Ulster Defence Regiment англійське урядове військо в Північній Ірландії; rent assessment committees комісії по встановленню/ визначенню плати за користування житлом приватного фонду.

The three-componental NNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters are also often preceded by adjectives, participles, numerals or bahuvrihi components in the function of attributes. Irrespective of the semantic subgroup to which the clusters belong (the N+NN or the NN+N-type) their meaning is conveyed starting with the initial attributive component and then proceeding according to the rules employed above to the N+NN and the NN+N-types of three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters: the massive riot police operation масова операція поліції (по розгону демонстраці'І); the national cash register factory державний завод касових апаратів; the giant Fiat motor company Ганська машинобудівна компанія «Фіат»; an international invitation horse race міжнародні гостьові змагання скакунів; the five-storey Silver Seashore Hotel п'ятиповерховий готель «Срібне узбережжя»; the «voluntary» wage-price regulation (так зване) «добровільне» регулювання зарплатні й цін.

When the initial attribute, however, does not refer to the whole NNN asyndetic substantival cluster but forms a close sense unit only with the initial noun, translating of the clusters usually starts from some other component, though not without exceptions either: special rides revision conference конференція з питань перегляду спеціальних правил дорожнього руху; Common Market grain prices ціни на зерно (країн) Спільного ринку; the local government staff workers працівники місцевих органів самоврядування/влади; Upper Clyde shipyard steward представник профспілки робітників судноверфі Верхнього Клайду; The Northern Ireland Labour Party лейбористська партія Північної Ірландії/крайове відділення лейбористської партії Ірландії.

Exceptions to either of the two above-given rules of placement of components in translation are due to the existence of some different ways of expressing the same meaning in the target language: the British trade union movement 1. профспілковий рух Великої Британії; 2. англійський профспілковий рух; American trade union organizer 1. організатор американського профспілкового руху; 2. організатор профспілкового руху США;

236

 

U.S. health - maintenance organization 1. організація охорони здоров'я США; 2. Американська організація охорони здоров'я.

Sometimes the attribute in the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters modifies the head noun and forms a sense unit with it. Such attributes often serve as a starting point for translation of the NN+AN clusters as well: Kent area general secretary генеральний секретар Кентської округи; the Bangladesh National Awami Party 1. національна партія Авамі Бангладеш; 2. бангладеська національна партія Авамі; But: World class high jumping світове досягнення в стрибках у висоту; the 1999 holiday shopping bag святкова продуктова торбинка (кошик) на 1999 рік; 2) святковий кошик 1999 року на купівлю продуктів; 3) кошик на святкові покупки 1999 року.

The three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters consisting of two AN+AN+N component parts functioning as the extended adjunct and a head respectively (or as homogeneous adjuncts to a single head noun) are to be translated beginning with the head component irrespective of their structural form: Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association спілка/союз боротьби за громадянські права Північної Ірландії; Noise Advisory Council working group робоча група дорадчої ради по боротьбі з шумом.

Regular descriptive translating may also be employed when the meaning expressed by the asyndetic noun cluster is connected with a specific English (or Ukrainian) notion or when the semantic structure requires it, i.e., when there exists no other way of conveying its sense in Ukrainian: Manchester direct works building site житловий масив Манчестера, що споруджується методом конвеєрного будівництва; eclipse eye protection захист очей від сонця під час затемнення; Cossack salt merchants чумаки -постачальники солі.

TRANSLATION OF FOUR-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

The four-componental NNNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters are less frequently used in newspaper or scientific and technical matter texts than the three-componental ones. The nouns within the four-componental asyndetic noun clusters are semantically interconnected, like in the three componental ones forming the N+NNN, NN+NN or NNN+N sense units within them. There may also be AN+NNN or AN+ANNN etc. structural forms of them. The semantic

237

 

interrelations between the components usually predetermine the choice of an approach to translating the four componental asyndetic substantival clusters. This approach may sometimes depend on the meaning of separate noun components and on their structure as well as on their position within the frames of substantival clusters. As a result, there are different approaches to translating this structure type of asyndetic substantival clusters, the most frequently resorted to being the following:

1) starting with the head noun and proceeding in reverse order to the initial noun adjunct. This approach provides the expression of meaning of the NNN+N, NN+NN, NP+NN+N, N+NN+N structural types of asyndetic substantival clusters: the US Defence Department officials decision рішення представників міністераства оборони США; Copper Products Development Association відділ/ рада розробки виробів з міді; the UN Security Council meeting agenda порядок денний засідання Ради Безпеки ООН/Організації Об'єднаних Націй; Kyiv career club open meeting відкриті зустрічі в Київському клубі трудовлаштування;

2) some of the above-given semantic groups of the four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters are translated starting from the head noun and its preceding adjunct and proceeding to the initial and the following (second) noun: the Sunday Express newspaper leader writer автор передових статей/передовиць газети «Санді експрес»; а $40 a week wage increase offer пропозиція про підвищення зарплатні на 40 доларів за тиждень;

3) depending on the semantic interrelations between the nouns of the four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters their translation can also proceed in the 4-2-3-1 order of components: the House of Representatives Government Operations Committee комісія урядових заходів палати представників (при палаті представників); Caterpillar Diesel tractors trials випробування дизельних тракторів (марки) «Катерпіллар»;

4) there are also some minute groups of the four-componental substantival clusters with less common approaches like 4-1-3-2: Nobel Peace Prize Winners лауреати Нобелівської Премії Миру; 3-4-1-2: Gloucester County Cricket Club крикетна команда/клуб Глостерського графства; 2-3-1-4: Salford West Labour MP Stan Orme Стен Орм, лейбористський член парламенту від Салфорд-Веста; 2-4-1-3: the 40-nation Geneva Disarmament Conference Женевська конференція 40 країн з питань роззброєння; 1-4-3-2: Darmouth Auto Castings Plants заводи відливків автомобільних

 

заготовок у Дартмауті or: Дартмаутські заводи відливків автомобільних заготовок;

5) when the NNNN-type substantival clusters are semantically condensed, which happens rather often, because their components may also be of different word-group structure or contain a noun denoting some specific English national features, they are translated in a descriptive way: Mr. Hiles, the lobby committee secretary секретар комітету комісії лоббістів пан Гайлз; the National Union of Railway-men jubilee celebration dinner святковий обід з нагоди відзначення ювілейної річниці профспілки залізничників (Великої Британії).

The four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters having an initial adjective, numeral, participle, pronoun or an N's component may be translated by applying different approaches:

1) starting with the attribute and proceeding in the same order of components in which the N+NNN, NN+NN or the NNN+N(N+NN+N-type) asyndetic substantival clusters are translated: a total UK oil output figure загальні/підсумкові цифри/дані видобутку нафти Об'єднаним Королівством (Великої Британії); the first Rugby League test match перший відбірковий матч команд з регбі/ регбістів;

2) starting with the head NN or N component as in the asyndetic substantival clusters below: the British road service parcels depots склади посилок/пакетів дорожнього обслуговування Великої Британії; the language service inauguration dates дати початку перших передач (радіо «Свобода») окремими мовами (світу).

Translating of the four-componental NNNN-type asyndetic substantival clusters may also be predetermined either by a semantically leading head component (a single noun or a NN, AN, NprepN structure) as well as by the adjunct component. The latter may in its turn be a single attributive noun or an adjective +N (AN), present participle + N(VingN), past participle +N (Ven+N), numeral +N (QN), pronoun +N (IN) or have a word-group structure (NP or VP): U.S. presidential campaign finance legislation (Nabbr. +AN+NN) заканодавство США про фінансування передвиборної президентської кампанії. Similarly in many other noun clusters of this type: a glass reinforced plastics lifeboats construction зміцнена склопластиком конструкція рятувального човна. But: Harwell atomic Energy Research Centre Гарвельський центр досліджень в галузі атомної енергії; the continental China off-shore islands oil deposits поклади нафти (біля) прибережних островів континентального Китаю.

 

238

239

 

 

TRANSLATION OF FIVE-, SIX-AND

SEVEN-COMPONENTAL ASYNDETIC

SUBSTANTIVAL CLUSTERS

It must be noted from the very start that the five-, six- and seven-componental asyndetic substantival clusters belong to rare or rather rare word-groups in English newspaper or scientific and technical matter texts. Nevertheless the approach to their translating does not differ practically from that of the four-componental asyndetic substantival clusters. It usually starts with the head noun. To render the meaning of any multi-componental asyndetic noun cluster, however, there should be identified first and foremost closer sense units within them. Thus, in a five-componental asyndetic substantival cluster its noun constituents may form the NN+NN+N, NNN+NN, AN+NN+NN, N+AN+NN+N-type, etc. sense units. For example: Covent Garden Opera House orchestra performance has the following closer or looser sense units: NN+NN+NN where Covent Garden is a close sense unit (proper noun) and functions as a single component. Translation of this and the like asyndetic substantival clusters should be started with the head NN component: виступ/гра оркестру (лондонського) оперного театру «Ковент Ґарден». Similarly with the cluster London County Council general purpose committee member член комісії із загальних питань Ради Лондонського графства; London District Woodworker Amalgamated Society committee комісія/комітет Лондонського окружного відділення об'єднаної профспілки теслярів.

When the initial N component performs the function of a relative adjective, translating of the five-componental NNNNN-type asyndetic substantival cluster may start with this N component: the London sheet metal workers section Лондонська філія профспілки робітників металопрокатних підприємств. Translating of the five-componental asyndetic substantival clusters can also be started with the second sense unit initiated by a noun, functioning as a relative adjective: the Post Office Workers London district council Лондонська окружна рада профспілки поштових працівників.

When the multi-componental asyndetic substantival cluster is of appositional nature, its translation starts either with the proper name, which is the apposition noun, or with its antecedent noun. However, translation may also start with some other component functioning as a relative adjective in a sense unit preceding the appositional nouns: world-mile record holder Peter Snell. 1. Пітер Снелл,

240

 

чемпіон світу з бігу на милю; 2. світовий рекордсмен з бігу на милю Пітер Снелл; 3. рекордсмен світу з бігу на милю Пітер Снелл. Multicomponental asyndetic substantival clusters designating some specific English notion, which is not revealed by direct rendering of the lexical meaning of its noun components, are translated in a descriptive way: the City Cooper Square Community Development Committee комісія (комітет) по переплануванню площі Купера лондонського Сіті.

Translation of the six- and seven-componental asyndetic substantival clusters is realized according to the same principles and approaches as the four- and five-componental asyndetic substantival clusters. Pointing out the sense units, formed by the components usually helps find out the starting component and the correct way of translating the clusters. It must be borne in mind, however, that these multicomponental asyndetic substantival clusters may be translated by different approaches as well, each of which may faithfully render the clusters' meaning: New Zealand world mile record holder Peter Snell 1. новозеландський світовий рекордсмен з бігу на милю Пітер Снелл; 2. новозеландець Пітер Снелл, чемпіон світу з бігу на милю. On rare occasions one may come across asyndetic substantival clusters consisting of seven or more nouns. These semantically condensed noun word-groups are translated in accordance with the same rules, which are employed when dealing with the five- and six-componental noun clusters (by way of pointing out the sense units within the clusters and finding the necessary noun or sense unit for the translation to start). In such cases the multi-componental asyndetic substantival clusters, which are not preceded by attributive adjuncts, can be translated starting with the head noun: United Post Workers London district council postmen section chairman Mr. Harry Jones Гаррі Джоунз, голова Лондонської окружної/районної філії листонош об'єднаної профспілки поштових працівників.

It should be added in conclusion, that many asyndetic substantival clusters are difficult for our students to translate because they mostly do not take into account their condensed semantic nature, due to which more words are usually needed to convey their meaning in the target language. And not only multi-componetal asyndetic substantival clusters. Very often two-componental asyndetic noun clusters can be semantically condensed: >4/DS drugs ліки/ пілюлі, що поліпшують самопочуття хворих на СНІД; fax brakes зриви/провали в зборі податків; Rome-based Food and Agriculture Organization Організація з питань сільского господарства і

241

 

виробництва продуктів харчування (зі штаб-квартирою в Римі). Semantically condensed may also be many three- and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters: World Health Organization (three words) Всесвітня організація охорони здоров'я (four words); government work offices урядові установи з питань працевлаштування населення. Here the number of components in all Ukrainian equivalents is larger than in their English originals.

Sometimes, though rarely, however, the meaning of asyndetic substantival clusters can be rendered in Ukrainian by fewer words, than in English: the Turin public prosecutor прокурор Туріна; London building workers лондонські будівельники; the old books salesman букініст; the land improvement work меліорація; the crop farmers хлібороби, etc.

Our students must be repeatedly warned, that the use of three-and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters is mostly restricted to the newspaper and scientific or technical matter texts. In spoken English and in belles-lettres texts preference is given to prepositional word-groups, which may easily be transformed into asyndetic substantival clusters. Cf.:

Newspaper texts/styles Oral speech

the plant shop-stewards                    the shop-stewards of the plant

Labour housing policy                        the policy of the Labour Party

in/concerning housing

the Midlands car factory trade the trade union committee of

union committee                                the Midlands car factory

All translators, therefore, must bear it in mind, that in the process of rendering far from all Ukrainian substantival word-groups should necessarily be transformed into English multi-componental asyndetic noun clusters. Exception must be made only when dealing with the names of various former Soviet and today's Ukrainian public bodies, offices and enterprises, institutes, universities, former collective and state farms, plants and factories, publishing houses, firms, farmer cooperatives, etc., which bore or bear honorary names like: Львівський театр опери та балету їм. Заньковецької Lviv Zan'kovets'ka Opera and Ballet House; київська станція метро «Шулявська» the Kyiv Shulyavs'ka underground railway station; Харківський педагогічний університет їм. Сковороди Kharkiv Skovoroda Teachers Training University, колективне сільскогосподарське підприємство (КСП) «Пролісок» the Prolisok (Snowdrop) Collective Agricultural Enterprise, etc.

242

 

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. The structural peculiarities of the word-combinations referred to as asyndetic substantival/noun clusters.

2The principle of identifying the number of componental parts in asyndetic substantival clusters.

3. The correlation between the position of N components and their functional significance in asyndetic substantival clusters.

4. The structural forms of the adjunct and head components in asyndetic substantival clusters.

5. The nature/kind of syntactic connection existing between the components of asyndetic substantival clusters.

6. Factors predetermining the approaches to equivalent rendering of meanings of two-componental (NN) substantival clusters into Ukrainian.

7. Ways of faithful expressing the meaning of the two-componental asyndetic noun clusters with extended/expanded adjuncts or heads of the NP+NP (noun phrase+noun phrase) type.

8. Approaches to rendering the meanings of the two-componental NN substantival clusters preceded by an attributive adjective, participle, pronoun, numeral or adverb.

9. Approaches to conveying the meanings of the two-componental NN asyndetic substantival clusters with attributes to the adjunct and to the head component (ANAN, ANQN, etc.).

10. The influence of semantic relations between the components of the asyndetic substantival clusters over the choice of an approach to a faithful rendition of their meanings.

11. Ways of extending two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters by adding adjuncts to each NN component.

12. The consecutive order of translation in the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters of the N+NN and NN+N types.

13. The approach to rendering the meaning of the three-componental NNN asyndetic noun clusters preceded by attributive adjectives, participles, pronouns, numerals or adverbs.

14. The approaches to faithful translating of the four-, five-and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters with and without the preceding attributes to their component nouns.

15. The way of rendering the meaning of semantically con-

243

 

densed two-, three-, and more componental asyndetic substantival clusters.

16. The structure of the word-combinations preferred in spoken English and in belles-lettres works instead of the multi-componental asyndetic substantival clusters.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOME TRANSLATION

Exercise I. Define the structural form of the components in the two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters below. Suggest the possible ways of conveying their meaning into Ukrainian.

1. witness testimony; 2. skills analysis; 3. night shift; 4. debt trap; 5. Krasnodar Territory; 6. television network; 7. food prices; 8. job opportunities; 9. London docks; 10. Labour group; 11. sugar steamers; 12. oil paintings; 13. school leavers; 14. oil countries; 15. wage strike; 16. forestry products; 17. economy regime; 18. pay claim; 19. crop yields; 20. livestock products; 21. animal husbandry; 22. solid engine; 23. consumer demand; 24. wage cuts; 25. protest demonstration; 26. Midlands unemployment; 27. promotion limitations; 28. car thieves; 29. gun licence; 30. Labour backbenchers; 31. slave sailers (ships); 32. car bomb; 33. Sunday Express sellers; 34. non-smoker carriage; 35. electricity cuts; 36. «keep wages down» lobby; 37. government draft; 38. Management development; 39. a question and answer interview; 40. law and order advocates; 41. the IMF visit (to Kyiv); 42. an oblast capital; 43. a 44-hour week; 44. a team-contract method; 45. White House intern; 46. the Guardian International subscribers; 47. plan and production discipline; 48. Research and Development Society. 49. Notts County vs Bolton match; 50. Scotland Yard detectives; 51. Trafalgar Square rally; 52. the latest sun eclipse; 53. a welfare-reform plan; 54. government bond prices; 55. a «Buy America» (American cars) campaign; 56. a price-earnings ratio; 57. Tory failings; 58. contract killings; 59. the Osaca Summit; 60. John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library; 61. the Sea Owl submarines (USA).

Exercise II. Find the starting component for translating into Ukrainian the following two-componental asyndetic substantival clusters with the attribute to the adjunct or to the head noun/nucleus:

 

A) 1. Light music and drama programme; 2.the maximum end results; 2. the two-way trade exchanges; 4. Ukraine-British business partnership; 5. nuclear power stations; 6. the latest weather forecast. 7. Moscow-based industry analyst; 8. local sports clubs; 9. first-ever press conference; 10. our spring musical program; 11. Royal Court Theatre; 12. the main passenger section; 13. an in-house video specialist; 14. major ocean routes; 15. two-seater «city cars»; 16. three-party coalition government; 17. a Commercial production supervisor and technician; 18. larger-than-local sports projects; 19. good Ryder Cup start. 20. an island penal colony; 21. the next Cabinet meeting; 22. International Motor Show; 23. a former CIA official; 24. local education authorities; 25. off-shore oil deposits; 26. common profit aims; 27. British woman doctor; 28. meagre salary increase; 29. current wages negotiations; 30. the Scottish tartan Society; 31. intensive-type crop varieties; 32. the first NBA championship (U.S.A.); 33. (the) House Republican leaders; 34. the promising soccer club; 35. the public sector reform; 36. the modest «Santa Claus» rally; 37. a favourite harbour party.

B) 1. Republican party leaders; 2. the Middle East process; 3. most City of London economists; 4. the National Bank activity; 5. Scottish Electrical Workers Union; 5. a police department lawyer; 7. primary school teachers; 8. Labour Party conference; 9. high quality second hand cloths and accessories; 10. political committee secretary; 11. civil defence organization; 12. social insurance expenditure; 13. pop music fans; 14. local government jobs; 15. Engineering Unions officials; 16. national protest day; 17. lightweight metal; 18. tourist class double rooms; 19. the five-party Cabinet Consultative Committee; 20. the Windows operating systems; 21. British postal service processes; 22. Decimal Currency Board (Gr. Brit.) 23. a solid fuel system; 24. German Booksellers and Publishers Association; 25. a Health Sector Stream; 26. government and European Union decisions; 27. International Copyright Protection; 28. London Evening Standard.

Exercise III. Analyse the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters below. Point out the closer NN-type sense units in them and the starting components for their translation into Ukrainian.

A) 1. a Bachelor of Music Education Degree; 2. Sunday afternoon concerts; 3. the supertanker collision drama; 4. a school football pitch; 5. Andrew Jackson Park and Museum; 6. Edinburgh Student Unions; 7. publications control board; 8. Essex Action Commit-

 

245

244

 

 

tee; 9. London Business School; 10. the Detroit motor show; 11. Cossack salt merchants; 12. school sports facilities; 13. State circuit court; 14. customer service laboratories; 15. City of London police force; 16. Westminster Defence Minister; 17. England team manager; 18. crime figures rise; 19. Labour majority group; 20. Tory leadership election; 21. the Natural Resourses Defence Council; 22. Local Government Officers Union; 23. New York State Governor; 24. the Youth Hostels Association; 25. V-E Day celebrations; 26. world without bombs conference programme; 27. the Kyiv Dynamo soccer club; 28. U.S. Civil War veterans; 29. Kyiv teachers and students demonstration; 29. sheep skin vests;

B) 1. U.S. Administration official; 2. the world bagpipe championship; 3. the Tory selection procedure; 4. the world disarmament conference; 5. retail food prices; 6. New Zealand Golf Association; 7. White House press secretary; 8. New York State governor; 9. Shevchenko prize winners; 10. Manchester City Council; U.Stockport trade unionists; 12. depot mass meetings; 13. Pittsburgh steel works; 14. the U.S. Senate seat; 15. water conservancy constructions; 16. Park Royal Vehicle factories; 17. South-East (a London district) Sports Council; 18. appeal court judges; 19. the US Negro servicemen; 20. the Girl Guide Association; 21. sugar crop disaster (in Cuba); 22. the House of Commons committee room; 23. Medicare part В premiums; 24. the University of Toronto graduate student; 25. the APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation) liberalization commitments; 26. a baboon bone-marrow transplant; 27. upperclass mass murderer; 28. the snap opinion polls; 29. the exchange rate level; 30. South Carolina State Museum; 31. the oblast government administration; 32. a health insurance programme; 33. the Air Force General Staff; 34. the Air Force Command; 35. the London Stock Exchange; 36. the World Trade Organization; 37. the morning and evening rush time; 38. the Buckinghamshire County Museum; 39. a $542 million stand-by arrangement; 40. the Hong Kong web developer.

Exercise IV. Point out the sense units in the three-componental asyndetic substantival clusters below and render descriptively their meanings into Ukrainian.

1. the Fire Brigades Union; 2. land improvement measures; 3. the League management committee; 4. world light-weight title; 5. the Commonwealth sugar agreement; 6. vehicle repair industry; 7. post office employees; 8. trade union movement; 9. front line positions; 10. Ireland Civil Rights Association; 11. the London building workers joint sites; 12. car bomb explosion; 13. Nottingham autumn stakes;

246

 

14. Leeds Anti-Racialism Committee; 15. motor vehicle castings; 16. Thames Television interviewer; 17. school milk cuts (in Great Britain); 18. summer holidays vacancies; 19. a health insurance programme; 20. Jbkoda sports coupe; 21. the world cricket team; 22. Scots shipyards stewards; 23. Mersyside car workers; 24. Derbyshire and West Midlands police force; 25. a Ryder Cup golf series; 26. the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders shop-stewards; 27. the Ford joint shop-stewards committee; 28. Ashridge (settlement) executive development programmes; 29. the Saxony data-protection commissioner; 30. the voucher insurance company; 31 Public Sector Management Institute (UK) 32. the Oxford Strategic Leadership programme; 33. the Verdugo Hills Archery club (Cal., U.S.A) 34. the business development division; 35. United Nations Environment programme; 36. (Rural) Finance and Enterprise Support Project; 37. China familirization programme; 38. world stockmarket capitalization; 39. (Ukraine's) 1999 privatization efforts; 40. Itar-Tass news agency; 41. the UJS. Supreme Court decision. 42. Salary structure design.

Exercise V. Analyse the semantic Interrelation between ~ ІНв ^oTTtpo*rT8fft8l fJSnS Of tfie AWN^MNANll-,**^li5r'fypeS 6T~~ asyndetic noun clusters below. Point out the starting and the proceeding components to achieve a faithful translation of the clusters into Ukrainian.

Model: Former world heavyweight champion колишній чемпіон світу у важкій вазі (1 -4-2-3). The first trade union country club (1 -4-2-3-5) перший переферійний профспілковий клуб.

1. additional television news programmes; 2. National Health Service hospitals; 3. International amateur golf tournament; 4. the Common Market fisheries policy; 5. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks; 6. Labour Party conference week; 7. the black-soil zone crop yields; 8. French television network facilities; 9. the entire trade union movement; 10. The preschool child care establishment; 11. the internal trade union conference; 12. Labour Shadow Home Secretary; 13. South Wales steel plants; 14. a local CBS television station; 15. large-scale US air raids; 16. Singer's Sewing Machine factory; 17. the Tory Industrial Relations Act; 18. State Social Security Department (USA); 19. Trade Union Congress general secretary; 20. the International bass guitarist section; 21. International ski federation rules; 22. successful world championship defence; 23. the North-West Economic Planning Council (Gr. Brit.); 24. British Ocean Steamship companies; 25. British Steel Corporation shop-stewards; 26. the 1998 World

247

 

Cup final; 27. our fall (autumn) drama production; 28. strict data protection laws; 29. a marginal income tax reform; 30. European and world club champion; 31. British steel strip products; 32. private White House polls results; 33. the Caspian pipeline Consortium deal; 34. a true health care reform; 35. international labour organization criteria; 36. a moderate welfare reform plan; 37. the nuclear power plant disaster; 38. the captive gas station attendant; 39. a moderate welfare reform plan; 40. The daytime and evening bus service; 41. New York City Transit Authorities.

Exercise VI. Suggest the possible approaches to translating the four-componental asyndetic noun clusters below.

Model: the BBC TV feature Death in the Prison Yard (3-2-1-4) художній телефільм Бі-Бі-Сі «Смерть на тюремному подвір'ї.»

A) 1. Durability Insurance Trust Fund; 2. the United Nations Refugee Relief Agency (UNRRA); 3. the nuclear weapons test ban treaty. 4. New-Castle Youth Employment Office; 5. the UK oil output figures. 6. the Post Office Engineering Union; 7. the trade union branch table; 8. the USA Senate Foreign Relations Committee; 9. the Child Poverty Action Group; 10. London port ship-repair workers; 11. the Europa World Year Book; 12. State Development Research Centre; 13. the BBC Radio «Today» programme; 14. the Medicare health insurance programme; 15. the State Duma Culture Committee (Russia); 16. a Harvard Business School professor; 17. George Washington Bridge bus station; 18. the Nobel Peace Prize Winner; 19. (this year's) Cannes Film Festival winners; 20. the Air Traffic Control Staff; 21. (the Department of Transport's) Air Accidents Investigation Branch; 22. Boryspil Airport same-day tickets sales; 23.the Manhatten Express bus service; 24. the Pacific Stock Exchange technology index; 25. the University of Chicago Law School 26. Kyiv career club open meeting.

B) 1. French world record race champion; 2. the Rolls-Royce Bristol engines division; 3. the estate grain elevator company; 4. factory and office trade union committees; 5. the speed-way Express Knock-out cup semi-final; 6. district trades union council; 7. Clyde-bank Town Hall Council; 8. Northern Ireland Labour Party leaders; 9. the Birmingham regional Hospital Board meeting; 10. China Policy Study Group; 11. the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Associations Executive; 12. Shevchenko Literature Prize winners; 13. the South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive; 14. the US Cruise missile bases; 15. European Petroleum Equipment Manufacturers Federations; 16. British European Airway cheap summer tourist flights; 17.

 

all-Britain East-West trade agreements; 18. leading Southampton Dock trade unionist; 19. former world mile record holder; 20. Indian Union Carbide Pesticides Plant; 21. Richard and Hinda Rosenthal Foundation poets award; 22. Mountain State arts & crafts Fair; 23. Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area; 24. the New York Times bestsellers list; 25. The United Nations Security Council Resolution; 26. the New Castle second division football match; 27. The Northern Praries Wildlife Research Center.

Exercise VII. Point out the sense units and the starting components to translate correctly each five- and six-componental asyndetic substantival cluster below. Offer one or two Ukrainian variants (where possible) for each English word-group.

1. the Voice of America Language service inauguration dates; 2. the world speedway team championship final; 3. the Perkins Diesel factory engine plant; 4. the Retail Food Trades Wages Council; 5. the Coventry tool room rate agreement; 6. a Natal University Sports Union dinner; 7. Essex Gold Cup supporters club trophy; 8. West Midlands Deputy Chief Constable Les Sharp; 9. guerrilla suicide car bomb attack (Lebanon); 10. World Number One amateur tennis player Roy Emerson; 11. the Suez Canal Zone base agreement; 12. the U.S. Information Infrastructure Task Force; 13. the community development block grant programme; 14. the government law enforcement assistance administration; 15. United Nations Security Council Resolution 425; 16. Mr. Shimpei Nukaya, Economic Planning Agency deputy director-general; 17. the Palestine Liberation Organization chairman Yasser Arafat. 18. the Radio City Music Hall box office; 19. cane sugar industry waste products; 20. the U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial; 21. the U.S. health maintenance organization; 22. Ameri-can'Power Boat Association Gold Cup Champions.

Exercise VIII. Prior to translating the sentences below into Ukrainian point out the sense units in their asyndetic substantival clusters and find the starting component for a faithful conveying of their meaning into Ukrainian.

1. The three-man UN mission leaves London today after four days of talks with the British Government. 2. Several magistrates are staying from the civic luncheon being given by the Labour-controlled city magistrates. 3. Two new miniature power units have been announced by the Lexor Electronics. 4. At Scottish career offices there were, in September, only 287 real jobs for more than 10,000 school leavers. 5. Public support for the Coal Miners strike decision

 

249

248

 

 

in Luhansk region is growing. This is shown in an opinion poll published yesterday. 6. On Friday the Foreign Secretary flies off to Washington for a NATO Ministers meeting. 7. The frequency meter type 265 will measure the frequency of repetitive wave form. 8. The workers have to fight redundancy dismissals, pit closures, rail closures. 9. A week of county council election opened in England and Wales yesterday. 10. «We'll never accept Govt pay policy», say miners. 11. The book features short excerpts from actual student communication note books as well as excerpts from student and professional speeches. 12. He has three times been President of the Romford Constituency Labour Party and also of the Romford Trades Council. 13. «And there's a play on from the New York Theatre Guild...» (A.Cronin) 14. He had really belonged... to that crowd of outsiders who turned up their coat collars, spotted, smoked, and took their occasional recreation not at the University Students Union Club but in a downtown billiard saloon. (Ibid.) 15. This is the name («Little General Assembly») given to the three-month United Nations World Trade and Development Conference which opens today. 16. The Public Health Laboratory Service team is to try to track down the cause of what is commonly known as «gastric flu» by studying outbreaks throughout Britain. 17. The committee studied a trade union activities draft document in dealing with the multinational companies. 18. The USA continues to produce most MBA or Master of Business Administration graduates. 19. Harvard Business School and Columbia University both have introduced more team projects in their management courses. 20. The satellite is some 15 times heavier than previous US spy satellite models. 21. The New York Herald Tribune Washington correspondents say the deficit now stands at about two million dollars and continues to grow. 22. A General Assembly resolution provided for the establishment of a United Nations Emergency Force Special Account. 23. The Amalgamated Engineering Union South Essex District Committee is sending a delegation to meet Members of Parliament with a request for engineers to flood the lobby when they have finished work. 24. The dispute at Fords factory is to be the subject of any inquiry headed by chairman of the Motor Industry Joint Labour Council. 25. Five members of the Windsor group hospital management committee at the Binfield Park Hospital for mentally handicapped children took part in the discussion. 26. The United States Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories at Fort Bluoir are currently testing a multi-pur> pose tracked vehicle. 27. Quality Control Department decision re-

250

251

 

garding proposed defect elimination expenses estimate was referred to Chief Design engineer, Welding Department superintendant and Process Department superintendant. 28. But Miss Mason who came, she exposed, from the Home Office Frozen Meat Investigation Department-proved a restricted source of enlightenment. (A. Cronin) 29. The British Aircraft Corporation combined shop-stewards committee expressed full support for the NUM (National Union of Miners). 30. «Hong Kong doesn't need high technology manufacturing», says Mr. Howard Davies, Hong Kong Polytechnic University professor of business studies. 31. Mr. Shimpei Nukaya, Economic Planning Agency deputy director-general, said growth in gross domestic product was on track to meet the more modest government target of 2.5 per cent for the fiscal year. 32. The full-year growth rate was distorted by artificially strong data in the first quarter. 33. It has been taken Boyko up till today to change most of the personnel in the oblast government administration. 34. One of the ways New Jersey is making it easier for families to save is the Garden State Savings Bond Programme. 35. The interest earned on Garden State Savings Bonds will not be included in gross income for Federal income tax purposes and will be exempt from the tax imposed by the New Jersey Gross Income Tax Act. 36. South Carolina kindergarten teacher Phyltis Adelsflugel had a flair for imaginative ways to seize the attention of her pupils. 37. Get tickets at the Radio City Music Hall box office (Bronx).

Exercise IX. Transform the following Ukrainian noun word-groups into English asyndetic substantival clusters:

1. Книжковий фонд Київського державного лінгвістичного університету. 2. Шостий Київський авторемонтний завод. 3. Студенти Київської музичної академії ім. П.І. Чайковського. 4. Молочні продукти Білицького (Біличі) молокозаводу Києво-Святошинського району Київської області. 5. Призери фінального туру студентського конкурсу «Красуня міста Києва» 1999 року. 6. Рішення Київської міської державної адміністрації. 7. Зустріч випускників 1940 року Боярської середньої школи Лисянського району. 8. Науково-дослідні інститути академії наук України. 9. Різдвяні колядування учнів молодших класів міста Львова. 10. Наслідки зимової студентської сесії 1999 року. 11. Заочники Київського інституту бізнесу і технологій. 12. Заліки п'ятикурсників за останню весняно-літню сесію. 13. Новорічні та різдвяні свята харківських школярів. 14. Київські видавництва художньої літератури «Веселка» та «Український письменник». 15. Читачі

 

15. Читачі національної бібліотеки України ім. Вернадського.

16. Комісія в справах обміну сільськогосподарською продукцією.

17. Заходи стимулювання інвестицій у промисловості України.

18. Наслідки фінансової кризи осені 1997 року. 19. голова комісії

Верховної Ради у справах боротьби з корупцією Г.Омельченко.

20. Агентство у справах контролю повітряних ліній України.

21. Державна комісія України в справах контролю авіаційних зв'язків

із країнами Західної Европи та Близького Сходу.

252

TRANSLATION OF ENGLISH VERBALS AND VERBAL CONSTRUCTIONS/COMPLEXES

Common English and Ukrainian non-finite forms of the verb, i.e., the infinitive and both participles, are characterized by identical functions in the sentence. Some of their lexico-grammatical meanings, however, are considerably broader in English than in Ukrainian and include the combined tense and aspect or tense, aspect and voice forms of the infinitive as well as of the present participle derived respectively from the intransitive and from transitive verbs (cf. to live - to be living, to have lived; but: to do - to be done, to be doing; doing - being done, having been done, etc.)

To render faithfully some of these lexico-grammatical meanings (semes) of English verbal paradigms into Ukrainian is not always possible. An exception make the simple paradigms, which usually have semantic and structural equivalents in both languages. For

example:

English Ukrainian

to ask —to be asked                         Запитувати - бути

запитаним,

working (Participle I) - працюючий, працюючи; having worked (Perfect Participle) - попрацювавши, пропрацювавши.

Translation of verbals depends not only on their structural, i.e., paradigmatic forms but also on their nature. Thus, a special approach is needed to render in Ukrainian the complexity of meanings contained by some paradigms of the English gerund (or to render the meanings of the Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk in English).

Consequently, the ways of rendering the meanings of verbals are predetermined by some factors which include a) the structural form of the verbal and b) the function of the verbal in the sentence,

252

 

where it may be either a single part of the sentence or a component of an extended part of the sentence.

Despite the differences in their morphological nature and lexical meaning, some verbals may perform the same functions in English sentences and in their corresponding Ukrainian syntaxemes. Hence, it is expedient to contrast the functions and meanings of English and Ukrainian verbals in the corresponding sentences of these two languages.

WAYS OF RENDERING THE LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL MEANINGS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE ENGLISH INFINITIVE

Translation of the English infinitive is greatly predetermined by its form and sometimes by its function in the sentence. The infinitive functioning as a single part of the sentence, i.e., not being a component of a secondary predication complex, has usually corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian. The latter are a single infinitive or infinitival phrase when the infinitive functions as 1. The subject:

Було так приємно знову дістатися до своєї кімнати.

«Вивезти Айріні за місто... - в цьому було все!»

Не було жодної потреби описувати родину Келсів.

It was pretty nice to get back to my room. /Salinger/

To get Irene out of London ... that was the thing. /Galsworthy/

There was no need to desribe

the Kelseys. (Christie)

«Щоб чоловікові вдарити / бити жінку!»

2. The simple nominal predicate: «A gentleman to strike a lady!» (B.Shaw)

This function of the infinitive is often observed in Ukrainian

literary speech style, eg: Hi. He бути панам на Вкраїні!

(Сосюра)

Вже скоро бути бабиному літу. (Дмитерко)

3. Part of a compound predicate /or predicative:

No, you couldn't have called         Hi, її не можна було назвати

her beautiful. (Mansfield) гарною.

... the company began to         ...товариство заходилося/

253

 

mark the time. (LDurrel) розпочало відраховувати час.

Her next step was to speak її наступним кроком було

to Llewellyn. (Cronin) ^ поговорити з Ллевеллином.

«You will have to wait until you «Вам доведеться почекати.

hear from me again.» (Dreiser) доки я знову сповіщу про себе».

4. The Object (simple, extended or expanded):

~i- --- - - ,

Julia found it very pleasant to sit then in the shade looking at the river. (Maugham)

She taught him tosjtata table and not put his elbows on it. (Ibid.)

Джулїі дуже подобалось тоді сидіти в затінку і дивитися на річку/воду.

Вона вчила його сидіти за столом і не класти на нього руки.

The infinitive has also its equivalents in Ukrainian when it is

used as a complement to an adjective or adjectivized past participle:

«I'm very glad to have seen         «я дуже радий, що зуст-

you again...» (Cronin) рівся з вами знову/що побачив

вас знову...»

Very often the English infinitival object may have in Ukrainian an equivalent infinitival phrase introduced by the conjunction:

/ was too much disturbed to         Я був аж надто стурбова-

go tQ bed. (C.P.Snow) ний, щоб іти спати.

5. An attribute (which is less often used in Ukrainian) as in the sentence below:

«Can I give you anything to         «Дати вам щось поїсти чи.

eat or to drink?» (Lawrence) попити?»

Attributive infinitives can also be conveyed with the help of attributive subordinate clauses:

We made a list of things to be         Ми склали список речей,

taken ... (Jerome) щоб узяти з собою/які візьме

мо з собою.

This same attributive syntaxeme may also be translated as які/що треба було взяти з собою.

Some English attributive syntaxemes can be conveyed in Ukrainian with the help of an attributive subordinate clause:

«... he wasn't a sort of boy to         «... він був не з тих хлопців,

254

 

 

яких можна збити з_ пан-телику.

bje moved from 3. purpose ... (Ibid.)

Some English attributive infinitives may have apart from subordinate clauses or infinitival phrases also prepositional nouns for their semantic equivalents in Ukrainian:

... there were instructions to        ... були дані інструкції до /

be carried out. (Cronin) для виконання (які треба було

виконати).

Note. This function of the infinitive is also observed in Ukrainian: мати бажання поїсти/щось випити. Він мав надію ще зустрітися.

6. An adverbial modifier (usually of purpose, result or consequence) may be conveyed in Ukrainian with the help of an infinitival щоб-phrase, a prepositional noun or a noun word-group:

She wanted time to, think it         їй треба було часу для

over. (Galsworthy) обдумування/щоб обміркува

ти це.

It was too dark to_ distinguish         Було занадто темно, щоб

anything. (Lawrence) розрізняти що-небудь.

These were the main Ukrainian semantic equivalents for single English infinitives performing different functions in the sentence.

Exercise I. Prior to translating the English sentences be-low point out the function of the underlined infinitive and suggest a Ukrainian semantic equivalent for it.

1. Then she remembered about his own children; how most of them had been bom but to sicken and die before they grew up. (Maugham)

2. «I hope you'll have enough to eat», said. Julia. (Ibid.) 3. You did it deliberately to separate us. (Ibid.) 4. In the creek there are birds to watch, and fish to catch- and streams to explore. (Maurier). 5. It was necessary to do something. (D.Lessing). 6. I have not had time to examine that room yet. (C.Doyle) 7. It must be a big thing to swing the telescope like that. (H. Wells) 8. Sometimes you retreat in order to advance. (Galsworthy) 9.1 was too young to think such things at the time. (Ibid.). 10. His eyes were sharp enough to look after his own interest. (Ibid.) 11. George said we had better get the canvas up first. (Jerome K.Jerome) 12. He forgot to wind the watch when he

255

 

went to bed. (Ibid.). 13. We intended to camp in one of the inlets to be found round that tiny shore, (ibid.) 14. «I think», he said, «that to prolong this discussion is to waste time.» (Galsworthy) 15. He felt that it was something to be connected with such a place, and he made her feel that way. (Dreiser) 16. It is useless to discuss this problem. (Cusack) 17. Soames put on his coat as not to be cold. (Galsworthy) 18. Katie surmised that something had gone wrong in school to upset Francie. (Mowat) 19.1 crept back to my hut, to cast myself on my grass bed and sink into a dull, miserable, desponding stupor. (Ibid.) 20. Our job will be to investigate some of its properties. (M.Wilson) 21. I'm glad to meet you. (Dreiser) 22. She refused to answer him. (Lawrence) 23. Annie was now studying to be a teacher. (Lawrence) 24. It was sufficient to sit there to breathe, to look at the river and trees, simply to exist. (Braine) 25.1 meant to have a talk to him. (Wells) 26. He was ...too good a workman to be sacked and too outspoken about his Labour convictions to be promoted. (Braine) 27.1 told the driver the address to drive to. (Hemingway) 28. It was the automatic instinct to live. (London) 29. Anything was good enough so long as it paid - say, five dollars a week, to begin with. (Dreiser)

30. He was a fool to attempt to make a pretence that way. (London)

31. He was satisfied to turn his face away entirely, and any call to look back was irksome. (Dreiser).

WAYS OF TRANSLATING INFINITIVAL COMPLEXES

There are three types of infinitival complexes in present-day English (which are often referred to as secondary predication constructions): 1) the for-to-infinitival complex; 2) the objective with the infinitive and 3) the subjective with the infinitive complexes.

Each type of these predicative constructions has some explicit and implicit grammatical characteristics of its own. Since translation of these complexes is often predetermined by their nature and structure, it would be expedient to dwell upon each of them separately.

A.  Ways of Translating the For-to-lnfinitive Constructions These secondary predication constructions are used in their active and passive forms which does not influence their functioning as various complex parts of the sentence. Depending on its function in the sentence and on the voice form (active or passive) of the infinitive, this secondary predication word-group may have different equivalents in Ukrainian. The most often occurring are the infinitive, an

256

 

infinitival phrase introduced by the conjunction щоб, a finite form of the verb or a subordinate clause. The realization of a definite meaning may be predetermined by the function of the infinitival for-phrase which may be as follows:

1. The complex subject having for its equivalent in Ukrainian a simple subject expressed by the infinitive or an extended subject expressed by the subordinate clause:

«For me to see you is the hap- «Побачити тебе - для

piest minute in my life... (P. мене найщасливіша мить у

Abrahams) житті/є для мене найщасли-

вішою хвилиною ...

«It would be better for us to         «Було б краще для нас

leave him.» (Wilde) залишити його/щоб ми зали

шили його.

2. A complex predicative having for its Ukrainian equivalent either an infinitive functioning as the simple nominal predicate, or a finite form of the verb, i.e., a simple verbal predicate:

«If is not for you to make Ue не тобі ставити умови/

terms.» (Wilde) He ти ставиш умови.

«The simplest thing,» said «Найпростіший вихід для

Fleur, «is for him to resign at нього ... — негайно відмови-

once.» (Galsworthy) тись від членства.»

3. A complex object corresponding to a simple or extended object in Ukrainian:

We are waiting for the bovs Ми чекаємо повернення/на

back from Hanoi. (Greene) повернення наших хлопиів з

Ганоя...

The condensed form of this infinitival complex may also have an object clause for its equivalent in Ukrainian: ми чекаємо, доки наші хлопці повернуться з Ганоя.

4. An attribute to a nominal part of speech: She had only to express а         Варто  було  їй тільки wish for him to fulfil. (Mauaham}    виголосити  якесь   (своє)

бажання, він негайно ж виконував його.

There was no room for us to He було місця, де сісти/де.

sit down... (Galsworthy) можна було сісти.

257

 

5. An adverbial modifier of equivalents a subordinate clause / left something under your door for you to read it. (Carter)

Her home was too far west for anyone to come to him. (Cusack)

purpose or result having for their or an infinitive in Ukrainian:

Я дещо залишив тобі під дверима, щоб ти почитав/ тобі почитати.

її'домівка була далеко західніше, тож ніхто не міг навідатись до нього.

Sometimes, however, an equivalent of the for-phrase in Ukrainian may be only a subordinate (or coordinate) clause:

He paused for me to show my         Він помовчав, аби я ще раз

ignorance again... (Greene) показав своє неуцтво ...

Exercise II. Identify the function of the infinitival for-phrase and translate each sentence below into Ukrainian.

1. For me to ask would be treason; and for me to be told would be treason. (M.Wilson) 2. For you to come here is impossible. 3. «For me to discover England to him,» she thought, «for him to discover the East to me.» (Galsworthy) 4. It was impossible for me now to persuade myself that this urgent desire of his to dispense hospitality was disinterested. 5.... It was out of the question for him to absnnt himself for any length of time. 6. It would have been easy for him to get out of it. 7. It seemed a good opportunity for Julia to get away. (Maugham) 8. It would be better for us to leave him. (Wilde) 9. It was not unknown for small boys to enter a monastery. (Ken Follett) 10. It was so easy for a young man of his looks and character to be led astray by evil woman. (Dreiser) 11. There was need for him to be economical. 12. It seems so babyish for me to be young to night school. (London) 13. It is for me to thank you. 14. «The simplest thing,» said Fleur, «is for him to resign at once». (Galsworthy). 15. «That is for me to decide, is it not?» (C.Doyle) 16. He wants me to do something pleasant - for him to feel better.» (Maugham) 17. All he wanted desperately now ... was for their child to live. (A. Hailey) 18. «What is there for me to do, except one thing?» (J. Conrad) 19. Rosemary looked for a place to sit. (Fitzgerald) 20. David had decided to let him wait for his seventeenth birthday to come. 21. We think it natural for parents to want their children to conform to a pattern they understand. 22. David prayed nightly for her and Blaise to come back. (I.Murdoch) 23. I'll try and arrange for you to see him at Mount Street. (Galsworthy) 24. He sat there in the little hot office

 

waiting for one of us to speak. (Greene) 25. She also asked for more women to be appointed news-readers. (M. Guardian) 26. I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so much money this way. (Dreiser) 27.1 bought something for you to read. 28. «It's not a bad thing for you to judge others by yourself». (Maugham) 29. There was milk in the ice-chest for her to drink.(Cusack) 30. And there was a child's shirt in the living-room waiting for a button to be sewn on. (Greene) 31. Arrangements are being made for the girl to be taken back to her own country. (M. Guardian) 32. Dr. Saunders stopped for us to join him. (Maugham) 33. But five minutes was enough for them to understand one another. (Cronin)

WAYS OF TRANSLATING THE OBJECTIVE WITH

THE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS/PREDICATIVE

COMPLEXES

Unlike the polyfunctional for-to-infinitive constructions, the objective with the infinitive complexes can have mostly one function in the sentence - that of the complex object. Despite this the semantic equivalents of this construction in Ukrainian are often different. The choice of the Ukrainian semantic equivalent is predetermined by some factors, the main of which are as follows: a) the lexical meaning of the finite verb after which the objective with the infinitive construction is used; b) the paradigmatic form of the infinitive (its categorial meaning); c) the lexical meaning of the objective infinitive. As a result, different semantic and structural equivalents may be used in Ukrainian as substitutes for this predicative complex. The choice of the appropriate language unit/sense u(1it may often rest with the translator only or it may be predetermined by the structural peculiarity of the sentence under translation. The most common ways of translating the objective with the infinitive constructions are the following: 1. By means of a subordinate clause:

Ви хочете, щоб___ (діапозитиви) забрав?

Усі спостерігали, як він іде садком/переходить садок.

я   їх

«Do you want me to take these (slides) away?» (Hailey)

Depending on the predicate verb, the objective with the infiniive construction may be rendered into Ukrainian with the help of an infinitive or a subordinate clause:

Everyone watched him walk across the garden. (D. Lessing)

 

258

259

 

 

Він наказав кучерові /xs щоб він їхав далі.

He ordered the cabman to drive on. (London)

2.   By means of an objective infinitival word-group forming part of the compound modal verbal predicate (like in English):

У дитинстві я бажав стати художником, але батько змусив мене піти в бізнес.

Повільно, збираючись з силами, він одягнувся і змусив себе йти.

-    - - -      -                                   •       _      <r _

/ rather wanted to be a painter when I was a boy, but my father made me go into business. (Maugham)

Slowly, economically, he got dressed and forced himself to walk. (Lawrence)

3. By means of a noun derived from the objective infinitive (an alternative way of translation) or an object clause.

He heard the blackbird sing. Він чув спів дрозда.

Не had expected him to be Він очікував від нього біль-more sympathetic. (Maugham) ше співчуття.

The objective with the infinitive construction in the above-given sentence may naturally be translated with the help of the subordinate clause: Він очікував, що той виявить більше співчуття/що той буде співчутливішим.

4.   By means of a phrasal/simple verbal predicate: The champagne and the alti-         Від шампанського й висоти tude made him sleep. (Hailey)        його хилило до сну/йому хотілося спати.

Не never made me laugh. Він ніколи не міг мене

(Maugham)                                    розсмішити/викликати в мене

посмішку.

The objective with the infinitive construction in the last sentence may also be understood and translated with the help of a single finite form of the verb: Він ніколи мене не тішив.

In some sentences introduced by the anticipatory ft the objective with the infinitive construction may perform a quite unusual for it function of the complex subject corresponding to the Ukrainian extended infinitival subject:

«It's heavenly to hear you say         «Чути ие од вас - справж-that, my sweet.» (Maugham)         нісіньке блаженство.»

 

Translation of the objective with the infinitive constructions, therefore, may be predetermined npt only by the nature and meaning of the finite verb/predicate, which may have various implicit dependent grammatical meanings (those of physical or mental perception, verbs of saying, etc.), but also by its syntactic function, by the translator's choice of the equivalent and by the stylistic aim pursued in the sentence.

Exercise III. Prior to translating the English sentences below offer appropriate Ukrainian semantic (and structural) equivalents for each objective with the infinitive construction.

1.1 want you to hear me out. 2.1 saw you drive up and I ran down, I'm afraid, on the third floor. 3. She had never seen him smoke a pipe before. 4. She heard him slam the front door and saw him come out. 5. Now she heard Guy clatter down the steps to the bath-house. 6. He heard Big Ben chime «Three» above the traffic. (Galsworthy) 7. Neilson watched him make his way across and when he had disappeared among the coconuts, he looked still. 8. She wanted him to look back on this as one of the great moments of his life. 9. She felt that he wanted her to be a child of nature. 10. «Don't you remember, before I married Gelbert you advised me to marry a man of my own age.» 11. She had expected him to be more sympathetic. 12. «I should hate him to be an author if that's what you mean.» 13. She must look at the people if she wants 1hem to look at her. 14. She saw Charles's smile freeze on his face. 15. ... he could not see Julia's face when she heard him say this. 16. Julia didn't know why... her little presents made her inclined to laugh. (Maugham) 17. «Oh! If I could only see him laugh once more. Oh! If I could only see him weep». (M.Twain) 18. She caused a telegram to be sent to him. (Galsworthy) 19. «... she must agree her baby to be surrendered for adoption immediately after birth.» 20. O'Donnell wanted his baby to live. 21 If you wanted him to take an assistant, you told him to do so and ussually that was that. 22. «Even at that,» O'Donnell reflected, «he had considered the chairman to be erring toward optimism.» 23. «It was a loud, firm protest, but even as he made it he had known it to be a lie » 24. «Mike had spoken them (words) on impulse, but suddenly, deeply, he knew them to be true.» (Hailey) 25. It was so like his family, so like them to carry their business principles into their private relations. (Galsworthy) 26. «I want order! I want things to get started!» (R.Goldberg) 27. He had the dray-man bring in the soap. (Dreiser) 28. «I cannot bear you to speak of that.» (Jerome K.Jerome)

 

261

260

 

 

Exercise IV. Translate the sentences into English. Be sure to use the corresponding form of the infinitive in each of them.

I. Я не знав, що вона також розмовляє італійською мовою. 2. Він не сподівався, що ви запросите і мене. 3. Всі раді, що перша лекція в нас була з історії України. 4. Ми були першими, хто зустрічав канадських студентів у нашому університеті. 5. Вона пишалася тим, що мала змогу перекладати промову цього вченого з Оксфордського університету. 6. Микола задоволений, що зустрічався зі своїми однокласниками. 7. Ніхто не чекав, що до них завітають перед сесією делегати наукової конференції. 8. Ми хочемо, щоб першим іспитом у зимову сесію поставили теоретичну граматику. 9. Студенти не сподівалися, що вони всі так добре напишуть контрольну роботу. 10. Всі задоволені, що їздили на екскурсію до колишньої козацької столиці Батурина.

II. У тому тексті надто багато неологізмів і жаргонізмів, щоб перекласти його без словника. 12. Вона не пригадує, щоб тоді в Харкові придбала цей дорогий словник. 13. Нікому не було місця, де сісти. 14. Нам незручно пригадуватиб що ми тоді стільки турбували вас із перекладом цієї торговельної угоди. 15. Погода була несприятлива, щоб їхати в Карпати на спортивні змагання. 16. Вони були дуже задоволені, що відвідали музей мадам Тюссо в Лондоні. 17. Хто б міг подумати, що з цього тендітного першокурсника виросте такий видатний спортсмен. 18. Ми раді повідомити вам, що його наукова робота з перекладу відзначена першою премією на конкурсі. 19. Студентам подобається, коли їм дають більше самостійно перекладати. 20. Вони задоволені, що їхні наукові праці прийняті на конкурс. 21. Студентка не погодилася, щоб її одну з групи посилали до Великої Британії. 22. Ніхто не очікував, що їх пошлють тлумачами на виставку шведських споживчих товарів у Києві. 23. Студент не боявся, що його усний переклад слухатиме вся група. 24. Він хотів попросити час, щоб виконати цей важкий переклад. 25. Ми раді, що нас під час зимових канікул посилали на спортивні змагання до Львова. 26. Усі сподівались тоді, що нашому інститутові буде присвоєне почесне ім'я найбільшого поліглота України академіка Агатанґела Кримського. 27. Не всі знають, що цей учений володів 68 мовами народів Европи й Азії. 28. Щоб правильно й адекватно перекласти текст, його треба перш належно проаналізувати. 29. Студент не підозрював, що той уривок міг мати стільки незнайомих йому слів-технічних термінів. ЗО. Усі погодилися, що уривок міг бути перекладений за коротший час.

 

WAYS OF RENDERING THE MEANING OF THE

SUBJECTIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE

CONSTRUCTIONS

This predicative infinitival construction or complex, as it is often referred to in grammars, consists of the secondary subject, usually noun or pronoun, and secondary predicate expressed by the infinitive. The latter is mostly separated from the nominal part of the complex subject by the primary predicate: Mr. Chritchlow had never been known to be glad to see anybody. (Bennett) or: You are to live here for the next six months. (B.Shaw)

The secondary subject may often be expressed by the anticipatory pronoun it lt,was considered a virtue not to talk unnecessar-ily at sea. (Hemingway).

Translation of the infinitival complexes into Ukrainian depends on or is predetermined by some factors, the main of which are the following:

1) the lexical meaning of the verb or rather the semantic group to which the verb (after which the syntactic construction is used) belongs;

2) the voice form (active or passive) of the subjective (nominative) infinitive;

3) the structure of the parts of the sentence and that of the sentence itself, which may be simple or composite;

4) the translator's choice of the means and language units conveying the meaning of the subjective with the infinitive constructions.

Thus, when used with the verbs expressing permission, request, intention, order, compulsion (to allow, to permit, to order, to command, to force, to make, to request, to intend, etc.), the subjective with the infinitive construction may be rendered in Ukrainian in the following ways:

a)   with the help of an indefinite personal sentence;

b) with the help of an impersonal sentence having the passive verbal predicate in -но, -то;

c) with the help of an object subordinate clause, for example:

A. The inmates were ordered not to try to leave their wards. (USA Today)

1)   В 'язням наказали не робити спроб залишати камери:

 

262

263

 

 

2)   В 'язням було наказано/наказали не робити спроб...

3) В'язням наказали, щоб вони не робили спроб залишати камери.

В. The subjective with the infinitive construction used with the verbs of physical perception (to feel, to hear, to see, to taste, etc.) can be translated:

a) with the help of the one-member introductory indefinite personal sentences followed by an object subordinate clause as in the following sentence:

He was seen the first to come. Бачили, що він прийшов

(D. Carter) першим.

A certain mar? w&s seen tQ Бачили, що якийсь чоловік,

reel into Mr.Twain's hotel last заточуючись, ввалився вчора

night. (M. Twain) ввечері в готельний номер

містера Геєна.

Alongside the introductory definite personal sentence, sometimes the impersonal introductory sentence may be used in Ukrainian to render the meaning of the nominative with the infinitive construction. Thus the sentence below can be translated in two ways:

The garden gate was heard to bang. (Lawrence)

1)   Чули/було  чути,  як         2) Почулося, як у садку

хляпнула хвіртка в садок. хляпнула хвіртка.

Similarity in the sentence below where the Ukrainian reflexive verb performs the functions of the introductory/subject clause:

It was felt to be hopeless.        Відчувалося.      що     це

(Galsworthy) безнадійно./Відчувалося. що з

цього нічого не буде.

This sentence may have in Ukrainian one more quite unexpected condensed version of a two-member simple sentence: 1) Відчувалася безнадія. 2) Відчувалася якась безвихідь.

С. Similar ways of translation are employed when the subjective with the infinitive complex/constrtuction is used with the verbs of mental perception (to believe, to deny, to expect, to know, to suppose, etc.):

He is supposed to be work-         Вважають (вважається), що ing in the sanatorium. (Cusack)     він нібито працює в санаторії.

Irene was known to take very sudden decisions. (Galsworthy)

Знали, що Айріні приймає зовсім несподівані рішення (здатна на несподівані рішення).

 

Depending on the context, the translator may suggest some other structural (and, naturally, semantic) versions for the last sentence. As for example:

Айріні знали як людину, що здатна на зовсім несподівані (непередбачені) рішення. Знали, що Айріні може приймати зовсім непередбачені рішення.

D. When used after the verbs of saying and reporting (to say, to report, to tell, etc.), the nominative with the infinitive complex is translated with the help of the introductory indefinite-personal sentence followed by an object subordinate clause. The choice of the form of this introductory clause is predetermined by the verb with which the subjective with the infinitive construction is used. Thus, the verb say, for example, can not have а ^сяЛсь equivalent in Ukrainian, whereas the verb report can have both the -ся form as well as the third person plural form introduced by the conjunction як:

Paper is said to have been invented in China. (Bennett)

Кажуть, що папір винайдений/винайдено в Китаї.

But: US Secretary of State is reported to have arrived in Geneva. (The Guardian)

1) Повідомляють, що державний секретар США прибув до Женеви.

2) Як повідомляють, державний секретар США прибув до Женеви.

3) Повідомляється, що державний секретар США прибув до Женеви.

Apart from the verbs of saying and reporting the verbs to expect, to understand, and to see are used in oral and written mass media in the same functions. Their meaning may sometimes differ from their commonly known vocabulary meanings. For example:

Sax sates this year are expected to blow past last year's 67000. (USA Today)

But: The rally was seen to be much smaller than had been expected. (The Guardian)

Очікується, що продаж платівок саксофонної музики цього року перевищить торішню на 67,000 (штук)

Виявилося (як виявилося), мітинґ зібрав менше людей, ніж очікувалося.

The sentence can also be translated with the help of the impersonal -ся verbal clause introduced by the conjunction як: Як переконалися, мітинґ зібрав менше людей, ніж спершу очікувалось.

 

264

265

 

 

The verb understand with which the subjective with the infinitive construction is used, has a peculiar meaning - згідно наявних відомостей:

The trial is understood to be         Згідно наявних відомостей. held next week. (The Guardian)     суд______відбудеться

наступного тижня.

Еліс, здавалося, не чула про мене./Здавалося. Еліс не чула про мене.

Вважали/здається, вона брала участь у першому польоті до Альфи 73.

Е. When used with the verbs to appear, to chance, to happen, to prove, to seem, or with the mood phrases to be sure, to be certain, to be likely/unlikely the subjective with the infinitive constructions may have different interpretations in Ukrainian. Thus, the verbs seem, believe, appear, etc, which function as simple verbal predicates in English are converted into parenthetic words or introductory сь-1-ся impersonal/definite personal sentences (Вважається/ вважають, здається):

«Л//се didn't seem tc heard of me.» (Braine)

She was believed to hi taken part in the first flight to Alpha 73 (J.Christoper)

Other contextual semantic variants of sentences with the predicate verbs to appear, to believe, to seem, etc. followed by the secondary subject expressed by the subjective infinitive may be the adverb очевидно or the modal particle ніби/нібито:

He seemed to be thinking of Він, здавалося, думав про

something else. (Dreiser) щось зовсім Інше.

The sentence can also have some other equivalent in Ukrainian: Його думки, очевидно, були зайняті чимось іншим/Він ніби думав щось (про щось) зовсім інше.

Note. The structure of some English sentences containing the subjective with the infinitive constructions may undergo certain slight changes in Ukrainian translation:

Mrs. Cowperwood, in spite of Місіс Каупервуд,

the differences in their years, ap~ незважаючи на різницю в

peared to be a fit mate for him at роках, виявилась для нього під

this time. (Dreiser) цю пору гідною партнеркою.

Sentences with the subjective with the infinitive constructions

 

may have predicates expressing the modal meanings of certainty, uncertainty, probability, etc. (to be sure, to seem, to be certain, to be likely/unlikely, etc). Such sentences are not transformed in Ukrainian translation, i.e., they maintain their simple structure, with the predicates turning into modal words/particles or adverbs such as можливо, певне/напевне, навряд/чи/неможливо, обов'язково:

The fire is certain to produce         Пожежа        обов'язково panic in the morning. (Dreiser)       зчинить   паніку   взавтра

But he is sure to marry her. (T.Hardy)

Alice did not seem to have heard me. (Braine)

вранці.

Але він обов'язково (певно-таки) одружиться з нею.

Аліс, очевидно/здавалося. не почула мене.

Ukrainian semantic equivalents for the modal words likely/unlikelyfollowed by the subjective infinitive may also be clauses of modal meaning:

є можливість (існує ймовірність), не виключена можливість:

Існує можливість, що вона споживатиме в Мексиці забруднені продукти чи питиме забруднену воду.

«... навряд чи можна в одній людині поєднати все, що хочеш.»

She was likely to consume contaminated food or water in Mexico. (Hailey)

«... we're unlikely to get everything we want in one man.» (Snow)

The last English sentence and sentences like that having nominal predicates with implicit modal meanings of supposition, doubt, uncertainty, etc. followed by the subjective infinitive may have other lexico-semantic equivalents in Ukrainian to express their meaning. Among these are the modal phrases as цілком імовірно/цілком можливо, не виключена можливість, може бути/статися: Цілком імовірно/Цілком можливо, що вона буде споживати в Мексиці забруднені продукти чи питиме забруднену воду. Може статися, що...

The subjective with the infinitive constructions may be used with some other English verbs as will be seen in the exercise below. They may sometimes influence the choice of faithful Ukrainian equivalents for these English sentences as well.

 

266

267

 

 

Exercise IV. Suggest possible contextual equivalents for the subjective with the infinitive constructions below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian:

1. They were seen to just touch each other's hano^s, and look each at the other's left eye only. (Galsworthy) 2. «She wants, I'm sure, to be seen today.» (J.G.Griffin) 3. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 4. Her situation was considered very good. (Bennett) 5.... he was impelled to reestablish their lines of communication (Seghal) 6. ... the injured teacher had an operation for a head wound and is said to be improving. (The Guardian) 7. She was not expected to reply, but she did. (Dreiser) 8. «They're certainly entitled to think that, and they're entitled to feel respect for their opinions ...» (H.Lee) 9. The economic problems facing France are certain to have strong repercussions. (The Guardian) 10. They were told to get the children back to sleep. (H.Fast) 11. ... the fetters that bound their tongues were considered to be locked and the key thrown away. (M.Twain) 12. He was thought to be honest and kindly. (Dreiser) 13. He was never expected to recover his equilibrium. 14. «You appear to be in poor shape, all the same.» 15. Her name appeared to be Millicent Pole. 16.1 happen to know young Tasburgh who isn't with his ship. 17. «I just happened to drive up.» (Galsworthy) 18. Bob finds it impossible to keep pace with stroke, because stroke rows in such an extraordinary fashion. (Jerome K.Jerome) 19. ... he seemed to be asking what was the matter with me. (Snow) 20. «I seem to have promised that I'd take you into my laboratory.» 21. «I seem to be getting over it a little.» (M.Wilson) 22. The tower seemed to rock in wind. (Lawrence) 23. For about ten days we seemed to have been living on nothing but cold meat, cake, and bread and jam. (Jerome K.Jerome) 24. The goods are reported to have been awaiting shipment for several days. (The Guardian) 25. The girl seemed to perceive that a question of taste was concerned. 26. He seemed to take rather a fancy to me. 27. She seemed, indeed, to have heard it before. 28. Some fellows seem to know everybody and exactly how to work them. (Galsworthy) 29. The child is likely to face a first period of uncertainty and bewilderment on being taken into care. (Schimmels) 30. Being subject to endorsement by the Cortes, the «reform» is likely to be of little practical significance. (The Guardian) 31. The money is unlikely to be repaid, unless there is a fundamental change in the policies of the United Federation ... 32. The latest cease fire agreement between the worrying forces in Bosnia is unlikely to hold. (The Guardian)

268

WAYS OF TRANSLATING THE PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS

The choice of the method and means for translating English participial constructions into Ukrainian is predetermined by the general implicit and dependent explicit meanings of the participle itself. These meanings reflect the lexico-grammatical nature of the participle as a verbal. Namely: its voice, tense, and aspect distinctions; 2) its lexical and grammatical meanings; 3) its functions in English and Ukrainian word-groups and sentences.

A peculiar feature of Ukrainian is the restricted use of both the preposed and postposed (to nouns) attributive present participles. As a result it is not always possible to translate English V.ngN or NV.n' pattern word-groups with the help of these same structural types o? word-groups in Ukrainian. Especially when the participles originate from the verbs of motion, due to which the word-groups are translated into Ukrainiar mostly with the help of attributive subordinate clauses. For example:

The hou.se was alive with ... Будинок наповнювали го-

running voices. (Mansfield) лоси ... що лунали повсюди.

This present participle may also be translated with the help of the semantically equivalent adjective лункий or even with the help of the verb лунали: Будинок сповнювався звідусіль лункими . голосами/У будинку повсюди лунали голоси.

This same way of translation is employed when conveying the meaning of English word-groups with postpositive attributive present participles whose equivalents in Ukrainian are attributive subordinate clauses:

In the night, going slowly Уночі, відходячи запрудже-

along the crowded roads we ними дорогами, ми бачили

passed troops marching under військові частини, шокрокува-

the rain, guns, horses, pulling ли під дощем, гармати, коні.

wagons, mules, motortrucks, all що тягли вози, мули, ванта-

moving from the front, жівки, які всі відступали з

(Hemingway) фронту.

As can be seen, the postpositive present participles in the sentence above are all translated with the help of attributive subordinate clauses: troops marching under the rain - військові частини, що/які крокували під дощем; horses, pulling wagons - коні, що

269

 

тягли вози; motor trucks, all moving from the front - вантажівки, що всі відступали з фронту.

The last word-group, naturally, can also be translated with the help of the finite verb: motor trucks, all moving from the front -всі /вони/ відступали з фронту.

There exist some exceptions, however, when attributive present participles are translated with the help of Ukrainian equivalents of the same nature, even though they originate from the verbs of motion:

«I think the whole turning point in my life was that awful Trenchardboy...» (Cheever)

«Думаю, що причиною цього поворотного пункту в моєму житті був той жахливий тип Тренчард.»

There came a rushing clatter of footsteps. (Steinbeck)

Раптом залунали, наростаючи, кроки полісменів.

The V NP pattern of the Ukrainian word-group in the above-given sentence, though grammatically/structurally acceptable can have some other faithful variants, which are more typical for Ukrainian. These are two:

1) the subordinate clause: Почулось, як залунали галопуючі кроки полісменів;

2) a construction with a diyepryslivnyk: Почулось, як залунали, наближаючись, кроки полісменів.

English attributive past participles, on the other hand, are mostly translated into Ukrainian with the help of their morphological, lexical, and functional equivalents, e.g., past participles. This makes no problems in the choice of Ukrainian faithful equivalents for English attributive word-groups of this type. For example:

«... many disappointed hearts         « ... не одна розчарована still wonder why Coleman never    душа й досі дивується, чому

Колеман не одружився.

її обличчя ... з підпухлими очима та розпухлими губами мало жахливий вигляд.

Вони прийшли до покинутої/залишеної комори.

Довкола все накрила темна ніч, усіяна мерехтливими зіоками-світлячками.

married. (W.Maken)

Her face... with swollen eyes and swollen lips looked terrible. (Mansfield)

They came to a deserted store. (Ibid.)

All round lay the black night, speckled and spangled with lights. (Lawrence)

 

English predicative participles may sometimes undergo, when being translated into Ukrainian, a morphological/structural transformation and turn into a finite form of the verb, i.e., into a simple verbal predicate:

...він вийшов у провулок Чансері Лейн і по дорозі купив газету/купивши по дорозі газету.

Настала, здавалось, погода.

Сонце залило нас своїм промінням.

...he went out to Chancery Lane, buying a paper on his way. (Galsworthy)

The weather looked settled. (Ibid.)

Sunshine came spilling upon us. (Cronin)

The compound predicates with component participles (looked, settled, came spilling) have for their equivalents respectively simple verbal predicates настала (погода), нас сонце залило.

The English past participle used as part of a compound verbal/nominal predicate may often be translated with the help of perfective and non-perfective verbs. The latter, depending on the meaning of participles, may be personal or non-personal:

What is done can not be un-         Що зроблено, те зробле-

done. (Proverb) но.(Що з воза впало, те про

пало.)

The street was deserted. (Snow)

Вулиця спорожніла (була безлюдна).

When used in an adverbial function, the English indefinite and perfect participles have mostly diyepryslivnyks for their semantic and functional equivalents in Ukrainian:

Reading the works of men, Читаючи твори авторів,

who had arrived, he noted every що досягли успіху, він схоп-

result achieved by them. (Lon- лював усі особливості їхнього

don) стилю.

Having gained her degree, Отримавши вчений cmy-

she was doing no more reading, пінь, вона вже не відводила

(Ibid.) стільки часу на читання.

The perfect participle, naturally, can be translated in the last sentence by means of a paraphrase: Після отримання/Після того, як вона отримала вчений ступінь ...

Some present participles with the implicit predicative meaning

 

271

270

 

 

and function may be rendered into Ukrainian either with the help of a corresponding diyepryslivnyk or with the help of a finite verb (simple verbal predicate):

Then he cut chemistry from Потім він викреслив із

the list, retaining only physics, списку хімію, залишивши

(Ibid.) тільки фізику.

Instead of the diyepryslivnyk, like in the example above, the finite form of the verb may also be used in Ukrainian here: Потім він викреслив із списку хімію і залишив тільки фізику.

In some sentences the translator may have difficulties while choosing in Ukrainian the language unit or its particular form for the English participle. This is because of the existence of some ways of conveying their meaning: a) with the help of a simple verbal predicate or b) with the help of the diyepryslivnyk. For example:

When shaving, or dressing, or combing his hair, he conned these lists (of words) over. (London)

Коли він голився, одягався or: Голячись, одягаючись чи

чи розчісувався, він усе зубрив розчісуючись, він усе зубрив

ці слова. ці слова.

When translating English passive participles (predicative constructions with them) preference is given, however, to diyepryslivnyks:

Ashamed of our stupidity, she Зніяковівши від нашої

murmured: «Of course, of нетямущості, вона промим-

course.» (Leacock) рила: «Авжеж, авжеж».

«І am going the same day my-         «Затримавшись тут два self having been detained here    дні через повінь, я тепер і сам two days by the flood. (Gold-    поїду звідси в цей день, smith)

Some other faithful variants of translating participles and participial constructions are not excluded either, which is predetermined by the factors already mentioned above.

Exercise V. Choose an appropriate Ukrainian equivalent for each English present/past participle first and then suggest a faithful translation of the following sentences:

1. The barking dog increased his tempo. (Steinbeck) 2. Dr. Maephal looked at the falling rain. (Maugham) 3. He heard the soft snow falling from a branch. (Hemingway) 4. A few early fallen oak-

272

 

leaves strewed the terrace already ... (Galsworthy) 5. Along the unpaved roads there were a few little houses ... (Steinbeck) 6. Here was a woman sitting before the fire. 7. Wherever you looked, there were couples strolling, bending to the flowers, greeting, moving on over the lawn. 8. She found herself in a wretched little low kitchen lighted by a small lamp. (Mansfield) 9. She was in their bedroom sitting by the window. (Cheever) 10. A cold wind swept the pavement, bearing a scrap of silver paper from a chocolate box across the lamp-light. (G.Greene) 11. He was in an ecstasy, dreaming dreams and reconstructing the scene just past. 12. So Martin went on into a thorough study of evolution, mastering the subject more and more himself and being convinced by the corroborative testimony of a thousand independent writers. (London) 13. Having shaken himself free from his old companions and old ways of life, and having no new companions, nothing remained for him but to read. 14. Maria, having heard his groans through the thin partition, came into his room, to put hot flat-irons against his body and damp cloths upon his aching eyes. 15. ... being unused to such appraisements, he did not know how to value it. 16. But she, who knew little of the world of men, being a woman was keenly aware of his burning eyes. 17. He halted, with a laugh, and turned, facing them. (London) 18. The street was full of people, laughing and going home. (Greene) 19. Wishing him to finish the work in time, Andrew decided to ask Chris to help him. (Cronin)

WAYS OF TRANSLATING PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS

The present and the past participles may sometimes present difficulties for inexperienced translators when verbals are used as part of the compound verbal predicate or in participial (secondary predication) constructions.

Thus, the compound verbal predicate with the component present participle is usually transformed in Ukrainian into the simple verbal predicate expressed by a perfective verb. For example:

He stopped, and took me up, Він зупинився й підхопив and the light came tumbling down мене, а світло поповзло по the steps on me too... (Saroyan) східцях і впало також на мене.

When used as part of a compound nominal predicate, the participle with its linking verb is transformed in Ukrainian into a simple

273

 

perfective verbal predicate or becomes a compound nominal predi-

cate:

The trade fair was closed last week. (F.News)     Виставка-

ярмарок закрилася минулого тижня.

This predicate in Ukrainian may also be compound nominal (like in English): Торговий ярмарок був закритий /було закрито/ минулого тижня.

Difficulties may present, however, some secondary predication constructions with the present and past participle which have to be treated/analysed separately.

A. Ways of Translating the Objective with the Participle Constructions/Complexes

Like the objective with the infinitive complexes the secondary predication constructions with the present or past participle are used with the verbs of physical and mental perception, as well as with the verb to have. The participial construction thus formed has the function of the complex object and may be translated in different ways, the choice of which is predetermined, by some factors like in case of the functionally corresponding infinitival complexes. The main of them are as follows:

1 )   the lexical meaning of the participle;

2)   the lexical meaning of the verb with which the participle is

used;

3) the availability of the lexico-syntactic means in Ukrainian to convey the peculiar content and structural peculiarity of these secondary predication constructions.

Taking into account the above-named factors, the objective with the present participle constructions may be faithfully translated into Ukrainian in one of the following ways:

1 . With the help of the object subordinate clause introduced by the conjunction що or the adverbial connectors як, коли:

...he heard her moving about e/H Чув як вона ходила по

the room. (W.Jacobs)                    кімнаті.

He listened to his uncle talk-         він слухав, як дядько вів

. to him ... (Hemingway) розмову/розмовляв з ним.

2. With the help of the adverbial subordinate clauses of time, purpose, manner, etc. which testifies to the existence of functional

 

discrepancies in the two languages at the level of syntactic structure, function, and content. For example:

Я бачив його у вересні, коли він переходив майдан до бару в ресторані Континенталь...

Я докладав зусиль, щоб каміння не зірвалося з-під ніг і не покотилося вниз.

/ had seen him last September coming across the square towards the bar of the Continental... (Greene)

I took pains not to send them (stones) tumbling down the slope. (S.O'Dell)

3. On rarer occasions a faithful translation of the object with the present participle construction may be achieved either with the help of an object subordinate clause or with the help of a semanti-cally equivalent substantival word-group:

Я чув, як хтось плакав/ чийсь плач.

Потім  я  почув  Пайлів

/ heard someone weeping. (G. Green)

шепіт/як    шепнув «Томасе, Томасе.»

Пайл:

Then I heard Pyle whispering. «Thomas, Thomas.» (Ibid.)

4. With the help of the finite form of the verb, i.e., with the help of the simple verbal predicate:

«I can see you marrying after         «Ти, бачу, як підіп'єш, то ще

a drink too many.» (Greene) станеш женихатися тут.»

Some objective with the present participle construction may be translated with the help of two object subordinate clauses, as in the following sentence:

He didn't care that they saw him crying. (Hemingway)

Йому було байдуже, 1) що вони бачать, 2) як він плаче.

The objective with the past participle constructions having actually almost the same N/l/Ven structural pattern as the previously analysed complexes are characterized by a stronger predicative motivation and meaning. This is because these complexes are used to express the state of an object/person, the meaning of someone's experience in something, one's witness or that something is made/done for the benefit of someone other. As a result, some ways of translation of the objective with the past participle constructions sometimes differ from those employed for the translation of the objective with the present participle or the objective with the infinitive constructions. The main of these ways coincide, however, and are the following:

 

275

274

 

 

1.   With the help of an object subordinate clause:

/ heard his name mentioned         Я чув,  що/як його ім'я

in the crowd. (Saroyan) називали у натовпі.

This objective with the participle construction may also be translated with the help of a metaphorical paraphrase: Я чув його ім'я на вустах натовпу.

2.   By means of the finite form of the verb (simple predicate) plus the objective noun:

She grew more and more її щодалі більше турбувала alarmed by the intrusion. (O'Dell) ця висадка/ це вторгнення.

Or as a predicative to the noun being the subject of the sentence as in the example below:

Some of the houses had their У деяких будинках вікна

windows broken. (Cheever) були побиті.

3. By transplanting the participial complex to Ukrainian sentences having here identical predicative constructions:

When I returned I found the Прийшовши додому, я

fence broken and the house door застав паркан проломаним. а

opened. (O'Dell) хатні двері відчиненими.

Note. Care should be taken as not to confuse attributive constructions of the V/l/Vlng pattern with those of the V/l/Ven pattern. The former are translated in two ways:

1) either with the help of a subordinate clause (when the noun is followed by the present participle):

He looked at his father listen- Він глянув на батька, що

ing with a kind of painful despera- слухав його з якимсь болісним

tion. (Cronin) відчаєм.

2) or with the help of an identical attributive construction (when the noun is followed by the past participle):

He had seen towns destroyed Він побачив міста,

by bombing. (Cheever) зруйновані бомбардуваннями.

 

lated into Ukrainian much like the above-treated subjective with the infinitive secondary predication constructions. There is, however, some difference between the action expressed by the NV.nf pattern constructions and the action expressed by the subjective with the participle N/l/Vlng pattern construction. The latter also in Ukrainian expresses an action in process. For example:

Чули, що він співав. Чули, як/коли він співав.

He was heard to sing.

He was heard singing.

English simple sentences with the subjective present participle constructions are mostly transformed in Ukrainian into a complex sentence introduced by the one-member indefinite-personal principal clause or by the infinitive performing the same syntactic function. The introductory/principal clauses and infinitives are Кажуть/ Як кажуть; Повідомляють; Повідомляється, що; Очікується, що/Очікують, що.

This kind of transformations has to be performed when the present participle in the secondary predication construction is used with the verbs of saying/reporting or with the verbs of physical or mental perceptions (to see, to hear, to know, etc.) The principal clause then (the single verb indefinite personal sentence) is followed by an object subordinate clause:

Бачили, ... як він притулявся своїми теплими вустами до мармурового чола античної статуї.

Чули, як вони вдвох розмовляли, а Мейтлод,

He had been seen ... pressing his warm lips to the marble brow of an antique statue. (O.Wilde)

сидячи поруч, обмахувала його газетою «Світло».

Очікується, що пізно в суботу ввечері або вже в неділю на нараді ЄЕР буде прийняте остаточне рішення на пропозицію президента Клінтона.

They were heard talking together. Maitlaud beside him, fanning him with a copy of the Light. (Cronin)

The EEC meeting is expected to take its final decision on presi-

dent Clinton's proposal late on Saturday or on Sunday. (Guardian International)

 

В. Ways of Translating the Subjective with the Participle Constructions

The subjective with the participle (or the nominative with the participle constructions, as they are traditionally called) are trans-

 

The subjective with the past participle constructions which are used in English with the verbs to appear, to seem, to have etc., do not require considerable structural transformations in the process of translation into Ukrainian. Their meaning is usually conveyed by

 

277

276

 

 

means of the same simple sentences as in English, with the past participle turned into the predicate verb:

He had his eyes fixed always         Він завжди спрямовував

on the future. (London) свій погляд у майбутнє.

This sentence, accordingly, may also be translated word-for-word:

Б/й завжди мав свій погляд спрямованим у майбутнє./Його

погляд завжди був спрямований у майбутнє.

Ruth Morse seemed further Pvm     Морз.     здавалося,

removed than ever. (Ibid.)               відхилилася від нього далі, ніж

будь-коли.

The last sentence can be translated with the help of a complex sentence as well, with the verb seemed turned into the introductory principal clause: Здавалось, Рут Морз відступила від нього далі, ніж будь-коли.

It should be pointed out in conclusion that there are some constructions with the past participle in English which may erroneously be taken for the nominative absolute participial complexes, which in reality they are not. These constructions have also a past participle for their syntactic head and may occupy an initial, middle or final position in the sentence:

Taken hostage, the French Red Cross officials fell in the hands of a Maskhadov rival group in Chechnya. (The Guardian)

Взяті заручниками представники французького міжнародного Червоного Хреста потрапили до рук ворожого Масхадову військового угрупування.

Participial constructions of the kind are often formed from intransitive verbs:

Arrived at this point, we Прибувши на це місце, ми

halted. (S.Leacock). зробили зупинку/ми зупинилися.

The nature and meaning of the kind of participial construction is more transparent, when it follows the noun and occupies a concluding position, as in the following sentence:

He spoke with rare affection Він з особливою любов'ю

of his sister Jean, now married розповідав про свою сестру,

and comfortably settled in Тупе вже одружену, яка щасливо

castle. (Cronin) поживає в Тайнському замку.

 

Nothing in common with the NAPC have also constructions with the concluding past participle as in He had his hair cut, she had her photo taken, which are translated with the help of finite forms of the verb (predicate): Він підстригся, вона сфотографувалась.

Certainly the most confusing for inexperienced translators are participial constructions with the grammaticalized past participles given, taken, granted etc. which are translated into Ukrainian with the help of diyepryslivnyks, diyepryslivnyk constructions or even via prepositional noun phrases. Cf.:

Taken together, the results of Підсумовуючи/У підсумку the reaction proved the existence наслідки реакції підтвердили of some touch in the solution. існування домішок у розчині.

Given the present financial Враховуючи/зважаючи на

situation in South Korea, no other сучасний фінансовий стан

move from the IMF could be ex- Південної Кореї, інших кроків від

pected. (Fin. News) МВФ не доводилось очікувати.

Exercise VI. State the nature of the participial constructions in

the sentences below and translate them into Ukrainian.

1. Suddenly he heard someone running down the stairs. 2. I saw people wearing different clothes today. (C.Schimmels) 3. Through the open door of her room, he saw her pushing up her window. (Cronin) 4.1 had seen her three hours ago turning off the main road. 5. He saw the car coming over the rise of a hill. 6. «Just look at the rain coming down!» (Cheever). 7. Suddenly I saw the brush moving on the opposite side of the ravine. 8.1 watched them (Aleuts) landing on the bay. (O'Dell) 9.1 hear him calling her name. (Fitzgerald) 10.1 thought I detected a bazooka replying, then all was quiet again. 11. «You'll have them fighting.» 12. I would imagine him going up my stairs, knocking at my door, sleeping in my bed. (Greene) 13. She could hear the man and Soames talking together. 14. «And yet I don't see him doing it.» 15. «And yet we can see him taking no further notice.» 16. I don't want them writing home.» (Galsworthy) 17. Despite his concern for Alexander, Coleman found himself becoming annoyed. 18. As he spoke, Mike Seddrus found himself regarding this girl with even greater interest. 19. David Coleman found himself liking this girl. (Hailey) 20. He remembers Barker coming into the mess and starting to tell about it. 21.... I listened to him breathing regularly. 22. In the morning the old man could feel the morning coming. 23. One evening he was seen going into this very house, but

 

279

278

 

 

was never seen coming out of it. (J.K.Jerome). 24 Did you ever see baseball played? 25. «I heard your testimonial read in the Police Court, Fleur» (Galsworthy) 26. «He saw her face contorted for a moment with the extremity of his feeling ...» 27. On Wednesday morning Julia had her face massaged and her hair waved. (Maugham) 28. He saw her arms raised as she fixed her hair before a mirror. (London) 29. But they would feel their tails being tied! (Galsworthy) 30. At six forty-five I walked down to the quay to watch the American planes unloaded. (G.Greene) 31.1 watched him adjusting himself a little, visibly. (Fitzgerald) 32. We have the enemy almost surrounded. (Cheever) 33. I always see you this time of the year going up. (W.Maken) 34. This point is obvious: given the choice, businessmen would rather not pay bribes. (Newsweek) 35. Given the shortage of officers, it was not unusual for majors or captains to command brigades. (Encyclopedia of Ukraine -Toronto. Univ. Press.) 36. Given those anxieties, Germany's political and journalistic establishment enthusiastically greeted the appointment of Mr.Kornblum. 37. Given his background, Clinton doubted his own ability to have a successful marriage. (Intern. Herald Tribune)

C. Ways of translating the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions

These English secondary predication word-groups, which are very often used in literary substyles, are presented in some structurally different types. The main of them are three:

1.   The nominative absolute participial constructions consisting of a synthetic or analytical paradigm of the present participle. This type of secondary predication complexes may have the form of a synthetic or an analytic paradigm of the participle. For example, in the underlined nominative absolute participial construction This duty done, we refilled our glasses (J.K.Jerome), the paradigm of the participle is simple, i.e. synthetic. It has been derived, respectively, either from a less extended (The duty being done), or from a more extended/full analytical paradigm of this participle (The duty having been done). The contracted and less extended forms of the nominative absolute participial constructions are much more occurent in present-day English than their full paradigmatic forms, in which some emphasis is always laid on the categorial meanings (tense, aspect, voice) of the action expressed through the componental parts of the paradigm. Cf.: This duty having (perfective aspect) been (passive voice) done (accomplished action). When no emphasis is laid on the

280

 

categorial meanings in the paradigm of the participle, only the nucleus of it (the past participle) is usually used.

The number of components/elements in the paradigm of the participle has actually no influence on the expression of meaning and translation of this predicative construction, which can be seen from the sentence below:

This duty done, we unfilled Оскільки з иим було вирішено,

our glasses, lit our pipes, and re- ми осушили келихи, запалили

sumed the discussion upon our люльки й знову стали бідкатись

state of health. (J.K.Jerome) про своє здоров'я.

The syntactic/functional meaning of the participial construction in this isolated sentence may be considered temporal as well. Then its Ukrainian traslation wil be respectively Після того, як із иим було вирішено, ми...

It should be pointed out that only the analytical paradigms, which contain the constituent elements of the passive and perfect participles of some verbs may be condensed. When the participial paradigm is represented in the nominative absolute participial constructions through a single present participle expressing an action of the secondary subject, it can not be transformed into an extended paradigm or contracted. Thus, the present participle opening in the sentence James' face protruded naively, his mouth opening. (Galsworthy) can not undergo any complete transformation through reduction.

2. The second structural type constitute the nominative absolute participial constructions that contain no participle component at all. The relation of the predication in complexes of this type is implicitly inherent in and is realized through a prepositional (usually with a noun or pronoun) or a substantival word-group. Cf.:

Now, with this visit to Cardiff Тепер, лаштуючись до

in prospect, he wished her to ас- поїздки доКардіффа. він хотів,

company him. (Cronin) щоб Крістін супроводжувала

його.

Не sat down, his face serious Він сів серйозний і

and intent, and his fingers began зосереджений за рояль, і його

to race across the keyboard, пальці швидко забігали по

(S.Sheldon) клавішах.

With so much at stake, he did Коли стільки ставилося на

not want to appear inhospitable, карту, він хотів здаватися

(Ibid.) якомога гостиннішим.

281

 

3. The third structural type form subjectless nominative absolute participial complexes. Their secondary subject may have a clearly addressed or an indistinctly addressed reference to the subject of the introductory clause. An illustration to the first subtype of such nominative absolute participial constructions may be the following example: Though being left out all night in the rain, the metal had not rusted. (Maugham)

The secondary predicate (being left out) of the nominative absolute participial construction clearly refers to the noun of the matrix clause «metal». Consequently, its translation is easy: Метал хоч і пролежав цілу ніч під дощем, (він) не поіржавів.

In opposition to this, in the second type of subjectless nominative absolute participial constructions the addressed referent in the introductory/matrix part of the sentence is not clearly indicated by the secondary predicate:

Bobbing and bounding upon the spring cushions, silent, swaying to each motion of their chariot. Old Jolyon watched them drive away under the sunlight. (Galsworthy)

The actions expressed by the participles of the nominative absolute participial constructions here refer to the pronoun they. Therefore, it is the secondary subject to the participles in this syntactic construction, which should be translated with the orientation on this pronoun: Старий Джоліон дивився як вони, мовчки похитуючись і підгуцаючи на пружинистих сидіннях брички, віддалялися в яскравому сонячному світлі.

4. The fourth structural type constitute nominative absolute participial constructions whose semantic reference to a part of the introductory clause (or to the clause as a whole) is quite vague and scarcely traced. As a result, such nominative absolute participial constructions function together with their secondary subjects as regular clauses of a semi-composite sentence. Though semantically not completely independent, these quasi-clauses are difficult to incorporate semantically and syntactically into Ukrainian sentences, which can be seen from the following sentence:

She reached the lake and stood there staring at it, the wind whipping the thin night-gown around her body. (S.Sheldon)

Neither the secondary subject (the wind) nor the secondary predicate (whipping the thin night-gown...) has any explicit syntactic and semantic connection with the introductory clause She reached the lake and stood there staring at it.

The vague, almost untraced semantic connection of the quasi-

282

 

clause with the introductory clause can be guessed, naturally, on the basis of the contextual environment from which some temporal sequence of actions can be seen: the wind whipped her nightgown after she had reached the lake. Hence, one of the translation versions may be as follows: Коли вона підішла до озера й стала, вдивляючись у нього, вітер затріпотів тонесенькою нічною сорочкою, що тісно облягала її тіло.

Because of the vague temporal reference of actions expressed by the predicative complex/quasi-clause, which is actually independent syntactically, it can also be translated as a separate sentence: Вона підійшла до озера й стала, вдивляючись у нього. Шугнув вітер і затріпотів тоненькою нічною сорочкою, що тісно облягала її тіло.

Therefore, translation of these secondary predication constructions is predetermined by some semantic and syntactic factors, the main of which are as follows:

plex;

1)   the structural type of the nominative absolute participial com-

2)   the function of the complex in the sentence;

3) its reference to a part of the introductory/semantically main clause of the semi-composite sentence.

D. Ways of Identification of Implicit Meanings in the Nominative Absolute Participial Constructions

As has been said already, a peculiar feature of many nominative absolute participial constructions is their often indistinct semantic and syntactic role in the semi-composite sentence. The syntactic and semantic interrelations formed between the quasi-clauses with the nominative absolute participial construction on one hand, and the introductory/dominant clause on the other, may be of adverbial, attributive or objective nature. Among the most frequent adverbial meanings are temporal and causal, which are rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the corresponding subordinate clauses. For example:

«I can't write with you stand- «Я не можу, Марджері, ing there, Margery.» писати, коли ти стоїш там.» (Galsworthy)

A temporal meaning may also be indicated by an adverb/adverbial expression in the nominative absolute participiar construction

283

 

or by the corresponding tense forms in the introductory clause:

Mr. Quest, once again Квест, коли його знову

interrupted, turned his darky- обірвали, глянув на нього своїми

irritable eyes on him. чорними сердитими очима.

Ще один чоловік, що був спиною до фотоапараг перед жінкою спереду.

(D.Lessing)

Another man, with his back behind to the camera, faced the woman. (A.Hailey)

As/since Mr. Hilary was at a meeting, the brothers had tea by themselves.

The inherent here in this nominative absolute participial construction causal meaning is not explicitly indicated. Nevertheless, it is clearly felt from the sentence, which can be proved by inserting the conjunction since or as, and thus transforming the secondary predication construction into the causative clause of the complex sentence:

Mr. Hilary being at a meeting, the brothers had tea by themselves. (Galsworthy)

Therefore, there can be only one way of translation for such and the like nominative absolute participial constructions into Ukrainian and this is by means of causative subordinate clauses introduced by the conjunctions оскільки, тому що, бо: Оскільки Гілері був на зборах, брати сіли за чай самі/сіли пити чай самі.

The nominative absolute participial constructions of causative meaning may also occupy a postpositive position in the sentence, i.e., after the introductory clause, as in the following example:

We were walking by our-         Ми десь із годину ходили selves for an hour, George hav-     вдвох, бо Джордж зостався в ing remained in the hotel to write     готелі писати тітиі листа, a letter to his aunt. (Cronin)

Among other adverbial meanings expressed by these secondary predication complexes in semi-composite English sentence are

also conditional:

The human condition being Якщо вже так складається

what it was, let them fight, let людське життя, то хай собі

them love (Greene) воюють і хай собі кохаються...

The nominative absolute participial constructions can also

 

express other meanings and relations in the sentence. Then they are translated into Ukrainian respectively as corresponding nominal (or adverbial) subordinate clauses. For example:

«It's strange in a way, me be- «Воно якось аж дивно, що я

ing a secretary to the society... раптом - секретар цього

(Cronin) товариства...»

It was Dr.Dornbergen, his Це був лікар Дорнберґен,

hands inevitably busy with his руки якого постійно крутять

pipe. (Hailey) люльку.

Translation of the nominative absolute participial constructions may be influenced by the individual author's usage, because of which the aim of their employment is always stylistically predetermined. These constructions are mostly employed for the sake of economizing the speech efforts, for creating some dynamism or easiness in narration and for achieving the necessary expressiveness; etc. The last of these functions had been proved to exist in colloquial English and also in belles-lettres works of many British and American authors. This could also be observed in the translation of the above-cited nominative absolute participial construction, which may also be rendered with some ironic flavour: It was Dr.Dornbergen, his hands inevitably busy with his pipe. - Це був лікар Дорнберґен, руки якого мов прилипли до люльки /ні на мить не випускав з рук люльку, etc.

 

284

 

STRUCTURAL TYPES OF UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE

UNITS CONVEYING THE MEANING OF THE

NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL

CONSTRUCTIONS

Translation of nominative absolute participial constructions is often connected with considerable difficulties. These are caused by the indistinct semantic and syntactic relations created between the constituent part of the sentence containing secondary predication construction on one hand and the introductory/matrix clause on the other. When the nominative absolute participial constructions express explicitly or implicitly the adverbial, objective or attributive relations/ meanings, they are usually translated, as has been shown already on the foregoing pages, with the help of the corresponding subordinate clauses.

The logico-grammatical nature of the nominative absolute par-

285

 

ticipial constructions in the sentence, however, is far from always clearly and exactly identifiable. This is because of the implicit meanings, which some of the nominative absolute participial constructions may have in a sentence. As a result, more than one Ukrainian version may be suggested for some of such constructions. For example, the meaning of the participial construction/syntaxeme Several of his letters being ignored in the sentence Several of his letters being ignored. Martin indited an angry one which drew a reply. (London) is not quite distinct. It may be considered as causal (Why did Martin indite an angry letter? - Because he did not receive any reply to his previously sent letters). It may also be temporal (When did Martin indite an angry letter? - When he received no reply to his previously sent letters).

More obvious and more contextually substantiated seems to be the causal meaning, though the temporal meaning can not altogether be discarded either. Consequently, the translator guided by the requirements of his own presentation, may suggest two versions, giving respectively a stronger preference to causal meaning. Each of the two meanings in Ukrainian is explicitly indicated by the corresponding conjunction:

1) Оскільки на попередні         2) Після того, як газета не листи газета відмовчалася,    відповіла на попередні листи,

Мартін надіслав їм сердитого листа, на який прийшла відповідь.

Мартін надіслав їм сердитого листа,   на який надійшла

відповідь.

One more identical example of the explicit and implicit meaning of the nominative absolute participial construction (the NAPC) is given below:

The session drawing towards its close. Senator Dilworthy shook hands with his constituents and let them look at him. (Mark Twain)

1) Оскільки збори наближа- 2) Коли збори наближалися

лися до завершення, сенатор до завершення, сенатор

Ділворзі потиснув руку кожно- Ділворзі потиснув руку кожному

му виборщикові, удостоївши їх виборщикові, удостоївши їх

честі глянути на себе. честі глянути на себе.

Far from all the NAPCs with different implicit meanings have always a more or less clearly distinguishable or transparent logico-grammatical meaning. In some cases the translator may be simply

286

 

in dou^t ao m me semantic and functional meaning of the NAPC singled out of a contextual environment.

For example: His try for a smile ignored. Stavros turns to Harry.

(J.Updike) *

The NAPC His try for a smile ignored clearly refers to present tense which can be seen from the simple verbal predicate (turns) in the matrix clause. This makes the choice of the lexico-grammatical meaning between causal and temporal more difficult. The question to the matrix clause includes an alteration - Does Stavros turn to Harry because his smile is ignored or he turns totally when his smile is ignored? Consequently, the NAPC may be translated with the help of the subordinate clause of cause: Оскільки/Тому що на його посмішку не реагують, Ставрос повертається до Гаррі.

Neither can there be objections to this NAPC being translated with the help of a temporal clause: Якщо на його посмішку не реагують, він повертається до Гаррі.

An analysis of the semantic relations between the main immediate constituents of the sentence induced the translator to suggest a third possible Ukrainian variant for this NAPC - a temporal subordinate clause: Коли на його усмішку не реагують. Ставрос повертається до Гаррі.

The conditional meaning of the NAPC in this sentence seems to be the most fitting in the general content of this semi-composite sentence. It can also be proved by the corresponding transformation of the NAPC into a conditional subordinate clause:

If his try for a smile is ignored. Stavros turns to Harry. This was not the last possible way of faithful rendering of the logico-grammatical meaning of this NAPC into Ukrainian. There may be one more, which at first sight may seem doubtful, though only at first sight. And this is by transforming the NAPC into a coordinate clause joined to the matrix clause by means of the copulative conjunction and: His try for a smile is ignored and he turns to Harry. -Його усмішка залишається поза увагою, і він звертається до Гаррі.

Consequently, the NAPC, being a specifically English lexico-syntactic unit, may often be endowed with different meanings which require the employment of various means of rendering them into Ukrainian. The choice of these means may be predetermined, however, not only by the lexico-grammatical meaning of the NAPC, but also by its syntactic interconnection with the part of the matrix clause and also by the means, which are available in the target language to

287

 

express their meanings and functions.

Thus, when the secondary subject of the NAPC is in no logical interrelation with the action expressed by the predicate of the matrix clause, i.e., when the secondary subject functions as the agent in the NAPC, the latter is translated as a co-ordinate clause orsas an independent sentence. For example:

There was a pause, Coleman listening. (Hailey)

1)   Настала пауза, і Колман прислухався.

2)   Настала пауза. Колман прислухався.

Similarly translated into Ukrainian are many other NAPCs which are logically and grammatically not connected with any constitbent part of йіе matrix clause. For example:

The two walked in silence, Обоє йшли мовчки, і Сомз Soames watching him out of the поглядав на нього краєчком corner of his eye. (Galsworthy) ока.

She gritted her teeth, grabbed Вона скреготнула зубами,

the rope and started walking вхопилась за канат і рушила,

across, the bridge swaying with - і місток захитався від

every step. (Sheldon) кожного її кроку.

As can be noticed, the secondary subjects Soames and bridge function as independent subjects in both languages.

Ukrainian co-ordinate clauses, which are equivalents of the NAPCs may often be joined by the conjunctions /, а, причому:

We went out behind the Ми один по одному вийшли

church in a single file, the lieu- за церквою, і вів насосам

tenant leading... (Greene) лейтенант.

The feaction was immediate, Реакція була негайною.

Pearson almost shouting. Причому Пірсон мало не

(Hailey) закричав.

Tony,was staring at him, his Тоні дивився на нього, а

eyes uncomprehending, той, розгубившися, не розумів

(Sheldon) його.

The above-cited NAPCs may be translated into Ukrainian correspondingly as independent sentences or as clauses of a compound sentence: Ми один по одному вийшли за церквою. Попереду нас ішов лейтенант. Тоні подивився на нього. Той, розгубившися, не розумів його/Той розгублено дивився, не розуміючи його.

The translator may sometimes transform the English sentence, turning the NAPC of this type into a Ukrainian simple sentence w\th

288

 

homogeneous predicates: Він нашвидкуруч закінчив

Matters pressed on. he made справи і пішов обідати на Ґрін-

his way to Green Street for lunch, стріт/відклавши справи, він

(Galsworthy). пішов обідати на Ґрін-стріт.

The lexical and functional meanings of different NAPCs in simple and composite sentences may sometimes be rendered in Ukraifi-ian with the help of some other means too:

1. With the help of the participial (diyepryslivnyk) construction or by means of a single diyepryslivnyk:

The two guards listened, their Обидва вартові слухали, faces turned to the rifle-slit, their пороззявлявши роти і mouths hanging open. (Greene) повернувшись обличчям до

амбразури.       \,

«І felt compassion for him,» «Мені стало шкода його/я

said Louisa, her colour deepen- відчула жаль до нього,» -

ing... (Dickens) відповіла, зашарівшись.Луїза...

2. With the help of a prepositional noun, a noun phrase or a participial/diyepryslivnyk construction:

His head lowered, holding to Тримаючись за перила, з,

the banister, Andrew went up- низько похиленою головою.

stairs. (Cronin) Ендрю пішов до себе нагору.

This NAPC may also be translated with the help of the participial/diyepryslivnyk construction: Потупивши голову і тримаючись за перила, Ендрю почвалав до себе нагору.

3. As a participial (diyepryslivnyk) construction or a subordinate (mostly adverbial) clause:

The champagne poured.         Наливши шампанського^

Andrew sat back. (Cronin) Ендрю знову сів.

The corresponding temporal clause for the NAPC may be Після того, як/Коли Ендрю налив шампанського, він знову сів.

4. With the help of a prepositional noun: He was watching her, his eyes         Він з цікавістю спостерігав

ed. (Sheldon)

за нею.

-• — -J    '"'-      '   '         ' U01/1

5. By an adverbial substantival word-group or a single adverb:

His voice low. Alexander said, Олександр стиха запитав:

«He died, didn't he?» (Hailey)        «Він помер, так?»

289

 

This NAPC can also be translated with the help of the adverb притишено: Олександр притишено запитав ... Олександр насторожено/боязко запитав ...

In rare cases the structure and meaning of both the Ukrainian equivalent and the NAPC may be much alike:

And still with his eyes closed.         Все ще з заплющеними

he said... (Galsworthy) очима він сказав...

This NAPC may be translated with the help of an antonymic syntaxeme containing a diyepryslivnyk: / есе ще не розплющуючи очей, він сказав...

It should be repeatedly emphasized in conclusion that some NAPCs may have more than one faithful semantic and structural equivalent in Ukrainian. Thus, the underlined below NAPC in the sentence They having the keys, no entrance was possible. (Galsworthy) may have the following two equally faithful versions in Ukrainian:

1) Оскільки ключі були в         2) Ключі були у них, і ввійти них, ввійти було неможливо.      (нам) було неможливо.

The second (last) Ukrainian substitute of the above-given NAPC is the co-ordinate clause with an implied causal meaning (Чому ввійти було неможливо? Бо у них не було ключів).

These secondary predication constructions are often used in scientific and technical matter texts in which the translator has also to find equivalents for different terms. The ways and means employed to faithfully convey the meaning and structure of the NAPCs are the same:

1)   the temporal subordinate clause;

2)   a causal, conditional and other sub-clauses: 1) The job having been sand-         Коли деталь обробили blasted, all scale was removed.     піскоочисним апаратом, то

вся циндра була знята.

2) The part cooling during this process, it is necessary to reheat it.

3) The induction motor being of high efficiency, the power input of the primary would be but slightly more than the rating.

Оскільки деталь при цьому охолоджується, то її треба підігріти.

Якщо асинхронний мотор має високий коефіцієнт корисної дії, то сила використання його лише трохи більша, ніж номінальна.

 

4) By co-ordinate clauses as in other types of text joined by the conjunctions У. а. причому:

The motor load thus in- Навантаження мотора

creases and a s//p takes place, таким чином збільшується, [

the amount being proportional to відбувається пропориійне

the load. , навантаженню сковзання.

The depth of insert being suf- Глибина насадки була

ficjerii, it was possible to make а достатня, і можна було

large number of regrinds.1 зробити більшу кількість

переточувань.

The existence of some possible ways of faithful rendering of meaning of the NAPCs in Ukrainian provides the translator with some freedom of choice between some ways of expression. This can be illustrated on the following sentence containing two NAPCs: He held on to the bar, his legs wobbling under him. Martin's arm around him and supporting him, while he thought. (London)

1) Хлопець ухопився за 2) Він ухопився за стійку,

стійку, його ноги повисли, і його ноги гойдалися під ним.

Мартін підтримував його, а Мартін охопив його рукою і

охопивши рукою, доки той підтримував, доки той

збирався з думками. збирався з думками.

Exercise I. State the nature of the semantic and syntactic relations existing between the main constituent parts in the sentences below. Suggest an appropriate subordinate clause for each NAPC and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. My private station being that of a university professor, I was naturally deeply interested in the system of education in England. 2. But Henry VIII being dead, nothing was done. (Leacock) 3. He had seen Jody with his head slowly moving about... (M; Wilson) 4. After a first session of the Six, with the British .prime Minister waiting outside, there seemed no reconciling of the French and the Five. (F. News) 5. Patterson, his habit of politeness back in place, inquired, «Do you want to take questions as we go, Alex, or leave them to the end? 6. For an instant, with Mike holding her, she felt the same solace and relief, as when years before she had run, a little girl, into her mother's arms. (Hailey) 7. The message reported, they walked on. 8. The service in the Chapel over, the mourners filed up again to guard the body to the tomb. 9. The men had been sent out to dine at

1 The examples are picked out from Machinery and Production Engineering. London, 1988.

 

290

291

 

 

Eustache's Club, it being felt that they must be fed up. (Galsworthy) 10. The children, with Graham still hanging on to Susan, were being carried relentlessly by the current into the path of the water wheel. (J.Higgins) 11. A police motorcycle escort, engines running noisily, was at the head of the assembling cortege. (Hailey) 12. His door being shut, she softly opened it and spoke to him ... (Dickens) 13. These houses, details settled, Hurstwood visited some of the advertised opportunities to purchase an interest in some flourishing downtown bar. 14. Coroner Heith, his official duties completed for the time being, found himself pondering ... how he was to proceed further. 15. And with that thought in mind, he now scanned more briefly, but none the less sharply and critically the various notes, or invitations, or love messages from Saundra ... (Dreiser)

Exercise II. State the nature of the syntagmatic relations existing between the NAPC and the matrix clause in the sentences below. Suggest the appropriate type of clause for each NAPC and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. He took her hand gently, their faces close. 2. The younger man's face was strained, the tears streaming. 3. There was no answer, only Vivian's steady gaze meeting his own. 4. His expression was serious, his eyes troubled. 5. Coleman wheeled serious, his eye on Bannister; his eyes merciless. 6. Barlett was on his feet, his chain flung back, his face flaming red. 7. «Ramona», Elise shouted, with her eyes shut, «go out in the kitchen and let Grace take galoshes off.» (Salinger) 8. He was all confusion and embarrassment on the instant, the blood flushing on his neck and brow. (London) 9. They moved toward the Vicarage, each making enormous effort to find excused for the other. (Christie) 10. He speared Brad with a long stare, his black eyes glittering. 11. Bendabb jumped out, Leighton heating and pulling himself from the limousine behind the younger executive. (R. Moore) 12. Rossman withdrew and Himmler returned to his work, the only sound in the room the steady scratching of his pen. (J.Higgins) 13. Buddha sat as Buddha always sits, with his lap empty ... 14. Then I got hold of Pyle's sleeve and dragged him out, with the .girl handing on to his other arm like a hooked fish. (Greene) 15. With me working and not home until dark, he hangs around with that bad crowd toward the bridge. (J.Updike) 16. He looked at her happily in the sun; her khaki shirt open. 17. The sentry was still standing at the far box with his back turned. (Hemingway) 18. With Adna gone too, Mr. Wipple tried to run the farm with just him to help. (LA. Porter) 19. Her face tear-streaked but expressionless, almost vacu-

292

 

ous, she picked up her handbag from the floor, opened it, and took out a small pea-green clothbound book. 20. She was lying asleep, with her face sort of on the side of the pillow. (Salinger) 21. They went out by the gate, he with his arm round her waist, and were lost in the night. (Maugham)

Exercise III. Analyse the syntagmatic relations existing between the NAPC and its matrix clause in each sentence below. Suggest the appropriate way of translating the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Meanwhile Andrew, with his eyes fixed upon the glass jars before him, had been stumbling upon the specimens. (Cronin) 2. Her cheek pressed against the pillow, she gazed at him with shining eyes. (Cronin) 3. Miss Lawson stood in the doorway smiling rather foolishly after them, her mouth a little open. (Christie) 4. With her eyes fixed on that great yellow moon of a face from which these entrancing sounds came, Miss Matfield allowed her mind to be carried floating away on these changing currents of music. 5. «Well, Livian, now that we're out of that monkey house in there, with everybody snatching and pecking at each other, I can wish you a proper «Happy New Year». (J.Priestley) 6. With his hand upon her brother's shoulder, Louisa still stood looking at the fire. 7. «Ah», said Mr. Bouderby, with his thumbs in the arms of his coat. (Dickens) 8. His thought having returned, he concluded that it must be some night bird or large bat. (H. Wells) 9. She turned towards him, her smile, a mixture of love and sadness. 10. His face in her hair, he whispered «Vivian, darling ...» (Hailey) 11. He sat there, with raw eyes glaring across the room at me. (Greene) 12. Peter looked up, his head fallen slackly back. (Cronin) 13. Listening to the minutes and other routine business, with his chin clasped on his hand, he let his eyes move from face to face. 14. She took the flowers in her hand and went down, her face carried high under its burden of hair. (Galsworthy) 15. Jane turned to look at Mrs. McGrador, who all this time remained silent, watching, with her pale unblinking eyes fixed at Jane's face. (J.Aiken) 16.... he could see the upswept wide black horns on their heads as they galloped, heads out; the heads not moving. (Hemingway) 17.... he could see the full span of the ravine along the edge of town, his view of it broken by two or three Negro cabins which lined the edge of it. (W.Faulkner) 18. The worship of senses has often, and with much justice* been decried, men feeling a natural instinct of terror about passions and sensations that seem stronger than themselves... (O.Wilde)

293

 

Exercise IV. Analyse the syntagmatic relations between the main constituent parts in the sentences below. Suggest, wherever possible, more than one way of translating of the NAPCs and the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Once upstairs, I met the nurse coming down the hall. 2. He felt it (knee) carefully, his hands moving lightly. 3. Coleman lashed out, his voice rising in pitch. 4. It was Bannister, a tray of equipment in nis hands. 5. The younger man's face was strained, the tears streaming. (Hailey) 6.... she now walked unsteadily to the door, the terrors of the future crowding thick upon her. (Dreiser) 7. This being his first exam, he was anxious to know the result. (Cronin) 8. They passed her in silence, with their noises in the air, as if she did not exist. (Maugham) 9. That being so, then he could rise to Ruth. (London) 10. Now, the car making a turn around a bank and crossing a green, grassy field, we came in sight of the Masai village. (Hemingway) 11. The filling completed, Con threw his instruments into a jelly containing lysol and demanded Andrew should return to the house with him to tea. (Cronin) 12. The morning broke, they saw the traces of his fall. (H.Wells) 13. He stood beside me in silence, his candle in his hand. (C.Doyle) 14. She stood in her room pondering this new problem as Clyde arrived, his Xmas package under his arm. (Dreiser) 15. That over, she sat back with a sigh and softly rubbed her knee. (H.Watson) 16. She was still standing inside the screen door, with the house door open behind her. (H. Chandler) 17. The boy stood as long as he could, the bitter struggle fascinating him. (Dreiser) 18. She pressed his hand mutely, her eyes dim. (London) 19. A car was parked up in the middle of 'the floor with its bonnet open. 20. Perhaps only ten days ago he had been walking back across the Common park in Boston, his armsfuli of the books. (Greene) 21J Gandy, book in hand, the boy looks to his father for rescue. (J.Updike) 22. There he stood, his face to the south-east, his cap in his hand. (London) 23. The grove having been cut at 45°, all the difficulties were overcome. 24. Only overcurrent provided, the earth leakage being separated. (Machinery and Production Engineering) 25. Transistors being sensitive to light, engineers have to take this property into consideration. 26. Some transistors act as insulators in the darkness, cadmium sulfide presenting one of them. (Radio Engineering) 27. There were lamps on, the first dusk outside. 28. The old man stared out of the window; the setting sun on the trees. (J.Fowlers) 29. So they groped and shuffled along, with their ears pricked up and their paws on the pistols. (K.Graham)

294

 

Exercise V. Translate in viva voce the following sentences into English. Use the nominative absolute participial constructions where required.

1. Після того, як лекція закінчилась, всі студенти пішли до читального залу. 2. Оскільки настала сприятлива погода, ми заходились готуватися до етнографічної експедиції. 3. Бартерні операції    були    заборонені    до    кінця    жовтня,    тож сільськогосподарське виробниче об'єднання шукало інших шляхів роздобути потрібні нафтопродукти й запасні частини. 4. Хоч температура повітря була -15°С, чимало киян купалося в Дніпрі. 5. Він заснув, а світло в кімнаті залишилося горіти до ранку. 6. Всі студенти групи склали успішно зимову сесію, причому жоден з них не отримав посередньої оцінки. 7. Студентів було завчасно полереджено, і ніхто з них не запізнився на нульову пару. 8. У нього вдома не було англо-українського словника, і він змушений був їхати до бібліотеки ім. Вернадського. 9. Час, відведений на контрольну роботу, скінчився, і студенти поклали свої переклади викладачеві на стіл. 10. Хоч запис промови на плівці був нечіткий, всі добре зрозуміли і правильно переклали його. 11. Найвидатніші твори Івана Багряного написані ще в 50-60 роки, причому всі вони побачили світ не на його батьківщині. 12. Мільйони українців змушені жити за кордонами України, причому найбільше їх у Сибіру та на Далекій Півночі Росії. 13. Гелікоптер зазнав катастрофи в горах. Нікого не залишилося в живих. 14. Не було жодних заперечень. Рішення було схвалено. 15. Не маючи тоді іншого виходу, я змушений був заглянути до словника.

TRANSLATION OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIAL COMPLEXES

Translation of the gerund performing its nominal or verbal functions in the sentence usually does not create great difficulties. Care should be taken, however, when identifying the nature of the -ing from verbal, which may influence its way of translation. Thus, the -ing form moving in the sentence below, where it has an attributive function, may be taken by mistake for the present participle. In reality, however, it has the nature of a gerund which is also proved by its syntactic function:

Chester liked a moving day to         Честеру подобалось, що в

be dry and fair. (Cheever) день переїзду була суха гарна

погода.

295

 

As can be seen, «moving», though it performs an attributive function to the noun («day») is nevertheless a regular gerund by its nature, as it always is in the compounds like dressing-table, dressing-gown, sitting-room, writing-table, etc.

Translation of the indefinite or perfect gerund in its nominal function of the subject, object or a predicative usually presents no great difficulty either, provided it is not used idiomatically. When used in idioms, proverbs or sayings, the gerund may acquire some transparent meaning and not express its direct lexical meaning. The translator should choose then some similar means of expressing their idiomatic meaning in Ukrainian. For example:

1) Doing is better than saying. Судять не по словах, а по

(Saying)                                         ділах. (Вірять не словам, а

2) Cunning is the fools' substitute for wisdom. (Saying)

ділам)

Хитрощі у дурнів замість розуму Спор. Хоч дурний та хитрий).

Translation of the indefinite gerund, as has been said, mostly depends on its function and meaning in the sentence. Gerunds of nominal functions, therefore, are usually translated into Ukrainian as nouns of the corresponding lexical meaning:

Crying and praying followed Плач впереміш з молитвою

all over the house. (Hughes) чулись по всьому дому.

The ugliest habit of our teen- Найогидніша звичка наших agers today is smoking. (NfUkr.) підлітків - паління/куріння.

Predicative and subjective gerund may also be translated with the help of the infinitive or infinitival phrase:

Deciding is acting. (Saying) Вирішити  -  це   діяти/

означає розпочати діяти.

Note. On rare occasions the indefinite gerund may be translated into Ukrainian as the finite verb:

«I've heard of making a ga-         «Буває, і стайню переоб-rage out of a stable,» Tom was    ладнують на гараж,» - відпо-saying to Gatsby. (Fitzgerald)        вів Том Ґетзбі/Чув, що із стайні роблять гараж...»

Usually infinitival or substantival are also the Ukrainian functional equivalents of the gerund used as part of the compound modal

296

 

 

Телефон не переставав дзеленчати.

Ентоні закінчив нарізувати і намазувати маслом булочки.

... будинок/дім потребував пофарбування/ треба було сЬарбувати

and aspect verbal predicates: The phone went on shrilling.

(Cusack)

Anthony finished cutting and

buttering the rolls. (London) ...the house wanted painting.

(Fitzgerald)

Nouns and infinitives are usually employed in Ukrainian as functional equivalents for the English non-prepositional and prepositional gerundial objects:

Ми дещо-таки знаємо про сьогоднішнє фінансування вистав.

«Обов'язки законного шлюбу не заважають вам кидати дружину, чи не так?

We know a thing or two about financing plays now. (Maugham)

«Marriage doesn't prevent you leaving a woman - does it?» (Greene)

The noun or the infinitive is also used in Ukrainian to convey the gerund in its attributive function:

/ hated the idea of turning out.         Про    виселення    я    не

(Maugham) допускав навіть думки.

Перспектива вирватися із uux злиднів ... полегшувала переносити їх.

The prospect of getting away from the misery, made it easier to bear. (Ibid.)

The adverbial functions of the gerund are conveyed in Ukrainian with the help of the diyepryslivnyk or a phrase with the diyepryslivnyk.When paraphrased, the gerund may be translated as an adverb (sometimes as a subordinate clause):

вітальні.

Він говорив, не поворухнувшись з місця і навіть не повернувшись до неї обличчям.

... жоден не міг ускочити в

After watching him walk away Провівши його очима ... ...Soames returned to the draw- Сомз повернувся знову до ing-room. (Galsworthy)

He spoke without shifting his position, without even turning to look at her. (E.Seghal)

...no one could very well slip

той будинок чи вискочити з нього непомітно/щоб його не помітили.

in or out of that house m being seen. (Dreiser)

297

 

The prepositional gerund in the function of the object may sometimes be translated into Ukrainian as a diyepryslivnyk introducing a subordinate clause:

What had Tom meant by say- Що Том мав на увазі,

ing_that she ate out ofhis hands? сказавши, що вона «їсть у

(Maugham) нього з рук?» (що вона стала

зовсім приборканою)

Depending on the meaning expressed in the sentence, a simple gerund may sometimes be translated into Ukrainian as a subordinate clause:

There are some advantages В тому є певні переваги,

in being fifty and an old hand, що тобі п'ятдесят, і що ти

(J.Priestley) досвідчений.

Still other simple prepositional gerunds in the function of an object are often translated into Ukrainian through a prepositional noun or a subordinate clause:

«I look forward to hearing «Чекаю на відповідь від

you.»(Cronin) тебе/шо ти відповіси.»

The perfect gerund is usually translated with the help of the subordinate clause:

Він не пригадував, що будь-коли бував/побував у тій кімнаті.

Я подякував йому за те, що він допоміг мені.

He did not remember ever having been in that room. (Galsworthy)

I thanked him for having helped me. (Maugham)

This perfect gerund can naturally be translated by means of a prepositional noun as well, with the predicate verb referring to the past, which may be indicated by the corresponding adverb: Я подякував йому/тоді/за допомогу.

Translation of the passive gerund is equally predetermined by its function in the sentence. The main means of conveying the meaning and function of the indefinite passive and perfect passive gerund are the same as those employed to express the active voice gerund.

They are as follows:

1)   A noun or a corresponding nominal subordinate clause:

... I am indebted to Miss Betsey for having been-born on a Friday. (Dickens)

 

Я зобов'язаний міс Бетсіза Я зобов'язаний міс Бетсі,

своє  народження  саме  в що  я   народився   саме   в

п'ятницю. п'ятницю, (щасливим)

2)   A verbal word-group or a subordinate clause: ... the need for being loved began to wrestle with her pride. (Eliot)

1)    ...    потреба    бути 2) Потреба в тому, щоб її

коханою увійшла в конфлікт з кохали,    зіткнулася   з    її

їїпогордою. погордою.

3)   An infinitival sentence introduced by the conjunction or an object subordinate clause:

Only to think of being married to such a girl. (Dreiser)

1) Подумати тільки, щоб         2) Подумати тільки, щоб

одружитися      з      такою    така дівчина та вийшла за

дівчиною. нього заміж.

3)   A subordinate clause and no other means:

She could not bear being read         Вона вже не витримувала/не

to any longer. (B.Shaw) могла терпіти, що їй читають.

... she felt a strange certainty         ... У неї була якась/майже

of being watched... (Galsworthy)    впевненість,   що  за   нею

спостерігають.

WAYS OF TRANSLATING GERUNDIAL COMPLEXES/CONSTRUCTIONS

Gerundial complexes as secondary predication constructions are formed by a noun in the genitive case (rarer in the objective case) or a possessive pronoun (a pronoun in the genitive case cf. somebody's) plus the gerund in any of its paradigmatic forms. For example: Ann's/her reading (being read), somebody's reading (being read/having been read), etc.

The choice of the way of translation of a gerundial complex greatly depends on the paradigmatic form of its gerundial component, its lexical meaning and on the lexical meaning of its nominal/ secondary subject component. Besides, the function of such a gerundial complex in the sentence may influence its translation as well.

 

299

298

 

 

Thus, when used as a complex subject, this secondary predication construction may be rendered depending on the paradigmatic form and meaning of its gerundial component, through the following Ukrainian syntactic units of the same function:

1) As a subordinate noun word-group or a subordinate clause:

Tom's coming was a blessing. Томів приїзд був великою

(Fitzgerald)                                    розрадою/радістю.

її хвороба розладнає/зведе нанівець усе.

Недобре, що ти такрозлю-чуєшся/так шаленієш.

Her being ill will spoil everything. (Christie)

It's no good your flying in temper. (Maugham)

The gerundial complex subject of this type may sometimes have two or more faithful versions in Ukrainian:

... Annett's being French might upset him a little. (Galsworthy)

1) Те. шо Аннет 2) Французька наиіональ-

франиуженка. може його ність Аннет може його тро-

трохи збентежити. хи збентежити.

2) When used as a complex predicative or part of a compound verbal predicate, the gerundial complex may be translated into Ukrainian with the help of a functionally and semantically equivalent part of the compound verbal aspect predicate expressed by an infinitive or noun (as in the second sentence below):

The dollar at the Moscow Ex- Курс долара на Московській

change began its climbing up валютній біржі став знову

again. (M. News) • р_остц/почав знову зростати.

It was Shchedryk's singing Саме спів дитячого хору

that made it well-known in Poland «Шедрик» приніс йому

and now in France. (News from визнання у Польщі, а тепер і в

Ukraine) ФранцїІ.

3) When used as a complex object, the gerundial construction may have various semantic, functional and partly structural realizations in Ukrainian. The most often employed are the following:

a) The object subordinate clause:

/ didn't like his hearing such         Мені не подобалось, шо він

stupid things. (Fitzgerald) слухає такі нерозумні розмови.

Tom and Daisy were afraid of        Том і Дейзі боялися, щоб я

ту finding out the truth. (Ibid.)       не вивідав правди.

300

 

b) An object subordinate clause or a noun phrase, the choice of which rests with the translator, who suggests the most fitting lexical and structural equivalent (substitution) for the gerundial complex in Ukrainian. Thus, the gerundial complexes in the sentences below may have two equally faithful realizations in Ukrainian - either a subordinate clause or a noun:

She was wakened by someone knocking at the door. (S.Ross) 1) Вона прокинулась, бо/         2) Вона прокинулась від тому що хтось постукав у    чийогось стукоту в двері, двері.

І think everybody looked forward to his coming back. (Maugham)

1) Думаю., всі чекали, що він         2) По-моєму, всі чекали на

повернеться. його повернення.

4) When used in the attributive function the gerundial complex may be translated in some ways which are predetermind by the lexical meaning and structural form of the gerundial component. These ways are as follows:

a) An attributive subordinate clause:

... she was tortured by the ...їїмучила думка, що Майкл

thought of Michael's unhappiness    буде нещасливим і що її дитя

and her baby being looked after    доглядатимуть чужі люди.

by strangers. (Ibid.)

b) An attributive infinitival word-group or an infinitive:

There's a/ways the chance of        Ніколи не можна відкидати

her having a baby... (Ibid.) (для неї) можливість мати

дитину.

or: Вона не може відкидати можливості завагітніти.

their being left even fora moment by themselves. (Ibid.)

there was no chance of ... y них не було жодної

можливості навіть хвилину побути самим/щоб їх залишили самими.

5) When used in an adverbial function, the gerundial complex may respectively be translated as an adverbial modifier expressed by diyepryslivnyk or as a functionally corresponding subordinate clause (of time, cause, purpose and attending circumstances:

 

301

 

 

On my being settled at Doctor Strong's I wrote to her again... (Dickens).

1) Після того, як мене 2) Поселившись у лікаря

поселили у лікаря Стронґа, я Стронґа, я знову написав їй

знову написав їй листа. листа.

The gerundial complex expressing the adverbial function of purpose is translated by means of the corresponding subordinate clause:

Instinct made him step on the Він інстинктивно

accelerator with the purpose of натиснув на акселератор,

Daisy and Wilson leaving behind, шоб відірватися від Лейзі та

(Fitzgerald) Вільсона.

The gerundial complex expressing the attendant circumstances may be translated into Ukrainian with the help of the corresponding subordinate clause or an adverbial (or substantival) word-group:

Dusk dropped down without his noticing ... (Galsworthy) Сутінки   настали   так         Якось непомітно для нього несподівано (зненацька), що    впали сутінки... він і не помітив...

І could know it without your telling me. (B. Shaw)

1) Я знав би це, навіть якби 2) Я знав би це і без тебе/

ти цього мені не сказав.              твого повідомлення.

TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

ЯЯЯ

Expand on the following points concerning the verbal constructions/complexes:

1. The for-to-infinitive construction/complex, its functions in the sentence and ways of rendering its meanings into Ukrainian.

2. The objective with the infinitive constructions/complexes, their functions in the sentence and ways of translating them into Ukrainian.

3. The subjective with the infinitive constructions/complexes, their functions in the sentence and ways of rendering their meaning in Ukrainian.

4.Ways of rendering the meaning of English word-groups with

302

 

prepositive and postpositive present and past participles into Ukrainian.

5. Ways of translating the objective with the present and past participle constructions/complexes into Ukrainian.

6. Ways of translating the subjective with the present/past participle constructions into Ukrainian.

7. Define the nature and structural forms of the nominative absolute participial constructions and give all possible ways of rendering their meanings into Ukrainian.

8. Give examples of Ukrainian semantic equivalents rendering the meanings of the English nominative absolute participial constructions in the sentence.

9. Give examples of the verbal and nominal functions of the active and passive gerund in English sentences and offer your ways of faithful rendering of these functional meanings into Ukrainian.

10. flGive examples of different functions of gerundial complexes in the sentence and offer your ways of rendering them in Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASSWORK AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. State the function (nominal or verbal) of the gerund in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Talking mends no holes; winning the war is what counts. (Murdoch) 2. Fishing kills me exactly as it keeps me alive. (Hemingway) 3. Seeing and doing are two entirely different things. (Dreiser) 4. Avoiding difficulties is not my method. (B.Shaw) 5. Perhaps being conscientious was a family trait. (Hailey) 6. «Oh, well, it's no good crying over spilt milk.» (Maugham) 7. Not having money does that. (Saroyan) 8. Being adored is a nuisance. (Wilde) 9. Having a baby settled her. (Dreiser) 10. «Do you want me to go on seeing you?» (Maugham) 11. Gatsby had intended writing him. (Fitzgerald) 12.1 remember the candles being lit again. (Ibid.) 13. He continued blinking his eyes and trying to smile. (Joyce) 14. I'm not used to living out of doors. (K.Prichard) 15. «I tell you, you're not physically capable of carrying on this fight.» (Cronin) 16. «She's awfully keen on getting in the Siddon Theatre.» (Maugham) 17. Then he began asking people casually if they knew her. (Fitzgerald) 18. She never thought of doing anything. (Maugham) 19. He cursed himself for having come, and at the same time resolved that, happen what would, having come, he would carry it through. (London) 20.

303

 

«Oh, what the good of beating about the bush?» (Maugham) 21. «That's a dog that'll never bother you with catching cold.» (Fitzgerald) 22. I can count upon getting back to France at the end of my six years. (Maugham) 23. «But come, I am forgetting your reason for calling.» (P.Preston) 24. «Thanks for having us, Edward, - we've had a love time.» (M.Spark) 25. «Fancy having to go back to-night,» said Tom. 26. I don't remember seeing either of them. 27. «I don't mind telling you.» (Fitzgerald) 28. «What was the good of having a bit of influenza if you didn't use it.» 29.1 only wanted to thank you for writing to me. (Maugham) 30. Now he remembered coming down through the timber in the dark holding the horse's tail... (Hemingway) 31. «That's a trick worth learning.» (Kipling) 32. «Can you ever forgive me for doubting you?» (Lardner) 33. «I don't much care to leaving London.» (Dreiser) 34. Bard ... made a particular point of keeping himself up-to-date. 35. To Dorothy, pleased at having confounded him, it seemed a good moment to leave. (Cronin) 36. He did not remember ever having been in that room. 37. «You give that girl absolutely no credit for having any good taste ... (Salinger) 38. He insisted on coming downstairs with her and putting her into a cab. 39. «There's no objection ingoing back to that.» 40. «I wouldn't mind making an exception in your favour if it would amuse you to come.» (Maugham) 41. Nobody thought of going to bed in this room. (Fitzgerald) 42. « ... there is no use in standing here arguing about it.» 43.... she has been reduced to working as a nursemaid. (Cheever) 44. «You do not object to having your picture taken, Mr.Eden?» (London) 45. Now she loved sitting here watching it all. (K.Mansfield) 46. Michael got the chance of letting the theatre go to a French company for six weeks. (Maugham) 47.... he had a way of finding out whom the yellow car belonged to. (Fitzgerald) 48. «I'm glad to have the opportunity of falling to you, Doctor.» (Cronin) 49. She was completely stunned at having left Paul's notebook on the train. (Murdoch) 50. One was not given his choice of having plums or not having plums. (Wolfe) 51. «I can't bear the thought of doing it in front of all those important people.» /I.Snow/ 52. «They were not in the habit of exchanging embraces at odd hours of the day.» 53. There is no use in losing your temper. 54.... her heart ached not for the lost opportunities, but because young man seemed to prefer playing golf with her son to make love with her. (Maugham)

Exercise II. Offer the appropriate means and ways of faithful translating into Ukrainian the adverbial gerunds and sentences containing them.

 

1.1 did this by loosening all the planks, by cutting the sinews, and heating the pitch that bound them together.(S.O'Dell) 2. Finally, after having abandoned so many, he decided that he must act or return defeated. (Dreiser) 3. An 11-year girl died after being savaged by two Rottweiler dogs which she had taken for a walk. (The Guardian) 4. After taking off her stage make-up Julia had not done anything. (Maugham) 5. Mr.Bumble's conduct on being left to himself was rather inexplicable. (Dickens) 6. After a long period of writing, editing and patching up, we agreed on a final draft. (Snow) 7. In five minutes they were at the Northern Light building, and without being kept too long they were shown up to Page's office. 8. Page left for Manchester without telling Malcomb about it. 9. In uttering those words, he was conscious of a girl coming down from the common just above them. 10. The day was spent in preparing and writing the articles to the new issue. (Cronin) 11. Upon reaching the park he waited and waited and Daisy did not come. (Fitzgerald) 12. After being expelled he became a reporter to Gas World. (J.Osborne) 13. Broken edges on lawns can be fixed by removing a square of turf and replacing it in the reverse position. (The Guardian) 14. He always ended up by sending her his best love and signing himself «hers very affectionately...» 15. And ReTeTffPiat fie should more pro-" foundly spend his evenings ... by going to outlying theatres and trying to find talent. 16. They started by breaking a cup. (J.K.Jerome) 17. Before following her in her round of seeking, let us look at the sphere in which her future was to lie. (Dreiser)18. After the summer, after being friends with Won-a-nee and her young, I never killed another otter. (S.O'Dell) 19. When the two men had gone, she looked through the photographs again before putting them back. 20. She consoled herself by thinking that he loved her as much as he was capable of loving. (Maugham) 21. «I don't suppose you feel much like talking about it now.» (T.Williams)

Exercise III. Find a faithful Ukrainian equivalent for each passive gerund in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

-1. We liked neither reading aloud nor being read aloud to. 2.1 insisted on being told everything. 3. «... but damn it all, I insist on your being educated like a gentleman.» (Galsworthy) 4. Dartie on being told it was pleased enough. (Maugham) 5. «But he has no right to come without being invited,» said Tom. (Fitzgerald) 6. I am very fond of being looked at. (Wilde) 7. He had met the woman at last - the woman that he thought little about, not being given to think-

 

305

304

 

 

ing about women ... 8. Several times he barely escaped being caught by her brothers. (London) 9. Versh remembered laughing aloud, and the laugh being carried by the wind away from me. (Saroyan) 10. He did not like the idea of being haunted down by her. (Dickens) 11. Objection and argument finally ending in the question being allowed. (Dreiser) 12. The countries financial difficulties being unsolved undermines its economic stability. (F.News) 13. I remember the candles being lit again. (Fitzgerald) 14. He became chief of a fine ship without ever having been tested by these events. (Caldwell) 15. There followed disturbing pictures of how their respective parents or relatives had it on being informed of their sins. (Dreiser) 16. The court was told that the victim had given himself up to police after having been beaten with sticks by a punishment squad. (The Guardian)

Exercise IV. State the function of the gerundial complex in each sentence first and then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «His singing is gorgeous,» I think. (Christie) 2. Miss O'Shay's calling her to the office had been in the nature of a preparation and warning. (Hughes) 3. «It's no good your flying in a temper.» (Maugham) 4. The most unexpected event then was her being engaged to Bob. (Wolfe) 5.1 can't expect Julia's putting on shorts and coming for a sun with me in the park. 6. Her consideration was prevented by Evie's coming into the room. (Maugham) 7. «He is disturbed by my not taking part in the game.» (USA Today) 8. Tom was evidently perturbed by Daisy's running around alone. 9. I've heard of it's being made out of a stable. (Fitzgerald) 10. Tell me about this horrible business of my father wanting to set aside for another son. (B.Shaw) 11. I dread him coming into the room. (J.Osborne) 12.... there is no use in my getting excited over it. 13. «Hope you don't mind my coming?» (London) 14.1 insist on both of them coming in time. 15. Doris was awakened by the sound of her husband's splashing in the bathhouse. 16. «Perhaps you wouldn't mind her coming in?» 17. «You don't mind my asking though, do you?» 18. It's my fault, I ought to have insisted on your taking a holiday long ago.» 19. «I don't know that I should altogether approve of your having animated conversations with ladies, while you're having your bath.» 20. «I couldn't bear to think of your having to throw away your good money on tips.» 21. «I am surprised at your having said it.» (Maugham) 22. «Is there any objection to my seeing her?» 23. «Don't fear of my forgetting Daisy,» said Gatsby. 24. «I wonder at Tom's allowing this engagement,» he said to Jor-

306

 

dan. (Fitzgerald) 25. We were astonished by the policeman's taking down names with such correction and sweat in a little book. (Greene) 26. «I could imagine his giving a friend a little pinch of the latest vegetable alkaloid ... (C.Doyle) 27.1 remember her being surprised by Gatsby's gracefulness.28. «Don't fear my forgetting her. (Fitzgerald) 29. «And I don't worry about me losing a night.» (M.Puzo) 30. Speaking without thinking is shooting without aiming. (Cronin) 31. His father, not liking the idea of his going on the stage, had insisted on it. 32. She couldn't hear the thought of her wasting his life over her. (Maugham) 33. « ... there was no chance of your getting over to Apia for at least another week.» (W.Styron) 34. «The reason for your writing is to make a living, isn't it?» (London) 35. A feeling of its being too dangerous to take a step in any direction had fallen on them all. (Galsworthy) 36. Simultaneously came a tumult from the parlour, and a sound of windows being closed. (Wells) 37. Alice laughed so much at this that she had to run back into the wood for fear of their hearing her. (Caldwell) 38. «I can never do anything without your interfering.» (Maugham)

Exercise V. Translate the sentences in viva voce into English. Use in each of them an appropriate form of the gerund.

1. Оцінка залежала від своєчасного перекладу студентом цього тексту. 2. Ми раптом дізналися про те, що він минулого тижня їздив із делегацією до Лондона. 3. Після його повернення з Лондона, він уже двічі відвідав мене. 4. Незважаючи на те, що цей аспірант молодий, він досяг значних успіхів у науці. 5. Його відвідини стали для мене приємною несподіванкою. 6. Те, що він досвідченний, не надало йому помітної переваги над молодими учасниками змагання. 7. Перебування цього письменника тоді в зеніті слави пояснюється чіткою патріотичною позицією, що звучала в його творах. 8. Уявити тільки, щоб ця вихована й культурна людина не вміла танцювати. 9. Я не пригадую жодного діяча української культури, щоб він у ті роки не переслідувався. 10. Не всі ще, на превеликий жаль, усвідомили величезну шкоду паління для людського організму. 11. Ми пишаємось тим, що українця Сергія Бубку паризька спортивна газета назвала найкращим спортсменом року. 12. Його всебічна поінформованість про плани футбольної команди не викликала здивування. 13. Студенти погодилися з тим, що їхній іспит перенесено на інший час дня. 14. Уникайте контактування із хворимі на грип під час епідемії. 15. Нам стало відомо про проведення переговорів з метою підписання вигідного для України торгівельного договору з державою-сусідкою. 16. Він розпочав колекціювання поштових марок, ще

307

 

навчаючись у середній школі. 17. Те, що ці товари поставляються багатьом західним клієнтам, є свідченням виробничого потенціалу цього оснащеного найновішим устаткуванням заводу. 18. Як вам подобається, що ім'я цього українського баскетболіста не згадується серед найвизначніших спортсменів року? 19. Збори акціонерів наполягли на тому, щоб ця вигідна підприємству угода була підписана.

308 WAYS AND MEANS OF EXPRESSING MODALITY IN ENGLISH AND UKRAINIAN

Modality as an extralingual category expressing the relation of content to reality has in English and Ukrainian common means of

realization. These include:

a)   phonological means (stress and intonation);

b)   lexico-grammatical means (modal verbs);

c)   lexical means (modal words and modal expressions) conveying subjective modality;

d)   grammatical means (mood forms of the verb) conveying

grammatical modality.

The expression of modal meanings by phonological means has often an identical realization in both languages, though in Ukrainian the lexical means such as modal particles and modal adverbs are mostly preferred here. These means may also express the most subtle meanings of suggestion, admonition, supposition, doubt, assuredness, etc. Among the most frequently used particles, which create such and other meanings, are аж, ж, хоч, б, би, і, й, -но, -то, саме, таки, etc., and also adverbs авжеж, адже, надто, певне, напевне, все ж, все ж таки, мов, немов, ніби and some others. The choice of the particle or modal adverb is predetermined by the content, though sometimes it rests only -with the translator, who may employ stronger or weaker means to convey the modal meaning in the sentence. Thus, the modal meaning in the proverb sentence below may have two expressions - a weaker and a stronger one (more enphatic) in Ukrainian:

After us the deluge.

Після нас хоч потоп. or:              Після нас хоч і потоп.

 

Since the phonologically expressed modality is always conveyed by translators as they themselves subjectively perceive the relation of content to reality, there may naturally be various ways of its individual realization in the target language. This can be seen from some possible interpretations of the modal meaning in the sentence where modality is expressed via the emphatic and logical stress laid on the predicate centres and on the pronoun you. Hence, there may be at least five different ways of expressing the modal meaning of the sentence in Ukrainian:

«I do really wish it hadn't been you.» (Greene)

«Мені й справді хотілося, щоб це був не ти»

«Мені аж ніяк не хотілося, щоб це був ти.»

«Мені-такижаль, що це був ти.»

«Якжаль, що це був ти.»

«Я й справді жалкую, що це був ти.»

When under the emphatic or logical stress happens to be the English modal word, the expression of modality may coincide in both languages:

Jane is sure to be at her birth-        Джейн неодмінно/обов 'яз-

day party to-night. (Hailey) ково буде в неї на іменинах

сьогодні ввечері.

This same modal meaning of certainty (assuredness) may equally be expressed in Ukrainian by means of the modal adverb певне/напевне and the particles ж, таки:

Джейн напевне ж буде в неї сьогодні ввечері на іменинах.

Джейн напевно-таки буде в неї сьогодні ввечері на іменинах.

The meaning of unsertainty or doubt expressed in English through prosodic means finds its full realization in Ukrainian with the help of particles and the corresponding intonation and stress as well, Cf.:

«What if I don't pass the examinations», said Charlie (D. Lessing)

«Що ж воно буде, якщо я не складу іспитів», промовив Чарлі.

As will be seen below, Ukrainian particles and adverbs .may also be used to render modality which is expressed in English by some other lingual means.

 

308

309

 

 

THE LEXICO-GRAMMATIC EXPRESSION OF MODALITY

This kind of modality is realized in both languages via modal verbs/their lexical equivalents plus the infinitive of the notional verb. These constructions perform the function of the compound modal verbal predicate and express different meanings predetermined by the modal verb in the main, which can be observed in many citations and their Ukrainian translations on the forthcoming pages.

1. Thus, the modal verb can/could expressing physical or mental ability is usually translated into Ukrainian with the help of the modal verbs могти, вміти or by means of their equivalents мати змогу/можливість, бути в змозі/мати силу:

a)l saw that he could hardly         Я бачив, що він не може/не take his eys off her. (Maugham)     має сили очей відірвати від неї.

«Now, you pray, Harold,» she said. «I can't», said. Krebs. (Hemingway)

«I haven't been able to do what I meant.» (E. Warton)

«А тепер ти молись, Гарольде,» - сказала вона. «Я не вмію.» відповів Кребс.

«Я не мав змоги зробити те, що надумав зробити ...»

b) When expressing doubt, distrust, uncertainty, etc. (mainly in interrogative and negative sentences) the meaning of can/could is mostly enforced in Ukrainian with the help.of the particles невже, хіба or the adverb навряд:

«Невже (хіба) ви мені не вірите, мамо?»

«Навряд чи це той самий чоловік.»

«Та невже/хіба то Волтер?»/ Навряд чи то Волтер.

«Can't you believe  me, mother?» (Hemingway)

«It can't be the same man -

«(Christie)

It can't possibly be Walter.» (Maugham)

с) When expressihg the meaning of reproach, surprise or permission the lexical equivalent of the modal verb can in Ukrainian is mostly the stative можна:

Як можна таке обіцяти/ такого наобіцяти?

«Можна прийти й подивитись ваші картини?»

«Маючи все це, не можна залишати жінку без шеляга.»

«How can one promise that?» (Greene)

«Can I come up and see your pictures?» (Hemingway)

«Having it all, one can't leave a woman without a bob.» (Maugham)

310

 

d) When the modal verb can expresses irrefutability of action or assuredness of statement, it may be conveyed in Ukrainian, where this kind of modal meaning is usually expressed implicitly, through a definite word-order and sentence stress (prosodic means):

«You can't teach an old dog «Старого вчити - тільки

new tricks.» (D. Lessing) час даром марнувати.»

There was nothing, the boy Хлопцеві нічого не could do but run. (J.K. Jerome) залишалось, як тікати.

Can the leopard change his Горбатого могила вип-

spots? (Saying) равить.

e) Some modal meanings of can/could are expressed in Ukrainian either lexico-grammatically or through phonological means. The choice of the means rests then exclusively with the translator. Thus, in the sentence below the meaning of the modal verb could is under logical (or emphatic) stress which may be marked (pointed out) accordingly in Ukrainian: / could know it without your telling me. (B.Shaw) Я міг довідатись про це і без тебе.

The same could in the isolated sentence may also be treated as a form of the subjunctive mood, marked by the participle б/би: Я довідався б/міг би довідатись про це і без твоєї допомоги.

«І can't recollect him.» «Я щось не пригадую/не

(Greene) можу його пригадати.»

«Why can't he go to a hospi- «Чому він не може лягти в

tal?» (Christie) шпиталь?/Чому він не лягає

до шпиталю?»

Note. Some English modal meanings of can have no corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.: / can see in this picture. Я бачу на цій картині... І can hear you well. Я добре чую тебе. Сап you see me? Ти бачиш мене?

f) In some contextual environment the modal meaning of can may be expressed in Ukrainian through other modal verbs:

«How can you talk to me like «Як ти смієш зі мною так

that.» (Fitzgerald) розмовляти.»

«We had an awful time get- «Повинен тобі сказати. ting back, I can tell you.» (Ibid.) дорога назад була страшенно

важка.»

The modal verb can/could followed by the perfect infinitive

311

 

and expressing a probable, doubtful, uncertain, incredible, etc. action is usually translated into Ukrainian depending on its contextual meaning. The latter may be expressed: 1) through the past form of the corresponding verb (indicative mood) or 2) through its subjunctive mood form (умовний спосіб). For example:

1) «She can't have neglected all that.» (F.King)

«Невже  вона  всім  цим знехтувала?»

«Вона не могла всім цим знехтувати»

2) «How could she have been like that?» (Fitzgerald)

Nobody could have saved him. (W.Trevor)

But he could have lived, this boy. (Hailey)

«Як   вона    могла    так поводитись/бути такою?»

Ніхто його не врятував би/ Навряд чи хто врятував би його.

Проте хлопчина той міг би й жити/міг би й вижити.

Exercise I. Offer appropriate Ukrainian particles or modal adverbs (or both) to convey the phonologically expressed (through emphatic stress or intonation) modality in the English sentences below.

Model: «I did have ideas that way. For a time.» (Hailey) Таки закрадалися спершу такі думки/У мене й справді закралися були спершу такі думки, (modal particle таки', modal particle й plus the modal adverb справді).

1. «Wouldn't you like me to read?» she asked. 2. «Wouldn't you like some broth?» 3. «I wouldn't know what to do. Honestly.» 4. «Behave yourself.» «Why don't you try behaving?» (Hemingway) 5. «Oh, I am longing to see it,» Iris said. 6. «Sweety, I don't honestly like this very much.» (F.King)?. «I know you didn't mean to. but you did it (hurt).» (Fitzgerald) 8. «John, it was you who initiated the Joe Black Memorial Award.» (B. Glanville) 9. «I do apologise, Madam. I feel so... I would not have troubled.» (S.Hill) 10. «Now I caught you!» she said. «Now you can't get away!» 11. «It (music) seems to be right in them.» 12. «Wait till I tell him I met Walter Williams,» she said. 13. «Why don't you have another concert, some time?» 14. «Well, I'll be there. ГИ be there, if I possibly can. You can count on me.» 15. «I just caught myself in time.» (D.Parker) 16. «You think so?» «Why not.» I said. (Hemingway) 17. «I'm not hungry. Dave. I wouldn't lie to you.» (Caldwell)

Exercise II. Identify the modal meaning of can/could, to be able to (physical ability, mental ability, etc.) and translate the

312

 

sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Anyone can be a fisherman in May. (Hemingway) 2. «Can you draw?» 3. «I could wash the floors.» (Dreiser) 4. Suleman-ibn-Daoud could hardly speak for laughing. (Kipling) 5. «You have done everytning you could for me.» (Hemingway) 6. « ... but I can't make head and tail of it.» (Maugham) 7. She couldn't bear the sight of him. (Christie) 8. «I was able to do the commissioner a favour once, and he sends me a Christmas card every year.» (Fitzgerald) 9. Dorian seemed to be able to exercise whenever he wished. (Wilde) 10. Still there are many individuals who have never been able to work. (D.K.Stevenson) 11. A man can do no more than he can. 12. No man can serve two masters. (Proverb) 13. «Can't I go with you, Holden? Can't I?» (Salinger) 14. It could scarcely be said that he did this in a fatherly spirit. (Dreiser) 15. And there followed, of course, squeals and gaffaws of delight - so loud that they could be heard for half a mile. (Dreiser) 16. As for Mrs.Gerhardt, one could better imagine than describe her feeling. (Ibid.) 17. For a moment the set of his face could be described in just that fantastic way. (Fitzgerald) 18. He was unable, however, to long keep silence. (Galsworthy) 19. You cannot burn the candle at both ends. (Proverb) 20. «I suppose, Joe, there couldn't be any doubt about that blood test on Mrs.Alexander?» (Hailey) 21. All that could be truly said of him now. (Dreiser) 22. «How could it have mattered then?» 23. How could she have been like that?» (Fitzgerald) 24. «I couldn't have missed that.» 25. «I could have forgiven it if fallen desperately in love with someone and gone off with her.» 26. «That's just why they couldn't have had the key.» 27. «She could have gone back to Strove,» he said irritably. (Maugham) 28. «Oh,» cried Fleur. «You could not have done it.» 29. There could not have been such relentless unforgiveness. (Galsworthy) 30. We could have stayed in Paris or gone elsewhere. (Hemingway)

Exercise III. Choose the most fitting meaning of the two pertained to the modal verb can/could and translate the sentences faithfully into Ukrainian.

1. If we ignore this problem, we can easily find ourselves in an embarrasing situation. (Stevenson) 2. «I don't think I can stand it.» 3. «I'd send you a certain sum of money and you could give it him gradually, as he needed it.» 4. «Even now I can hardly believe it's true.» 5. «I can tell you why he left his wife - from pure selfishness and nothing else whatever.» 6. «Why can't you write yourself?» 7. «I could not hear what he said.» 8. «Why can't he go to a hospital?» 9.

313

 

«May I speak now? (Maugham)

«May I offer you some fruit?» (E.Bates)

I could not tell how they were getting on. (Maugham) 10. «It's more than he's worth, I know, but it can't be helped now.» (Dreiser) 11. «If it wasn't for the mist, we could see your home across the bay.» 12. Neitner of them can stand the person they're married to. Can they?» (Fitzgerald) 13. He couldn't say the word «dead». (W.Trevor) 14. «You'll have no trouble. I can assure you.» (Christie) 15. «Pardon, but could you tell me if a Mr. or Mrs.Kobinson resides here?» (Ibid.) 16. «I couldn't take the chance of letting it be known that there was doubt.» (Hailey) 17. «I can't bear the look of that horrible muzzle.» (C.S.Lewis) 18.1 could not believe that Strickiand had fallen in love with Blanche Stroeve. (Maugham) 19. I could think of no excuse. (Christie) 20. «You can't expect me to think it's a very good system.» (Hemingway) 21. «I couldn't expect you to understand it.» (Maugham) 22. «What's your opinion, Joe?» «It could be a bone tumor?» (Hailey)

Exercise IV. Find appropriate Ukrainian equivalents forthe explicitly and implicitly expressed meanings of can/could in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. Thus, you can keep rubbing the wounds of the day a little sorer even while he is on his knees ... (C.S. Lewis) 2. There are lots of fellows who would be delighted to have your chance, I can tell you. (Dreiser) 3. «It can't possibly be Walter.» (Maugham) 4. Vivian could see he was puzzled, not knowing what to make of it. (Hailey) 5. Love cannot be compelled. (Proverb) 6. «You can't wait in the dining-room, Miss.» (Mansfield) 7. She could not help giving ear to the sounds surrounding her. (Dreiser) 8. «I wish I could see him.» (Hemingway) 9. How weakened she was I had not been able to imagine until I saw her at the railway station ... (Buck) 10. You could see they were being careful as hell not to drink up the minimum too fast. (Salinger) 11. «Your sister? I can't believe it.» (Greene) 12. If we ignore this problem, we can easily find ourselves in an embarrassing situation. (D.K.Stevenson) 13. «I'm sorry, Granger. I wish I could help.» (Greene). 14. Can it really be true, then, that a non-commercial, nonprofit public network is the largest. (D.K.Stevenson) 15. « ... you can't expect me to «believe a word you say.» (Galsworthy) 16. «I can't bear it.» (Christie) 17. She used to be able to understand. (Fitzgerald)

18. «We had an awful time getting back, I can tell you.» (Fitzgerald)

19. «Oh. If only I could return back to my flower basket.» (B.Shaw)

20. «I cannot have you call on me here.» (Dreiser) 21. «I can't say anytning in this house, old sport.» (Fitzgerald) 22. «You can't talk to me like that.» (Ibid.) 23. «You can't live on air, you know.» (Christie) 24. Love and cough cannot be hid. (Proverb) 25. «...compare her

 

with that poor Mrs. Osborne who could say boo to a goose.» (W.Thackeray) 26. A fog cannot be dispelled with a fan. (Proverbs) 27. He was not old, he could not have been more than forty. (Galsworthy)

2. The modal verb may/might with its lexical equivalents to be permitted I to be allowed has also some peculiarites of use and expression of meaning. The latter predetermines the use of its Ukrainian lexical equivalents. Thus, when the modal verb may/might expresses permission it is usually translated into Ukrainian as the stative можна. For example:

a) «Now may I go?» (Christie) «To що, можна мені йти?»

At the hospital they told me І         «У шпиталі сказали, що

might wait.» (Ibid.)                         мені можна почекати.»

This meaning of may, as can be seen below, coincides with the meaning of the modal verb can in the indefinite personal or impersonal sentences as in One can count it/It could be counted on the fingers of one hand - це можна(можна було) порахувати на пальцях однієї руки.

b) The meanings of permission expressed by the modal verb may/might can equally be conveyed by the Ukrainian verbs дозволяти, не заперечувати:

« Тепер дозволяєте/можна мені говорити?»

«Можна запропонувати вам/Не заперечуватимете проти фруктів?»

с) When the verb may/might expresses possibility (coinciding with the verb can/could) or probability, assumption, uncertainty, admonition, advice, etc., it is usually translated into Ukrainian with the help of the polysemantic verb могти.

This verb is therefore homonymous in its meaning incorporating in Ukrainian the meanings of can and may wnich can be seen from the following sentence:

«I think I may, remind him of а «Я могтиму/матиму

time he prefers to forget.» змогу, думаю, пригадати йому

(Christie) той чаСІ Пр0 якии в;н Єол/є не

згадувати.»

 

314

315

 

 

pelled from the organisation by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. (Charter of the United Nations)

d) When expressing assumptio.ri,^rQ^!:|J||:^,.:.p)i^sumability, wish, advice, etc., the verb may andI its^ pasf ^o^subjunctive) form might often acquires some additional modal meaning.which is mostly rendered into Ukrainian with the help of different modal particles. The most frequently employed of them are б, ще/ще й, хай, etc.

«Let's wait a little more, she «Зачекаймо трохи, вона ще

might return in a couple of min- може (може ше й) прийде за

utes.» (Bailey) кілька хвилин.»

Bass said we might get some Бас каже, що ми могли б

of the laundry of the men at the брати в пожителів^готелю

hotel to do. (Dreiser) білизну прати (для прання).

«We shall never be married.»         «Ми ніколи не одружимось.»

«Some time-we might,» said «А може, колись і одружи-

Dorothea in a trembling voice, мось,» відповіла Доротея

(Seghal) тремтливим голосом.

e) When expressing wish, the subjunctive meaning of may is conveyed in Ukrainian either with the help of the particles хай or щоб, initiating the sentences:

May they live a long life. Xmi їм щастить.

May damnation take him.              Шобвінбув проклятий./Хай

йому трясші!

f) Some modal meanings (supposition, assumption, desire, etc.) expressed in English by may/might are rendered into Ukrainian through modal particles and a peculiar logical word order:

«May He (God) support me «Допоможи й мені Боже.»

too.» (H.Hawthome) (Хай Бог помогає й мені)

Between the cup and the lip a He кажи гоп, доки не

morsel may slip. (Proverb) перескочиш (Скажеш гоп, як

перескочиш).

«Might he not, later, be pun- «А його за це часом/згодом

ished for a thing like this?» не покарають?»(А його це_

(Dreiser) можуть потім покарати?)

g) The-modal verb may is often used in the language of documents to express polite though severe warning:

A Member of the United Na- Держава - член Організації' tions which has persistently vio- Об'єднаних Націй, яка lated the Principles contained in постійно порушує зазначені в the present Charter may_be ex- цьому Статуті принципи,

 

може бути виключена з ООН Генеральною Асамблеєю згідно рекомендації Ради Безпеки. (Статут Організації' Об'єднаних Націй).

h) The modal verb may/might followed by a perfect infinitive often expresses supposition, desire, uncertainty, probability, etc., of actions which might not have been carried out. When isolated from a contextual environment, the construction of may/might with the perfect infinitive may be treated as polysemantic and consequently offered different interpretatations in Ukrainian. Thus, the sentence «She may have forgotten, you know; or got the evening mixed.» (Galsworthy) may have the following five faithful (from the translator's point of view) interpretetions/variants:

1) «Знаєте, вона мабуть забула чи сплутала вечір.»

2) «Вона певне забула або сплутала вечір.»

3) «Можливо, вона забула чи сплутала вечір.»

4) «Цілком імовірно, що вона забула чи сплутала вечір.»

5) «Знаєте, а може вона забула чи сплутала вечір.» і) There appears still more uncertainty while conveying the meaning of may/might with the negated perfect infinitive as in the sentence «The aircraft might not have been downed in the action.» (USA Today) The lexical ambiguity of the construction can be seen from the following possible variants of its interpretation in Ukrainian:

1) Літак може й не збито в тім бою.

2) Літак мабуть не збито в тім бою.

3) Цілком імовірно, що літак не був збитий у тому бою.

4) Навряд чи літак був збитий у тому бою.

5) Може літака й не збили в тому бою.

These meanings of may/might are naturally realized through the infinitive forming the content core of the modal predicate in the sentence.

In many sentences the modal verb might adds a subjunctive meaning to the predicate, which it is a part of, as in the following example:

Mrs.Gerhardt thought of all Дженні Ґергардт перебрала

the places to which she might й усі інші місця, де можна було

apply. (Dreiser) б спитати про роботу.

 

317

316

 

 

Exercise I. Before translating the sentences into Ukrainian, state the meaning (supposition, probability, assumption, uncertainty, permission, etc.) expressed by the modal verb may/ might. Suggest the use of the stative можна or the adverb можливо (with or without a modal particle) where necessary.

1. «They may not like it.» 2. «She may and she may not prove to be a riddle to me.» (Dreiser) 3. Erik says that you may be coming to New York. (M.Wilson) 4. He may have to go to Monte Carlo with his father. (O.Wilde) 5. There may be a number of benefits. 6. Many non-Americans may be aware of the geographical size of the United States. 7. Other aspects of America may be a far more serious challenge to our experts. (D.K.Stevenson) 8. The hospital might receive money now or it might not. 9. «I suppose I might be difficult to live with. (Hailey) 10. Anything might happen. (G.Greene) 11. «We might dine together.» (Christie) 12. «She was afraid he might die before she had done so.» (H.James) 13. I thought you might be glad to learn of my good fortune. (O.Henry) 14. «Sometimes when Mr. de Winter is away and you feel lonely, you might like to come up to these rooms and sit here.» (Du Maurier) 15. You may know one of them to be a great warrior on the Enemy's side. (C.S.Lewis) 16. ... her heart might be lonely, but her lips continued to sing. 17. Yes, he might be called a successful man. (Dreiser) 18. You might see nothing in him. (O.Wilde) 19. «There's one thing that might work, might give us a better pointer. That's X-ray. If there's a tumor, X-ray might show it.» 20. It might be dangerous, if we get a disease carrier at the hospital. (Hailey) 21. This may be the reason of their refusal to join us. (J.F.Cooper) 22. «She might be a duchess.» 23. «I may be very stupid, but I can't make head or tail of what you're saying.» (Maugham) 24. «You might as well ask for a reflection without a mirror.» 25. «You may or may not be right on that point, Hastings.» (Christie) 26. «Perhaps I may keep the handkerchief. (C.S.Lewis) 27. I told her she might fool me but she couldn't fool God. (Fitzgerald) 28. «... but you may as well get what you can out of it.» (Maugham) 29. A fool may ask more questions than a wise man can answer. (Proverb) 30. «If I may introduce myself, I am Mr.Chou's manager.» (Greene) 31. She might come-this afternoon if she wants to.» 32. «They might all be wrecked by such fast driving.» (Dreiser).

Exercise II. Offer the most fitting lexical equivalents for the modal verb may/might with the perfect infinitive in each sentence below and after that translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

318

 

1. They may not have said anything about it. (H.Munro) 2. If they had been in the room then, she might have murdered them. (J.Cheever) 3. «That may not have occured to you that it would be rather a shock to a girl to find out that her husband had lived for ten years with another girl and had three children.» (Hemingway) 4. She may have had no particular feeling for him. 5. For all, we know they may have settled down into a most domestic couple. (Christie) 6. Miss Matfield might have been very sorry for him. (J.Priestley) 7. «Well, he might have been murdered by the Vietminh.» (Greene) 8. «He looked at Hilda; he might have been looking at a stranger.» (Bennett) 9. «You might have told me earlier - what you told me on Wednesday night.» 10. It may have been a healthy wind, but the effect on the nerves was evil. (Bennett) 11. Wolf too had disappeared, but he might have strayed away after a squirrel or a partridge. (W.lrving) 12. «You might have told us that half an hour ago.» (B.Shaw) 13. Of course, there were many things, I might have answered to this.» (Christie) 14. «If I had remained a rich man, I might have lost it for good and all.» 15. «And we might have been so happy.» (Maugham) 16. «Catherine, who might have said anything didn't say a word.» 17. Of course, she might have loved her for a minute. (Fitzgerald)

3. The modal verb must has also some peculiar features of its own. Borrowed by Ukrainian from German through Polish, this verb in English and Ukrainian expresses strong obligation, duty, necessity. In these meanings must has for its direct lexical equivalents the strongest Ukraininan modal verb of this same meaning мусити.

a) «Now I really must get back «Тепер я мушу серйозно

to my tasks. End of term in sight, взятись за роботу. Знаєш,

you know.» (Murdoch) скоро кінець семестру.»

We must eat, we must drink, Ми мусимо їсти, пити і and we rnust be merry. (Saying) мусимо завжди бути веселими.

b) Not without the long influence of the Russian language, which was for some centuries a dominant political factor in Ukraine, the modal verb мусити has been more often substituted by urban Ukrainians for its almost as strong semantically Ukrainian synonym повинен or for the modal stative треба. То convey the meaning of necessity, duty or obligation, expressed by the modal verb must. whose direct Ukrainian equivalent is still often avoided on the aforenamed grounds, present-day Ukrainians often resort to the ad-

319

 

ditional use of the modal adverb обов'язково:

«I must sit down. This leg gets «Я мушу/повинен сісти,

tired.» (Greene) Щось поболює оця нога.»

«You must certainly send it «Ти повинен обов'язково вис-

(picture) next year to the тавити портрет наступного

Grosvenor.» (О. Wilde) року у павільйоні Ґросвенор.

The meaning ofmi/sfin both English sentences above directly corresponds to our Ukrainian мусити, which is also proved by the use of the intensifying modal adverb обов'язково in the last sentence.

It may naturally not always be clear from an isolated sentence, which of the possible meanings the modal verb must expresses: that of the strongest (мусити) or those of the somewhat weaker ones (повинен, треба). Thus, from Martin Eden's words in the sentence below is not clear whether it is Ruth's duty, moral/presumptive obligation or her necessity to address her father: «And you must tell your father for me.» (London) Hence, the translator may suggest three posible equivalents for this modal meaning of must in Ukrainian:

1) «I/A ти мусиш сказати це за мене батькові.» (duty, obligation)

2) «I/A ти повинна сказати це за мене батькові.» (necessity)

3) «І/А тобі треба самій сказати це за мене батькові.» (presumptive obligation)

с) The translator may sometimes choose the Ukrainian lexical equivalent of must under the influence of the traditionally established usage of a modal meaning in his native tongue. Thus, the meaning of necessity, obligation following from a prescription or rule, may often be expressed in Ukrainian through strict logical word order or via some other finite verbs with the intensifying adverb, as can be observed in the following sentences:

сіли в затишному куточку...

Конституцією США встановлено, що державний перепис («поголівний облік») населення повинен проводитися кожні десять років.

«I musn't take the money,» «Я ніколи не візьму цих гро-

said Carry, after they were set- шей,»- відповіла Керрі, коли вони

tied in a cosy corner... (Dreiser) The Constitution of the US specifies that a nationwide census, a «head count» of all Americans, must be taken every ten years. (O.K. Stevenson)

 

d) When expressing assumption or supposition, the modal verb must may have for its lexical equivalent in Ukrainian a contextually fitting modal adverb or a modal particle:

«Він мабуть/не як з глузду з'їхав!-вигукнувполковник. (Та ж він просто з глузду з'їхав!)

«Топ хлопець певне/як залізний. Він ніколи не стомлюється.»

«Якщо я почуваюсь так, це означає, що моє серце більш не витримує.»

«He must be as mad as a hatter!» exclaimed the Colonel. (Christie)

«That fellow must be made of steel. He's never tired.» (R.Warren)

«If I feel this way, my heart must be broken.» (Hemingway)

e) Some meanings of this modal verb are formally obligatory in English, where they express obligation or certainty but they may not have an explicit expression of these meanings in Ukrainian:

«I must apologize, Agnes, I'm «ПРОШУ вибачити. Еґнес;

very sorry...» (Coward) мені дуже жаль. »/«Перепро-

шую. Еґнес, мені дуже прикро.»

«І thought you must be «я думала, що тебе нема

away.» (Maugham) вдома/що ти вже пішов.»

f) Therefore, the usual meaning of must in some Ukrainian contexts may be weaker than in the English language original where it clearly expresses certainty, duty or obligation. Consequently, it can not be substituted in Ukrainian for either the modal verb мусити or for its weaker variant повинен. Then, some other equivalents have to be chosen for such nationally predetermined meanings of must. For instance:

«What must you have thought «Що ти міг тільки подумати

of me?» (Maugham) про мене?»

«It must seem very funny to «Це може здатися /певне

you.» (Galsworthy) здається тобі/дуже дивним.»

«Were the people looking at Чи люди дивилися на неї? her? They must be.» (Mansfield) Мабуть./Напевне. ш.о так.»

Some contextual meanings of must have a national Ukrainian non-explicit expression of modality. For example: «Come, Dave, you must see.» (London)

«Ходіть-но, Дейве, подивіться.» or: «Ходи-но, Дейве, на свої

очі пересвідчишся.»

 

321

320

 

 

g) The Ukrainian modal verb мусити or повинен is to be used, however, when conveying the meaning of the English syntagmeme have got (to) with the indefinite infinitive having the function of the compound modal verbal predicate:

(Greene)

«Doris, l say to you.» (Hemingway)

«I've got to stay sober.»         «Я   повинен/маю   бути

тверезим.»

jot something to         «Доріс, я маю/повинен тобі дещо сказати.»

h) The modal verb must when used with the perfect infinitive usually expresses actions supposed to have taken or not taken place but of which the speaker is mostly informed. The meaning of thus expressed action is usually rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the modal adverbs or particles можливо, очевидно, мабуть, напевно, певне:

«Не must have fallen off when we left the first bull.» (Hemingway)

«Зброєносець певне випав з машини, коли ми від'їхали від першого застреленого буйвола.»

Тут лікар Браун промовив:

«Цей чоловік уже мертвий певне з тиждень.»

So Dr. Brown's whispered words: «The man must have been dead a week.» (Greene)

Some probable action expressed by the modal verb must with the negative particle not and the perfect infinitive shows that the action might have been carried out. Though other interpretations, i.e., expressions of the meaning are not excluded either:

She must not have followed        Вона   не   повинна   була

the advice ... (Austen) виконувати цю пораду...

Some other interpretations of this modal verb with the perfect infinitive construction may be quite opposite to that in the sentence above. Namely:

1) Навряд чи вона послухалася тієї поради.

2) Не може бути, щоб вона послухалася тієї поради.

3) їй не треба було слухатися тієї поради.

As in the similar case with may/might plus the perfect infinitive, there may be also other contextual meanings of must with the perfect or indefinite/continuous infinitive. These meanings can also be found in the compound modal predicates of sentences given in the exercises that follow.

 

Exercise I. Analyse each sentence first and offer a suitable Ukrainian equivalent (мусити, повинен, треба, маю etc.) for the modal verb must. Then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «Accidents can happen to anybody, darling. You mustn't blame yourself.» (S.Sheldon) 2. «Only you must give me your clothes, too.» (A.Bierce) 3. «You mustn't stare at people when they pass,» continued mother. 4. To succeed one must do something - one must associate, at least seem to associate with those who were foremost in the world of appearences. (Dreiser) 5. «I'll telephone. They must see the faces of many people you've heard about.» (Fitzgerald) 6. This brings us to the last factor that must be kept in mind. 7. They must have local public support, because citizens vote directly on how much they want to pay for school taxes. (D.K.Stevenson) 8. «We must go as quickly as we can.» 9. In the meantime we must make the best of the situation. (C.Lewis) 10. «I must be left to myself fora while.» 11. «They mustn't take him into my house.» (Maugham) 12. «Adam, you must not leave the house.» 13. To be popular, one must be a mediocrity. 14. «I go on board to-night for India, and I must do my job first.» (Wilde) 15. «He must know that infatuation won't last.» 16. «He must be treated with infinite tact.» 17. «But you mustn't go with me, you wouldn't understand. I must show them to you myself.» (Christie) 18. «I must speak to you by such means as are within my reach.» (J.Austen) 19. «But according to your category I must be merely an acquaintance.» (Wilde) 20. «Still I must sleep.» (Hemingway) 21. An articled clerk must pass the necessary examinations held by the Law Society. (I.Tenson) 22. «I must acquit you of criminality.» (A.Bierce) 23. «But we mustn't talk here.» (Galsworthy)

Exercise H. Translate the sentences containing the modal verb must with different forms of the infinitive. Use one of the following (or some other) fitting Ukrainian equivalents for the purpose: повинен, певне, мабуть, треба, змушений, зобов'язаний, маю, etc.

1. «She must be in New York by now.» (M.Wilson) 2. They must be in a bad way truly. 3. «It must cost a good deal to live here, don't you think?» 4. «It must be nice to be famous,» said the girl softly. 5. The neighbourhood they lived in must be very poor. 6. Mrs. Gerhardt commented upon this repealing again and again: how good he must be or how large must be his heart. (Dreiser) 7. «Must be interesting?» he said. (Christie) 8. «We heard it from three people, so it must be true.» (Fitzgerald) 9. The boy must be forty by now.

 

323

322

 

 

(Galsworthy) 10. «You must be too hard,» he smiled back. (Hemingway) 11. Alcohol must help somewhat in fighting arteriosclerosis. (D.K.Stevenson) 12. «You must know, Gatsby.» 13. Some words of this conversation must have reached Wilson swaying in the office door... 14. She must have seen something of this expression for she turned abruptly away... 15. She must have broken her rule against drinking that night. 16. «You must have gone to church once.» 17.1 must have felt pretty weired at that time, because I could think of nothing else. 18. It (the car) must have killed her instantly. 19. He must have looked up at the unfamiliar sky. (Fitzgerald) 20. «He must have been in the river,» the woman said. (S.Barstow) 21. But even when she laughed she must have'been one of the servants. (Maugham) 22. These must have been expensive cigars. (J.Priestley) 23. But you must have seen pictures of her. (Christie) 24. «You must have got mixed up in something in Chicago.» (Hemingway) 25. What he saw in that room must have frightened him terribly. (J.Kierzek) 26. «I have read your feelings, and I think you must have penetrated mine». (J.Austen)

4. The modal verb have (to) is of common lexical nature in English and Ukrainian, where its meaning in all substyles corresponds to the verb мати as in the following examples:

a) «Oh, I have to tell you «О, мамо, я маю вам щось something, mamma.» (Dreiser) сказати/розповісти.»

«Don't forget, we have to pay «Пам'ятай, що ми маємо

the library. (Hemingway) платити бібліотеці.»

b) Depending on the lexical meaning of the infinitive that forms the compound modal predicate with it, the modal verb have (to) may often become close to that of the Ukrainian modal verbs повинен, мусити, to the stative треба or to the modal adverb потрібно/ необхідно:

«Бачите, нам, бідним художникам, треба/необхідно показу-ватися час від часу на людях.»

«Ми маємо/повинні робити все, що можемо.»

«Вам треба буде/

доведеться взавтра

попрацювати/взятись краще,

ніж оце зараз.»

«You know we, poor artists, have to show ourselves in society from time to time. (Wilde)

«We have to do everything we can.» (Hemingway)

«You'll have to pull harder than this tomorrow. (Hemingway)

 

c) In some contextual environment, however, the meaning of have to may be very close if not equivalent to must (мусити/ повинен):

«I have to leave you here.» «Я змушений/повинен покину-

(Fitzgerald) ти/залишити тебе тут.»

«І have to tell you I find your «Повинен/мушу сказати, твоя

work just a little too stark.» робота/праця видається мені

(Hemingway) трохи заважкою.»

d) The modal meaning of the verb have to may be predetermined by the peculiarity of usage and singularity of expressing the same modal meaning in the source language and in the target language, which may sometimes coincide as in the sentence below:

«And what have we to do with «А що нам/маємо робити з

the lives of those who toil for us?» життями тих, котрі як чорні

(Wilde) воли важко працюють на нас?»

As can be seen, translation of the modal verb have (to) may be influenced by various factors which should be taken into consideration while choosing its lexical equivalent in Ukrainian.

Exercise I. Suggest an appropriate lexical equivalent for the modal verb have (to) in the sentences below and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «You don't have to do it.» 2. «You have to go back to school.» (Salinger) 3. «If you gain anything, you will have to fight for it.» 4. «Times are hard ... I have my family to keep.» 5. «You will have to wait until you hear from me again.» (Dreiser) 6. «We've got to go to bed.» 7. «She's not to know about it.» (Fitzgerald) 8. «Hadn't we better put a little bit of stick or something between each word.?» (Kipling) 9. «Doris, I've got something to say to you.»10. «He'd have nothing more to do with the woman and Macomber would get over that too.» (Hemingway) 11. «... under my oath I've got to try to catch the criminal.» (Saroyan) 12. «Shan't we have to risk it?» (C.S.Lewis) 13. «Well, we've got a little business to talk about,» said Boom confidently. (W.Jacobs) 14. «All I had to look forward was doing the same old thing day after day.» (Maugham) 15. «How long did you have to stay there?» (F.Cooper) 16. «You don't have to be an alcoholic to hurt your baby; you just have to be drinking enough while pregnant.» (Alcohol, the Legal Drug) 17. «I must write stories and they have to be stories that will sell.» (Salinger) 18. «Bob has to be on duty at the

 

325

324

 

 

hospital at nine o'clock.» (J.King) 19. «You have to take it.» (Dreiser) 20. «She and Diana, have a lot to arrange together.» 21. «... you've still got to take it easy.» (F.King)

5. Together with the common in both languages modal verbs of generally isomorphic nature there is one conspicuous for its usage. This is the synonymous to the modal verb have to English modal verb to be (to) which has some meanings that are realized depending on the form and lexical meaning of the infinitive following it. This modal verb may express obligation or necessity resulting from an arrangement or from a prearranged agreement/plan. The Ukrainian equivalents for these meanings of to be (to) are usually the modal verbs мати, повинен, мусити:

a) «Remember, Joe, you are «He забувай, Джо, що ти

to run the laundry according to    маєш керувати пральнею

those old rules you used to lay down. (London)

According to the agreement rent was to be paid strictly in advance. (Ibid.)

згідно тих старих правил, які ти сам колись виробив.»

Згідно угоди, комірне (квартплатня) повинне було сплачуватись обов'язково наперед.

When to be (to) expresses the meaning of inevitability of some action or event, it is translated into Ukrainian as the modal verb мати:

«Якщо вже це мало скоїтись. то воно мало скоїтись саме так, а не інакше.»

«If the thing was to happen, it was to happen in this way ...» (E.Wharton)

The modal verb to be (to) may also express a meaning corresponding to the Ukrainian stative треба:

«It was to be expected.» Mrs. «Цього і треба було чекати.»

Mors said gently. (London)            - стиха промовила пані Морз.

с) Sometimes the modal meaning of the verb to be (to) is faithfully conveyed by means of the Ukrainian infinitival predicate of the sentence and the strictly logical position of the parts of the sentence, as in the rhetorical questions below:

What am  I to do now?         Що мені тепер робити? (Maugham)

How was President Kravchuk         Як президентові Кравчуку

 

to have won the re-election?    було перемогти на повторних

(F.News) виборах?

d) When expressing order or instruction (usually in reported speech) the modal verb to be (to) is translated into Ukrainian either with the help of the modal verbs бути повинним/мати, or with the help of a subordinate clause respectively. For example:

«Я йому скажу, щоб він більш не приходив/шоб його ноги не було біля цього будинку.»

«You are to stay in bed until «Ви не повинні вставати.

you are allowed to get up.» (Du доки лікар не дозволить (доки

Maurier) вам не дозволять).

«I'm going to tell him he's not to come to the house anymore.» (W.Jacobs)

e) When expressing possibility, the modal verb to be (to) is translated with the help of the modal verbs можна, мати, or with the help of the modal word можливо:

There is a good training to be Там можна пройти гарну

had there. (Dreiser) практику/вишкіл.

... in the basement of the ... у підвальному приміщенні Diggby Avenue, Congregational на Ліґбі Авеню мали відбутися Church, there was to be held а збори конґреґаційної церкви з social with refreshments. (Ibid.) частуванням.

f) When expressing an assumptive or suggested possibility, the meaning of the modal verb to be (to) is mostly rendered with the help of a peculiar logical sentence structure. The meaning of the modal verb to be (to) in such sentences may have reference either to present or to future. For example:

«I am to have the priviledge «Мені випадає щаслива

of sitting next to you.» нагода сидіти поруч з вами/Я

(Maugham) матиму приємність посидіти

поруч з вами.»

g) Somewhat clearer is the reference to future, however, when the modal verb to be (to) is used in the subjunctive mood as in the underlined conditional clauses below:

If anything were to happen, it Якби що-небудь мало

would cost me my place all right, скоїтися/скоїлося, я неодмінно

(Dreiser) втратив би своє місце.

 

326

327

 

 

If he were to come, he would certainly have arrived already. (S.Sheldon)

Якби він мав приїхати, він би вже напевне приїхав/він був би вже приїхав.

There may also be other contextual modal meanings of the verb to be (to) in English, which can be ascertained from the sentences in the given exercise below.

Exercise I. Translating the sentences into Ukrainian state the meaning of the modal verb to be to in each of them.

1. «Is he to take it that everything is O.K.?» (Salinger) 2.1 was to catch them and hand them over to her. (C.Lewis) 3. «There is only one thing to be done.» (Cronin) 4. We made a list of things to be taken. (J.K.Jerome) 5. «If I were to marry Guilliandum, the Church would never stand for it.» (J.Fowler) 6. But all his meals were to be taken outside his working hours and he was to report promptly in uniform for line-up and inspection by his superior... 7. This daughter of poverty, who was now to fetch and carry the laundry of this citizen, was a creature of a mellowness of temperament. 8. They were to be seen upon the principal streets of Kansas City flitting to and fro like flies. 9.... he was to be held back by any suggestion which his mother could now make. 10. She could give him seventy five dollars cash in hand, the other forty to be paid in one week's time. 11. Anything to be as carefully concealed as possible. 12. ... they were to be turned over to Clyde with the suggestion that he try them. 13. But Clyde, in spite of this honest and well-meant condition, was not to be dissuaded. 14. ... there had been a development which was to be effected by this very decision on the part of the Griffiths. 15. And yet, if the problem were on this account to be shifted to him, how would he make out? 16. From this Clyde wondered how long he was to be left in that dim world below the stairs. 17. ... there was to be staged on June twentieth the annual intercity automobiling floral parade and contest, which this year was to be held in Lycurgus and which was the last local social affair of any consequence. 18. Plainly, it was an event to be admitted to the presence of such magnificence. (Dreiser) 19. The polling stations were to have been closed at 8 p.m. (News from Ukraine)

6. The modal verb ought to like the modal verb should expresses moral obligation, presupposition, desirability, advisability and some other meanings. Its meaning in Ukrainian is mostly very close

 

to that of the stative треба or modal verb слід, потрібно, which can be seen from the following sentences:

«Oh, I've forgotten, I ought to have asked Iris about her cook.» (F.King)

He ought never to have given it (the flute) up. (Galswothy)

«Every man ought to be married.» (Hemingway)

«О, а я й забув: я ж мав/ повинен був запитати Айріс про її кухарку.»

Йому нізащо не треба було кидати гру (на флейті).

«Кожному чоловікові слід одружуватись.»

As can be understood from the content of the second sentence, the meaning of ought to may equally be expressed through the modal verb необхідно: Кожному чоловікові необхідно одружуватись.

b) The content of the sentence may often display a still stronger meaning of the modal verb ought to. which corresponds to that of the modal verbs повинен, мати, мусити:

«We're going to Greece...» «Миїдемо до Греції.» «Зараз

«...It ought to be lovely at this там мусить/повинно бути

time of year.» (Maugham) прекрасно в цю пору року»

«You ought to know that you «Ти повинен/мусиш знати,

can't have to steal.» (J. Cheever) що красти не можна.»

c) Apart from the above-mentioned, the modal verb ought to may acquire some other meanings in different contextual environments. These may be as follows:

1) that of the assumptive duty or obligation, necessity, assumption, which is expressed in Ukrainian through the particles 6/ би, щоб and the corresponding infinitive of the verbal predicate or subordinate clause:

«You ought to be working now.» (J.Joyce)

By this time it ought to have been over. (Christie)

I don't think she ought to be in that place alone. (Galsworthy)

«Тиж повинен би працювати/ мав би бути на роботі зараз.»

На цей час/під цю пору все мало б давно вже скінчитися.

He думаю (навряд чи), щоб вона була там сама.

2) The conditional subjunctive meaning expressed through the particles б/би and the notional finite verb without the subordinate conjunctions якби or якщо б, as in the following examples:

«You ought to have seen her         «Бачили б ви його в Ті

 

328

329

 

tie he had on.» (Dreiser)

«God. You ought to hear Walter on the subject of you.» (Fitzgerald)

 

краватиі»/Треба було бачити його...»

«Боже. Чула б ти, що про тебе каже/говорить Волтер.»

 

 

 

3) When ought to expresses desire or affirmation, assumption, its modal meaning is rendered into Ukrainian through the modal adverbs and modal words певне, напевне, мабуть:

«She ought to have been thinking about spending her money on theatres already ...» (Dreiser)

«She's said to be very beautiful by people who ought to know.» (Fitzgerald)

 

Вона мабуть/певне

подумує вже про те, як потратити свої гроші на театр...»

«Люди, які напевне/мабуть-таки знаються на вроді, кажуть, що вона дуже вродлива.»

 

4) The meaning of the modal verb ought to may sometimes be rendered into Ukrainian through peculiar word forms (mood forms) of the verbal predicate as in the sentence below:

«If you're a poor driver, you    «Якщо ти поганий водій/

oughtn't to try driving at night.»    шофер, то не їздь (не треба

(Fitzgerald) їздити/уникай їзди) вночі.»

Some other contextual realizations of the modal meanings pertained to ought to are not excluded either, which can be seen from the English sentences of the exercise that follows.

Exercise I. Offer faithful Ukrainian equivalents for the meanings of the modal verb ought to in the sentences below and translate these sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «Someone ought to go for the police.» 2. «Well, I think you ought to send it to her.» (Maugham) 3. «We don't think you ought to let him, dear.» 4. «Well, I think we ought to be starting ...» 5. «She ought to be very happy.» (Galsworthy) 6. «It is her birthday and she ought to have first choice.» (J.Priestley) 7. «We ought to make terms with him.» 8. «You ought to take care of yourself.» (Galsworthy)

9. «A strong party ought instantly to be thrown into the block-house.»

10. «Have I said anything I oughtn't?» asked Harvey Birch. 11. «You

think I ought to have thrown White to the wolves?» (J.F.Cooper)

12. But I was wondering whether I ought to be getting back. 13.... he

ought at least to be violently attacked by some party within it.

330

 

14. «You ought to be ashamed of yourself...» (C.Lewis) 15. «It ought to be better out in the country than in Town.» (Hemingway) 16. «That ought to be a beauty.» (Bates) 17. «He says so and he ought to know,» was the answer. 18. «You ought to care,» she answered with blazing eyes. (London) 19. «You ought to know all about statues and things.» 20. «He ought to have put a spoke in the wheel of their marriage.» (Galsworthy) 21. «You ought to ask for a transfer to a more civilized school,» Leslie said. (I.Shaw) 22. «You ought to see the baby.» 23. «You ought to live in California,» began Miss Baker. 24. «Either you ought to be more eyeful, or you oughtn't to drive at all.» (Fitzgerald) 25. Life ought to be lived, as he lived it... 26. «Well, she ought to know bettter than to want to go out alone.» 27. ... he ought to be compelled to continue at this very manual form of work any longer. (Dreiser)

7. The modal verb need is known to have two forms of realization, e.g., that of a defective verb and that of a regular verb with modal meaning. The double morphological nature of need does not influence in anyway its lexical meaning, which remains in both cases identical. Hence, when used in its paradigmatic forms with the personal endings or with the auxiliary verb do/does and the infinitive with the particle to, the verb need is translated in quite the same way as its defective form in the present or past tense, always maintaining the meaning of треба, потрібно, необхідно. This can be seen from the following illustrative sentences:

a) «That needs a bit of think- «Над цим треба ще трохи

ing.» (Christie) подумати

«He need say no more to «Йому не треба більше їй

her.» (Ibid.) нічого казати

«May I ask you to take care «Можна попрохати тебе

of me?» «I didn't need any ask- заступитися за мене«Не

ing.» (E. Wharton) треба прохати мене.»

The meaning of the modal verb need may be rendered in the last sentence implicitly, i.e., by employing semantic transformation:

Нічого/нема чого прохати мене.

b) Similar semantic transformations are observed when rendering the meaning of resolute/negative advice or indignation:

«Why need we defend it?» «Навіщо/чого це нам захи-

(Maugham) щати це

331

 

« You need not worry about it». « Тобі нічого турбуватись

(Ibid.) про це»

с) There may be other contextual meanings equivalents of the modal verb need as in the sentence below where its Ukrainian equivalent is the modal verb бути повинним/мусити.

« Well, nobody needn 't know «Але ніхто не повинен будь-

about it...» (W.Jacobs) що знати про це.»

The meaning of need in this sentence may also be expressed with the help of prosodic means (intonation and stress): «Тільки щоб 'ніхто не 'знав про це

Exercise I. Identify the meaning of the verb need in fhe sentences below and translate them into Ukrainian.

1. We don't need anything else.» 2. «You needn't have to bring your umbrella, Sugar Boy, as we are going by car.» 3. «He need say no more to her this evening.» (R.Warren) 4. «Boys of your age need to sleep the clock round». (Snow) 5. «I don't think you need be afraid of that.» (Maugham) 6. «You need not come before tea.» (Ibid.) 7. «You are in a condition in which you will shortly need care and attention.» (Ibid.) 8. «You need not worry about that.» (Voynich) 9. Then for a flight to Italy ... people needed pasports to get abroad. (Hailey) 10. «Let's take you rear... Then I needn't get mine out of the garage.» (F.King) 11. «You need not be afraid.» (Wilde) 12. «You needn't trouble. It's here.» (Greene) 13. «More, I shall send you at all times that you need.» (O.Henry) 14. «As a matter of fact you needn't ascertain.» 15.... the chauffeur asked him if he needed help, but he shook bis head. (Fitzgerald) 16. «You needn't bother about coming up, Manson...» (Cronin) 17. «You want my professional opinion ... that what you need is sea air.» (Christie) 18. She said, «Need we go to the club?» (Greene) 19. «I'm sorry. You needn't be. It's not you, kid.» (Ibid.) 20. His presence in Columbus was due to the fact that his political fences needed careful repairing. 21. Hence, only twenty-five cents need to be returned to the man. (Dreiser) 22. «You needn't be in such a fright, take my arm.» (B.Shaw) 23. I need hardly say I would do anything in the world to ensure Gwendolen's happiness. (Wilde) 24. To achieve long-term capital growth, you need foresight and selectivity. (The Economist). 25. «... I don't think you need translate it.» (Galsworthy)

8. The verb dare like the verb need may function in English

332

 

both as a modal verb and as a regular finite verb with all its paradigmatic forms. The lexical meaning of the verb, however, remains unchanged and corresponds to the Ukrainian verbs сміти, наважуватися/відважуватися, насмілюватися.

The verb dare is mostly translated into Ukrainian as сміти, насмілюватися. For example:

She daren't come here when І        Вона не сміла/насмілювалася

was alone. (V. Pritchett) заходити сюди, коли я був сам.

When in its non-modal formal meaning, the verb dare is translated with the help of these same \1\Матуедужв'ввртіло прочитати He longed to read his stories    свої оповідання Рут, але він не to Ruth but he did not dare. (Lon-    наважувався/не насмілювався. don)

In colloquial English the verb dare is often used either in a phrase form or as a composite word with the verb say: dare say/ daresay.

«Most people would say so.»        «Більшість так сказали б

«І dare/say they would.»        «Вважаю/гадаю, що ска-

(Christie) зали б.»

The verb daresay in the last sentence may also have the meaning насмілюватися, сміти, наважуватися/ відважуватися. Hence, a correct translation depending on its contextual environment may also be «Наважуваюсь/відважуюсь, стверджувати, що сказали б».

The meaning of dare say/daresay in Ukrainian may be conveyed, therefore, as вважаю, допускаю, цілком імовірно, смію сказати, не без того, щоб; наважуся сказати/ стверджувати, etc. Besides, the verb dare is often used to express indignation as in the following sentences:

«How dare you talk to me like         «Як   ти       смієш    так

this.» (Maxwell) розмовляти зі мною

«Let him come back, if he         «Хай тільки свого носа dare!» cried Valencia. (Kingsley)    наважиться показати тут!» -

викрикнула Валенсія.

The above-mentioned and other meanings of both the modal form and the regular finite form of the verb dare/daresay are to be found in the sentences cited in the exercise below.

333

 

Exercise II. Identify the meanings of the verb dare/daresay in the given sentences and translate them info English.

1. «How dare she come here!» cried Davidson indignantly. 2. «I simply dared not think what he meant.» 3. «I dare say you'd like to think it over a little.» 4. «I dressed in a hurry I dare say.» 5. «I dare say there's a great deal about human nature that I don't know.» (Maugham) 6. «I dare say he'll be happy enough.» 7. «I dare say he'll make a very good husband,» said Tarrell patronizingly. (W.Jacobs) 8. «Dare not say that man forgets sooner than woman». (J.Austen) 9. No conquistador dared to move without a royal licence. (J.Heming) 10. «How dare he say such a thing?» (B.Shaw) 11. He dared not go near Ruth's neighbourhood next in the day time. (London). 12. He did not dare to travel after dark. (London) 13. «I dare not be alone at night.» (Voynich) 14. Margaret did not dare to define her feeling. (Gaskell)

English Modal Verbs Having not Aways Modal Verb Equivalents in Ukrainian

Apart from the afore-mentioned there are four more modal verbs in English, which practically lack direct lexical equivalents in Ukrainian. These modal verbs are: shall, will, would and partly should, the latter being only historically the past form of shall, which, like the modal verb iv/7/and would, may sometimes have implicit meanings but lacking explicit lexical equivalents in Ukrainian. This is partly explained by the complicated nature of shall, will, would and should, which mostly combine their modal meanings with that of the auxiliary one, pertained to some of these verbs.

A. Shall in its modal meaning is most of all used with the second and third persons plural and sometimes (though mostly in interrogative sentences) with the first person singular and plural. Depending on the intention of the speaker, the modal verb shall may express in combination with the notional infinitive the following main meanings:

1. Will or intention which can be conveyed in Ukrainian either with the help of the verbxom/mu or through the logical stress on the verb that implicitly expresses this meaning plus the corresponding intonation (prosodic means) of the sentence. Cf.:

«Shall I tell you how I felt as а «Розповісти вам, як я,

mate of my high school stu- дорослий, почувався учнем в

dents ?» (С. Schimmels) одному з коледжів

The principal clause shall I tell in this sentence has the im-

334

 

plicit contextual meaning corresponding to the Ukrainian «Хочете/ бажаєте, щоб я розповів вам...? «

A similar meaning of wish or will of the person addressed has the modal verb shall with the infinitive in the following sentence:

Their eyes met. «Shall І         їхні погляди зустрілися, serve ?» said Doris. (Maugham)      «Допомогти (вам) ?» - запитала Доріс.

Shall I serve? can also be translated as Хочете/бажаєте, щоб я допомогла? or Треба/потрібно моєї допомоги?

The modal meaning of the verb shall may often incorporate some other meanings inherent in the lexical meaning of the infinitive with which it is used. Hence, different explicit variants may sometimes be suggested in the target language for one and the same modal word-group. The modal verb sha//with the infinitive may also express in the simple or composite sentences some other meanings:

2. Promise or promised assurance, consent:

«You shall entertain as much         «... Запевняю, ти будеш і

as you please.» (B.Shaw) далі  розважатися, як твоя

душа забажає

«Shall we say four pounds а «Погодишся (працювати)

week?» (D.Lessing) за чотири фунти за

тиждень

3. Warning, threat or resolute demand which is usually conveyed in Ukrainian through the imperative verb forms. Cf.:

«I shall want your account of «Вимагаю звіту про те, як how this happened.» (B. Sha w) ви таке допустили

«You shall not have it - not «Ніколи - ніколи ти цього

ever. I will take care of that.» не матимеш. Це вже я про це

(Ibid.) подбаю.»

4. Compulsion, obligation, order or demand (both in simple and composite sentences), which is also often conveyed through the imperative mood forms of the Ukrainian verb:

«You shall not run away be- «He втечеш, доки не

fore you answer.» (Ibid.) відповіси. Тобі/ не втекти,

доки не відповіси.»

«You shall not stay another         «Щоб я за годину тебе hour in my house. Get out!»    тут не бачив. Геть звідси!» (Dreiser)

335

 

 

The modal verb shall, expressing compulsion or obligation according to law or a prearranged agreement, is mostly used in texts of different regulations, proclamations, charters, treaties, contracts, etc. The verb srta//forms with the infinitive a sense unit, which is conveyed in Ukrainian through the verb-predicate forming a logical centre in the sentence. For example:

Збори всіх членів Організації Об'єднаних Націй створюють Генеральну Асамблею.

Вісник Генеральної

Асамблеї ООН публікується робочими мовами.

The General Assembly shall consist of all the Members of the United Nations. (Charter of the United Nations)

The Journal of the General

Assembly shall be used in the working languages. (Ibid.)

 

It should be added in conclusion that in other cases the use of the modal verb shall is restricted to formal or even archaic speech style. In some context the meaning of shall may coincide with that of the modal verb dare as in the following sentence:

«After such a picturesque «Після такої колоритної

love affair in high society, who любовної пригоди у вищому

shall say that romance is dead?» світі хто наважиться сказати.

(Dreiser) що романтика вмерла

В. Will as a modal verb together with the infinitive, with which it forms a word-group, may also express different meanings, the main of which are volition, insistence, determination, intention. The modal verb will is used with all persons in singular and plural, never losing its auxiliary function (to express the future tense). In a number of cases the modal meanings of will may coincide with those expressed by its past form would. As a result, their lexical equivalents in Ukrainian may be close or even identical as well.

The modal verb will may be endowed in different contextual environment with various meanings, the main of them being the following:

1. Volition, demand or assurance which is expressed in Ukrainian through the corresponding verb, stative or logical/emphatic stress: «I will not have these re- «Я не хочу/мені не треба, щоб pealed scenes within hearing of розігрувались ці сцени і щоб їх

the servants.» (B.Shaw)

«І will be another kind of president,» said Constantinescu. (Kyiv Post)

слухала/чула прислуга/челядь». «Я буду/обіцяю бути зовсім іншим президентом,» - заявив Константинеску.

336

 

2. Will as well as assurance or promise:

Mrs. Warren: «And you'll be Miccic Воррен: «І за це ти

good to your poor old mother for будеш добре ставитися до

it, won't you?» своєї сердешної старої

матері. Будеш

Vivie: «I will, dear». (B.Shaw)         Віві: «Обіцяю, люба

Trench: «I will save you the         Тренч: «Я вже допоможу

trouble.» (Ibid.) вам вибратися з цієї халепи

The answer of Vivie / will contains assurance and promise for the future, because of which its explicit form in Ukrainian is only Обіцяю. A similar construction is displayed in the second sentence in which Trench assures (promises) the poor man (Sartorius) to relieve him of his trouble.

3. Determination, perseverance or promising threat which

is often rendered through lexically explicit Ukrainian verbs, express

ing also the future tense at the same time:

«I will examine them (ас-         «Я зараз перевірю їх(гроші

counts and money) and settle й рахунки) і порішу з вами

with you presently.» (В.Shaw)

«І will prosecute you myself.»         «Я сам вас судитиму.» (Ibid.)

«I will survive. I will escape. І        «Я переживу це. я втечу

will not give in.» (Dreiser) звідси, нізащо не здамся

4. Willingness, consent (in conditional clauses after fol

lowing the conjunction if):

«IfyouwillJeJlmeallaboutit «Якщо ти захочеш мені in a chatty way, I can communi- розповісти про це щиро, я cate it to Lady Roxdale (Ibid.) перекажу'тоді'всеЛедіРоксдейл

The meaning of the modal verb will (will tell) in the sentence above may also be expressed in Ukrainian through a logical or emphatic stress laid upon the notional verb (predicate) :Якщо ти розкриєш/розповіси все чисто, то я тоді перекажу це Леді Роксдейл...

As has been pointed out, the modal meaning of the verb will may go parallel with that of its past form would. This is observed when iv/7/and would are used to express the following meanings:

5. Polite request which may be expressed as follows:

«Will you  walk  into  my         «Чи не зайдеш/зайди-но до

parlour?» (Dreiser) моєї вітальні

337

 

 

«I want you to do a most terrible favour. Will you? Will you please?» (D.Parker)

« When would you like to come over?» (Galsworthy)

 

«Яхочу, щоб ви мені зробили страшенно велику послугу. Зробите?Благаю, зробіть?»

«Коли б ви хотіли (могли) навідатись/зайти?»

 

6. Supposition which is usually expressed in Ukrainian with the help of modal words or by means of the subjunctive mood of the predicate verb:

«І expect he will have had his tea.» (Smith)

«This will be the place where they reposed.» (W.Maken)

«Well, this would interest you.» (Fitzgerald)

«... навряд щоб він ще не снідав/не пив чаю»

«Це напевне/мабуть і є те місце, де вони перепочивали.» «Це тобі було б цікаво/ Напевне зацікавило б тебе.»

7. Habitual volitional actions which are conveyed as follows:

After this accident he will Після того нещастя він

lock himself and not show off.       став замикатися в собі і не

(Ibid'.) показуватись.

 

In the afternoon he would go out alone and walk for hours. (Galsworthy)

 

Після полудня він, бувало, йшов із дому і годинами не вертався з прогулянки.

 

8. Resistance to an action referring to the present or to the future, which is observed only in English. Consequently, it has no corresponding modal expression in Ukrainian. Cf.:

Двері ніяк не відмикаються.»

...дощ заливав лобове скло автомашини, а «двірник» не працював (не хотів працювати).

«Help him, please. The door   «Допоможіть, будь ласка, йому, will not unlock.» (Jacobs) ... it (rain) blinded the wind screen and the wiper wouldn't

work. (Greene)

9. Condition which is equivalently expressed in Ukrainian through the subjunctive or conditional mood forms in subordinate clauses of real and unreal condition:

«If he wouldn't mind. I would        «Якби він не був проти (не

love to come.» (Maxwell) заперечував), то я б охоче

прийшов.» «You may go, if you will, but        «Іди собі/можеш іти, якщо

338

 

no one will follow you. I'm sure.> (Hudges)

 

хочеш, але я певен, що за тобою ніхто не піде.»

 

 

 

10. Determination or persistence, which is expressed with the help of set constructions like / (he, we) won't/would not. This modal meaning is rendered into Ukrainian by means of the verb дозволяти/не дозволяти, допускати/не допускати as well:

«Ten or eleven», the Sheriff said, «I won't stand for it.» (Saroyan)

Several times Eckerman tried to get away, but Gothe would not let him go.» (Maugham)

 

«Десять чи одинадцять років, - сказав шериф, - я все одно не дозволю цього.»

Не раз Екерман намагався піти, але Ґете не відпускав (не_ погоджувався відпустити) його.

 

 

 

11. Preference choice and other meanings as in the set expressions I'd rather/I would/I'd sooner, which are usually rendered into Ukrainian with or without the help of the subjunctive mood forms plus such adverbs of manner as краще, радніше/ліпше:

«So we had better go to supper,» said Mary. (Joyce)

Mother said she would much rather watch him fish and not try to fish herself. (Leacock)

He will/would never set the Thames on fire. (Proverb)

He will die as he lived. (Ibid.)

He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet. (Ibid.)

 

«Чи не краще б піти на вечерю,» -запропонувала Мері.

Мати сказала, що вона радніше спостерігала б. як він вудить, ніж самій вудити.

Він навряд чи порох вигадає./ Він зірок із неба не знімає.

Горбатого (тільки) могила виправить.

Хочеш рибки - лізь у воду./Лежа-тимеш на печі, не їстимеш калачі.

 

 

 

С. Will and would are used in many set/idiomatic expressions having both subjunctive and non-subjunctive meaning:

He would give a penny for the young fellow's thoughts. (Galsworthy)

« You'd make a saint swear.» (Ibid.)

 

Він багато дав би. щоб дізнатися, що цей молодик задумав.

«Ти навіть святого виведеш/вивів би з рівноваги.»

 

The range of modal meanings, which the modal verbs will and would may express, is not exhausted by those enumerated above.

339

 

There may be some others, as for example: 12. To express favour, benevolence:

«He wants to know ... if you'll «Він хоче знати ... чи ви не

invite Daisy to your house some зволите запросити колись на

afternoon ...»(Fitzgerald) обід до себе Дейзі...»

D. Should as a modal verb is very often used both in reference to present and to future (and to express the subjunctive meaning). It conveys a variety of meanings some of which may be close to the meanings of the modal verbs ought to, have to, to be to, must. Thus, the sentence «I'm sorry. /shouldn't have said that.» (Cusack) may be translated, when out of its broader context, as follows:

1) Пробачте: мені не треба було цього казати/

Перепрошую: мені не слід було це казати.

2) Пробачте: мені не слід було цього казати.

3) Пробачте: я не мав був цього казати.

There may be one more variant of the sentence with the intonational/supersegmental expression of this modal meaning: Жаль/жалкую, що я це сказав/що це зірвалось у мене з язика.

The most common direct meaning of the modal (non-subjunctive orfuture-in-the-pastform) verb should'in Ukrainian corresponds to the statives слід, треба, or to the modal word and phrase потрібно/є потреба. These equivalents (depending on the contextual environment) are also mostly employed in order to express the following meanings of the modal verb should:

1. Obligation/moral obligation, necessity.

"What do you think he should «\ що, по-твоєму, йому слід/

do?» (Trevor) треба робити?»

«You should have told me so «Вам слід/треба було

before.» (В. Sha w) раніше сказати мені про це.»

2. Regret, grief, sorrow:

"/ shouldn't have said that.» «Меніне слід/не треба було

(Cusack) цього казати.»

The structure of the Ukrainian sentence here may also be different and not correspond to its English original above: Навіщо мені було тільки казати це?/І треба мені було сказати це.

3. Advice/recommendation, admonition:

«You shouldn't have consulted «Тобі не треба/не слід було

те, Esme.» (S.Hill) радитися зі мною, Есме.»

340

 

« You shouldn't talk bitter like « Ти не повинен стільки зла

that, Albert,» Miss Jackson re- виливати, Альберте,»-докір-

proved. (K. C. Prichard) пиво зауважила міс Джексон.

The meaning of the modal verb should in this sentence may also be rendered through the imperative sentence: He виливай стільки зла, Альберте ...

4. Supposition/suggestion, which can be expressed in Ukrainian with the help of modal words or particles, as in the following sentences:

«Perhaps I should introduce «Може б мені представити

ту friend Cocane to you.» вам мого друга Кокейна?...»/

(В. Sha w) Мабуть представлю вам мого

друга Кокейна.

«Itshould be about five now.» «Зараз десь/певне біля

(Cusack) п 'я тої.»

The modal verb should in the first sentence may also be translated through the particle бодай: Може, бодай представити вам мого друга Кокейна?

5. Doubt, indignation and some other emotions expressed

through the modal verb should may be also rendered with the help

of some Ukrainian particles and the implicit meaning of the sentence:

Sartorius: «I don't know. How «Я не знаю. Та й звідки мені

should I?» (B.Shaw) знати/Та й звідки б я довідався ?»

« Why should I wait?» (Ibid.) « Чому б це мені чекати ?»

6. Surprise, indignation or pleasure (with the indefinite or

perfect infinitive following the modal verb should). These meanings

of the modal verb should are mostly rendered in Ukrainian through

the logical emphatic stress, intonation, particles or through some

modal verbs:

«God forbid that /should ever «Воронь Боже мені сказати/

say a good word for you!» щоб я коли-небудь сказав хоч

(L. P. Hartley) одне добре слово за тебе!»

«І don't know why should I «He знаю, чому це я ше маю

think about him.» (W. Trevor) думати про нього.»

«/shouldn't have done that.» «(Ну) навіщо я це зробив.»

(B.Shaw) (Мені неслідбуло цього робити.)

The modal verb shouldIn these same sentences above may

341

 

also be understood and conveyed, when taken isolated from the text, in some other ways. For example, in the second sentence (under point 6) the meaning of should may also be expressed in Ukrainian through the modal verb повинен:

«I don't know why should I «He розумію, чому це я

think about him.» (Trevor) повинен думати про нього.»

The modal verb should In the third (last) sentence above may also be translated with the help of the modal word слід:

«/ shouldn 't have done that.» «Мені не слід було цього

(B.Shaw) робити.»

7. The modal verb should may also express reproval or protest, disappointment, etc., which may be expressed in Ukrainian with the help of the modal words or stativesтреба, слід, потрібно or with the help of some modal particles. Cf.:

«I don't know why sometimes «He збагну, чому це іноді з

І should be sneered at.» мене треба покепкувати/

(Galsworthy) поглузувати.»

«She really should have worn «їй справді слід/треба було

the coat.» (Cusack) носити пальто.»

In the last sentence above the meaning of should have worn. when under logical or emphatic stress, may be expressed in Ukrainian via the modal words треба/слід and the particles таки, і: їй і справді-таки треба було/слід-таки було носити пальто. Hence, before rendering the meaning of the modal verb should or any other modal verb belonging to those of indistinct or polysemantic contextual meaning, as shall, will, would, the following factors have to be taken into account:

1) the meaning and nature of the modal verb itself;

2) the lexical meaning of the infinitive with which this modal

verb forms a predicative unit;

3) the contextual environment of the predicative unit and

4) the traditional preference/choice of the modal verb in the

national/target language.

Consequently, in case of the modal verb should preference may often be given not to its seemingly closer Ukrainian equivalent слід, as it could naturally be expected, but to its stronger modal word/stative треба, (cf. треба йти, треба думати, не треба забувати), which is more common in our language.

342

 

TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Expand on the nature of modality and the main means of

expressing it in English and Ukrainian.

2. Enumerate the modal verbs common in both languages

and define their possible lexical and contextual equivalents in Eng

lish and Ukrainian.

3. Comment on the meanings expressed by the construc

tions of the modal verbs can, may, must plus the perfect infinitive.

4. Enumerate the English modal verbs which have not always

direct modal verb equivalents in Ukrainian. In which speech styles are

they mostly used?

5. Identify the cases when the modal verbs must and may/

might express assumption, presumability, probability, suggestion,

etc. and give their semantic equivalents in Ukrainian.

6. Differentiate the modal verbs ought to and should'in Eng

lish and their semantic equivalents in Ukrainian.

7. Differentiate the modal verbs need and dare/daresay, their

double nature and ways of expressing their meaning in Ukrainian.

8. Explain the peculiar nature of the modal verbs shall, will

and would in English and ways and means of expressing their func

tions and lexical meanings in Ukrainian.

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Identify the meanings of the modal verb shall and translate the following sentences containing it into Ukrainian:

A. 1. «Shall we all go in my car?» suggested Gatsby. 2. '"Well, shall I help myself?» Tom demanded. (Fitzgerald) 3. «Shall I ask the man here to cut you with his rope?» (Kipling) 4. «They shall be called the Malazy - the lazy people.» 5. By their fruits ye shall know them. (Saying) 6. If the blind leads the blind, both shall fall into the ditch. (Saying) 7. «Father», she cried, «father, are you ill? Shall I ring?» (Leacock) 8. «Since you have acted so handsomely, you shall have no cause to complain of me: you shall entertain as much as you please.» (B.Shaw) 9. «Shall I tell you about it?» (M.Spark) 10. «I'll take care that you shall be well off when I'm gone.» (Ibid.) 11. «Shall we go away?» (B.Shaw) 12. "You certainly shall not go till you have

343

 

told me all," I said. (Bronte) 13. «Shall we take anything to drink?» (Fitzgerald) 14. «Shall I give you some coffee?» (Galsworthy) 15. «I will sing the Baby a song that shall keep him asleep for an hour.» 16. «I will throw these five things at you, wherever I see you, and so shall all proper Men do after me.» 17. «Hence, forward I will go out seven times a day and the waters shall never be still." (Kipling) 18. It won't take you long, and then you shall have your tea." (Maurier)

B. Translate the articles of The Charter of the United Nations below. State the way in which the meaning of the modal verb shall is to be expressed in Ukrainian.

Article 9.1. Each Member shall have no more than five representatives in the General Assembly. Each Member of the General Assembly shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. Article 21. The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its President for each session. Article 22. The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.

Competence of the Court

Article 32. 1. Each member of the Court shall receive an annual salary. 2. The President shall receive a special annual allowance. 3. The Vice-President shall receive a special allowance for every day on which he acts as President. 4. The salary of the Registrar shall be fixed by the General Assembly on the proposal of the Court. 5. The official languages of the Court shall be French and English.

Article 34. 1. Only states may be parties in cases before the Court.

Article 15. 1. The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and special reports from the Security Council; these reports shall include an account of the measures that the Security Council has decided upon or takei І to maintain international peace and security. 2. The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other organs of the United Nations.

Article 16. The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect to the international trusteeship system as are assigned to it in Chapters XII and XIII, including the approval of the trusteeship agreements for areas not designated as strategic.

Article 17. 1. The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the Organization. 2. The expenses of the Or-

344

 

ganization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly. 3. The General Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and budgetary arrangements with specialized agencies referred to in Article 57 and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making recommendations to the agencies concerned.

C. Translate the following articles from the Ukrainian Constitution into English. Be careful to express the modality of each article.

РОЗДІЛ II КОНСТИТУЦІЇ УКРАЇНИ ПРАВА, СВОБОДИ ТА ОБОВ'ЯЗКИ ЛЮДИНИ І ГРОМАДЯНИНА

Стаття 21: Усі люди є вільні і рівні у своїй гідності та правах. Права і свободи людини є невідчужуваними та непорушними.

Стаття 22: Права і свободи людини і громадянина, закріплені цією Конституцією, не є вичерпними.

Конституційні права і свободи гарантуються і не можуть бути скасовані.

При прийнятті нових законів або внесенні змін до чинних законів не допускається звуження змісту та обсягу існуючих прав та свобод.

Стаття 23: Кожна людина має право на вільний розвиток своєї особистості, якщо при цьому не порушуються права і свободи інших людей, та має обов'язки перед суспільством, в якому забезпечується вільний і всебічний розвиток її особистості.

Стаття 24: Громадяни мають рівні конституційні права і свободи та є рівними перед законом.

Не може бути привілеїв чи обмежень за ознаками раси, кольору шкіри, політичних, релігійних та інших переконань, статі, етнічного та соціального походження, майнового стану, місця проживання, за мовними чи іншими ознаками.

Рівність прав жінки і чоловіка забезпечується: наданням жінкам рівних з чоловіками можливостей у громадсько-політичній і культурній діяльності, у здобутті освіти і професійній підготовці, у праці та винагороді за неї; спеціальними заходами щодо охорони праці і здоров'я жінок, встановлення пенсійних пільг; створення умов, які дають жінкам можливість поєднувати працю з материнством; правовим захистом, матеріальною і моральною підтримкою материнства і дитинства, включаючи надання оплачуваних відпусток та інших пільг вагітним жінкам і матерям.

Стаття 25: Громадянин України не може бути позбавлений

345

 

громадянства і права змінити громадянство.

Громадянин України не може бути вигнаний за межі України або виданий іншій державі.

Україна гарантує піклування та захист своїм громадянам, які перебувають за її межами.

Exercise II. Identify the meanings expressed by the modal verb will in the sentences below and translate them into Ukrainian.

A. 1. « - we will now seriously devote ourselves to a little high

tension.» 2. «Now I know you're tortoise. You thought I wouldn't. Now

I will.» 3. «I've never seen a Jaguar ... An' I 'spose I never will.»

4. «...but we, О Best Beloved, will call himTegumai.» 5. «We will still

call her Taffi.» 6. «I will go away and get help for him from his tribe.»

7. «I will make a Magic and I will play your play.» 8.1 will go up and

look and say: «I will guard your cave.» 9. «I will come, I will be your

servant for the sake of the wonderful grass.» 10. «I will do so», said

the Woman- «but I will not thank you for it». 11. «I will ever be grate

ful to you». «Now we will make our bargain». 12. «I will hunt you till I

catch you. I will bite you. I will be kind to the Baby while I am in the

Cave». (Kipling) 13. None are so blind as those who will not see.

(Saying) 14. As you sow, so will you reap. (Saying) 15. «Say, will you

do me a favour?» «Will I?» 15. «I will prove that he lied.» (Kipling)

16. «I will now read you a little tale that I wrote last night». (M.Twain).

17. «I will never marry without my father's warrant», she added.

(Leacock) 18. «Will you be going to the dance tonight?» he asked.

(Macken). 19. «Get this prescription made up and come and see

me». «Thanks, Doc, I will». (Maugham) 20. «But I think I will say no,

if you don't mind.» 21. «I am an Englishman, and I will suffer no

priest to interfere in my business». 22. «They're crazy. The Sheriff

won't let them.» (Saroyan) 23. «I am perfectly willing to wait.» 24. «I

will go out of the room if you do.» 25. «Then I will not marry him. I will

not go abroad». (B.Shaw) 26. Tomorrow I will be a man, For Tomor

row I shall fight, And Tomorrow I will die. (Olga Oddes) 27. «I will,

Leister, I will,» she exclaimed, «I will tell you everything when I come

back.» (Dreiser). 28. «We will let him go to school next year if we

can.» (Ibid)

B. Read carefully the Release Form below. Identify the

meaning of the modal verb will in it and translate the document

into Ukrainian.

346

 

TERMS OF AGREEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES DURING THE INTERNATIONAL LEADERSHIP CONFERENCE

I agree that during this trip I will not smoke cigarettes nor use alcohol or drugs. I will not visit relatives and friends living in the United States, nor arrange or participate in private or public business or activities unrelated to the program of the International Leadership Conference. I will not engage in any promiscuous relationships or dating relationships during my entire stay in the United States. I will follow the program as scheduled and I will return to Ukraine on the scheduled date of departure. I will take full personal and legal responsibility for all my actions while in the United States.

C. Find an appropriate equivalent for each modal verb in the articles from a contract and translate them faithfully into Ukrainian.

Article 10. COMPANY FUNDS

10.1. Company shall set up a capital fund, a reserve fund and such other funds that are required by the effective Ukrainian law or stipulated by the Company's Statutes, or considered necessary by a decision of the Participants Meeting.

ARTICLE 11. CAPITAL FUND

11.1. The Participants shall set up a capital fund of the Com

pany to the value of [?] Hryvnias, which sum according to the cur

rency exchange rate established by the National Bank of Ukraine at

the date of this Agreement (1 Deutsche Mark [?] Hryvnias).

11.2. The Participants' contributions to the capital fund of the

Company may consist of monetary means in Ukrainian and foreign

currency, buildings, erections, equipment and other material valu

ables, securities, rights to use land, water and other natural resources,

as well as other proprietary rights, including rights to intellectual

property.

11.3.1. The Ukrainian Participant shall contribute to the capital fund of the Company monetary means in Ukrainian currency, [material valuables and proprietary rights] to the aggregate value of [?] Hryvnias, which sum according to the currency exchange rate established by the National Bank of Ukraine at the date of this Agreement equals to [?] 1 Deutsche Mark, and his share shall constitute [?%] of the Company's capital fund, including:

11.3.1.1. Monetary means in Ukrainian currency in the amount of [?] Hryvnias, which sum according to the currency exchange rate established by the National Bank of Ukraine at the date of this Agreement equals to [?] Deutsche Marks.

347

 

15.5. A Participant's share, after he has made his contribution to the capital fund in full, may be acquired by the Company itself. In such a case the Company must transfer the share, if so acquired, to other Participants or to third parties in no later than 1 year of the date of acquisition. Within that period distribution of Company's profits, determination of quorum and voting at the Meeting of Participants shall be made without regard to the share acquired by the Company.

ARTICLE 16. SUCCESSORS (HEIRS) OF A PARTICIPANT

16.1. In case of reorganization or liquidation of a Participant (a

legal entity) or death of a Participant (natural person) their succes

sors (heirs) shall have the priority right to join the Company.

16.2. In case the successors (the heir) refuses to join the Com

pany or the Company objects to his admission to the Company, such

a successor (the heir) shall be given in cash or in any kind a part of

all of the Company's property, owing to the reorganized or liquidated

entity (died person), evaluated as on the date of reorganization or

liquidation or death of the respective Participant. In such a case the

Company's capital fund shall be decreased.

ARTICLE 18. GOVERNING BODIES

18.1. The Company's governing bodies shall be: Meeting of

Participants; Director; Auditing Committee.

18.2. The Meeting of Participants shall be the highest govern

ing body of the Company. Each Participant shall have at the Meeting

the number of votes proportionate to his share in the Company's

capital fund.

18.3. The Director shall be the one person executive body of the

Company and shall manage the Company's current activity. The Direc

tor shall be appointed by a decision of the Meeting of Participants.

18.4. The Auditing Committee shall be the body for maintaining

control over activities of the executive body. Members of the Auditing

Committee shall be appointed by a decision of the Meeting of Partici

pants.

18.5. Powers, responsibilities and procedures of functioning of

the Meeting of Participants, the Director and the Auditing Committee

shall be determined by the company's Statutes and the effective law

of Ukraine.

Exercise III. Identify the meaning of the verb would in the sentences below and then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «Would you rather put it off for a few days?» I asked. 2. «Well, this would interest you. It wouldn't take much of your time».

348

 

3. You wouldn't have to do any business with the Nolfsheim. (B.Shaw)

4. «I wouldn't look like Giraffe not for even so.» 5. «How would you like

to spank somebody? » 6. «I wouldn't drink that water because I 'd know

you said it was bad». 7. «I wouldn't look like Zebra», - said the Leopard.

8. «Then great Mr. Lloyds would come with a wire and drag him home».

9. "But Balkis talked to a butterfly as a man would talk to a man».

(Kipling) 10. «I would willingly offer up my political life on the altar of my

dear state's wheel and I would be glad and grateful to do it». 11. «Would

you ever imagine what is a human volcano?» «I would not». (M.Twain)

12. «You'd like some tea, would you?» (B.Shaw) 13. Without hope the

heart would break. (Saying) 14. «I don't know about things like that. I

wouldn't know what to do». 15. «I would remember it only as a day that

was rather funny». (Trevor) 16. «Reporters came, television and all, but

I wouldn't see them». (D.Garnett) 17. «William... William...» he would

have to look back to find the surname. (LP.Hartley) 18. «I wouldn't have

her now, not if she asked me on her bended knee». (W.W.Jackobs)

19. «I don't talk about such things: whatever would they think of us».

20. «She is not like my mother; the same treatment wouldn't do for

both cases». 21. «So that was why he would not touch the money».

(B.Shaw) 22. «The honour would be entirely Gatsby's... if you would

attend his «little party» that night». (Fitzgerald) 23. «When would you

like them to come over?» (Galsworthy)

Exercise IV. Identify the meaning of the verb should in the sentences below and then translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. You shouldn't look a gift horse in the mouth. (Saying) 2. People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 3. «Why should she not (see her)?» (B.Shaw) 4. He knew what he should do.

5. He should get down soon on to the white road. (Macken) 6. «I do

not know what we should do without the pulpit.» (M.Twain) 7. «I should

very much like to see it done.» 8. «Why should I not go too?»

9. «How would you like to spank somebody - but I should not like it at

all.» 10. «I should like it very much indeed.» 11. «I should call it Arma

dillo...and I should leave it alone.» (Kipling) 12. «You should be more

careful.» (J.London) 13. «You should go to a healthy spot.» (M. Spark)

11. «Well, for God's sake, get him attended to, Margo.» «You think I

should?» (Trevor) 15. «Why shouldn't you pass (the examination)

then?» (D.Lessing) 16. «People should know their place and stick to

it.» 17. «You should be saying these things to him.» 18. «Are you

sorry you didn't do it?» «I should have been a perfect fool if I had.»

(Maugham) 19. «That's what you should have done.» 20. «Why

shouldn't you marry me?» 21. «Why should I have done it?» 22. «There

349

 

shouldn't be better opportunities forwomen». (B.Shaw) 23. «You should go back and finish grammar school.» (London) 24. «I don't see why we shouldn't get on very well together.» (B.Shaw) 25. «I shouldn't be sorry if you thought ill of me.» (Maugham) 26. «Well, we'd better telephone for an axe.» 27. «You'd better try and sit quiet till morning.» (Fitzgerald) 28. «I think we'd better draw a picture of them.» 29. «You'd better get off there,» Charlie said. (D.Lessing) 30. «May be I'd better sell it somewhere else.» (Macken)

D. Ways Of Conveying the Meanings of Subjective Modality

The relation of content to reality expressed by subjective modality is viewed upon as hypothetical. The speaker considers the event or action mentioned as assumptive or suggestive (desirable, possible, impossible, doubtful, certain /uncertain, etc.), i.e., as likely or unlikely to take place. That is why this type of modality is often referred to as «subjective modality». It is expressed in English and Ukrainian with the help of common means: a) modal words, modal expressions or sentences; b) with the help of parenthetic words/expressions or parenthetic sentences; c) with the help of modal particles. The latter are a characteristic feature of the Ukrainian language where this feature acquires definitely semantic characteristics.

English modals, as they are often referred to, have usually direct semantic and even structural equivalents in Ukrainian. Among these notional language units, which mostly function as syntactically independent elements in English and Ukrainian sentences, there can be singled out at least two clearly distinguishable groups: a) modals correlating with hypothetic or indirect modality and b) modals expressing a clearly evaluative or subjective functions. The former include modal words/expressions or parenthetical elements in the sentence expressing supposition, assumption, presumability, etc. (cf. maybe, possibly, presumably, it is likely/most likely, it seems, etc.). These and other modals of the type present the attitude of the speaker to an event/action as hypothetical, as likely to take(or as having taken place, etc.). These modals have mostly direct equivalents in both languages:

"Maybe you got some friend Може у тебе є який друг,

that you can telephone for через котрого я міг би дещо

George?" (Fitzgerald) переказати для Джорджа?»

It was probably the first time Це було мабуть/либонь чи

in his adult life that he had ever не вперше за все його доросле

cried. (J.Cheever) життя, що він сплакнув.

350

 

Semantically close to the above-cited are English modal words and expressions whose meaning is predetermined by the contextual environment. These modals have often a hypothetical meaning, which may correspond to that of some Ukrainian modal particles or parenthetical adverbs/phrases. They include: perhaps, evidently, scarcely, no/little possibility, etc. Their Ukrainian hypothetical modal equivalents in sentences may be: певно, напевно, напевно-таки, десь-то, навряд/навряд чи, справді/насправді. For example:

"Perhaps, you've seen her "Певно ви бачили її portrait in the papers." (C. Doyle) фотографію в газетах."

Jesus Christ is actually a Icvc Xoucmoc - це насправді name and a title. (J.McDowell) ім'я (Ісус) і титул (Христос).

A separate large group constitute modal words/expressions and parenthetical words/phrases or sentences expressing general assessment of a statement. These lexical units clearly point to the subjective evaluation of the action or event by the speaker. The modals of this group include the following:

certainly, of course, surely, definitely, really, in fact, indeed, naturally, no doubt, without doubt, it is natural, etc. Their Ukrainian equivalents are: безперечно, безумовно, без сумніву/ немає сумніву, зрозуміло, певна річ, правду сказати, природно, як відомо, як кажуть and others. For example:

"Well, he certainly must have "Він, безперечно, мусив був strained himself to get this прикласти великих зусиль, managerietogether."(Fitzgerald) щоб прибрати до рук увесь

цей звіринець."

"Surely he is mad..." (Wilde)         "Він і справді з глузду з'їхав...'"

"This was no doubt due to his        'Це сталось, безумовно.

cowardly behaviour in the after-    через     його     боягузливу

noon." (J. Collier) поведінку по обіді."

Subjective modality may also be rendered in both languages via elliptical sentences:

Was it because he was afraid Може це було тому, що він

of being lost in a bigger city? боявся загубитись у великому

Scarcely. (Hailey) місті? Навряд.

The above-mentioned and other means and ways of expressing subjective modality can also be observed in several sentences of

351

 

the exercise below.

Exercise I. Identify the meanings (assumption, general assessment, assuredness, doubt, probability, supposition, etc.) expressed by the underlined modals below. Find equivalent Ukrainian modals or other semantic equivalents (e.g., particles) and translate the sentences. Model: "It was really a terrible break." (Salinger) "Це й справді був жахливий випад." or: "Це справді-таки була жахлива безтактність."

1. Latin America, in fact, is a veritable laboratory of anti-corruption experiments. 2. Perhaps, in the end, the only universal cure for corruption is to quietnature democracy. (Newsweek) 3. «Maybe they won't come? Maybe it was all a lie?» «Maybe.» (Steinbeck)

4. «Oh, I feel some concern for my future all right. Sure. Sure. I do.»

5. «I thought about it for a minute». «But not too much, I guess.»

(Salinger) 6. She was apparently indifferent to her two daughters...

(Fitzgerald) 7. The young fellow was obviously anxious to be well with

him. (J.Cary) 8. «Really.» she thought, «I should come out more of

ten, really it is very pleasant here in summer...» 9. «The sand isn't so

soft here.» «Of course, of course.» 10. She was very quiet for some

moments, as if, perhaps, shy of being alone with him. (Bates)

11. «Yes, indeed, he's such a good watch-dog.» 12. «You did not

approve of paying such a sum, naturally.» 13. «I wanted to bring the

crab.» «All right, darling, all right.» 14. «I think I got a good picture of

Heidi.» «Indeed. Indeed.» (Bates) 15. «And today, most fortunately, is

a Thursday.» 16. «After all, three hundred pounds is three hundred

pounds.» «Certainly it is.» 17. «Unfortunately, when you opened it

contained only blank sheets of paper.» 18. The builders' letter he kept

to the last. Some bill, probably. 19. «I couldn't care less, frankly.» 20.

«They can't possibly do it any more than they can prove, it won you.»

(Hailey) 21. «No doubt, if you were a good detective, you'd be able to

make it much clearer to me than it is.» (Salinger) 22. «An unpleasant

and dangerous looking young man», he thought, «and not impossibly

a murderer. «(Christie)

E. Grammatical Modality and Means of Expressing It

Grammatical or syntactic modality is of common nature in English and Ukrainian as well. It expresses actions viewed upon as real, unreal, optative, hypothetic, conditional, incentive, interrogative, etc. The principal means of expressing such actions are mood forms of the verb (indicative, imperative and subjunctive). These mood forms are realized respectively in declarative, interrogative and negative sen-

352

 

tences of wishful, hypothetical or conditional modality.1 As conveying the meanings, which are pertained to different verb forms in the indicative and partly in the imperative mood does not present any difficulty for our students, it is expedient to pay attention, at least shortly, to the means of expression and rendering in English and Ukrainian of optative or wishful (бажальна), incentive (спонукальна) and subjunctive (умовна) modality.

1. Ways of Expressing the Meanings of Optative Modality

Optative (бажальна) modality in English and Ukrainian serves to express the wish of the speaker to establish the correspondence of content of the utterance to reality. The main ways and means of expressing this type of modality in English are syntactic. They include characteristic sentence structures, the use of auxiliary and modal verbs (to be, were, should, could, let, would, etc.), the ascending or descending utterance intonation. In Ukrainian apart from the modal verbs and intonation (prosodic means) some specifying modal particles are widely used. The most common of them are б/би, аби, щоб/щоби, коб/и/, бодай, десь, либонь, хай, хоч, хоч би, чи не, коли б, якби and others Cf:

«Я її   либонь   побачу.»         «І might see her there» (M.Вовчок)

«Чи   не   краще   вийти         «Would it not be better to назустріч?» (М.Коцюбинський)    meet them halfway?»

Optative modality is used in both languages in ample and composite sentences:

If only it could always be От якби завжди була весна.

spring. (Galsworthy) /От коли б завжди була весна/.

«Ah, I wish I were fifteen «Ах/От якби мені знову

again.» (Maugham) було п'ятнадцять років.»

То express wish with implied regret or unreal wish the stative жаль or шкода may be used in Ukrainian:

«I wish I had met him when         «Шкода, що я не зустріла

he was younger.»(Greene) його, копи він був молодшим.»

1 See more about grammatical/syntactical modality in: Сучасна українська літературна мова. Синтаксис. За ред І.К. Білодіда. - К.: Наукова думка, 1972, р. 125-137.

353

 

«I wish I could gather knowl- «Хотів би/міг би я отак без-

edge as carelessly...» турботно/ліньки набувати

(Maugham) знань...»

Optative modality is very often used to express incentive (спонукальні) meanings which are expressed in English simple and composite sentences with the help of the so-called subjunctive I mood form (synthetic or analytical). In Ukrainian the imperative mood of the verb and the particles хай, бодай, що б are mostly used for the purpose. They express the meaning pertained to the modal verb may in the subjunctive (I) mood as in the following sentences:

«... my gates are open to real «... обійми мої відкриті life, bring what it may». (B.Shaw) перед життям, хай несе воно

що завгодно./ІМо б воно мені не несло.»

«May you both be happy.» «Хай вам обом щастить./

(Hornby) Бажаю вам обом щастя./

Щасти вам обом.

Some optative meanings expressed in Ukrainian through such modal particles as бодай, for example, may not be easy to fully and completely express in English which has no such fine means (Confer the Shevchenkinian «Веселіздалека палати, Бодай ви терном поросли.»).

The Optative meaning of the concluding line was rendered by John Weir with the help of the modal verb may. The mansion, too, from far away - May nettle choke the cursed place!

Optative modality in both languages may have different forms of expression. Its formal means in Ukrainian include the corresponding mood forms of the verb (predicate) and the particle б/би. The particle identifies some subtypes of the subjunctive mood meanings (the suppositional, the conditional, etc.):

«I would he were a tree or «Хотів би я, щоб він був

flower.» (H.S.Leigh) деревом чи квіткою.» (От якби

він був деревом чи квіткою).

«If only you could make him «Тільки   б  ви     змогли

laugh.» (М. Twain) викликати в дядька посмішку/

Якби   тільки   ви     змогли викликати в дядька посмішку.»

The last sentence, naturally, can be translated without any

354

 

structural transformation:  «Якби ви тільки змусили його хоч посміхнутись.»

The meaning of optative modality expressing desire is very close to incentive modality expressing non-categorical demand, requestor threat. Optative meanings are usually realized in English via the modal verbs should, would, may/might, could, and the semantically corresponding infinitive, whereas in Ukrainian the particles щоб, бодай, хай and the prosodic means (sentence intonation/stress) are mostly employed here:

«Щоб нікому 'ні 'словечка.» «But no one should ever

(А. Головко) know/learn anything about it.»

«Щоб на 'світанку був «But you should (are to) be

'тут!» (Г. Тютюнник) here at daybreak!»

2. Incentive (спонукальна) modality is more often expressed in English through the modal verb let. These meanings are usually rendered into Ukrainian with the help of the imperative mood forms of the verbal predicate and the particle хай/нехай:

God said, "Let Newton be!» Бог сказав: «Хай буде

and all was light. (A.Pope) Ньютон!» і навкруги

розвиднилось.

Let him that earns the bread Нехай той, хто заробляє

eat it. (Bibl. Saying) свій хліб, і споживає його (пор.

Хто не працює, той не їсть).

Let each tailor mend his own Хай кожен займається

coat. (Saying) своїми справами.

The meaning of the second sentence, for example, may have a fuller expression when it is rendered into Ukrainian antonymically: Хто не заробляє хліба, той не повинен і їсти його./Хто не робить, той не їсть.

Ukrainian incentive sentences introduced by the particle хай/ нехай are usually translated into English with the help of the modal verb let as well:

Нехай стара мати Let the old mother learn How

Навчається, як дітей Нових such kind of children... must be

доглядати. (Т. Шевченко) cared for by her. (Transl. ByJ.Weir)

Нехай мати усміхнеться. Let once more our mother

Заплакана мати. smile. Our tear-ridden mother.

(Т. Шевченко) (Ibid.)

355

 

Incentive modality may also be expressed in Ukrainian with the help of other modal particles. One of the often used for this purpose is ж/же, the meaning of which is usually expressed in English through the modal verb let and the corresponding intonation:

Походимо ж, моя зоре. Oh let us wander still, my fate...

(Т.Г.Шевченко) (Transl.byJ. Weir).

English incentive meanings can also be expressed through the combination of the particle long with the modal verb may, which together with the corresponding intonation of the sentence express the meaning close to the Ukrainian exclamatory sentences with the particlexafi or the particles хай же: Long live and prosper our Motherland! May our Motherland live long! Хай/хай же живе і квітне наша Батьківщина!

3. The means of expression as well as those of rendering sub

junctive modality are mostly common with those employed to ex

press optative modality. They are in English the modal verbs could,

should, would, might or the expressions would rather, would

sooner. For example: / would rather come tomorrow than today.

He would sooner resign than take part in such dishonest business

deals. (Kerr) These modal verbs are also used to express the corre

sponding subjunctive meanings in Ukrainian simple and composite

sentences:

«Пішов би в огонь і воду.» «Не would go through thick

(Гончар) and thin/through many trials.»

«Вам би милосердною «You would perfectly suit for

сестрою бути. (Ibid) a hospital nurse.»

4. The expression of subjunctive modality in the composite

sentence of the two languages does not differ from that in their simple

sentences. Allomorphism, i.e., divergence is observed only in the

already mentioned formal expression of incentive meanings with the

help of the so-called subjunctive I mood; the latter does not correlate

with its Ukrainian grammatical and partly semantic expression. For

example: It is necessary that you (should) come a couple of days

before the others. (Kerr) Необхідно/треба, щоб ти приїхав за кілька

днів раніше від інших.

The subjunctive I form should come or simply come (It is necessary that you come) used for any person in singular or plural has in Ukrainian the only equivalent verb form in the indicative mood (приїхав).

356

 

Other English synthetic and analytical subjunctive mood forms in simple and composite sentences have in Ukrainian their morphological and semantic equivalents. Constantly distinguishing among them is that same particle б/би or the conjunction якби, which help to render the meanings of the suppositional and the conditional mood forms into Ukrainian. The use of the modal particle or the conjunction is predetermined by the meaning of the Ukrainian verb and not by the mood or tense form of its English lexical equivalent, which may express actions referring both to present and to future as in the following sentences:

It would be madness to start Було б просто божевіллям in management unless one had братись за організацію трупи, at least three plays. (Maugham) доки нема/не маєш хоча б

трьох п'єс.

«Should Carry come, ask her «На випадок, якби прийшла

to wait." (Dreiser) Керрі, попросіть її'зачекати.»

Similarly rendered are also meanings expressed by the subjunctive II and conditional mood forms of the verb, which may refer to present, past or future. These forms of the verbal predicate have their corresponding paradigmatic equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.:

«But if they had been sent by Але якби вони були послані

ту people to take me away, then нашими, щоб забрати мене, то

І should not hide." (O'Dell) не треба було б мені ховатись.»

«If he had any sense, he^d «Коли б він був розумнішим.

shut his eyes.» (Maugham) він би заплющив на це очі.»

The clauses which express the subjunctive meanings in English and Ukrainian may have no introductory/connecting conjunction if (якби, копи б):

«Were I less attached to you, «Був би я менш прихильним

І might pretend to gloss it over.» до вас, я б може й прикрасив

(Cronin) це./Будь я не так прихильний»

«... had any stranger been «...никав би був хтось prowling round the house, he сторонній попід будинком, would have been seen by the його був би помітив слуга чи servant or the keepers.» (Wilde) то сторожі.»

The past subjunctive II (had been prowling'] and the past conditional mood paradigm (wouldhave been seen) have in these sentences their corresponding verb forms in Ukrainian. These subjunc-

357

 

lOf

us.

tive mood forms under the pressure of centuries long domination Russian in Ukraine are mostly substituted for simple past verb forms. Being lexically equivalent and structurally much like their English paradigms, these Ukrainian subjunctive mood forms present an excellent morphological means of expression and must not be neglected when rendering such type of meanings into Ukrainian.

Exercise I. Identify the type of modal meaning (incentive, suppositional, conditional, etc.) expressed by the modal verbs and mood forms in the English sentences below. Suggest the appropriate means and ways for faithful translating these sentences into Ukrainian.

1.1 should have seen them farther first. 2. «I would have it as a gift.» (Galsworthy) 3. «Jacob would have insisted on going to the police.» 4. «Most people, Mr.Poirot, would let this business go.» (Christie) 5. «If only one were like birds!» (Galsworthy) 6. «I should be sorry to interrupt you.» 7. «I suggested we should meet here...» (Snow)

8. «I couldn't squeeze a tear out of my eyes, if life depended on it...»

9. «A real change of air surroundings would be very helpful if you

could arrange it.» (M.Wilson) 10. «The thing was «rich», as his father

would have said - if he knew, I would see her furtherfirst.» (Galsworthy)

11. «I wish you had not put yourself to so much trouble.» (Cronin)

12. «You had better move over to the other side.» (Hemingway)

13. «I wouldn't stay with you, though if you didn't worry me.»

14. What a delight it would be if it would endure. 15. «I wouldn't have

wanted you to come if I hadn't loved you.» (Dreiser) 16. «He had been

anxious that morning in case she might take it into her head to come.»

(Murdoch) 17. «I'd have been hurt, if you hadn't called». (M.Wilson)

18. «It wouldn't have been so bad if she hadn't been all alone in the

house.» (Stout) 19. «It wouldn't have happened if Douglas hadn't come

here.» (Spark) 20. Had he not known, it could be so easy. (Stone)

21. Even if they had wanted me to stay, I should have refused.

(Maugham) 22. Happy they could have been, if they could have dis

missed me at a month's warning too. (Christie) 23. She wished she

had an opportunity of a few words with him, so that she would have

told him not to worry. 24. «If you had been in love with him, you wouldn't

have wanted three days to think it over. You'd have said yes there and

then.» (Maugham) 25. And their feet would have yet trod many trails

and not dusting brushed the clouds aside and cleared the air. (Lon

don) 26. «If I had been you, mother, I might have done as you did...»

(B.Shaw)

358

 

Exercise II. Identify the modal meanings (optative, incentive, suppositional, etc.) expressed through optative or subjunctive modality in the English sentences below and translate them into Ukrainian.

1. «I wish it hadn't happened. Oh, I wish it hadn't happened.» 2. «If you rested, I would go,» I urged him. (Hemingway)S. «I think I'd better ring off.» 4. «And with time on my side I would look back on the day without bitterness...» 5. «On your way, bums,» the policeman said, prodding us with his billy. (Caldwell) 6. «You go up to bed,» I said, «You are sick». 7. «Don't think,» I said, «Just take it easy.» 8. «Let's not have any ordering, nor any silliness, Francis,» Margot said.9. «Behave yourself.» «Oh, shut up,» Macober almost shouted. 10. «Let's go to the car,» said Macober. «Let's all have a drink. Come along.» 11. «You ought to take some broth to keep your strength up.» 12. «It would have been natural for him to go to sleep.» 13. «I'd rather stay awake.» (Hemingway) 14. «Well, he says himself, he wouldn't have white servants.» 15. «I guess maybe I'd better (shake hands)», she said. «I wouldn't for the world have him think I had any feeling» (here упередженість). 16. «I think I'd better shake hands, just the way I would with anybody else.» (D. Parker) 17. The girls wouldn't have thought so much of him if they'd seen him then. 18. If he couldn't get something to do he'd have to commit suicide. 19. «The swim shouldn't take you much over an hour and a quarter.» (Maugham) 20. «We'd better be getting back,» one of the girls said. 21. «Richard should stay here and I should go up North,» Frank said. (M. Spark) 22. «I wish you hadn't stopped your German,» said Mor. (Murdoch) 23. «If you should happen to change your mind, I'm always ready to take off your hands.» (Bennett) 24. «I expect you've not finished your business. I should be sorry to interrupt.» (Snow) 25. «If Joe were only with him!» (Galsworthy) 26. Happy they could have been, if they could have dismissed me at a month's warning too. 27. «But for your help, the old woman would not have risked crossing the street.» (Kerr) They were ready to attack the intruders, should they prove unfriendly. 28. «If they were hunters, I must hide before they saw me.» (S.O'Dell) 29. If worst came to worst. (Saying) 30. He suggested that they should have a stroll through the Luxembourg (museum).30. Then, perhaps, I'd be able to judge if I could help.31. Even if they had wanted me to stay, I should have refused. (Maugham) 32. If we could get hold of her, we might learn a lot more. (Christie) 33. «I wish you had not put yourself to so much trouble,» Stephen said. (Cronin) 34. «I think I'd sooner have the other one,»

359

 

said Mr. Povey. (Bennett) 35. «I wouldn't have it as a gift.»(Galsworthy) 36. She wished she had an opportunity of a few words with him so that she would have told him not to worry. (Maugham) 37. «Mike, would you guess I was half Welsh?». 38. «Would you want a job?» «Sure?» «Oh yes, quite sure.» (Trevor)

Exercise III. Analyse the Ukrainian sentences containing optative, incentive or subjunctive modality and translate them into English.

1. Пора було б уже покінчити з балачками про розподіл земель колишніх колгоспів і радгоспів і розпочати їх справжню приватизацію. 2. Студент побоювався, щоб не наробити помилок при перекладі речень з умовним способом. 3. Він напевне не запізнився б, якби сів на автобус «Автосвіту», а не на тролейбус. 4. Хотілося б сподіватися, що в новому тисячолітті людство уникне спустошливих воєн і руйнацій матеріальних цінностей, як це було в двадцятому сторіччі. 5. Що б ви відповіли на таке несподіване запитання допитливого читача? 6. Не хотілося б про це думати, але доводиться за таких обставин. 7. О, як би мені хотілося ще раз побувати на такій виставці творів справді великих майстрів образотворчого мистецтва. 8. Що не кажіть, а такий медичний препарат зробив би справжній переворот у лікуванні алкогольної та тютюнової залежності. 9. Хай вам Бог допомагає у вашій нелегкій і дуже потрібній для виховання патріотизму нашої молоді праці. 10. Хто б міг подумати, що з цього колись звичайного на перший погляд хлопчини стане колись великий спортсмен. 11. Хотілося б вам коли-небудь провести свої зимові канікули у засніжених Карпатах і зустрітися з ровесниками тамтешніх місць? Чому б вам не подумати про таку романтичну подорож уже зараз? 12. Якби не дощ, зараз на Дніпрових пагорбах було б набагато більше киян і гостей. 13. Бути б мені знову з вами на тій пречудовій найвищій горі українських Карпат. А вам хіба не хотілося б ще й ще раз походити влітку карпатськими плаями і подихати цілющим повітрям смерекових гір і квіткових полонин. 14. От якби ми зібралися і всі разом поїхали на екскурсію по історичних місцях Лівобережної України. 15. Якби тії не тиночки та не перелази, ходив би я до дівчини по чотири рази (Народна пісня). 16. Аби ми були те знали, ми б ніколи не вирушали були з дому без парасольок чи дощовиків. 17. Хай супроводжують наших атлетів тільки вдачі на всіх олімпійських змаганнях у новому тисячолітті. 18. Скласти б успішно іспити і попрацювати добре фізично влітку. 19. Був би я на вашому місці, я б, звичайно, з радістю погодився їхати перекладачем з

360

 

делегацією до Рима. 20. На випадок, якби вона зателефонувала, що б я мав сказати про твою відсутність? 21. Тільки б вони не запізнилися на поїзд, як було того разу, коли вони навряд чи встигли б, якби були не взяли таксі. 22. Я б радніше пішов пішки, якби не було так слизько. А ти б хіба пішов, якби ще й падав сніг? Мабуть-таки й пішов би. 23. А що, якби справи тоді обернулися були по-іншому? 24. Тоді мені треба було вперш добре все зважити. 25. Пора б уже зважити всі «за» і «проти». 26. «Тоді чого б це він так підлещувався до мене? -А звідки мені це знати?»

TRANSFORMATION IN THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION

The student, who followed the preceding pages with attention, could not have failed to notice that some sense units of the source language retained their sense and structure in the target language unchanged, whereas others had retained only their content/meaning unchanged, but altered or completely changed their original/source language form. The kind of major and minor alterations in the structural form of language units performed with the aim of achieving faithfulness in translation are referred to as translator's transformations. They are carried out either because of the incompatibility of the target language means of expression, which makes the transplantation of some source language units to it impossible, or in order to retain the style of the source language passage and thus maintain the expressiveness of the source language sense units. Naturally, not all sense units need to be structurally transformed in the process of translation, a considerable number of them are also transplanted to the target language in the form, meaning and structure of the original, i.e., unchanged or little changed. Among these, as could be seen on the foregoing chapters, are the following classes of language/sense units:

1) Most of genuine internationalisms (words, word-groups, sen

tences), some idiomatic expressions, culturally biased notions. For

example: begon/a бегонія, computerization комп'ютеризація, mar-

/cef/пдмаркетині1, electron електрон, іґіеогегтеорема, gentleman,

джентльмен, chemical reaction, хімічна реакція, democratic sys

tem демократична система, finita la commedia фініта ля комедія

(ділу кінець), veni, vidi, viciприйшов, побачив, переміг, etc.

2) Many loan internationalisms which maintain in the target

language the same meaning and often the same structural form but

361

 

have a different phonetic structure (sounding). Cf.: agreement/concord (gram), узгодження, adjoinment/juxtaposition прилягання, word-formation словотвір, the complex sentence складнопідрядне речення, subordination підрядний зв'язок, longitude (geogr.) довгота, latitude широта, horse power кінська сила, standard of living життєвий рівень, etc. 3) Almost all proper nouns of various subclasses (names of people, family names and geographical names, etc.): An/id Арвід, Dora Дора, Floy Флой, Сгопіп Кронін, Newton Ньютон, Longfellow Лонґфелло, Boston Бостон, Newfoundland Ньюфаундленд, Ohio Огайо, Hyderabad Гайдерабад, General Motors Corp. корпорація «Дженерал Моторз», Playboy Magazine журнал «Плейбой», etc.

Some proper names and family names, as well as geographical names, names of companies/corporations, firms, titles of newspapers, magazines/journals, as has been shown already in Chapter II, do not always completely retain their source language form in the target language, e.g.: Mary Stewart Марія Стюарт. Charles V король Карл П'ятий, Lorraine Лотарінґія. Munich Мюнхен, Cologne Кельн, Leghorn Ліворно, Continental Airlines американська авіакомпанія «Контінентал ейрлайнз», Boston Globe and Mail Бретонська газета «Ґлоуб енд мейл», USA Today американська газета «Ю-Ес-Ей Тудей», «Sports» американська спортивна газета «Спорте», etc. These and many other proper nouns acquire in the target language a somewhat different sounding and additional explication (cf. американська газета), which often extend their structure as compared with that in the source language (cf. Reuters інформаційне агентство Великої Британії «Рейтер»). As a result, there is not always the same structural «dimension» (because of transformation) of the source language units in the target language, where they are partly transformed, as a rule.

A considerable number of different proper nouns do not maintain their form or structure due to the historic tradition or because of the lack of the corresponding sounds in the target language. Cf.: Варшава Warsaw, Москва Moscow, Запоріжжя Zaporizhya, Харків Kharkiv, etc. The lingual (sounding) structure of these and some other geographical names somewhat differs from that in the source language, because Zaporizhya, Kharkiv or Khrushch do not fully reflect their authentic Ukrainian sounding. But since the English language has no [г, й, ц, ц', х, р, дз'] sounds/phonemes and the Ukrainian language has no [9,6, a , r), r, h] and other sounds, the spelling forms like Tsarenko for Царенко, Zayarya for Заяр'я or Текерей. Рут for

362

 

Thackerey, Ruth should be considered as justified and, therefore, correct, in other words faithfully turned in either of these two languages. Such and the like (or more complicated) alterations and changes constantly take place in the process of translation both at word level and at syntactic level. Hence, from what was shortly shown on the examples above, one can draw an irrefutable conclusion that translation of sense units at the language level, i.e., at the level they belong to in the source language, represents nothing else than a process of constant transformations. The most regular if not the most frequent of these are the following two:

1) «inner» or implicit transformations taking place at the lexi

cal/semantic level of the target language as compared with the corre

sponding source language units;

2) «outer» or explicit transformations causing some alterations

in the target language as compared with the structure of the corre

sponding sense units of the source language units.

A vivid illustration of «inner» transformation is realized in genuine internationalisms through their synonymous or polysemantic meanings. For example, the noun icon apart from its direct Ukrainian meaning ікона may have in some context also the meanings зображення, портрет, статуя. Any of the last three forms of the word ікона represents an implicit/inner transformation of icon. Similarly with the noun idea which may mean apart from its genuine international sense ідея also думка, задум, гадка. When realised in its faithful translation through any of these three last meanings, it exemplifies an inner/implicit translators' transformation.

Similar «deviations» from the direct and main meaning may be observed in many more translated English genuine internationalisms. For example: idiomatic ідіоматичний/фразеологічний but also властивий/ характерний, притаманний, специфічний. (Cf. idiomatic English англійська мова з характерними їй рисами, властивостями, but not англійський текст, що складається з ідіоматичних виразів); illumination ілюмінація, освітлення and also пояснення/оздоблення (рукопису, книжки); illustration ілюстрація, малюнок and also пояснення, приклад.

Sometimes the meaning («inner form») of an internationalism or any other language unit may be absolutely unexpected for an unexperienced translator or interpreter. Cf.: imitation 1. імітація; 2. наслідування and сурогат, заміна, замінник Cf.: imitation coffee замінник кави, ерзац-кава; intonation 1. інтонація; 2. модуляція голосу and спів речитативом/співання перших слів пісні; militia

363

 

1. міліція; 2. народне ополчення (іст.) в Англії; militiaman (іст.)

ополченець and also міліціонер; national 1. національний;

2. народний and державний, збройний (CL: national forces of Ukraine

збройні сили України); nationalist 1. націоналіст, 2. борець за права

свого народу, за незалежність своєї батьківщини, за її

державність, i.e.   патріот   своєї батьківщини;   realize

1. реалізовувати, здійснювати', 2. уявляти собі, розуміти чітко

and давати прибуток, нагромаджувати кошти, багатство.

Therefore, inner or implicit transformations disclose the semantic

potential of the source language units in the target language. The

oute//axp//crttransformation is performed in the process of translation

practically on any type of the source language sense unit; already the

change of the Roman type (шрифт) for the Ukrainian or Arabic one

presents an explicit or outer transformation (cf. Львів Lviv, Чоп Chop).

A kind of combined explicit and implicit transformation may some

times take place too. Thus, the proper name John, for example, may

have three outer/contextual explicit realizations of its implicit mean

ings in Ukrainian: 1. Джон as in Джон Буль, Джон Кітс; 2. Іван as in

Pope John Paul II папа Іван Павло Другий; 3. Іоанназіп King John

І король Іоанн І, John the Baptist Іоанн Хреститель.

Apart from the notionals many functionals may undergo inner/ implicit transformations in the process of their translation as well. For example, the word yet may realize its lexical potential as follows: adverb (need you go yet? Тобі вже треба йти?); conjunction (though young yet experienced хоч і молодий, але/проте досвідчений); the word ncwwhich may be adverb (he is here now); noun (he is there by now Він уже там на цей час); conjunction (we may start, now the work is over Ми можемо вирушати, оскільки робота закінчена). Even the functional word the has two different realizations: 1. that of the grammatical determiner (definite article) and that of a particle as in the sooner the better чим швидше, тим краще. Inner transformations, therefore, may be performed on most sense units.

Outer/explicit transformations may sometimes change the structural form of the sense unit under translation. Thus, the noun the Orkneys becomes a word-group Оркнейські острови and the Hebrides becomes Гебрідські острови, whereas Labrador becomes півострів Лабрадор, and vice versa: some Ukrainian and English word-groups, proper names are transformed in the target language into single words: Ладозьке озеро - Ladoga, Онезьке озеро - Onega, Уральські гори - the Urals, the Antarctic Continent - Антарктика, the Artctic Region - Арктика, etc.

364

 

A peculiar type of outer transformation is observed at the phonetic/phonological level, when conveying different types of proper names, internationalisms and some lexical units designating specifically national (culturally-biased) elements of the source language. The outer transformation of the source language units in this case finds its expression only in adopting their spelling and sounding forms to the corresponding target language phonetic/phonological system, which usually differs from that of the source language. For example: acoustics [g'kuistiks] акустика, assembly [ a'sembli] асамблея, ceremony ['serimani] церемонія, discussion [dis'k/Jn] дискусія, etc.

A great number of phonetic/phonological transformations of the kind had been performed in the course of our history of translation. As a result, different types of various proper and other nouns have been already adopted by our language both directly and through mediating languages (Polish or Russian).

In the process of this adoption many different proper names of people and geographical names have acquired in Ukrainian a partly transformed phonetic/phonological, i.e., outer structural form. Cf.: Ireland [aialand] Ірландія, Maine [mein] Мен (штат Мен), Ulster [Alsta] Ольстер, Thessaly [беззіі] Фессалія, Thesalonica [9esal8'nai:ka] Салоніки, Фесалоніки, Rwanda [ru:'anda] Руанда, etc. Others acquired a unified outer form to express different notions: Algeria [ael'djieri'e] Алжир (країна), Algiers [eel'crjiaz] Алжир (столиця), Tunisia Туніс (країна), Tunis Туніс (столиця).

The observant reader could not have missed to notice that the outer forms of some of the above-given nouns were not everywhere linguistically justified, as their outer presentation contradicts the latest rule of Romanization of Ukrainian proper names and the rule of Ukrainization of foreign proper names respectively. In accordance with these rules the U.S. state of Maine, should be Мейн, Ulster should be Альстер or Алстер, and Thessalia, Thesalonica -Тессалія and Тесалоніка. Nevertheless, the outerform of these and many other nouns still remains in their traditional presentation, which was in some period of the past introduced in a wrong translators' transcription, cf.: Athens Афіни instead of Атени (as терапевт), etc.

A lot of other language units have either completely or partly changed their outer form according to the requirements of the target language. Cf.: arcuate аркоподібний, bachelor бакалавр, charter хартія, de/7/епродефілювати, frterapeuf/стерапевтичний, etc. Many loan internationalisms, on the other hand, maintain their inner and outerform in Ukrainian. Cf.: сазевідмінок, tense formnacoBa форма,

365

 

syntactic relations синтаксичні відношення, syntactic connection синтаксичний зв'язок, etc.

The outer form of many language units of the source language may, naturally, differ from its structural presentation in the target language. Thus, the sense of several simple words may be expressed through word-groups: асЛ/алсе_робити успіхи, drive просуватись уперед, quantify визначати кількість/встановлювати кількість; зарибити to put young fish into the pond, збити to knock down/to knock down together, перемерзати/перемерзнути to get chilled, to be nipped by the frost.

Compound words on the other hand may 1) maintain their outer form/structure in the target language: 1) easy-going добродушний, first-rate першорядний, fireproof вогнетривкий, fourfold чотирикратний, free-thinker вільнодумець; 2) they may be transformed into semantically corresponding word-groups: dew-fall випадання роси, bed-fast прикутий до ліжка (хворобою), spotlight прожектор для підсвічування, squaw-man(Атег.) білий/одружений з індіанкою; 3) they may turn in Ukrainian into simple words: ear-rings сережки, dress-coat фрак, mother-in-law свекруха/теща, ink-pot чорнильниця, operating-room операційна, son-in-law зять, glass-house теплиця/оранжерея, go-aneacf заповзятливий, etc.

Similar outer (structural) and inner (lexico-semantic) transformations are often resorted to when rendering the meaning of specific notions of national lexicon, namely: 1) when a single-word notion of the source language is translated by means of a single word (when the notions are internationalisms): mister, miss, lady, lord, barter, etc., містер, міс, леді, бартер тощо. 2) when a word-group notion is conveyed through a common word: little /Wa/y(jocul.) шлунок, Lord Harry чорт/чортяка, the outward man одежа (людини), for ever and a day назавжди /навіки, to turn one's way зникнути (втекти). 3) when a word-group structure of a specific source language notion is rendered through a sentence structure: Nosy Porker людина/той що втручається в чужі справи; Lazy Зизалстолик, на якому розвозять/ подають бутерброди/до чаю; doctor Fell людина, що викликає до себе антипатію; the Centennial Stateiujai Колорадо, який увійшов до складу США 1876 р. в сторіччя проголошення незалежності США; K-ration (milit. Amer.) індивідуальний військовий пайок, що складається виключно з консервів. Very often, the structural (outer) forms of some sense units may also coincide. Thus, the word-group structures of the source language are not changed in the target language: straight А «кругле» п'ять (оцінка), London particular (co\\oq.)

366

 

густий лондонський туман, sane andsouncf(jocul.) живий і здоровий, in one's birthday suit (jocul.) «в Адамовій одежі» (голий), the Sunflower sfafe(colloq. American) соняшниковий штат (Канзас), etc. But complete transformations are often performed when rendering the meaning of idiomatic expressions, especially of those based on specific notions of the national lexicon. Cf.: the Dutch have captured НоІІапдце всі знають, це всім відомо (пор. «відкрив Америку»); Queen Ann is cteac/це вже старе/це вже чули; the boot is on the other Іедце зовсім не так, усе якраз навпаки; or in Ukrainian: курям на сміх for cats and dogs to laugh at, у нього (неї) всі кози в золоті he/she presents things much better than they in reality are, he/she bounces too much boasts or: pretends to have something in abundance, etc.

All these outer transformations were prearranged by the semantic aims, i.e., they were used to express as fully and faithfully as possible the sense of the source language units in the target language. The translator here is mostly free to deliberately choose any sense unit of any structural form in order to convey faithfully the meaning of the source language unit. Thus, when translating the word trifle as a unit of the English culturally biased lexicon the translator is free to choose deliberately any of the three possible equivalents: 1) солодка страва; 2) солодкі бісквіти; 3) солодкі бісквіти, просочені вином (часом із варенням). The choice of this or that Ukrainian equivalent transform among these three is also conditioned by the personal preference of this or that equivalent and by the context requiring correspondingly a more or less extended information of the reader about this or that English specific national notion.

GRAMMATICALLY AND STYLISTICALLY PREARRANGED TRANSFORMATIONS

Apart from the semantically conditioned outer transformations, a bulk of sense units of the source language can be faithfully translated into the target language only through their structurally transformed semantic equivalents. Such kind of transformations usually become necessary because of the difference in the means of expression in the target language. They are mainly employed in the following cases: 1) when translating antonymically; 2) when rendering the meaning of most passive constructions, and 3) when translating sentences with an inverted order of words.

Antonymic translation, as was already mentioned, requires a) an obligatory substitution of an affirmative in sense and structure

367

 

source language unit for a semantically corresponding negative in structure sense unit of the target language:

«For the thousandth time I've «Тисячний раз тобі кажу, told you, to keep your nose out не втручайся ти в цю справу» of the business». (J. London) /Будь подалі від цієї справи.

Fair words fat few. (Proverb)         Гарні слова не нагодують.

This proverb may also have some other antonymic versions, which faithfully convey its meaning via an explicit form in Ukrainian: Від гарних слів їсти не перехочеться /гарними словами голод не проженеш (не вгамуєш).

b) A reverse transformation of negative in structure sense units of the source language into semanticaliy equivalent affirmative in structure sense units in the target language is no less frequent in both languages either:

In reality, of course, the doc- Насправді ж лікар має

tor hasn't the least idea about тільки туманне уявлення про

what is wrong. (Cronin) цю хворобу (шахтарів).

«Can't I have a little peace ?» «Ви можете дати мені

(Ibid.) спокій?»

When stylistically required, the transformation may sometimes be avoided, as in the first sentence above: Насправді ж лікар не має навіть найменшого уявлення про хворобу.

The choice of the form of expression/transformation usually rests with the translator only, who takes into account the contextual environment of each sense unit which is to be translated. As a result, there may sometimes be different explicit forms of realization of sense units in the target language, as can be seen from the given sentences in the exercise below.

Exercise I. Analyse the underlined English sense units and offer ways of their explicit transformation in Ukrainian translation of the sentences.

1. He was not slow, however, in perceiving that he had now his excuse forgoing home. 2. «Here you are then, Soames,» she said,j«l am not so bad now.» 3. «I don't dislike you, Mr. Mont, but Fleur is everything to me.» (Galsworthy) 4. «No. I don't believe I don't remember the name.» (K.Mansfield) 5. «Did this nigger boy set fire to Mr. Feakens's old yellow house?» «No more than you did.» (Saroyan)6. It was not unknown for small boys to enter a monastery. (Ken Follet) 7. It was no uncommon sight to see Gadge drooping across the waiting room with a prescription in his hand. 8. «Doctor», she said in her brisk

368

 

way, «my husband is not well». 9. «Well, I did take it. And it was not an unconsideredact.» 10. «I think we are not doing too badly.» 11. It was not unnatural to take it (illness) back into his own hands. (Cronin)

12. «I didn't care a hang whether the soap was in or whether it wasn't.»

13. «Girls, also, don't look half bad in a boat, if prettily dressed.»

14. The first thing that they thought was the boat was not clean.

(J.K. Jerome) 15. Miss Bingley was by no means unwilling to preside

at his table. (I. Austen) 16. He could not be unaware that every one

regarded him as a bit a hero. (Cusack) 17. In this case widowhood (of

Mary Stewart) was not unwelcome, as she was a girl of eighteen, and

her husband a prematurely aged sick man of fifty-three. 18. He (Prince

of Wales) was not infrequently the companion of his father on some of

his journeys into the country. (Jerrold) 19. «You don't mind my being

frank, do you?». 20. They were not handsome creatures. (London)

21. It was not til I the dawn crept into the room, ghostlike and silent, that

he fell asleep. (Maugham) 22. «I didn't have much lunch. Doctor.»

23. «You aren't going to have anything to do with that feller, Doctor?»

24. The sound, not unlike the rat-a-tat-tat of parade drums, heralded

Hickock's arrival. (Capote) 25. «And that's your final word?» «It could

not be more final.» 26. «The public are not slow in the matter of sifting

evidence and arriving at a verdict.» 26. «Don't you think you might be

able to use me when you get back?» 27. «I dislike these bastards».

(Hemingway) 28. Frank Cowperwood cared nothing for books. (Dreiser)

STYLISTICALLY/SUBJECTIVELY PREDETERMINED TRANSFORMATIONS

In many a case transformations of sense units are performed for the sake of achieving a fuller expressiveness. Thus, in the sentence «JjMiernernber you are working for Doctor Page.» (Cronin) the underlined part may have two semantically equivalent variants: 1. «Ib ж пам'ятайте», що ви працюєте на лікаря Пеіджа» or «He забувайте. що ви працюєте на лікаря Пеіджа». The second variant, however, is somewhat stronger since it implies threat. To achieve more expressiveness, the translator may change the outer and inner form of the sense unit in the target language, as in the sentence «We have stacked piles of brickbats under the corners of the piano box to keep the floor QLit dry.» (Caldwell) 1. Щоб утримувати підлогу сухою, ми попідкладали битої цегли під кути ящика з-під піаніно; 2. Щоб не затікала вода, ми попідкладали битої цегли під кути ящика з-під піаніно.

369

 

Stylistically/subjectively predetermined is always the choice of the inner (content) form of a sense unit in the target language. Cf.: I feel well. (Hemingway) Я почуваюся непогано (добре). A shell fell close. (Ibid.) Неподалік/поруч вибухнув снаряд. Consequently, any transformation is aimed at a more exact (and more faithful) rendering of the source language units into the target language.

Exercise II. Suggest for the underlined parts of the sentences subjectively/stylistically or semantically predetermined outer/inner transformations and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. «For she scarcely took her eyes from the ground and she was timid and afraid.» 2. «Priest wants us never to attack.» 3. «I dislike these bastards.» 4. «He was rude, to say the least of it.» (Christie) 5. Four men in their shirt-sleeves stood grouped together on the garden path. (Mansfield) 6.1 told her to keep away this morning. (Greene) 7. They spoke little and much of what they said was in the Welsh tongue. 8. Indeed she was so eager to make much of him she could barely frame a word. (Cronin) 9. His voice was final and Erik could see that he was exerting his authority. 10. «What difference does it make ?» «It makes all the difference in the word». 11. Haviland had overlooked the presentation of his name. 12. He met Erik's silent question without coloring but he smiled. 13. «Was that all he said?». 14. «The lab is still open, isn't it?». (M.Wilson) 15. «Wait till you see.» 16. «But if nobody spoke unless he had something to say. Roman race would soon lose the use of speech." (Dreiser)

17. «Eat till you can just stagger across the room with it.» (S.Leacock)

18. «You can stay there until you're old enough to go away.» (Saroyan)

19. « I wish I had known it was your friend.» (Wilde) 20. «I fed well.»

(Hemingway) 21. «You better stop pushing.» (Maugham) 22. «You

came out of Court with clean hands.» (Galsworthy) 23. «Keep your

head.» Blound insisted soothingly. 24. «He hated her and could not

get along with her.» 25. The little shop girl was getting into deep water.

(Dreiser) 26. It was the first time he had given way to anger with her.

(Galsworthy)

WAYS OF CONVEYING THE PASSIVE VOICE CONSTRUCTIONS

It is common knowledge that the quantitative representation of the passive voice constructions in English by far exceeds that in Ukrainian. This is not reflected, naturally, in translation since En-

370

 

glish passive constructions are far from always transplanted to Ukrainian sentences. The much larger quantity of passive constructions in English is explained 1). by the ability of not only the direct but also of the indirect and prepositional objects to perform the function of the subject to the predicate in the passive voice; 2). by the ability of several intransitive verbs to become transitive and take a direct object, and consequently form the passive voice (cf. Her dog is often walked by her brother. The office is run by Mr.Brown). No transpositions of such type are possible in Ukrainian where only the direct object can be transformed into the subject of the sentence in the passive voice. Nevertheless, the meaning of the passive voice may sometimes be maintained, though expressed then not with the help of the analytical means. This can be seen from the following English sentence:

He was offered a better job of Йому кимсь пропонувалась

some sort of somebody or other, нібито якась навіть краща

(Saroyan) робота.

Parallel to this Ukrainian version and less common or less faithful is one more version and way via the active form of the verbal predicate: йому буцімто хтось пропонував кращу роботу or: йому нібито десь пропонували кращу роботу. A similar expression is also possible in English: some sort of somebody offered him a better job, which the author (Saroyan) ignored in his sentence above.

Some ways of expressing the passive voice in both languages may coincide in form and structure, as can be seen in the first sentence below; others should be transformed (as in the second sentence), in der other to achieve faithfulness in translation:

She was faintly disturbed by Вона була дещо

what mother had said, стурбована тим, що сказала

(Maugham) їїмати.

If the U.N. peace plan is Якщо план мирного

implemented, frozen Serb assets врегулювання ООН буде

in the USA would be released, здійснений, заморожені рахунки

(USA Today) Сербії у США... будуть відпущені.

The passive constructions in the above sentences, however, may not necessarily be rendered into Ukrainian through passive equivalents only. Other contextual variants may also be suggested by the translator, for example: вона була трохи стурбована - її трохи турбувало, рахунки будуть відпущені - рахунки

371

 

розморозять/відпустять.

Nevertheless, English passive forms referring to present tense have mostly no structural equivalents in Ukrainian where the auxiliary verb to be (є) is usually omitted and the past participle acquires other morphological (e.g., finite form) and semantic expression. Cf.:

Rescue efforts are being ham- Рятувальним роботам

pered by dozens of aftershocks, перешкоджають повторні

below-freezing temperatures, поштовхи і температура, що

(Ibid.) падає нижче нуля.

One more faithful Ukrainian transformation of this passive sentence construction may be achieved by way of conveying it through the so-called middle voice form ог-ся/-сь verb: Рятувальні роботи утруднюються повторними підземними поштовхами і температурою, що падає нижче нуля.

Depending on the form of the passive construction and still more on the lexical verbal meaning, this voice form may have in Ukrainian some still other transformations, which express the same meaning of the passive construction; they may acquire the following outer forms of expression in Ukrainian:

a) that of an indefinite personal sentence/clause:

«I am told that pork-packing         Кажуть,  що в Америці

is the most luckrative profession пакування свинини - найбільш

after politics in America.» прибуткова   праця   після

(О. Wilde) політики.

b) that of a single predicative word/simple nominal predicate:

«They'reprepared to sacrifice        «Вониладні пожертвувати

everything to satisfy their yearn-    всім,   аби   задовольнити/

ing.» (Maugham) здійснити своє прагнення.»

c) a finite form of the verb/simple verbal predicate:

He has never been answered. Його ще ніхто і ніколи не

(B.Aidiss) спростував.

d) an indefinite personal past participle ending in -но/ -то:

It is a sound instinct of the Це здоровий глузд

common people which per- простого люду переконує

suades that this all, that needs його, таким чином, що все те,

to be said, is said. (Maugham) що треба сказати. - сказано.

The room had certainly been У   кімнаті   безперечно

372

 

transformed. (I.Murdoch) зроблено перестановку.

e) any other contextual and structural substitution of the English passive voice predicate verb:

«I must be left to myself for а «Я повинен якийсь час

while.» (Hemingway) побути сам/самим із собою.»

«If Isabel had come in then, І «Якби Ізабель була зайшла

suppose I'd be married to Larry тоді, мабуть зараз я була б

now.» (Maugham) замужем за Пері.»

The passive structure sense units of both the English sentences, as can be seen, are practically translated into Ukrainian irt a descriptive way, i.e., avoiding their source language outer structure. Nevertheless grammatically correct, though literal and stylistically not quite appropriate or justified, would also be passive variant constructions in Ukrainian: 1). Я мусив бути залишений самим; 2). Я була б замужем/була б одружена з Лері.

Not infrequently the Ukrainian past participle in its predicative function may be one, if not the only possible passive form equivalent of the English passive construction in Ukrainian, as in the following sentence:

«Their children slept, their «'(хні діти спали, і (їхня)

gate was shut for the night.» брама була зачинена на ніч.»

(Fitzgerald) (І браму зачинили на ніч?)

The passive voice constructions with the prepositional object as their subject have generally no equivalent passive constructions in Ukrainian. These are rendered then with the help of the indefinite personal forms of the verb (sometimes through reflexive verbs):

«Why do you not answer        «Чому ви не відповідаєте, when you are spoken to?»    коли до вас звертаються?» (Galsworthy)

I may say, that he is rightly я можу сказати, що у

looked upon by all the publishing видавничих колах його

business as one of the mainstays справедливо вважають однією

of literature in America. 3 головних постатей в

(Leacock) американській літературі.

Consequently, some English passive voice constructions often change their outer and inner form and become active voice forms in Ukrainian. The main concern of the translator, in this case then,

373

 

must be not so much the structural form of a source language sense unit, than its contextual meaning and, respectively, its form of realization/presentation in the target language.

Exercise I. Offer possible Ukrainian non-passive transforms/outer forms for the English passive voice constructions and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.

1. He was haunted by a fear. 2. Also he was rendered self-conscious by the company. (London) 3. It (furniture) was given to us as a wedding present by Mr. Bradley's father. 4. They entertained lavishly and were lavishly entertained. 5. Gregory Brabazov was in Chicago at the time the purchase was made and the decoration (of the house) was entrusted to him. 6. I had recently brought out a successful novel - and I had no sooner arrived than I was interviewed. 7. There are men who are possessed by an urge so strong to do some particular thing that they can't help themselves. 8. He was so incommunicable that I was forced to the conclusion that he had asked me to lunch with him merely to enjoy my company. 9. But here she encountered in her husband an obstinacy, which she had not for years been accustomed to. 10. She was puzzled by Isabel. 11. «I'm told she's rather good.» (Maugham) 12. She might have been asked to go too. 13. What luck that the boy had not been caught by that ghastly war. He might so easily have been killed, like poor Jolly twenty years ago out in the Transvaal. (Galsworthy) 14. «I'm afraid a lot of your private papers were burned.» (Leacock) 15. And when the Indian veteran came there, he was told the blunt truth. (D.Carter) 16. «I suppose in about a fortnight we shall be told that he has been seen in San Francisco.» (Wilde) 17. Immediately after their marriage Couperwood and Aileen journeyed to Chicago direct and they were given there the best room that Frencout provided for the time being. 18. Caroline, or Sister Carry - was possessed of a mind rudimentary in its power of observation and analysis. 19. In certain emergencies he was called to assist his father, and was paid for it. (Dreiser) 20. - only after a minute did she realize that she had been awakened by a knock at their saloon door. (Fitzgerald) 21. People have been asking those questions for thousands of years and they could be answered, surely they'd have been answered, by now. (Maugham) 22. «We've been sort of pals and it's not my business to talk unless I'm spoken to.» (J.K. Jerome) 23. Clovis was sent for in haste, and the development of the situation was put before him. (H.Munro) 24. We were ques-

374

 

tioned, all of us. (Defoe) 25. The door was opened by a tall and stout Negro butler with white hair and we were ushered into the drawing-room. 26. Most of the actors wanted to think Logan was crying because he was being arrested. (L.Hughes) 27. «I am urgently needed at Apia,» said Dr. Macphail. 28. «Young Bossiney has been run over in the fog and killed.» 29. «Water was given her.» (Galsworthy) 30. He was beaten. 31.1 was surprised that I had been asked to this party. 32. The two persons, who were hustled away, did not take it well. 33. They were made for the third Duke of Dorset and they're almost priceless. 34. She was a trifle taken aback that it had all gone so easily. 35 . «I presume that in a day or two we shall be fixed up for the rest of the season.» (Maugham) 36. «I was desired by that gentleman to identify the wearer of a very uncommon coat - a bright blue dress coat, with a gilt button, displaying a bust, and the letters «P.C.» (Dickens) 37. «Was Coleman being told here and now, as a newcomer, not to rock the boat?»1 (Hailey) 38. «Mr. Afghan North was robbed and he made a complaint.» 39. «The car had been built on a special chassis in America.» (Fitzgerald) 40. She was received only by Ting-a-Ling, who had his back to the fire, and took no notice beyond a stare. (Galsworthy) 41.1 was wired for. (C.Doyle) 42. Some things had been lost sight of. (Galsworthy) 43. The bed had not even been lain on. (Dickens) 44. She was told that a message could be left for him. (M.Wilson) 45. Do not pass judgement, that you may not be judged. 46. You either make both tree and fruit to be rotten; for the tree is known by its fruit. (Bible). 47. She hastened around to the side entrance and was taken up by the elevator to the fourth floor. (Dreiser) 48. «Not a word of it, in my interpretation, is actually spoken.» (S. Leacock) 49. «They're not the sort of people I've been brought up with.» 50. Isabel appeared to be delighted and Mrs. Bradley was reassured. 51. She was rather pretty and I was rather taken with her. 52. Face and neck were deeply burnt by the sun. (Maugham). 53. «Sophia, I'm not going to be talked to like this.» (Bennett) 54. One leg was gone and the other was held by tendons and part of the trousers and the stump twitched and jerked as though it were not connected. (Hemingway) 55. His coming had not been looked for. (Greene) 56. He was given up to his dream. (K.Mansfield) 57.1 was wanted in the dining-room. (Bronte)

1 to rock the boat (coll.) підривати авторитет установи.

375

 

OBJECTIVELY REQUIRED AND SUBJECTIVELY

INTRODUCED/CONTEXTUAL TRANSFORMATIONS

OF LANGUAGE UNITS

As has been shown, there may be two types of transformations resorted to in the process of translation: 1. objectively required/ conditioned by the peculiarities of the target language, i.e., inevitable, and 2. subjectively introduced at the translator's own will and therefore not always unavoidable. Either of them requires structural/ outer alterations of the source language units in the target language. Moreover, each type of these transformations may be realized both on the syntactic as well as on the lexical level units. Cf. His holidays had been spent at Robin Hill with boy friends, or with his parents. (Galsworthy) - канікули він проводив у Робін Плі з товаришами чи з батьками. Here the passive voice syntaxeme had been spent must have been changed in Ukrainian into the active voice form. Objectively predetermined are also transformations of the objective with the infinitive or participle constructions/complexes, gerundial and nominative absolute participial constructions, national idioms, etc. In these cases a simple English sentence may turn into a complex sentence. Cf.:

«It (music) seems to be right «Здається, ніби музика в

in them.» (D.Parker) них просто в крові».

« When do you want me to do «Коли ви хочете, щоб я це

it?» (Maugham) зробив?»

The outer form/structure of the language unit may be deliberately changed in the target language, when it requires a concretiza-tion. As a result, the structure of the sense unit is often extended or shortened in the target language without changing its proper meaning. For example, the personal pronoun ft and the auxiliary verb do. when concretized in the Ukrainian translation may be substituted for a noun phrase and an objective word-group:

«Why did you do it?» the/she- «Ти навіщо підпалив

riff said. «I didn't do it,» Johnny будинок?» - запитав шериф. -

said. (Saroyan) «я не підпалював його.» -

відповів Джонні.

The predicative word-groups підпалив будинок and його не підпалював become necessary in Ukrainian in order to explicate

376

 

properly the meaning of the verb do and the pronoun it, which can be achieved only in a descriptive way, i.e., through transformation.

Also semantically and stylistically predetermined are all translator's transformations through addition, which are resorted to with the aim of achieving the necessary expressiveness. Additions become necessary in the target language either in order to express more clearly the content of the source language unit, or for the sake of achieving some stylistic effect. Cf.:

When a girl leaves her home Коли дівчина залишає

at eighteen. she does one of two домівку у вісімнадцять років, з

things - (Dreiser) нею трапляється одне з двох...

«I'm so glad you've asked me, «Я дуже радий, що ти мене

darling.» (Maugham) запитала про це. люба.»

The additions made in the first and in the second Ukrainian sentences are both lexical and syntactic, since the first of them completes the sentence through the formation of the attributive word-group (вісімнадцять років), and the second complements the objective verb and forms an objective word-group, which completes the object clause and the sentence as a whole (що ти мене запитала про це).

A semantic or syntactic addition used with the aim of concreti-zation may become necessary in the target language in order to maintain the peculiar way of expression or to complete the structure of the sense unit in the language of translation. For example:

There was just enough room У ящикові було місце лише для

for us two in the crate, and if the нас двох, і якщо бананова

straw was not evenly strewn, it підстилка не була рівномірно

made lumps under our backs, розгорнута, вона збивалася в

(Caldwell) жмутки і муляла нам у боки.

The objective word-group муляла нам у боки is a semantically stable expression in Ukrainian and it can not exist without the verb муляти, which functions as its syntactic head. Similar additions for the sake of concretization become inevitable in the target language when dealing with local place names and specifically national notions of the source language. For example:

Він мешкає у Києві на Подолі, а працює там на Сирці.

Не lives in the Podil district of Kyiv and works there in the Syrets' residential area of the city.

There is no mention in the        В офіційній інструкції мініс-

377

 

Home Office list of any such in-    терства внутрішніх справ і

dustrial desease. (Cronin) згадки нема про таке професій-

не захворювання (шахтарів).

The Home Office (list) has been concretized by way of an explicatory translation, i.e., by adding the word (noun) міністерство which is contextually required in the Ukrainian translation.

Often occurring among various translators' transformations are also omissions, which may be of two types: a) objectively required, i.e., inevitable and b) casual or subjectively introduced. The former are conditioned by the grammar phenomena which are not available in the target language. Thus, objectively omitted are auxiliary verbs, determining articles or pronouns (cf. he has his hands in his pockets він тримає руки в кишенях), individual barbarisms, as in the sentence below:

«Oh, I like them. I really do.» «О, вони подобаються мені.

(D.Parker) Справді.»

«Goodness, I'm so crazy «Боже мій, я у такій

about music and everything. І нестямі від музики, що мені

don't care what colour he is.» байдуже, якого він (артист)

(Ibid.) кольору.»

Here the sentence "I really do." is reduced to one-word sentence "Справді." The word «everything» in the second sentence is a barbarism of a character in the story, which the translator found obsolete, of no need to transplant it to the Ukrainian translation of this sentence.

Very often, however, a sense unit may be omitted in the language of translation for stylistic reasons, when it is necessary, for example, to avoid a repeated use of the same sense unit in adjacent sentences, as in the following sentence:

She turned aghast towards Вона з жахом/приголомшена

the bed. (Salinger) обернулась.

Since the noun bed was already mentioned in the preceding sentence of the passage, the translator found it necessary to omit it in the Ukrainian version, which could not be made, naturally, if the sentence were singled out (separated) from the text and translated as a separate language unit.

Casual subjective omissions of this kind usually do not change the general content of the sentence/passage, though they may alter

378

 

to some extent the author's emphasis made in the sentence of the source language, as can be seen in the following translation:

/ was learning fast, but І Я навчалася швидко, але не

learned not fast enough to real- настільки швидко, щоб

ize then the peril of our position, усвідомити, яка над нами

(London) нависла загроза.

The omitted adverbial modifier then in the Ukrainian translation changes the temporal emphasis of the author in his original version of the sentence where he pointed out the time («then») of «the peril».

A somewhat similar (and also deliberate) omission of the adverbial modifier, though for the sake of achieving faithfulness, can be observed in the Ukrainian sentence below:

Tamales are very good Tамали (товчена кукурудза

when the air grows chilly at з м'ясом) - дуже добра річ,

night. (Ibid) надто (...) коли ночі бувають

холодні.

The translator (O.Senyuk) found the specifying adverbial modifier at night not explicatory enough for the Ukrainian reader or stylistically aggravating for the structure of the target language sentence. This way of economizing the lexical means on account of the original content could not, naturally, be justified, as the content of the Ukrainian version would be simplified. To avoid it, the translator employed an extension (коли бувають холодні ночі). Hence, the deliberate omission of the part of the sentence (at night) was made for the sake of achieving a more exhaustive faithful rendering of this English sentence. Reduction is often employed for stylistic reasons, especially in translations of belles-letters texts, when there exists an incompatibility between the structural forms of the syntactic units of the source language and their semantic and structural equivalents in the target language. The forms of reduction depend on the peculiarity of the language units under translation, on the means of expression or units to be reduced, and sometimes on the aims persued by the reduction1 . The most often occurring reductions are the following:

1 See about various transformations in the process of translation also Я.И.Рецкер. Теория перевода й переводческая практика. - М.: Международньїе отношения, 1974, p.p. 38-63, 80-113; Л. С. Бархударов. Язьік й перевод. - М.: Международньїе отношения, 1975, р.191-231.

379

1) Changing of an extended word-group into a simpler sense

unit {reduction or contraction):

She gave him a little smile and Вона грайливо посміхнулась

took his hand. (Maugham) і взяла його за руку.

The objective verbal word-group «gave him a little smile» may also be transformed in Ukrainian into other word-groups: 1) (вона) окинула його грайливою посмішкою 2) (вона) подарувала йому грайливу посмішку. Each of these two variants, naturally, would be quite acceptable, but the translator avoided them as stylistically and semantically less fitting in this particular sentence.

Shortening of syntactic units in the target language is often conditioned by the stylistic aim of individualizing the speech of some literary character as in the sentences below:

«What politics have you?» І «Ви за кого?» - запитав я.

asked, «lam without politics.» he «Я ні за кого.» - відповів

said. (Hemingway) старий чоловік.

Instead of the direct translation of the underlined English sentences «Яких політичних поглядів ви дотримуєтесь» and «Я ніяких політичних поглядів не дотримуюсь» the translator used a more natural for the old and seemingly uneducated shepherd, a shortened and an elliptical sentence characteristic of colloquial Ukrainian :»Ви за кого?" and logically natural «Я ні за кого».

2) Transformation of an English complex sentence into a simple

one in the target language because of the structural incompatibility

of the former in the Ukrainian language:

«That's what I say.» she said. «Оце така моя думка.» -

« That's the way I feel.» she said, сказала вона. «Отак я ставлюсь

(D. Parker) до цього,» - підсумувала вона.

The first complex sentence with its predicative clause and the second complex sentence with its attributive clause have both been transformed into simple extended Ukrainian sentences and thus changed their outer structure and syntactic nature («Оце така моя думка,» «Отак я ставлюсь до цього», «Це так я ставлюсь до цього»).

3) Merger of two separate sentences into one composite sen

tence in the target language. This type of reduction may be required

by the content, as well as by the national Ukrainian way of expres

sion (and by the style of the text). For example:

380

 

1. Every once in a while Dave         (1) Раз по раз Дейв ставав

got on his hands and knees and навколішки і розрівнював

turned the straw over. 2. It was руками       (2)       бананову

the banana straw, and it was підстилку, яка була сира

soggy    and    foul-smelling, (відсиріла), і від якої неприємно

(Caldwell) тхнуло.

It is easy to assert that each sentence in the source language is semantically and syntactically highly relevant. Nevertheless, only the first sentence can be completely transplanted to Ukrainian: Раз по раз Дейв ставав навколішки і розрівнював підстилку. The second sentence, however, when transplanted unchanged, would be structurally and stylistically irrelevant, i.e., not fit in the style and for the Ukrainian wayof expression in this particular context. Cf.: Це була бананова підстилка, і вона була волога і неприємно тхнула.

То avoid literalism and structural/syntactic awkwardness in Ukrainian, the translator reduced the second sentence or rather changed it into an attributive subordinate clause, which made the Ukrainian variant sound stylistically and semantically quite natural: Дейв розрівнював бананову підстилку, яка була мокра і неприємно тхнула.

One more example of contextual reduction (or extension) of English sentences through their merger in Ukrainian can be seen below. The only difference between this and the above-given sentence lies in the placement of the second English sentence, which in the Ukrainian translation is moved to the front position. This is required by the peculiarities of the Ukrainian way of expression and by the semantic/logical structure of its communicative units. Cf.:

«Oh, we have more argu- «О, ми стільки спере-ments about colored people. чаємось про кольорових.

I talk to him like I don't know Я як розійдуся, то такого

what. I get so excited.» йому наговорю, що й сама не

(D.Parker) знаю, що.»

These and the like purely subjective, at first sight, transformations are absolutely necessary in order to achieve a faithful expression of content of the English sentences and maintain the logical flow of thought characteristic of the natural Ukrainian speech. It goes without saying that such kind of transformations through reduction, extension or replacement can not always be treated as deliberate or exclusively subjective, because they are objectively required by the

381

 

peculiarly national ways of expression in the target language.

Always subjective, however, is the approach of the translator to the choice of some semantically and syntactically equivalent versions of the source language units as in the following sentence:

«They gave me a wrong book, and I didn't notice it, till I got back to my room.» (Salinger) This sentence can have two equally faithful versions in Ukrainian, each of which fully expresses its content:

1) Вони мені дали не ту 2) Мені дали не ту книжку, книжку, і я не помітив цього, і я помітив ие. аж коли аж доки не прийшов додому. прийшов додому.

The subjective transformations in the left hand Ukrainian definite personal clause Вони мені дали не ту книжку \s transformed into the indefinite personal sentence Мені дали не ту книжку,

2) the second co-ordinate clause/я не помітив цього is changed into the antonymic affirmative clause / я помітив це, and the adverbial subordinate clause аж доки не прийшов додому is changed into an affirmative clause (antonymic again) аж коли прийшов додому.

These subjectively introduced by the translator transformations have not in any way changed the syntactic nature or content of the English composite (compound-complex) sentence as a whole. Neither have they changed the order of words, though the plane of expression has undergone some alterations, the main of which is the employment of the antonymic device. It is expedient to term such kind of alterations in the structural plane of syntactic units as «inner transformations» as well. The latter involve only minor structural or lexico-semantic alterations without causing any cardinal changes in the structural form of the sense units under translation.

These were by far all the possible objectively required or deliberately introduced transformations of lexical and syntactic units called forth in the process of translation by the existing divergences between the means of expression in the source language and in the target language on one hand, or due to the translator's subjective approach to some types of sense units on the other.

OBJECTIVELY AND SUBJECTIVELY CONDITIONED

TRANSFORMATIONS OF LEXICAL UNITS IN THE

PROCESS OF TRANSLATION

Transformations of nationally peculiar lexical units in the pro-

382

 

cess of translation, as will be shown below, are sometimes of particular interest as well. These transformations become inevitable as a result of differences existing between the ways and means of expression of the same meanings in the source language and in the target language. Among the lexical units that change their outer/structural form in the target language as a result of translation are a number of simple and compound words belonging to different parts of speech and representing various layers of lexicon. They include three main stylistically distinguished classes of units: 1) Stylistically neutral lexis; 2) stylistically evaluative lexis; 3) culturally biased national specific units of lexicon pertained to each source language and to every target language.

1. Among the numerous stylistically neutral simple and compound words both in the English and Ukrainian languages there are different notional parts of speech - nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, numerals, pronouns, the semantic equivalents of which in the target language may be single words, word-groups and even sentences. Because of this the choice of their lexical equivalents in the target language is not always easy. Cf.:

advertiser той /та, ті/, хто дає/що дають рекламне оголошення, пропонують на продаж товар;

akimbo взявшись руками в боки, тримаючись руками в боках, руки в боки;

answerable той, та, те, що/на що можна відповісти/дати відповідь;

ЬасКегтой, хто підтримує когось/допомогає, сприяє комусь у чомусь;

boatful пасажири й команда корабля/судна; заповнене/ завантажене судно/корабель;

indulge робити собі приємність у чомусь, віддаватись якимось утіхам (читанню, слуханню музики, грі в футбол, тощо);

airsick той/та, те, ті, що погано переносять повітряне подорожування (в літаку).

A considerable number of stylistically neutral Ukrainian simple and compound words have very often word-groups or sentences for their semantic (but not structural) equivalents in English as well Cf.:

грамотний person who can read and write or well informed in smth.;

пополудні in the afternoon, post meridiem;

принатися/прискакати to come quickly running or riding (to come galloping);

383

 

обороноздатність the strength of the defensive capacity of a country;

перекотиполе rolling Яах(рослина) and rolling stone (про

людину);

пустомолот/пустомеля an idle tale-teller, copious speaker (chatterbox);

світогляд conception of a person's world/world outlook/one's

creed.

A great number of such and the like stylistically neutral words are given in any bilingual English-Ukrainian dictionary and never present any difficulty for the translator to check up their meaning.

2. A separate group of lexical units, which may sometimes have the same meaning but quite different outer/structural expression in English and Ukrainian is presented by diminutives. They have a very poor representation in English (only among some nouns) but there is a very large quantity of them in Ukrainian, where they exist practically among all parts of speech. These words may be used in English only as diminutives or they may express diminutive evaluation as well, which is regularly identified in context. It is difficult to say, for example, whether booklet, manikin or hillockare diminutives only or diminutives and evaluatives at the same time. As diminutives they mean брошура, карлик and горбок respectively, and as diminutive evaluatives they may express the meanings of книжечка, брошурка, чоловічок (small and handsome or scornful), горбочок (not high or pleasant hillock).

This distinction is almost always clearly identified and expressed in Ukrainian where diminutive suffixes may also point to an escalating gradation of a diminutive quality in a noun. This can be seen from each second or third outer form of the following nouns:

1. ручка 2. ручечка 3. рученька 4. рученя 5. рученятко 6.рученяточко 7.руця;

1. голова 2. головка 3. головочка 4. голівка 5. голівочка

6. голівонька/головонька;

1 дівчина 2. дівчинка 3. дівча 4. дівчатко б.дівчаточко

7. дівонька 8. дівчинонька, etc.

Similar meanings have to be expressed (and are to some extent expressed) in English with the help of lexico-syntactic means, i.e., by means of some additional adjectives containing the seme of smallness. Cf.: голівка small head; голівочка/голівонька small/little head; дівчинонька dear/lovely girl, lovely little girl, etc.

English diminutive and evaluative meanings are not always

384

 

clearly and fully expressed by isolated nouns, except for those which have corresponding suffixes as daddy, sissy, granny, and a few others whose direct Ukrainian equivalents are respectively татко / татунь, таточко; сестричка /сеструня/ сестронька; бабуся / бабка, бабуня, бабусенька, etc.

Diminutive and evaluative poetic and endearing (ласкаві) meanings of most other English nouns and their Ukrainian equivalents can be expressed (and identified) only or mostly in the form of word-groups:

small little fingers / dear little fin-       пальчики, пальчички, пальчи-

gers нятка

sweet/dear little flowers гарні / гарненькі / любі кві-

точ(нь)ки

little star (Cf. Twinkle, twinkle       зірочка/зіронька little star)(poet.)

sweet little lips, lovely little lips       вустонька, губи, губоньки,

(poet, colloq.) губки, губенята/губенятка

sweet little girl, dear sweetheart       серденько (любка), любонька

No less, if not more, extensive is the use of the diminutive adjectives in Ukrainian which have no semantic and morphological/ structural equivalents in English because of which they have to be translated in a descriptive way, which can only partly express their subtle Ukrainian meanings. Cf. білесеньке личко a beautiful white little face, dear/lovely white little face; молоденький козаченько - а handsome and lovely youth, тоненькії брівоньки very beautiful thin little eyebrows, ясненький/яснесенький місяченько a very bright and lovely/beautiful little moon/dear beautiful little moon.

Diminutive and evaluative meanings of Ukrainian numerals and pronouns are expressed in English practically in the same way: двієчко/двійко гарненьких діточокімо nice little children/two dear little kids, трієчка a miserable C mark/a miserable satisfactory mark; нічогісінько (там не робиться) absolutely/practically nothing is being done there.

No need to emphasize that a miserable satisfactory mark or absolutely nothing by far from completely express the diminutive and evaluative meanings of трієчка and нічогісінько.

Diminutive and evaluative meanings of Ukrainian adverbs and verbs can be explicitly and implicitly expressed, though only to some degree, in the same descriptive way too. Cf.: тихесенько вітер віє ... (Г.Шевченко) the wind breathes very softly, сядьмо рядком та

385

 

поговоримо ладком (proverb) let us sit side by side and have a lovely talk/chat together; спатки/спатоньки, спатуні, спатунечкиіо have a little (sweet) sleep; їстиЯстоньки to have a nice/tasteful little bite/ dinner, supper, etc.

Neither has the English language any morphological means to express explicitly the augmentative and evaluative meanings of Ukrainian lexemes (mostly nouns). As a result, they acquire in English an objectively predetermined form of explicit expression by means of word-groups or sentences. For example, the pejorative (mostly contemptuous) meanings of a number of Ukrainian augmentative nouns will have the following English outer form expression: вовчище a big formidable wolf/a (big) monster of a wolf; дубище a very thick and tall/ ramous oak-tree; здоровило a healthy/robust fellow, a regular/robust maypole; п'янюга a miserable heavy drunkard, a disgusting inebriate, a three-bottle man, etc.

3. The third class of lexical units, which mostly require a different explicit/outer form presentation in the target language are culturally biased elements/specifically national notions. When in the form of words not belonging to regular internationalisms like lord, mister, shilling, etc. лорд, містер, шилінг, they are mostly transcribed or transliterated and shortly explicated in the target language. Cf.:

haggis (шотл.) геґґіс посічені й перемішані з вівсяним борошном та спеціями овечі потрохи, зварені в жирі в овечому кендюсі; muffin маффин, солодка здоба, випечена в чашкоподібній формі з прісного чи сходячого тіста (споживається гарячою); sheriff шериф, поліцейський начальник округи (США); бабка babka cooked noodles mixed with egg, sugar and raisins, backed in a pot (in oven) and served fresh/warm; веснянки vesnyanky Ukrainian songs hailing the coming spring; вишиванка vyshyvanka an embroidered Ukrainian linen/silk shirt; плахта plakhta thick checkered cloth wrapped by Ukrainian girls and younger women around the waist over the shirt (as a kind of skirt). All above-given structural transformations of lexical units through translation exemplify the objectively conditioned ways of expression pertained to the English or Ukrainian language respectively. The subjectively employed transformations of lexical units in the process of translation are predetermined not so much by the objective, i.e., national linguistic factors, than by the stylistic aims realized by the translator. These are employed to achieve the necessary evaluation or a higher degree of expressiveness. Thus, to render the meaning of (my) dear love the translator, guided by the context, is free to choose on his own will

386

 

one of the following Ukrainian semantic equivalents: люба, кохана, любка/любочка, серденько, дівчинонька, дівчина-рибчина, ясочка, зіронька, дружинонька. No less difficult may also be, for example, the choice of the most fitting in a Ukrainian context diminutive equivalent, say, for the adjective teeny (colloquially teeny - weeny) or its Scottish variant wee, which may have the following synonymous word equivalents in Ukrainian: малесенький, манюній, манюнький, манюсінький, манюпусінький, крихітний.

TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. Name the classes of sense units which do not undergo any

structural transformation in the process of translation.

2. Expand on the nature of inner/implicit transformation of the

source language/sense units in the target language.

3. Define the nature and types of outer/explicit transformation

of the language/sense units in the process ottranslation.

4. Explain and exemplify the outer phonetic/phonological trans

formation of some language units in the process of translation.

5. Give examples of some possible transformations of the

English and Ukrainian simple/compound words and word-groups in

cluding internationalisms and specific notions of national lexicon/cul

turally biased elements.

6. Identify the grammatically/objectively conditioned transfor

mations of sense units and point out the devices employed to achieve

faithfulness in their translation.

7. Explain the reason of employment of stylistically conditioned

transformations of language/sense units in the process of translating.

8. Explain the transformation which occurs through omissions,

additions, extension, reductions, etc. in the target language in the

process of translation.

9. Name the main transformations employed in the process of

translating   Ukrainian   evaluative   lexis   (diminutives  and

augmentatives).

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Analyse the semantic structure and translate the following English simple and compound words into Ukrai-

387

 

nian. Point out the difference (if any) in their outer form in the two languages.

Model: abduct викрадати силою чи обманом (особливожінку чи дитину), a simple word in English - an extended word-group in Ukrainian.

1. Abiology, abloom, acclamation, adore, adrift, agape, airborn,

airsickness, all-clear, all-up, answerable, ashen, babyhood, bailable,

blameful, carnation, chargeable, chemise, clockwise, coddle, cuff,

deployment, diner, embark;

2. endanger, eventful, exuberate, fence, season, fishmonger,

grandmotherly, haunter, headachy, header, head-phones, hurry-scurry,

immissible;

3. jeopardize, jumping-rope, lucubration, lunate, matchwood,

melodize, midmost, midsummer, misstatement, monologize, mother's

mark, mythisize, name-child, needful, northerner/southerner, off-print,

off-shore, outrank, overtalk (v);

4. overtask, parcook, pencraft, percipient, patchwork, playable,

politicize, pot-valiant, pauperize, prison-breaker, prosify, propulsive,

quantify, queenhood;

5. rebuff, reforest, reiterate, remand, readable, repayable, rus

ticate, schoolable, salad-days, saddlefast, sea-born, seaworthy, sig

natories, speaking-trumpet;

6. straddle, stampede, sugar candy, sunproof, sweetie, swing-

door, war-whoop, swift-handed, washable, waterage, zipper.

Exercise II. Prior to translating the Ukrainian simple and compound words into English point out the influence of some prefixal and suffixal morphemes upon their semantic and outer structure in the corresponding English equivalents.

1. Аспірантка,   багатостраждальний,   багатшати,

байдикувати, бездощів'я, безлюддя, бліднути, будень, будь-коли,

буханець, вдосвіта, вдруге/втретє, веселитися, вибовкувати,

вигодинюватися, вигодовувати;

2. виголоднітися, вилежуватися, виплакувати, вихвалювати,

віддавна, власноручний, вмить, востаннє, вранці, вслухуватись,

глухнути, двометровий, десятирічний, дубочок, доверху,

доношувати, донедавна;

3. дообідній, досі, досипати, досхочу, дохристиянський,

дощаний, дужчати, жалкувати, задощити, зарікатися, заспівувати,

манюсінький, найменшенька, нанівець, обіруч, обношуватися,

одвіку, одомашнювати;

388

 

4. окатоличуватися, опам'ятатися, ощасливлювати,

панькатися, переінакшувати, підбігати, поміцнішати, по-

молодецькому, по-нашому, по-святковому, придивлятися, мчатися,

притакувати, прицінюватися;

5. простоювати, ремісникувати, різдвяний, родичатися,

розтовстіти, розцілуватися, самохіть, середньодобовий,

свободолюб, словотвір, спохвачуватись, сокір/сокорина,

тогочасний, торік, увірувати, хнюпитися;

6. холоднеча, худнути, циркач, чаювати, щодуху, найкраще,

щороку, щосили, ювіляр, якнайшвидше, якомога, ярмаркувати.

Exercise III. Translate the Ukrainian evaluative words into English. Distinguish, where possible, between the ways of expressing their purely diminutive or purely augmentative meanings on one hand and tender or coarse meanings on the other.

1. Ангеля/ангелятко, бабусенька, батечко, багатенько,

бажаннячко, батіжок, бурячок, вівчарик, віничок, газетка, Ганнуся,

гарбузик/гарбузяра, голубеня, горнятко, горішок, давненько,

дитятко, дівчинонька, діжечка, діляночка, дрібнесенький(дощик),

дубище, екранчик, житечко, журавлик;

2. жучище, забіяка, зайчик/зайцюга, здоровило, земелька,

зміюка, зубки, зубиська, зятьок, каченяточка, жабера, їстоньки,

кабанчик, кабанюра, катюга, кізонька, коник, корівка, коровисько,

котичок, котяра, левисько, ліжечко, лисичка-сестричка, личко,

літечко, любесенько, масельце;

3. матуся, місяченько, молодичка, ніженьки, ніченька,

носяка, онучатко, орляка, оченята, очиська, півничок, пісенька,

повнісінько, приярок, рибонька, рибище, рученьки, серденько,

синочок, сонечко, сальце;

4. свинюра, тихесенько, точнісінько, тупенький, убоїще,

україночка, усмішечка, фартушок, фіалочка, футлярчик,

хатиночка, хлібець, худесенький, хутесеньке, цапок, цілісінький,

цілуночок, цяцечка;

5. чепурушка, черешенька, чистесенько, чоботище,

чортяка, чубисько, чумаченько, шаблюка, шакалюга, шахраїще,

школярочка, штаненята, щасливчик, ямище, яруга.

Exercise IV. Define the possible ways of expressing the sense of the following English specific notions of national lexicon in Ukrainian.

1. Doughboy, kilt, backbencher, call-up (Amer.), corndodger,

389

 

borough, Dixie (Dixie Land), Empire City, exeat, gobbet, hastings, The Great Lakes, graduation school, headliner, hot-pot, jaw-breaker, Joe Miller, John Bull, K-ration, Labour Exchange, Lady Day, ladyship, landlordism, lovelock, master-spirit, matriculation, maypole, Number 10 Downing Street, okie, part-song;

2. Peeping Tom, penny-wise, penny-worth, pound-foolish, play

off, play-by-play, policy-shop, poor law, porringer, poundage, priestcraft,

the principality, proctor, prize-fight, pro-and-con, provided school,

pussyfoot, remittence-man;

3. roadster, (the) Rockies, sandwich-man, salad-days, Scotch

broth, scon, Stars and Stripes, Solicitor-General, secularist, sopho

more, spa, sporran, squaman, standpatter, stateside, summerschool,

teddy boy, teller (in parliament), tenner;

4. term-time; Tom, Dick and Harry, tommy-shop, tube (Lon

don), tutti-frutti, twopence, toryism, Uncle Sam, under-secretary, union

ist, Valentine (Day), V-Day/VE-Day, Victorian, votee (Amer.), Wardour

Street English, walkie-talkie, Welsh rabbit/rerebit, Whitehall, write in,

yeomanry, Yule-tide, log, zero hour.

Exercise V. Point to the difference in the outer forms of expression of the following Ukrainian culturally biased (specific) notions of national lexicon in English.

Арнаутка, бабка, борщ, боярин, вареники (з сиром, капустою тощо), вергуни, веснянки, вечорниці, вишнівка, гайдамаки, галушки (страва), гопак, гривня, ґринджоли, дівування, дримба, дружка, дядина, залікова книжка, заслати сватів, жупан, картопляники, киптар, кобзар, козаччина, кожух, коломийка, колядники, крашанка, кукурудзяні баранці, куліш, кутя, лантух, льох, маковія, обжинки, окріп, оселедець (козацький), паляниця, пампушки, парубкування, перепій (весільний), пиріжки (із сиром), писанка, плай, плахта, посипальники, рухівці, рушник, ряжанка, сирники, солонина/сало, січовик, січові стрільці, соломка (їстивна), толока, трембіта, троїсті музики, Хмельниччина (істор.), цябрина, чумакування, шулики', щедрівки/щедрування, «Ще не вмерла Україна», Дочка Прометея, Кобзар, Каменяр, розкуркулювання, герої Крут.

390

 

IV. SEMANTIC ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION

LANGUAGE UNITS AND LEVELS OF THEIR FAITHFUL TRANSLATION

The theoretical principles of faithful translation and their realization through various devices of the target language testify to the fact that referential meanings of many language units can be equivalently expressed via the same level units of the target language. For example, the proper names of people and most of geographical names, like the international words can be faithfully translated at the level of words. The phraseological/idiomatic expressions and the bulk of words expressing specific nationally biased units of lexicon are mostly translated at the level of words-combinations/phrases and sentences. Though sometimes the lexical meaning of an idiom or a unit of specific national lexicon can be faithfully turned into the target language with the help of a single word as well (when international).

In other words, a considerable number of simple lexemes and word combinations, stable and idiomatic expressions can be faithfully translated when they are taken isolated, viz. at language level. Thus, the meaning of most pronouns and numerals remains unchanged whether they are used in context or taken as separate words at language level Cf.: ґЛгеетри, fifteen п'ятнадцять, fifty п'ятдесят, fifth/sixth п'ятий/ шостий, one-thirdодна третя, zero point nine нуль цілих дев'ять десятих; І я, he він, she вона, nobody ніхто, etc.

Similarly with many nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and function words which are monosemantic both in the source language and in the target language: the sky небо, the moon місяць, geese / swans гуси/ лебеді, lake озеро, the island острів, political політичний, fo/ac/счорний, white6\nm, bathe купатися, sing співати, sleep спати, легетут, often часто, firstly по-перше, among серед/ споміж, under під, or чи, that (conjunction) що; hallo! anno, ah ax, oh ox, even навіть, yet однак, etc.

A bulk of words belonging to the above-mentioned logico-gram-matical classes of words may also have two or more semantically identical referents, i.e., synonymous meanings. The latter are often stylistically marked and .should possibly be distinguished in the text under translation as well. Among these may be even such seemingly simple words as the English because бо, тому що, через те що; courage сміливість, відвага; dad/daddy тато, татунь/татусь; drake селезень/ качур; everywhere повсюди, скрізь or Ukrainian: дитя

391

 

baby/kid/child; осел ass, donkey; тьху! phew, pie, pshaw, pooh!; чиж/ик greenfinch, siskin. These words have one referent similarly to many different terms which are translated both at word level and at word-group/sentence level. E.g.: sprint спринт, біг на короткі дистанції; steeple-chase біг з перешкодами; service first stroke (tennis) удар, яким уводиться м'яч у гру.

A faithful conveying of a referential meaning at word level may often depend upon some extralingual factors as well. Thus, depending on the readers/listeners addressed, the translator/interpreter should use correspondingly either British or American lexical variants: lorry вантажна машина (Br. Engl.), truck (Amer. Engl.), tin консервна банка (Br. Engl.), can (Amer. English), ІітеїаЬІерозклас) (Br. Engl.), schedule (Amer. Engl.), sweets цукерки (Br. Engl.), candies (Amer. Engl.), bathroom ванна (Br. Engl.), туалет (Amer. English), maize кукурудза (Br. Engl.), corn (Am. Engl.), cloak-room роздягальня (Br. Engl.), coat-room (Amer. English), etc.

Regional peculiarities of the kind must be taken into consideration in order to achieve the necessary national orientation of a purposeful written or oral translation.

Most of compound English words having transparent componental semes are translated into Ukrainian either at the level of words (compounds) or at the level of word-combinations, the latter being formed from the componental parts which become separate words in Ukrainian: air-base авіабаза; but air-raid повітряний наліт; birthplace місце народження; cross-road перехрестя шляхів/ доріг; steamship пароплав; tooth paste зубна паста; hour-hand годинникова стрілка.

The translation of compounds may sometimes look like descriptive though: breadthways у ширину/завширшки; longwise у довжину/завдовжки; southwardna південь/у південному напрямку; tenfold десятиразовий; thousandfold у тисячу разів; westward спрямований на захід/у західному напрямку.

A similar approach is often made when translating many Ukrainian structural and semantic compounds into English: восьмина the eighth part of smth.; вузькоколійка the narrow-gauge railway; третина, the third part of smth./one-third of smth.; сімсотріччя the seven-hundredth anniversary.

Since the number of notions in any language does not coincide with the number of words expressing them, a word-level translation can not always provide a faithful rendering of any single word meaning. Thence, a large number of the source language words are to be

392

 

translated into the target language by means of word-combinations or even sentences: hi-jack силою змушувати пілотів міняти курс літака з корисливою метою; abound бути багатим на щось; agape роззявивши рота (від здивування); armistice коротке перемир'я / припинення воєнних дій; asyndeton пропуск сполучників; aurist спеціаліст із захворювань вуха; banting лікування ожиріння дієтою; briber той, хто дає хабарі; casualize переводити на тимчасову роботу; didacticism схильність до повчань.

Quite a few monosemantic words in Ukrainian are also notion-ally extended: вчадіти to be affected by the fumes/to die from carbon monoxide poisoning; доба day and night (24 hours); заполоч coloured threads for embroidering; літепло slightly warm/ed water; бути нівроку (to be) healthy looking and fleshy, beautiful, strong; нудьгувати to be despirited/to be in the dumps; нюшити to sniff the air (about dogs); окріп boiling/extremely hot water, періодизація division into periods; цяцькатися to take much trouble over smb./smth.

Various evaluating meanings (diminutive, augmentative, etc.) are expressed or rather conveyed in English and Ukrainian both at word level and at word-combination level, the former being predominant, as a rule, in Ukrainian: baggie мішечок; catkin котик (на вербі); coatee пальтечко; горбик hillock; квіточка floweret; чоловічок manikin.

Many Ukrainian diminutives expressing also the meaning of endearment through morphological means may have in English two realizations (morphological and lexico-syntactic): матуся mummy/ dear mum; татко dad (daddy), dear dad; сестричка sissy/little sister; книжечка booklet/little book; пташина birdie/little bird; хмаринка cloudlet/little cloud, small little cloud.

It must be emphasized, however, that more Ukrainian words expressing their evaluating meanings morphologically are rendered in English through lexico-syntactic sense units/word-combinations: будиночок a small house or a small little house; рученька a little hand or a small little hand; садочок a small garden or a small little garden/orchard, воріженьки perfidious/cunning enemies.

Higher degrees of diminutiveness and endearment in Ukrainian diminutive words which is expressed as shown above (through suffixes and prefixes) can be conveyed in English (though not always to an equal degree) with the help of lexico-syntactic means (at word-combination level): матусенька/татунечко dear/dearly loved (beloved) mummy/daddy; рученятка /рученяточка small little hands/dear little hands; манюсінький ґномик small/tiny little gnome;

393

 

найкращенька рибинка the most beautiful small/tiny little fish; двієчко діточок two small little babies/two dear kiddies; спатоньки to have a little sleep, have a sweet little sleep, etc.

Negative evaluating meanings, which are mostly expressed at word level in Ukrainian, can also be rendered into English lexico-syntactically (at word-combination level): бицюра (про чоловіка) а veritable man of a bull; собацюра a monster of a dog; рибисько а whale of a fish; ямище a veritable abyss; дідуган (pejorative) a venerable/staid old man, вітрюга heavy/strong wind, an almost stormy wind; дурощі (напр. куріння) monkey-business, etc.

It must be noted that some pejorative evaluating meanings can be expressed in Ukrainian and sometimes in English by morphological means. Consequently, these meanings are rendered at word level: heavy йшп/га/г/п'яничка/п'янюга; с/и//ага[тупак/тупиця, «ступа»; kinglet нікчемний король/королик, sluggard ледацюга/лежень.

These are by far all Ukrainian and English means which can together with the diminutive/augmentative affixes considerably influence the denotative and connotative (evaluative) meaning of some notional words. The beginning translator must be well aware of this fact while selecting equivalent versions for such kind of words in the target language. Still greater care should be taken when rendering the connotative meanings of words which are not morphologically manifested.

Ways of Conveying the Meanings of Polysemantic Language Units

Unlike words with evaluative and other connotation, the denotative meaning of a bulk of words can be identified at the level of word-combinations or sentences only. These words constitute a considerable part of present-day English lexicon and are referred to as polysemantic words. For example, the denotative meanings of the verb (or noun) part can be fully displayed in the word-combinations like: to part the fighting cocks, to part company with somebody, to part one's hair, to take part in something, the sixth part of the melon, to have a small part in the event, etc.

Sometimes it may be difficult to identify without larger context the proper meaning even of such a simple polysemantic word as your, which can be in Ukrainian either ваш, ваша, ваші/твій, твоя, твоє, твої or свій, своя, своє, свої respectively. The proper meaning of many other polysemantic words can be realized

394

 

already at word-combination level. This can be seen, for example, from the translation of the verbs to break and to come in the following sentences:

He shouldn't be surprised if        Він не здивувався б, коли б

they began to break the windows, вони почали бити вікна.

(Galsworthy)

Bossiney broke the silence. Боссіні порушив мовчанку. (Ibid.)

If Irene broke such laws what        Якщо Айрін порушила такі

does it matter? (Ibid.) закони, то що це означає?

When the evening came Car-         Коли настав вечір, Керрі

rie   hurried  eagerly  away, поспішила хутенько зник-

(T. Dreiser) нути.

«But don 'tcome near the wa-         «Але не підходь близько/не

ter, or else you may be attacked наближайся до води, бо на

by sharks. (J.AIdridge) тебе можуть напасти акули.»

Stilll other meanings of these and other verbs can be realized and consequently faithfully rendered into the target language only at sentence level as in the following examples: The first prize came to me. and the 2nd and the 3rd went to students of the Stanford and Berkely Universities. (J.London) Перша премія дісталась мені, а другу й третю одержали студенти Стенфордського і Берклійського університетів. But being very lonely I read everything that came my way. (Ibid.) Але будучи самотнім/нудьгуючи на самоті, я читав усе, що потрапляло мені до рук.

The verb come has some quite different realizations in set/idiomatic expressions, cf.: to come under one's eye/notice -привернути до себе увагу; to come under one's thumb -викликати підозру; to come under the yoke - примиритися з поразкою (вгнути голову); to come unstuck-провалитися, піти прахом; соте what may-що буде, те буде; to come Yorkshire over one - обдурити, обманути когось.

Some meanings of polysemantic verbs and other parts of speech are not quite easy to identify even at sentence level, as can be seen from the examples below:

«Shall I take you round the «Може, сер, я пошлю кухаря house, sir, while I send the cook повідомити його про це. доки я tQ_break it to him?» (Galsworthy) показуватиму вам будинок?»

395

 

Крістінбула четвертою за столом.

... коли б не якась копійка у моєї дружини, я не міг би стільки терти лямку (не протяг би, не витримав би так довго).

Christine made a fourth at the table. (Cronin)

... if it had not been for my wife having a little money of her own, I couldn't have carried on as I have done. (J.Priestley)

Translation of polysemantic words may often require a deep insight into content of a part or of the whole passage/text comprising some sentences. This can be partly seen from the meanings of the nouns stuff and run in the sentences below:

«But isn't there time before «Та невже у тебе не буде

your train to get all your stuff to- часу до відходу поїзда зібрати

gether?» (M. Wilson) всі свої манатки/речі?»

All that kind of antiwar talk you Усі ці патякання проти

hear nowadays from your fellows війни, які чуєш серед молоді, -

is the worst kind of subversive та це ж найгіршого штибу

stuff. (Ibid.) підривна діяльність.

Since it is always the concrete context that predetermines the real meaning of a polysemantic word, the translator has to study first of all the original passage/text thoroughly and only then suggest an equivalent which would fit in for the translation:

менший, ніж 1929 року, адже он які події розгортаються в Европі.

Now, of course, there was as Зараз, звичайно, роботи much business in machine tools вистачає, на станки попит не at least as there had been in 1929, what with this European stuff going on. (M.Wilson)

Ну а як воно покаже себе на важкому станку? Адже нас саме важкі станки цікавлять.

But what happens when he gets to the heavy stuff? And it's the heavy stuff we're interested.

(Ibid.)

«Oh, stuff it up your nose!» one of the companions said. (D.Carter)

«Then I'll finish up the grids and get ready for the run just as I was going to do.» (Ibid.)

«... I am going to give young Dr.Anthony Haviland the run of his goddamn life.» (Ibid.)

«Заткни пельку/замовкни!» -гримнув один із тієї компанії.

«Тоді я закінчу з захисними сітками і приготую їх до досліду, який я саме й мав намір проводити...»

«... Я цьому молодому докторові Ентоні Гевіленду дам такої нагінки. що він усе життя пам'ятатиме.»

396

 

Lately, we've had a run of Останнім часом ми

shocking bad luck at the Depart- отримали кілька відмов у

ment. (Cronin) міністерстві.

Their stores were already run- У них уже закінчувалися

ning low. (Stevenson) (завершувалися) запаси

продуктів.

«They seem to be running «Вони, здається, готують

wild». (J.AIdridge) бунт» (захопити владу)

It would be wrong to assume that only polysemantic notionals can realize their actual meanings at the level of word-combinations and sentences. Some meanings of functionals can also be identified only at the level of sentences or external word-groups. Among these may be even the meanings of conjunctions as, for example, that of and in the following sentence: The poem was long and he could not learn it by heart. Here and may have either the meaning of the coordinate conjunction / or the implicit meaning of the subordinate conjuction оскільки/тому. (Why could he not learn the poem by heart? - Because it was long.) - Оскільки/тому що вірш був великий, він його не вивчив напам'ять.

Similarly with some other functionals whose implicit meanings, functions and sometimes even their logico-grammatical nature can be clearly established only at the level of word-groups or sentences. This becomes clearly evident from the following sentences in which the lexical and logico-grammatical nature of the word but is most explicitly realized:

«He is but a boy!» «Та ж він me хлопчина/

(R.AIdington) дитина!»

All of us but a few have come Ми всі, за винятком/крім to this conclusion. (G.Greene) небагатьох, прийшли до

цього висновку.

But for his open eyes, he Якби очі не були

might have been asleep, розплющені, можна було

(Glasworthy) подумати, що він спить.

The contextual environment ofbuf. therefore, predetermines the lexico-grammatical nature of the word (and not only of this word), which may be adverb (We can not but try. - Нам залишається тільки ще раз спробувати) or conjunction (Never a week passes but he comes. - He минає і тиждня, щоб він не навідався.)

The word but is also used in different functions in idiomatic expressions. Cf.: «But me no buts. sir, interrupts the diddler, apparently in a very high dungeon.» (E.Poe) - «а ти мені не

397

 

«алекай» (не відхрещуйся), - грубо обірвав йогф голос причепи ніби/мов із глибокої темниці. The last but one -передостанній, but for - якби не/коли б не. but for your help we should not have finished in time-якби не твоя допомога, ми не зактчили б роботу вчасно; but then крім того: London is a busy place, but then it is also the place where you get the best entertainment. (CADE) Лондон - місто великої ділової активності, а крім того ще й місце, де можна найкраще порозважатися.

The choice of a definite meaning out of some inherent in the semantic structure of an English language unit can also depend upon the style of the matter under translation. For example, the idiomatic expression to loose one's reason and its synonyms to loose one's mind, to go out of one's head, to go insane are confined in their use to literary speech styles, while to go mad or to go crazy are used in colloquial and low colloquial speech styles, as a rule.

Similar stylistic restrictions are observed with the use of Ukrainian equivalents and analogies of this idiomatic expression too. Cf.:

literary/neutral style: зійти з розуму/рішитися розуму, з'їхати з глузду.

colloquial/low colloquial: блекоти/чемериці наїстися, здуріти, сказитися.

No need to prove that the lexical meaning of each of these variants, even when taken out of context, already predetermines at the same time the speech style, in which it can and should be used in the target language.

A considerable number of other sense units, however, which are endowed with particular emotive, stylistic or extralingual meanings, can not exaustively explicate these characteristics at the level of a word-group or even sentence, but only at the level of passage/ text. This becomes especially evident when translating belles-lettres/ publicistic and some other styles texts.1

Conveying the Meanings of Language Units at Passage/Text Level

The text as a term is in the true sense of the word a segment of written/oral speech or a whole work consisting of grammatically

1 See: Nida E.A. Componentat Analysis of Meaning. - The Hague - Paris: Mouton, 1975. Hoey M. Patterns of Lexis in Text. - Oxford: Ox.University Press, 1991.

398

 

\

and logically arranged language units forming with their meanings its general content. Text as a speech unit may be smaller or larger, but irrespective of its dimension it always remains a macrostructure, which is not an indivisible monolith but a harmonious unity of different language units. A larger text usually falls into several constituent parts -supra-phrasal units and different types and kinds of sentences. All of them due to their communicative completeness and logical succession1 constitute something of a semantic and structural backbone of any text. These parts together with their various meanings make the general contextual stream of the text, whose content can be fully and faithfully conveyed only when all contents of each block are fully and exaustively expressed. As the blocks/supra-phrasal units are made of sentences, hence, the necessary degree of faithfulness in any translation of texts/passages can be achieved only through faithful translation of all types of their ingredient sentences.

It must be emphasized, however, that it is not only content (the semantic plane), in other words, not only the lexical meanings of various sense units, that have to be fully and faithfully transplanted in the process of translation. No less important is to fully convey apart from many denotative meanings of language units also their connotative characteristics, as well as their stylistic and structural peculiarities. A faithful translation of supra-phrasal units or passages/ text of any speech style, therefore, presents a complex process, which involves a full and faithful expression in the target language of all the main constituent parts forming the semantic, structural, stylisitic and other planes of a text. In view of all this it will be expedient to emphasize that all characteristics (nothing to say about the denotative and the connotative meanings of words and the means of expression in general) are identified, as a rule, by way of a thorough analysis of the original text. This analysis inevitably involves apart from the particularities of content also the pragmatic toning/orientation, which can be exhaustively established, however, only at deep level structure of the communicative units.

It must also be added that despite the differences in their actualization, the planes of a text are impossible to separate from each other, since they are closely interconnected and form the surface and the deep structures complexity of any text. Hence it follows, that the characteristic features of each plane manifest themselves and are fully realized at text level, which can sometimes be restricted, as has

See: Москальская О.И. Грамматика текста. -М.: Вьісшая школа, 1981, р.14.

399

 

been said, to a supersyntactic unit/paragraph reflecting its m^in structural, stylistic, pragmatic and other peculiarities. These peculiarities should be rendered in the faithful variant of the target language text/ passage as well, though usually by other than in the target language means of expression.

But whatever the divergences in the means of expression of the source language and of the target language, and irrespective of the fact that far from all the characteristic features of any text are fully reflected in its main componental parts, the translation of a text can be succefully performed only on the basis of its constituent sentences. This is because all syntactic level units are endowed with predication and modality, they have mostly a stuctural and sense completion, they are stylistically and pragmatically in full conformity with the whole text. In view of all this only the sentence can fully meet the requirements laid before a unit of translation, when the object assigned to translation is a text which usually consists of different types and kinds of sentences joined in supra-syntactic structures.

Since a faithful translation of any passage/text is performed sentence after sentence, their ideas/thoughts, the main structural, stylistic, genre and pragmatic characteristics are mostly conveyed in a consecutive succession too. Their constituent words, word-groups and set expressions/idioms functioning as different parts of the sentence or forming constituent elements of the latter (or even being independent elements in the sentence) are all first translated as single units. In other words, prior to translating the sentence as a whole (provided it is not a one-member sentence, like Winter. Bitter frost. Evening time), its parts and functionally independent elements are to be translated as separate sense units. E.g.:

All day we had been sitting in Цілісінький день ми просиділи

the piano box waiting for the rain в ящикові з-під піаніно, чекаючи,

to stop. (E. Caldwell) доки перестане дощ.

As can easily be ascertained, only through translation of the component parts 1) All day, 2) we had been sitting, 3) in the piano box, 4) waiting, 5) for the rain to stop could the translation of the sentence be fully and faithfully accomplished.

Similarly in the following simple two-member sentence:

There was an old two-storey        Того року на ФілдінґАве-

yellow house on Fielding A venue    ню ще стояв старий де опо-

that year. (W.Saroyan) верховий жовтий будинок.

400

 

\

This sentence too could be translated faithfully into Ukrainian only after its component parts, which also function as parts of the sentence, were translated one after another, though not necessarily in absolutely the same, as in the source language, succession. Cf.: 1) that year, 2) on Fielding Avenue, 3) was, 4) an old two-storey yellow house. There is no need to adduce any further proofs in support of the existence of a preliminary stage of translation preceding the final one, i.e., complete and faithful translation of the whole communicative sense unit. One must acknowledge, therefore, the existence of translation at all main language levels represented by the corresponding sense units. Consequently, one can speak of the existence of some language units having their separate levels of translation. This was already exemplified more than once on the foregoing pages and it will be shown in the process of translating several supersyntactic level units/paragraphs a little further. And yet a language unit in which all possible meanings pertained to other language units, which are hierarchically lower in rank than the sentence and thus function as its componental parts, are fully realized at the level of the communicative unit or text as a whole. There will be more than one chance to ascertain in that in the process of the commented translation of an excerpt from D.Parker's short story Arrangement in Black and White below. Some other excerts representing different language styles and assigned for independent translation will also testify to the pointed above statements.

The selected passage to be analysed belongs to the belles-lettres style and consequently abounds in various features characteristic of it1. Besides it represents a dialogue with many colloquialisms peculiar of spoken American English. The authoress employed many other stylistic means to make the narration lively and the development of the plot dynamic and interesting. The story is a masterly piece of psychological motivation of each character's behavior and speech part. The text abounds in many shortened and elliptical sentences and other stylistic means which are used to create some pragmatic subtext which the translator has to comprehend and then fully convey with the help of some functionally relevant stylistic, syntactic and lexical/semantic means of the Ukrainian target language.

Before starting the commented translation of the text it is expedient to repeatedly make mention of the obligatory stages that

1 See: Коптілов В. В. Теорія і практика перекладу. - К.: Вища шк. Вид-во при Київ, ун-ті, 1982.-166с.

401

 

fthe

should precede the very process of translation. The first of them is to read through the passage/work selected for translation and to analyse it. All attention in the course of this analysis should be paid to picking out the language units whose denotative or connotative meanings present some difficulties for translating. After this all attension must be paid to choosing in dictionaries/reference books the possible semantic, structural and stylistic variants for the language units or signs as they are sometimes called1, which present difficulties for translating. The second stage implies a regular selection from the chosen variants, which are usually more than one, the most fitting into the given sentence/passage semantic, functional or stylistic equivalents and substitutes. Only when this preparatory work is completed, the translation proper can be started.

It must also be noted that the peculiar sentence structures, the tropes, the prosodic and other means in belles-lettres texts serve the aim of creating the necessary impact on the reader/listener. That is why the regular preparatory work on the text selected for translation always takes some time, the latter being often predetermined not only by the skill and theoretical grounding of the translator but by some other factors as well. These include the ease (or otherwise) of the author's style, the abundance or absence of difficult for translation linguistic phenomena in his work as neologisms, archaisms, dialectal material or any other obscure places created by some historic events or customs, culturally biased national notions and the like. Because of this the preparatory time needed for a translation proper to begin may vary from text to text. The main methods by which the «resistance» of the source language text may be overcome in translation (with particular attention to selecting the means of expression) will be shown further on the pages to come.

And now in accordance with the requirements of the first stage in the preparatory work for translation, read and thoroughly analyse the passage below paying attention to difficult or obscure (if any) places you come across in each separate sentence. Put the picket out sense units down and offer one or some suitable lexical/semantic equivalents for each of them. See to it that they also suit in the speech style of the corresponding sentences and in the excerpt of this D.Parker's story as a whole.

1 For further information on the meaning of various language signs зее:Комиссаров B.H. Слово о переводе. - M.: Междунар. отношения, 1973. - р.213

402

 

D.Parker ARRANGEMENT IN BLACK AND WHITE (An Excerpt)

1. The woman with the pink velvet poppies turned round the

assisted gold of her hair1, traversed the crowded room at an inter

esting gait combining a skip with a sidle, and clutched the lean arm

of her host.

2. «Now I got you!» she said. «Now you can't get away!»

3. «Why, hello,» said her host. «Well. How are you?»

4. «Oh, I'm finely,» she said. «Just simply finely. Listen. I want

you to do me the most terrible favor. Will you? Will you please? Pretty

please?»

5. «What is it?» said her host.

6. «Listen,» she said. «I want to meet Walter Williams. Hon

estly, I'm just simply crazy about that man. Oh, when he sings! When

he sings those spirituals2. Well, I said to Burton, «It's a good thing for

you Walter Williams is colored,» I said, «or you'd have lots of reason

to be jealous.» I'd really love to meet him. I'd like to tell him I've heard

him sing. Will you be an angel and introduce me to him?»

7. «Why, certainly,» said her host. «I thought you'd met him.

The party's for him. Where is he, anyway?»

8. «He's over there by the bookcase,» she said. «Let's wait till

those people get through talking to him. Well, I think you're simply

marvellous, giving this perfectly marvellous party for him and having

him meet all those white people, and all. Isn't he terribly grateful?»

9. «I hope not,» said her host.

10. «I think it's really terribly nice,» she said. «I do. I don't see

why on earth it isn't perfectly all right to meet colored people. I haven't

any feeling about it at all - not one single bit. Burton, - oh, he's just

the other way. Well, you know, he comes from Virginia, and you know

how they are.»

11. «Did he come tonight?» said her host.

12. «No, he couldn't,» she said. «I'm a regular grass widow

tonight. I told him when I left, There's no telling what I'll do, I said. He

was just so tired out, he couldn't move. Isn't it a shame?»

13. «Ah,» said her host.

14. «Wait till I tell him I met Walter Williams!» she said. «He'll

just about die. Oh, we have more arguments about colored people.

1 the assisted gold of her hair- her hair had been dyed gold.

2 spirituals - Negro songs, religious in essence, like folk ballades.

403

 

I talk to him like I don't know what, I get so excited. «Oh, don't be so silly,» I say. But I must say for Burton, he's heaps broader-minded than lots of these Southerners. He's really awfully fond of colored people. Well, he says himself, he wouldn't have white servants. And you know, he had this old colored nurse, this regular old nigger mammy and he just simply loves her. Why, every time he goes home, he goes out in the kitchen to see her. He does, really, to this day. All he says is, he says, he hasn't got a word to say against colored people as long as they keep their place. He's always doing things for them - giving them clothes and I don't know what all. The only thing he says, he says he wouldn't sit down at the table with one for a million dollars. «Oh,» I say to him, «you make me sick, talking like that. I'm just terrible to him. Aren't I terrible?»

15. «Oh, no, no, no,» said her host. «No, no.»

16. «I am», she said. «I know I am. Poor Burton! Now, me, I

don't feel that way at all. I haven't the slightest feeling about colored

people. Why, I'm just crazy about some of them. They're just like

children - just as easy-going, and always singing and laughing and

everything. Aren't they the happiest things you ever saw in your life?

Honestly, it makes me laugh just to hear them. Oh, I like them. I

really do.»

Note. As could be ascertained, the excerpt contains several features characterestic of the belles-lettres style. This is also proved by some ways of expression and by syntactic peculiarities of speech pertained only to present-day colloquial English of the USA. The translator has to recreate and convey faithfully the content side, the style, the artistic and syntactic peculiarities, and the pragmatic intention/ the subtext only of D.Parker's highly artistic story. This can be disclosed through a complex analysis of the main planes of the excerpt. Such an explicatory analysis of the afore-cited sentences is also performed on the forthcoming pages.

404

 

Lexico-Semantic, Stylistic and Structural Analysis of Language Units/Sense Units of the Excerpt

The analysis of this excerpt, like any complex analysis of a text, should be started from the title, which is metaphorical by nature (Arrangement in Black and White). Here is a case when the real meaning of the title can be established only after a thorough semantic and stylistic analysis of the passage. Apart from this, some extralingual factors, as the once strained racial relationship between the whites and blacks in the USA, should be taken into account. And yet the title, as becomes clear from its component parts (Arrangement, between, Black, White) already discloses the main idea of the excerpt. At any rate it hints to the intention of the white woman character to get acquainted with a well-known Negro singer, performer of spirituals. This gives the clue to some suggestions conceiving the meaning of the title, which may have the following versions in Ukrainian: 1. «Влаштування зустрічі білої з чорним», 2. «Зустріч білої з нергом-співаком», 3. «Знайомство білої з кольоровим співаком».

None of these suggested titles, however, is felicious enough to be accepted as final, since neither of them fully expresses the main idea of the excerpt and the story as a whole. Each of the suggested titles fails to express the falsehood of the woman character who is not simply a white, but a racist white. Taking this negative feature of the character into considaration, one can offer some additional Ukrainian versions for the title, which might be more expressive and closer to the original sense: 1. «Біла на концерті чорного співака»; 2. «Біла на концерті кольорового співака»; 3. «Відвідини концерту кольорового співака білою «поклонницею» таланту»; 4. «Біла «поклонниця таланту» кольорового співака».

Out of these four offered versions only the last appears to be close to the content of the story and intention of the authoress. It expresses to some extent the falsehood and the double-dealing conduct of the woman character, which is partly reflected in the title. It also hints to the hidden negative features of the main character of the story, though even this Ukrainian version does not fully express the meaning of the original title. Nevertheless, it may be the beginning to the solution of this far from easy question and serve as a basis for other versions, which may be closer to the concept of D.Parker, who has given a most vivid portrayal of a regular mentally and psychologi-

405

 

cally split character proclaims her principle of respect to the equality of different races and acts, just on the contrary. This striking feature in the psychological state and behavior of the female character gives grounds for suggesting some more Ukrainian versions of the title, some of which may be really final: 1. «Поклонниця» таланту кольорового митця», 2. «Біла «поклонниця» таланту чорного співака», 3. «Вдавана поклонниця таланту», and even a single word version «Хамелеон».

The most fitting in comparison with the preceding four suggested titles may be considered the last two of these offered versions, one of which may be chosen (with some transformation) as absolutely acceptable in Ukrainian: «Вдавана поклонниця таланту» or «Палка «прихильниця» таланту».

The lengthy contemplation upon the title of the excerpt/story testifies to the difficulties facing the translator of belles-lettres, which may sometimes become insurmountable. In view of this, some losses, as a result of the great «resistance» of the original text, must be condoned (виправдані). Despite the difficulties, the translator should never desist from the efforts to select the most fitting target language variants for any language unit/sense unit of the source language.

It must be emphasized that the process of selecting the semantic and structural equivalents for certain sense units in the target language requires not only profound knowledge of the source language, but also, and not to a smaller degree, that of his native tongue. Hence, of paramount importance is the translator's skill in selecting among synonymous sense units of the source language the only suitable versions in the target language, as will be observed further, when analysing separate blocks of sentences from the excerpt. This aim is achieved via a thorough lexico-semantic, grammatical/structural and stylistic analysis of sense units during the process of translating each single sentence of the excerpt/passage below. It may also be interesting, and not only for an inexperienced translator, to follow the analysis beginning with the structure of the first primary predication word-group, which reads as follows: The woman with the pink velvet poppies turned round the assisted gold of her hair... The predicate turned roundmay be erroneously understood by the student as вінок навколо пофарбованих у золотавий колір кіс/волосся, which would be absolutely wrong, since turned here means повернула голову з пофарбованим у золотавий колір волоссям. A proof to

406

 

this is the second homogeneous predicate traversed (the crowded room) with an interesting gate combining a skip with a sidle. The Ukrainian versions/equivalents of this participial word-group may be:

1. енергійно боком проштовхалась через переповнену залу,

2. прожогом, бочкуючи, проштовхалась... These two variants are

possible due to the sense of the word-group (combining) a skip with a

sidle (in a word-for-word translation "боком з підскоком»). Equally of

interest may also be the last homogeneous predicate with its conclu

sion clutched the lean hand of her host, which should be transformed

through addition into the following sentence: /, наблизившись до

господаря, схопила його за худорляву руку.

The dialogue between the woman character and her host is of interest both from the structural/syntactic, stylistic and semantic points of view. All these dialogues are both abrupt, elliptical, and sentence-type, presenting in some places regular monologues. Their peculiar features, naturally, must also be maintained in Ukrainian. The highly emotional nature of speech presented in the dialogues of the woman character, her extensive use of subjective and objective modality often requires the employment of such means of expressing modality in Ukrainian as modal particles. This can be observed practically in most addresses of the woman, as in the following dialogues:

«Now I got you!» she said. «Ось ви і попалися мені!»

«Now you can't get away!» вигукнула вона. «Тепервамне

втекти!»

"Why, hello,» said her host. «А, вітаю,»-озвавсягосподар.

«Well. How are you?» «Ну. як ся маємо/як справи?»

Apart from the use of the expressive modal particles (ось, а, ну) the highly emotional speech of the woman character abounds in wrong forms of some words. Cf.:

«Oh, I'm finely.» she said. «О. в мене все красненько.»

«Just simply finely. Listen. I want відповіла вона. «Просто-таки

you to do me the most terrible красненько. Послухайте, я хочу,

favor. Will you? Will you please? щоб ви мені зробили страшенну

Pretty please?» послугу- Зробите? Будь-ласка,

зробите? Дуже вас прошу!»

The wrong use of finely instead of the correct form fine is not easy to translate into Ukrainian, where there is no corresponding cor-

407

 

rupted form of this adverb. Hence, the stylistically possible wrong imployment of the adverbкрасненько with the aim of compensating the English corruption in Ukrainian translation.

Certainly of some interest, but without any difficulty for translators, may be the oxymoron the most terrible favor which should be in Ukrainian simply страшенна послуга or страшенно велика послуга. Of interest is also the fifth sentence («What is it?»), which may have some versions, though not the word-for-word version «Що це?» or «Що це таке?» as the host meant some concrete idea of the noun «the favor». Correspondingly, the interrogative sentence may have one of the following four faithful variants: 1. «А яку (послугу)?»; 2. «А саме?»; З. «Що за послугу?»; 4. «Тобто?».

In the sixth block of sentences, certainly of interest from the point of view of translation, may be some word-groups and sentences, even the simple and constantly used concluding words «he said/she said» after the direct speech. These several times repeated English sentences, naturally, can not (for stylistic reasons) be translated word-for-word as «він сказав/вона сказала». Acceptable may be, depending on the context, the following versions: поцікавився він/вона, запитав він/вона, звернулася вона/він, вставила вона/він and sometimes an omisionof this tag sentence altogether.

Certainly of some difficulty in the sixth sentence may be the verb meet in the utterance / want to meet Walter Williams, where it has the contextual meaning of познайомитися; hence, the Ukrainian version must be Я хочу познайомитися з Волтером Вільямсом and not Я хочу зустрітися з Волтером Вільямсом.

No less interesting, though far from easy to render, are some other sense units in sentence 6 in the woman's dialogue. Among them is the sentence «Honestly, I'm just simply crazy about that man» in which there are some stumbling blocks worth being analysed. For example, «honestly» may have some faithful variants in Ukrainian: «чесно», «слово честі», «їй-богу», «правду кажу». Any of the first three versions may be used in this Ukrainian translation. As to the part of the sentence «I'm just simply crazy» (about that man), it may have two variants in this sentence: 1. «Я в нестямі від цієї людини» (and not - від цього чоловіка, which may have some other meaning) or 2. «Я просто божеволію від захоплення цим співаком." No direct (word-for-word) translation can be suggested for the sentence

408

 

«Oh, when he sings», which may have two faithful variants: 1. «О, як він співає» and 2. «О, як він тільки співає» (with the use of the emphatic particle тільки).

Some difficulty may arise when translating the utterance «Well, I said to Burton, when I left, it's a good thing for you Walter Williams is coloured» I said, «or you'd have lots or reasons to be jealous.»Its faithful version in Ukrainian can be achieved only through a deep inquiry into the content and style of the utterance. Probably the most difficult is to translate the repeated utterance «I said», which is a kind of an inserted sentence often used in narration in Ukrainian too, but only in present form of a definite personal sentence (in reported speech). Its form is «кажу» (cf.: А я оце кажу, А я оце сиджу та й думаю, etc). Hence, the only correct/faithful Ukrainian translation of this block of sentences may be as follows: « Ну/то ж я сказала Бертону, як ішла з дому: добре, кажу, що цей Волтер Вільямс кольоровий, а то в тебе було б багато підстав для ревнощів/ ревнувати.»

Two more utterances of the block are not easy from the point of view of translation either: 1. «I'd really love to tell him» which can be translated as «Я б дуже хотіла сказати» or «Я б обов'язково сказала йому» and 2. «І heard him sing» which can not mean «Я чула, як він співав», which is of no importance for the host or anybody, since to hear anybody sing is no great privilege whatsoever. Only her having attended some of the singer's concerts could be qualified in certain periods of the U.S. history as a bold deed. Because of this the sentence should be translated as follows: «Я б йому сказала, що була на його концерті/відвідувала його концерт.» In this way the woman could show herself in the eyes of the guest as a bold, progressive and devoted to arts person.

The concluding utterance in block six of sentences presents some interest as well having practically two neutral, i.e., semanti-cally equivalent for the context variants: «Будьте ж настільки ласкаві; будьте ж ангелом Божим... і представте мене йому/познайомте мене з ним.» The answer of the host (sentence 7) is pretty clear, but it requires a proper expression in Ukrainian where «Why, certainly» may be translated faithfully in some ways: 1. «Це можна, звичайно», 2. «Будь ласка, це можна» or even 3. «А чому ж, можна»/ «Звичайно ж», 4. «Обов'язково познайомлю».

The third utterance of this block of sentences «The party's for

409

 

him») may have at least two versions as well: 1. «Адже ця вечірка -в його честь»; 2. «Адже цей вечір влаштовано/влаштований виключно для нього»; 3. «Адже це його вечір».

In the eighth block of sentences of interest may be utterance 3: «Well, I think you're simply marvellous, giving this perfectly marvellous party for him and having him meet all those white people, and all.» In this utterance transformations are needed in some places, the first being that of the word-group «simply marvellous», which can not be translated as «просто чудовий», but only as a substantival word-group «ви просто чудо» or still more accurately «ви просто молодець/просто-таки молодець.» The participial construction/word-group «giving this perfectly marvellous party for him» can also be translated in two ways: 1. влаштовуючи цей чудовий вечір для нього or 2. що влаштували цей/такий чудовий вечір/ вечірку для нього.

Some difficulty may present the translation of the often used by the woman empty phrase «and all», which corresponds not to our «і все», but to «і взагалі» or «та й взагалі».

Certainly the most difficult may be the translation of the last utterance of the woman in the eighth block of sentences «Isn't he terribly grateful?» and the answer to it (sentence 9) «I hope not,» said her host.

When translated the woman's question word-for-word as «Він вам напевне страшенно вдячний?» and the host's answer as «Сподіваюся - ні,» the sense of the utterances would be completely perverted, i.e., wrong. This is because the woman made her emphasis on the adverb «terribly» (grateful). Consequently, the Ukrainian equivalent must be «Він має бути вам страшенно-таки вдячним, правда ж?» The host's answer «/ hope not» as a reaction to the emphatically stressed adverb must not be translated word-for-word either as «Сподіваюсь, ні» but as «Думаю, нема за що (бути аж страшенно) вдячним». This answer called forth the protesting reaction of the woman character who did not quite agree with the host by saying «I think it's really terribly nice - I do», which corresponds to the Ukrainian «А я вважаю, що все справді страшенно гарно... Певна/переконана на всі сто (відсотків)». The concluding sentence, as had been said already, is merely an empty phrase, often used by the woman to substantiate her assuredness.

Block 10 of the woman's utterances contains some sense units

410

 

which should be analysed semantically and stylistically with the aim of finding faithful Ukrainian versions for them. These utterances and word-groups are: 1. «Why on earth it isn't perfectly all right» чому це в біса погано/що в тому в біса/чорта поганого, щоб знайомитися з кольоровим. Here even a broader transformation is possible: хто щось може мати проти/заперечити проти знайомства з кольоровим; 2.1 haven't any feeling about it at all - у мене взагалі немає нічого проти цього or: у мене немає жодних упереджень проти цього, or even: я це вважаю нормальним. It goes without saying that only one of these synonymous versions is to be used. No less interesting from the structural/stylistic and semantic points of view are other utterances that follow. For example, utterance 11: «Did he come to-night?» which may have some faithful realizations: 1. «А він прийшов сьогодні?» 2. «А він тут/теж із вами?» 3. «А він теж на вечорі?» Any of these variants may be taken as a faithful Ukrainian version for this sentence, though not all of the woman's cunning contemplations are quite easy to render fully and accurately into Ukrainian, as in case of «There's no telling what I'll do.» Only a thorough analysis of the whole story helps comprehend what the woman character meant by saying so. It becomes clear from the deeper analysis of the text, what she wanted to say by that (she was eager to shake hands with the coloured singer). The Ukrainian variants of this utterance, consequently, may be only the following: 1. «Ти і не здогадуєшся/і гадки не маєш, що я надумалася зробити»; 2. ««Ти і гадки не маєш, на який крок я зважилася»; 3. «Ти собі навіть не уявляєш, що я сьогодні втну». 4. Ти навіть додуматися не здатний, на який неймовірний крок я наважилася сьогодні піти». Needless to emphasize, that any of these versions may well fit in the Ukrainian translation, though only one and no more can be used.

Some colloquial style utterances of the woman character may cause even difficulty for the translator, as it is with one utterance in block 12, where it contains a somewhat obscure/not quite transparent lexical meaning of the verb «move». Cf.: «He was so tired out, he couldn't move.» A thorough semantic analysis of the context proves that the verb's semantics was not in any way connected with the state of Burton's physical ability. What the verb «move» really means in this context is that Burton did not react in any way to what his wife said to him after having decided to make a very courageous (in her

411

 

judgement) «step», i.e., shake hands with the well-known coloured singer, whom she, as a half-racist, in reality, despises. Hence, taking into consideration the lingual and extralingual factors, the only correct/faithful translation of the utterance and its tag question («Isn't it a shame?») should have the following Ukrainian version: «Він був такий стомлений, що навіть не (від)реагував на мої слова.» The tag-question may have respectively one of the following three versions: 1. «Сором та й годі, чи не так?» or 2. «Аж сором, може ні/не так?» огЗ. «Просто ганьба, скажете-ні?»

Neither can there be only one single solution to the possible translation of the host's laconic and clearly evasive answer «Ah» (sentence 13) to the above-cited tag-question. His «Ah» may be interpreted as a neutral answer, not sympathising with the judgement of the woman. Consequently, the Ukrainian variants of it may be simply «A...» or «гм», «хм», etc. It is clear from the context, that the host did not support but sooner rejected that woman's «accusation» of her husband's lack of attention.

The fourteenth block of utterances, which is a regular long monologue of the woman character contains some interesting ways of expression, emphatic colloquial phrases and structures worth a more or less thorough analysis as well. Among them is already the first sentence emphatically uttered by the woman: «Wait till I tell him I met Walter Williams!», which contains wishful modality and is to be expressed with the help of some Ukrainian modal particles. The most fitting in this utterance will be хай/нехай-но: «Чекайте-но, хай я скажу йому, що познайомилася з Волтером Вільямсом!» or «Чекайте, хай-ноя скажу йому...»

The following utterance 'He'll just about die» presents no difficulty for translators due to its transient meaning, which enables to suggest some equivalent versions in Ukrainian: 1. «Він упаде на місці»; 2. «Він цього не переживе»; 3. «Він просто лусне (від сміху)». All these three variants are synonymous and fit well in the context. Consequently, each of them may be used in Ukrainian. The next utterance («Oh, we have more arguments about colored people») contains a grammatical and logical error in the use of the indefinite pronoun/adjective more instead of many repeatedly testifying to the woman's low (if any) education and her very low cultural level.

Probably one of the most interesting structural transformations must be performed to achieve faithfulness in translation in two utter-

412

 

ances that follow the previous one. Neither of the two, when transplanted, as they are placed in the original passage, would well fit semantically into a good Ukrainian literary version. Cf.: «I talk to him like I don't know what. I get so excited». 1. «Я розмовляю з ним, як не знаю хто». 2. «Я так збуджуюсь». When translated, however, beginning with the second utterance, with the substitution of some words for a more common Ukrainian way of saying, the target language literary variant becomes more natural and more expressive, and thus more acceptable to Ukrainian colloquial speech style:

1. «I talk to him like I don't know what. 2.1 get so excited.» Hence,

it must be transposed into:

2. «Я як розійдуся/розпалюся, 1. то такого йому наговорю, що й

сама не знаю, що».

This kind of transformation through the change of placement in the row of utterances makes the Ukrainian version more logically and stylistically grounded, because the woman, as anybody else in her place, got excited first and only then talked to him (Burton) «like nobody knows what». In view of this, her very mild reproach, instead of the naturally expected strong words of accusation or indignation, is much milder and weaker, and contrary to that, which might have been expected: «Oh, don't be so silly». These words disclose the double-dealing conduct of this woman character, who only wanted to camouflage her false inside. This can also be clearly seen from the Ukrainian variant of the utterance: «О, не говори нісенітниць,» -кажу я йому. These words, of course, are far from expressing any threat or strong reproach, as the woman character pretended.

Other utterances of this block containing peculiar features, which are important to know and still more to translate for a student and future translators, are as follows:

1. «he's heaps broader-minded» (hyperbolized), which will be

more expressive and more faithful when translated antonymically as

«він не такий обмежений»;

2. «Southerners» can be translated faithfully only in a descrip

tive way as вихідці/жителі Півдня (південних штатів США);

3. «this regular old nigger (contemptuosly) mammy» should

be translated as його стара нянька-негритоска;

4. «he just simply loves her» і він не те що, а просто-таки

справді любить її;

5. «he does really to this day» і так до сьогоднішнього дня/

донині.

413

 

Always important for the translator is to keep in memory the already solved problems concerning the rendition of some peculiarities of the source language or of the target language, as in the following two utterances: 1. «All he says is, he says, he hasn't got a word to say -»; 2. «The only thing he says, he sayshe wouldn't sit down with one, -» both these italicized colloquial structures have an identical translation: єдине, що він каже, то це каже ...

A very interesting structural transformation has to be performed on two clauses of one sentence, which follows the above-analyzed ones. Namely: «He's always doing things for them - giving them clothes and I don't know what all».

When translated without any change of placement of its clauses, the utterance will be structurally clumsy in Ukrainian: «Він завжди щось робить для них - дає їм одежу і сама не знаю що ще.» By changing the placement of its clauses, the utterance acquires the following form: «І чим він їм тільки не допомагає - і одежею, і сама вже не знаю, чим.» Thus, the transformation through the change of placement of some parts of the sentence makes the utterance sound absolutely Ukrainian (stylistically natural) and se-mantically transparent.

The choice of a lexico-semantic equivalent may sometimes cause trouble even in a seemingly explicit utterance. Cf.: «You make me sick talking like that,» where «sick» is semantically associated with sea-sick. At any rate, this meaning may prompt the hard thinking student-translator to use the verb нудити, which perfectly substitutes the English word-group «make sick» in the utterance above. Hence, the faithful Ukrainian version of it may be only: «Ой, мене вже нудить від твоїх розмов/балачок.»

The beginning translator must be aware of some peculiarities of the source language, which may have no equivalents or even analogies for some sense units in the target language. Among these are not necessarily the culturally biased national notions, dialectal, archaic, idiomatic or other elements. These may be simple grammar or phonetic mistakes/corruptions in a text/speech of characters often causing barriers for inexperienced translators, as in the following question of the woman character: «Aren'tI terrible?» (instead of «-4m I not terrible?»).

It goes without saying that irregularities of the kind may be observed only in speech of small Ukrainian children and almost never

414

 

in speech of our grown-ups. That is why the utterance can only be translated in a literary (correct) form: 1. «Може я не права?» or 2. «Скажи, я не маю рації ?» 3. «Невже я не маю рації?» Any other, even slightly corrupted Ukrainian versions are next to impossible to suggest in this case (like in other cases). As a result, the speech irregularity remains not completely expressed in Ukrainian. The short reply of the host («Oh, no, no, no. No, no».) can also have some interesting versions, which may be suggested by the translator: 1. «Hi, ні, ні. Де там, ні». 2. «Та ні, зовсім ні». 3. «Вважаю, що ні».

It may be even more difficult to select the right/faithful variant for the utterance, in which the woman character objects to her being not «terrible» to her husband and insists on the contrary: «I am», she said. «I know, I am» (i.e. «terrible»). This emphatically pronounced and rather assuring utterance in her own support can not be translated word-for-word as «Я є, я знаю, що я є (така)». The translator here must again resort to a structural transformation of the utterance in Ukrainian in order to make it sound absolutely natural for the readers. In this case the device of extension may be useful for «I am,» she said. «I know, I am.» Namely: «І не кажіть (і не перечте)», -випалила вона. «Я знаю, що я жахлива (з ним)». This transformation through extension of the complex sentence in the second part of the utterance, as well as the replacement of the verb «am» by «не кажіть/не перечте» makes the whole reply absolutely literary and quite natural for young as well as for old Ukrainian readers.

Similar transformations are necessary in the succeeding highly emotional utterances of the woman character. These utterances, though seemingly simple and easy to comprehend, are not so easy for inexperienced students to translate. Thus, the first utterance «Poor Burton!» is not simply «Бідний Бертон!» which will not fully express the high emotion of the woman character. Stylistically more fitting here would be «Бідолашний мій Бертон!» or «Бідний, бідний Бертон!» or «Бідний, бідний мій Бертон!» The latter would sound also more Ukrainian. The other two emphasized and emotionally pronounced utterances of the block that follow (1. «Now me, I don't feel that way at all. 2.1 haven't the slightest feeling about colored people.») are not less expressive. Hence, their Ukrainian versions may be as follows: 1. «Ось хоча б я.» or 2. «Взяти хоча б мене.»3. «Візьмемо ось/хоча б мене.» Each of these semantically synonymous versions of the English utterance is emphatically charged, and can be best

415

 

expressed through the modal particles хоча б plus the corresponding intonation. As to the second utterance («I don't feel that way at all»), it can also be translated into Ukrainian by at least one of the following four synonymous substitutes, each of which being equally acceptable: 1. «Я зовсім не така». 2. «Я зовсім не так думаю». 3. «Я абсолютно так не вважаю» or even 4. «У мене зовсім інше ставлення до кольорових».

As could be ascertained, transformation through extension (cf. «Now me» «ось хоча б я, взяти хоча б мене») is often the only way of adjusting the English peculiar expressions (and their expressiveness) to literary colloquial Ukrainian. Transformations of any kind help avoid literalism (cf. «Now me» is not тепер мене, тепер я), which would be absolutely unacceptable in any literary translation. A word-for-word translation (without any transformations with the aim of «adjusting» the English language and its peculiar features to the Ukrainian literary standards) is therefore an obligatory means in the process of translation. Because of this and due to the performed transformations, the utterance «I haven't the slightest feeling about colored people» also acquires a quite natural Ukrainian version (and sounding). When translated word-for-word, it would express an almost opposite meaning: «Я зовсім не відчуваю/ я не маю найменших відчуттів до кольорових». No need to emphasize that «відчуваю» (feel) does not in any way correspond to the real contextual implicit meaning of this verb, which can be seen from the following Ukrainian translation: «У мене немає ні/навіть найменшої відрази/зневаги до кольорових».

Practically the same, as in the initial utterance of the excerpt, is the meaning of the adjective crazyin the sentence that follows the previous one: «Why, I'm just crazy about some of them», which can have only the following realization in Ukrainian: «Ну я просто в нестямі від декого з них», though «в нестямі» may equally be substituted in this utterance for the semantically equivalent prepositional phrase «у захопленні». The essence of her «craziness», however, is far from real or sencere, which can be seen from the following utterance: «They're just like children - just as easy-going, and always singing and laughing, and everything». This utterance is not easy to translate first of all because of the concluding pronoun «everything», whose contextual meaning, naturally, is not «все» or «i все», or even «і все таке інше», but «собі». Only this pronominal

416

 

particle semantically completes the authoress' content of this utterance, which will then have the following wording in Ukrainian: «Ну, та вони ж просто як діти: такі безтурботні і завжди то співають, то сміються собі». The introduction of different Ukrainian particles (ж, та, то, собі) helps fully express the inner/psychological state of the woman character and makes the whole utterance sound as natural and as convincing in Ukrainian, as it is in the source language.

The use of particles helps express optative and grammatical modality in the next utterance («Aren't they the happiest things you ever saw in your life?»), in which the noun «things» may become a lexico-semantic stumbling block. Its contextual meaning here is «істоти» or «створіння». It is not easy to quickly choose the most suitable between these two practically equivalent lexically and stylistically variants. Taking into account the woman's falsehood and her doubledealing, any of the two variants may well fit in the context. Cf.: «.Хіба ж вони не найщасливіші істоти/створіння, яких вам траплялося будь-коли бачити на світі?» or «To хіба ж вони не найщасливіші створіння, котрих вам траплялося будь-коли бачити на білім світі?» Both these variants, naturally, are fully in line with the philosophy and conduct of the woman character, so brilliantly depicted by the authoress in her story. The choice of the suggested substitutes in the utterance may be well justified by the woman's concluding sentence of the excerpt: «Honestly, it makes me laugh just to hear them». Here the adverb «honestly» can scarely be substituted for one Ukrainian adverb «чесно» only. The deep context requires some other substitutions for it, namely «справді»/ «таки справді»/ «геть і правда» and even «їй-богу/їй-же богу». Neither can the verb laugh («they make me laugh») be translated in this excerpt as simply сміятися or still less as реготати. The deeper context prompts a quite different synonym, as the cunning woman considers the coloured people to be «like children», who could entertain the grown-ups like her by their behavoir. This is the main reason why the Ukrainian equivalent сміятися can not be used and should be substituted for the only suitable in this utterance synonym тішити. For this reason the verb «hear» can not (and does not) mean «слухати», but only «чути». Hence, the only possible, i.e., faithful translations of this utterance may be as follows: «Слово честі, мене просто тішить, коли я чую їх or «їй-богу, мене просто тішить, коли я їх чую.»

417

 

The final two utterances of block 16 present no great difficulty for translation with the exception of the concluding one: «I really do.» Here one of the already employed above versions may be helpful (as in «Oh, I like them. I really do.») «О, вони мені подобаються. Справі/.»

It must therefore be repeatedly emphasized in conclusion that the right choice of an appropriate target language synonym for a source language sense unit is always predetermined by some factors: a) by its semantics in the context; b) by the stylistic or genre peculiarities of the text; and c) by the texts' pragmatic orientation/ toning. Any disregard of these requirements may bring unnecessary distortions into the author's conception (and content).

The student, who has closely followed the above-performed translator's grammatical/structural, semantic and stylistic analysis of the excerpt from D.Parker's brilliant psychological story must have obtained a much clearer idea about the ways and means of achieving faithfulness in written translation. Naturally not all texts require such kind of deep and scrutinized analysis on the part of the translator and not always so much inventiveness as in the belles-lettres texts. Nevertheless, the beginning translator must be always on the alert and ready to do everything to overcome the many stumbling blocks that are often hidden even in texts belonging to other than the belles-lettres style. There will be a good chance to ascertain it while working at various texts on the forthcoming pages, which are assigned to semantic and stylistic analysis or to written/oral class and home translation. The samples of the analysis must be carefully studied first in order to establish the peculiarities characterizing the publicistic and newspaper style texts. Only in this way can a student acquire the necessary knowledge and skill in translation. Of great help in this can also be the practical use of the principal theoretical rules, which were given in the preceding chapters and which must be followed while working at any type of texts, extended syntactic unit or even at single/ isolated sense units.

418

 

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR SELF-TESTING AND CLASS DISCUSSION

1. The monosemantic/referential meaning of the source lan

guage units and principles of their faithful translation.

2. Give examples of hierarchically higher language units which

are translated in the target language with the help of language units

of lower language level.

3. Enumerate all possible ways of expressing the meaning of

the source language compounds in the target language.

4. Point out the possible difference between the ways of trans

lating sense units at language level (out of context) and their transla

tion at speech level (when used in a contextual environment).

5. Identify the role of the source language context in the se

mantic discrimination and faithful translation of sense units missing

or having no corresponding lexical equivalents in the English, Ukrai

nian or bilingual dictionaries.

6. Enumerate all known to you and possible ways of convey

ing the evaluative and expressive meanings of the source language

words/sense units in the target language.

7. Name the obligatory steps, which have to be observed before

starting a written or oral translation/interpretation of a source language

passage/work.

8. Prove the necessity of linguistic/semantic, historical, cul

tural, etc. inquiries/investigations of the passage/work prior to or in

the process of its rendering into the target language.

9. Argue for or against the need for making a list of synony

mous contextual equivalents/substitutions or difficult/interesting syn

tactic constructions of the target language in the process of translat

ing the source language passage/work.

10. List and explain the requirements, which are necessary

for a faithful expression/translation of stylistically marked elements

of the source language passage/work to achieve a high quality trans

lation.

11. Identify the most common features of the belles-lettres or

publicistic/newspaper style texts and name the ways of their faithful

expression/rendering in the target language.

419

 

EXERCISES FOR CLASS AND HOMEWORK

Exercise I. Each block of sentences below contains a polysemantic noun, verb or adjective in bold type. Offer a corresponding Ukrainian equivalent - word, word-group or sentence to substitute them semantically and then translate each block of sentences into Ukrainian.

1. I'm going to put up the notice on Saturday. (S.Maugham) Praed comes in from the inner room putting up his handkerchief which he has been using. (B.Shaw) I mustn't be upset. It will put up my temperature. (D.Defoe) What did it cost to put up those columns. (J.Galsworthy) 2. Lawrence Hadley ran the photographic department. (A. Cronin) In her mind were running scenes of the play. (T. Dreiser) After a few minutes he settled himself at his desk to run through the rest of his mail. (A.Cronin) Although she kept her head down she felt the blood run into her face. (Ibid.) «I happened to run into their Mr. Smith the other day.» (Ibid.) «I thought I'd run down for an hour. Am I a nuisance?» (Ibid.) I decided to give up running for governor. (Mark Twain) The Board is no more run as before (K.Post) 3. Listen, children, I'm going out. If you finish your work, carry on with exercises I gave you. (P.Abrahams) Only fancy if he has a dear little boy to carry the family on. (J.Galsworthy) Well, all through the circus they did the most astonishing things, and all the time that clown carried on so. (Mark Twain) 4. She realized that hers (life) was not to be a round pleasure. (T. Dreiser) The fact that work of any kind was offered after so rude a round of experience was gratifying. Her imagination trod a very narrow round. It would be an exceedingly gloomy round, living with these people. (Ibid.) 5. «Is that all you're worrying about? About what's on my mind?» (M.Wilson) Here he was with only a casual acquaintance to keep his mind from himself. «No, I've changed my mind, I'm the paragon of husbandry again. She clearly had no idea how outstanding a mind she really had.» (M.Wilson) The thoughtful serious state of mind in which Mary found herself had been unclouded in her by a conversation she had with her father the evening before. (S. Anderson) 6. He forgot the presence of the farmer and his mind racked back over his life as a married man. (Ibid.) 7 «Who's speaking?» he asked mildly conscious of error on his part. (T.Dreiser) Some noise was heard, but no one entered the library for the best part of an hour. (W.Scott) She was part and par-

420

 

eel of his soul. This to him (Drouet) represented in part high life -a fair sample of what the whole life must be. (T.Dreiser) 8. Too much of a thing is good for nothing. (Proverb) «You know there's one thing I thoroughly believe in,» she said, «but I never eat more than one thing for luncheon». Then a terrible thing happened. (S. Maugham) «Well, John, how are things?» (A.Bennett) He was satisfied with the most things, and above all other things, with himself. (C. Dickens) «...what a wonderful thing that I am here.» (Ibid.) It is one thing to show a man that he is in an error and another to put him in possession of truth. (J.Locke) All things come round to him who will but wait. (H.Longfellow) 9. Keeping his back turned, he left the doorway and straddled a chair in a corner of the kitchen. If Uncle Dave will live here, we could build another room on the back. They shook hands, with Jim Nelson's back turned to the room. (J.Galsworthy) 10. Keep these two books as long as you wish. (S.Leacock) I shall always keep this dollar. «Well,» said the doctor, «I want you to keep very quiet.» (Ibid.) In the winter it should be kept in a warm place, where it can hatch out its young. (Mark Twain) This didn't keep the neighbours from talking plainly among themselves. (K.Porter) «You needn't keep on saying it round,» said Mr. Whipple. (Ibid.) June keeps after me all the time to tell her about what Uncle Dave is like. He kept his eyes fixed on his father's face. There was no medal for the Nelsons to keep, only a reddish-brown photograph taken in London. (J.Galsworthy) 11. Alice, having fully considered the matter, thought it most prudent to write to Lady M. You ought not to consider poverty a crime. (Ch. Bronte) Consider our hands! They are strong hands. (P.Jones) You consider your own affairs, and don't know so much about other people's. (D. Lawrence) 12. Fox introduced Erik to French and Larkin, two other assistants who had withdrawn to a corner to talk shop. The March night made him withdraw his overcoat. She wanted to withdraw from the people around her. Erik took advantage of this opportunity to withdraw from the project for the while. At last one third of those who had once been willing to sign the petition to the Board of Trustees now asked that their names be withdrawn. (M. Wilson) 13. Davon had said that he was recaptured and as he lay on the ground Adair hit him with a club. (F. News) The game is played with a ball the size of a tennis ball and a club that's a little shorter than for ice-hockey and a slightly bent at the end. (Sports News) The chess

421

 

club also meets once a week after school and is run by a teacher who is very keen on chess (Ibid.) They clubbed at Kain's who resided at the Statler Hilton Hotel, to talk on politics, to settle their affairs. (F. News) 14. Erik couldn't remove his eyes from Haveland's fair head. Erik turned: a fair slight girl in black suit stood next to him. He realized that he was greatly unfair. «It wasn't fair of you,» said Haveland. «But no one could say he hadn't been fair,» he insisted angrily. (M.Wilson) Fair play must be observed not only at the All-European level. (K.Post) 15. So long as Mary lived beside that monstrous man, and in that monstrous house he realised that he would never be at rest. She could endure anything so long as he took her to him in the end. A long silence ensued, then the sound returned swelling in from the distant hills more loudly. No matter what happened she must live for Denis in the long run. Long ago she had realized with a crushing finality that she was chained to a man of domineering injustice. (A. Cronin)

Exercise II. Translating the sentences below, be careful to choose for each common English root word in bold type a se-mantically corresponding Ukrainian equivalent.

1.1 couldn't take the chance of letting it be known that there was doubt. 2. There used to be some doubt about sensitization tests. 3. He took her hand gently, his anger dissolving, only a vague, disquieting sense of doubt remained. 4. In her voice there was a trace of doubt. 5. «What do you propose to do about Brian's bill?» «I doubt we can do anything». 6. O'Donnel had no doubts that Rutus would have facts to back up a complaint like this. 7. «That's good news,» O'Donnel decided to shelve his earlierdoubts. 8. One always has doubts in such cases. 9. He was a doubting Thomas without faith or hope in humanity and without any particular affection for anybody. (Dreiser) «I agree with the original diagnosis of a perforated ulcur». «No doubt at all?». (A.Huxley) 10. «The baby died, Joe, I think you heard.» «I think I know what you want to say.» «Don't you think things are going pretty poor round here?» «By the way, do you know Dr. Gringer?» «I have no influence with him» «But you have-he thinks the world of you.» (A.Cronin) She did not think much of his plan. (London) «You think all your geese are swans ... never met a painter who didn't.» (Galsworthy) She thinks small beer of painters. (Thackeray). 11. The driver turned once or twice with the intention of venturing a remark, but thought

422

 

better of it. (Ibid.) 12.... the old people minded the day when he was thought little of. (E.Yates) 13. You kept from thinking and it was all marvelous. (E.Hemingway) 14. Think today and speak tomorrow. (Proverb) 15. «I reckon you want to think twice before leaving my house.» (Cronin) He wondered, if the amputation to be performed tomorrow was necessary or not. «By the way, Doctor, the baby's umbilical cord has been cut short. I wondered, if you knew that or not.» He wondered if the older man was right or wrong. And so I became their wonder boy. (M.Wilson) 16. It was a nine days' wonder in the club. (Dreiser) 17. For a wonder he was not seasick. (C. Reade) 18. He ties his white neckcloth to a wonder. (Thackeray) 19. The seven wonders of the world. (Proverb) 20. «Are you sure about this date?» 21. «I'm not sure, I can explain, Mike.» 22. «I'm not sure I like the way we're doing this.» 23. Vivian was not quite sure what was happening. 24. «As sure as a gun - this is he.» H.Fielding) 25. «Well, I'm sure!» said Becky; and that was all she said. (Thackeray) 26. «Don't know, I'm sure.» (Ibid.) 27. They'll make for the camp as sure as fate». (A.Doyle) 28. «Bill,» he answered, nodding his head. «Sure, Pete, and no other.» (London) 29. Then I slipped down to the ground and crawled in among the trees, and, sure enough, there was Tom Sawyer waiting for me. (MarkTwain) 30. «I'm going to have a fight with Dad, sure as certain.» (D.Carter)

PUBLICISTIC AND NEWSPAPER STYLE TEXTS AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION

Several characteristic features pertaining to the belles-lettres style texts are also observed in publicistic substyle works, which are mostly presented by articles on different subjects (social, political, economic, etc.) as well as in essays. The latter, though close to sketches or even to short stories by their composition, have distinctly different features of their own. The main of these are as follows: 1) brevity of expression; 2) the use of personal (author's) comment; 3) careful paragraphing; 4) strong logical and emotional argumentation; 5) extensive use of comparison and similes, epithets, sustained metaphors, etc.1

Like the belles-lettres texts the publicistic and newspaper texts can also be faithfully translated only by way of reaching equivalence

See: I.Ft Galperin. Stylistics. Moscow: Vyssaja Skola 1971, p. 287.

423

 

in the target language at the denotative, structural, stylistic and pragmatic levels of the source language text. Hence, when translating the excerpt of S.Leacock's brillaint essay Oxford as I See It below, care should be taken to select in the target language such kind of equivalents, which perform the same stylistic and pragmatic functions as in the source language texts. The student will certainly find no great difficulties in choosing equivalent structural forms of simple extended or composite sentences used by Leacock to create the necessary dynamism in the text of his essay. Certainly, the greatest difficulty will be found in selecting equivalents for some contextual meanings and functions of lexical and lexico-grammatical units, which help create humorous or ironic effect upon the reader and thus form the pragmatic orientation of the excerpt from this essay. Hence, the task will be to choose in Ukrainian not only lexico-grammatical and stylistic substitutions for some language signs and their meanings, but also some prosodic (intonation and stress) means to achieve the necessary fidelity of translation in the target language.

The clue to the pragmatic orientation of the excerpt is partly indicated by the author in the concluding words of the introductory paragraph where he promises to submit «the place (i.e. Oxford University) to a searching scrutiny.» The realization of this «scrutiny» on the forthcoming pages is performed, in fact, with great skill, which the translator will have to recreate correspondingly in Ukrainian as well.

The essay as a literary work aims at a psychological influence on the reader or listener in order to convince him in the reality and authenticity of the described topic/subject. This is achieved, as can be seen from the excerpt of S.Leacock's brilliant essay Oxford as I See It below, by means of the logical and emotional argumentation of the author's point of view, by the use of coherent logical syntactic structures and by often reference to historical events or prominent personalities, etc. Cf. «When I add to this that I had already visited Oxford in 1907 and spent a Sunday at All Souls with Colonel L.S. Amery1, it will be seen at once that my views on Oxford are based upon observations extending over fourteen years.»

All peculiar stylistic features of the essay including the author's individual style have to be faithfully reflected in the translation of each single sentence.

1 L.S. Amery - a member of Parliament, politician and Oxford university graduate.

424

 

Stylistically close to the style of essays are many newspaper and journal/magazine articles, dealing with social, political, economic and other subjects. They are aimed at acquainting the reader with some important or disputable problems of various social, political or economic aspects of life. The text of such articles is carefully paragraphed, as can be seen below, too; also it mostly consists of coherent sentences, which can not be omitted without mining the logical structure or sense of the paragraph, which it is the part of. This can be especially observed in the excerpt of the article on economy below. Other articles may contain elements of belles-letters style with emotionally coloured elements and several stylistic devices, as shown in the article on post-Chornobyl' life.

The bulk of newspaper space, however, occupy shorter and longer news items containing generally common lexical material and syntactic structures (cliches) having corresponding equivalents in the target language, and usually presenting no great difficulty for beginning translators.

The newspaper article on Chernobyl' is more like a belles-lettres short story with a vivid description of the situation in which many Ukrainians found themselves after several years of the world's most horrible technological disaster. The Ukrainian version of the articles, naturally, must also faithfully express the high literary qualities of the source language text.

All other Ukrainian articles that follow represent scientific (history) and didactic style texts, which have mostly lexico-grammatical and syntactic/or stylistic equivalents in English as well. Consequently, they can not present any difficulties in translating or interpreting them even in viva voce.

Exercise I. Translate the excerpt of S. Leacock's essay Oxford as I See It. Be sure to find and faithfully render into Ukrainian all characteristic features of its style. Make use of the ways of semantic and stylistic analysis employed in the translation of the belles-lettres text (Arranegment in Black and White) above.

1. My private station being that of a university professor, I was

naturally deeply interested in the system of education in England. I

was therefore led to make a special visit to Oxford and to submit the

place to a searching scrutiny.

2. Arriving one afternoon at four o'clock, I stayed at the Mitre

Hotel and did not leave until eleven o'clock next morning. The whole of

425

 

this time, except for one hour in addressing the undergraduates, was devoted to a close and eager study of the great university. At any rate I can at least claim that my acquaintance with the British university is just as good a basis for reflection and judgment as that of the numerous English critics, who come to our side of the water. I have known a famous English author to arrive at Harvard University in the morning, have lunch with President Lowell, and then write a whole chapter on the Excellence of Higher Education in America. I have known another one come to Harvard, have lunch with President Lowell, and do an entire book on the Decline of Serious Study in America. Or take the case of my own university. I remember Mr. Rudyard Kipling coming to McGill and saying in his address to the undergraduates at 2.30 p. m., «You have here a great institution.» But how could he gather this information? As far as I know he spent the entire morning with Sir Andrew Macphail in his house beside the campus, smoking cigarettes. When I add that he distinctly refused to visit the Palaeontologic Museum, that he saw nothing of our new hydraulic apparatus, or of our classes in Domestic Science, his judgment that we had here a great institution seems a little bit superficial.

3. To my mind these unthinking judgments about our great

college do harm, and I determined, therefore, that anything that I

said about Oxford should be the result of the actual observation and

real study based upon a bona fide residence in the Mitre Hotel.

4. On the strength of this basis of experience I am prepared to

make the following positive and emphatic statements. Oxford is a

noble university. It has a great past. It is at present the greatest uni

versity in the world: and it is quite true that it has a great future.

Oxford trains scholars of the real type better than any other place in

the world. Its methods are antiquated. It despises science. Its lec

tures are rotten. It has professors who never teach and students

who never learn. It has no order, no arrangements, no system. Its

curriculum is unintelligible. It has no president. It has state legisla

ture to tell it how to teach, and yet - it gets there. Whether we like it

or not, Oxford gives something to its students, a life and a mode of

thought, in America as yet we can emulate but not equal.

5. These singular results achieved at Oxford are all the more

surprising when one considers the distressing conditions under which

the students work. The lack of an adequate building fund compels

them to go on working in the same old buildings which they have had

426

 

for centuries. The buildings at Brasenose College have not been renewed since the year 1525. In New College and Mandolin the students are still housed in the old buildings erected in the sixteenth century. At Christ Church I was shown a kitchen which had been built at the expense of cardinal Wolsey in 1527. Incredible though it may seem, they have no other place to cook in than this and are compelled to use it today.

6. The same lack of a building-fund necessitates the Oxford

students living in the identical old boarding houses they had in the

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Technically they are called

«quadrangles», «closes» and «rooms»; but I am so broken into the

usage of my student days that I can't help calling them boarding

houses. In many of these the old stairway has been worn down by

the feet of ten generations of students: the windows had little latticed

panes: there are old names carved here and there upon the stone,

and a thick growth of ivy covers the walls. The boarding house at St.

John's College dates from 1509, the one at Christ Church from the

same period. A few hundred thousand pounds would suffice to re

place these old buildings with neat steel and brick structures like the

normal school at Schenectady, N.Y., or the Peel Street High School

at Montreal. But nothing is done.

7. It can hardly be due to anything in the curriculum or

programme of studies. Indeed, to anyone accustomed to the best

models of a university curriculum as it flourishes in the United States

and Canada, the programme of studies is frankly laughable. There

is less Applied Science in the place than would be found with us in

theological college. Hardly a single professor at Oxford would recog

nize a dynamo if he met it in broad daylight. The Oxford student is

the merest amateur.

8. This is bad enough. But after all one might say this is only

the mechanical side of education. True: but one searches in vain in

the Oxford curriculum for any adequate recognition of the higher and

more cultured studies. The more one looks at these things, the more

amazing it becomes that Oxford can produce any results at all.

9. The effect of the comparison is heightened by the peculiar

position occupied at Oxford by the professors' lectures. In the col

leges of Canada and the United States the lectures are supposed to

be a really necessary and useful part of the student's training. Again

and again I have heard the graduates of my own college assert that

427

 

they had got as much, or nearly as much, out of the lectures at college as out of athletics or the Greek letter society or the Banjo and Magdalen Club. In short, with us the lectures form a real part of the college life. At Oxford it is not so. The lectures, I understand, are given and may even be taken. But they are quite worthless and are not supposed to have anything much to do with the development of the student's mind. «The lectures here,» said a Canadian student to me, «are punk.» I appealed to another student to know if this was so. «I don't know whether I'd call them exactly punk», he answered, «but they're certainly rotten». Other judgments were that the lectures were of no importance; that nobody took them; that they don't matter; that you can take them if you like; that they do you no harm.

10. I understand that the key to this mystery is found in the

operations of the person called the tutor. It is from him, or rather with

him, that the students learn all that they know: one and all are agreed

on that. Yet it is a little odd to know just how he does it. «We go over

to his rooms,» said one student, «and he just lights a pipe and talks

to us.» «We sit round with him,» said another, «and he simply smokes

and goes over our exercises with us.» From this and other evidence

I gather that what an Oxford tutor does is to get a little group of

students together and smoke at them. Men who have been system

atically smoked at for four years turn into ripe scholars.

11. In what was said above, I seem to have directing criticism

against the Oxford professors as such: but I have no intention of

doing so. For the Oxford professor and his whole manner of being I

have nothing but a profound respect. There is indeed the greatest

difference between the modern up-to-date American idea of a pro

fessor and the English type.

12. The American professor deals with his students according

to his lights. It is his business to chase them along over a prescribed

ground at a prescribed pace like a flock of sheep. They all go hump

ing together over the hurdles with the professor chasing them with a

set of «tests» and «recitations», «marks» and «attendances», the

whole obviously copied from the time-clock of the businessman's

factory. This process is what is called «showing results». The pace

set is necessarily that of the slowest, and thus results in what I have

heard Mr. Edward Beatty describe as the «convoy system of educa

tion».

13. Now the principal reason why I am led to admire Oxford is

428

 

that the place is little touched yet by the measuring of «results», and by this passion for visible and provable «efficiency». The whole system at Oxford is such as to put a premium on genius to let mediocrity and dullness go their way. On the dull student Oxford, after a proper lapse of time, confers a degree which means nothing more than that he lived and breathed at Oxford and kept out of jail. This for many students is as much as society can expect. But for the gifted students Oxford offers great opportunities. He need wait for no one. He may move forward as fast as he likes, following the bent of his genius. If he has in him any ability beyond that of the common herd, his tutor, interested in his studies, will smoke at him until he kindles him to a flame. For the tutor's soul is not harassed by herding dull students, with dismissal hanging by a thread over his head in the classroom. The American professor has no time to be interested in a clever student. The student of genius merely means to him a student who gives no trouble, who passes all his «tests», and is present at all his «recitations». Higher education in America flourishes chiefly as a qualification for entrance into a money-making profession, and not as a thing in itself. But in Oxford one can still see the surviving outline of a noble type of structure and a higher inspiration. In one respect at least I think that Oxford has fallen away from the high ideals of the Middle Ages. I refer to the fact that it admits women students to its studies. Oxford... has not stood out against this change.

Exercise II. Translate the following newspaper articles into Ukrainian. Be careful to convey faithfully their peculiar features of style and expressiveness.

1. RADIATION, LONELINESS HAUNT CHORNOBYL'S NEIGHBOURS

The sunlight reflects dully off a sign along the road «ATTENTION: Forbidden Area». It is a wasteland disguised as rustic paradise.

This is a place where an invisible poison of radiation released during the 1986 Chernobyl' meltdown has seeped into the land and people's psyche. Yet some know no other home. «We were born here and we will die here,» says an elderly peasant woman. «There can be not other way. It is our fate».

It is a ghost-town life for many who remain in Ukraine's forbid-

429

 

den areas more than a decade after the world's worst nuclear accident. International health authorities estimate nearly five million people in Ukraine and neighbouring countries were exposed to wind-borne radionuclides. Thyroid cancer has increased greatly in children, but officials are unsure how many people have died or been affected by Chornobyl'-related cancer, chromosome damage or post-traumatic stress. The disaster still haunts Ukraine, taking 15 percent of its budget to operate damaged power complex, provide medical care for victims and pay other expenses.

Some people refuse to leave the contaminated areas, while others return years later out of economic desperation or a longing for their forefather's home. Authorities allow them to stay, and weekly food deliveries are sent to some areas. One forbidden zone is the Narodychi district, about 45 miles west of Chernobyl'. Here, past checkpoints manned by bored police, villages are abandoned, window shutters bang in the wind against crumbing houses, door-ways stand open like missing teeth. Silence is on the land, the whitewashed houses like scattered skeletons, the bones still there but the flesh gone. A few figures move furtively, dogs and people, birds startled up, like survivors of an apocalypse, only without the crude damage of war, fire or flood.

In Loznydtsya, where the population dropped from 200 to 60 after the accident, Maria Zymuha still opens up the village library for a few hours a day. It is a cold little room in the village's theatre, which closed years ago. Large drama masks symbolizing comedy and tragedy still hang on the building's facade.

2. OBSTACLES AND SOLUTIONS

The great war of ideas that has defined the twentieth century is finally over. The central ideals of democracy and market-based economic systems are now accepted in most of the world. At the most fundamental level, the idea that a self-appointed group of individuals can run a country is seen as folly. The transitions to democracy during the 1970's and 1980's, as well as those yet to come, are due to a variety of the quest for a higher quality of life by people everywhere. Although the recent trends outlined above highlight various ways that changes in political systems affect and are affected by economic factors, they also rebut any simple notion that economic change alone causes the development of democracy. The current situ-

430

 

ation in China is one of the clearest examples of the complex interactions of politics, economics, culture, and the demands for dignity and freedom by students, workers, and the emerging entrepreneurial groups.

Few people realize how complex it is to establish and run the institutional infrastructure essential to a modern society for it is through the constitutional, political, and governmental processes that the basic rules and structures that underlie market mechanisms are established.

Herman Bochi, the architect of Chile's economic transformation, has written that he needed over 500 trained people to introduce essential reforms in the governmental bureaucracy. Competent business managers, experienced entrepreneurs, accountants, bankers, and other professionals are also essential to a market economy. On the political side, well-trained and experienced legislators and political operatives at all levels, especially local government, are indispensable. Some of these values can be taught in the formal educational systems; others require national leadership, such as the exemplary, selfless role played by Vaclav Havel, the president of the Czech Republic.

3. POLL: AEU CITIZENS BACK EXPANSION

European Union citizens back the eastward expansion of their trade bloc, but have little idea what the ED bureaucracy is doing about it, according to poll results released Thursday Nov., 23. Conducted in all 15 EU nations between July and October, the poll found majorities support membership for Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Estonia and Latvia. But it found only one in five citizens who has even heard that EU governments plan to open talks next spring on a new treaty that will pave the way for expansion. Those negotiations will aim to play the financial groundwork for expansion and streamline cumbersome EU decision, making rules that were made for a union of fewer than a dozen members. Britain has fiercely guarded its sovereignty from encroachment by EU institutions and has won the right to opt out of EU labour laws and plans for a common EU currency. The poll found 27 per cent believe efforts to bring the union closer together were «very important», while 44 per cent said they were «fairly important». Sixteen percent said those efforts were not important, while the rest had no opinion.

431

 

4. ANIMAL DRIVERS STALK THE ROADS OF BRITAIN

Motorists are animals on the road and follow the law of the asphalt jungle when they get behind the wheel, a report out today says. The research shows that animal-like aggression is a major cause of accidents. Each day 13 people die and 800 are injured on Britain's roads and for every accident involving injuries there are up to ten more, in which there is only damage to vehicles. The report from the AA's University of Newcastle upon Tyne says, it is the animal-like desire to protect territory and to dominate the pack that makes motorists drive aggressively. When trying to overtake, for instance, many drives do not wait until it is safe but «challenge» other cars for dominance or block other vehicles as a way of protecting their territory. The report says: «It is necessary for only a few drivers to behave aggressively to protect what they regard as their territory for many others to feel threatened».

Most drivers admit they speed regularly but few say it is dangerous, the report says: «If serious inroads are to be made into current attitudes to speeding, the prevailing view that it is neither a crime nor dangerous must be changed. All drivers need to be convinced that speed is a weapon that can kill».

5. COMPANIES TO FORM UKRAGROMASHINVEST

KYIV. The cabinet has approved the charter of the Ukragromashinvest leasing company. The firm will lease and sell farming machinery to domestic agricultural producers. The decision was confirmed by the Deputy Industrial Policies Minister, March 12. The new company's statutory fund will include bank credits and state-owned stakes in 19 farm machinery companies. Its task is to create and introduce a mechanism to carry out leasing operations and provide equipment to producers of agricultural goods. The state will retain all the stakes for a five year term. Leasing revenues will be used to develop production at domestic farm engineering companies. Its statutory fund is valued at between Hr 20-30 mn. Kravchuk stressed that regional subsidiaries of Ukragromashinvest will be involved in the manufacture, sale and technical servicing of machinery and equipment supplied through leasing.

432

 

6. ODESA GAS DEBTS THREATEN CUT IN SUPPLIES

ODESA. The first Deputy President of Odesa Gas AT, Ihor Uchytel' spoke March 12 about gas provision to the region. He noted that «a critical situation has emerged concerning gas supplies in the oblast, while the northern part of Odesa is also threatened and may suffer a loss in gas supplies.» This critical situation has been caused by the accumulation of significant debts for consumed gas. The total gas debt for Odesa oblast stands at Hr 128.6 mn, including of Hr 123mn owed by Odesa. The main debtors are residential consumers and the local budget.

7. CEC DECIDES TO GIVE PRISONERS PLEBISCIT

KYIV. The Central Electoral Committee approved a decision to include Ukrainian prisoners to the number of voters eligible to vote at the parliamentary elections March 29. A total of 184 institutions in Ukraine hold more than 200,000 citizens. The CEC's resolution ruled to create polling stations in prisons by March 20 and establish relevant constituencies by March 23. Prisoners were not allowed to vote prior to this.

8. CRIMINAL CASES AFFECT MOST OF CANDIDATES

KYIV. Since the beginning of the election campaign, 16 criminal cases have been filed pertaining to crimes committed against candidates running as deputies to the VR. Candidates committed 2 crimes themselves, and in 2 other cases they were involved in car accidents. Five of the cases were registered in Kyiv and 4 took place in Vinnytsya. One candidate to the VR in Vinnytsya was accused of financial fraud, while another to the Kharkiv city council murdered his mother.

9. UUIE SUPPORTS ECONOMIC RAPPROCHEMENT

KYIV. The Ukrainian Union of Industrials and Entrepreneurs made two important statements March 11. Although the first one strongly criticized the policies of government ministries and NBU, the second supported the economic cooperation treaty signed with Russia last month. The first criticized high yield T-bills for distracting domestic investments for purely speculative purposes. The 44% discount rate squeezed businessmen by depriving them of credit resources. UUIE experts believe the economic cooperation treaty will

433

 

bring Ukraine economic benefits and provide firms like the L'viv bus plant, Motor Sich, TurboAtom and others with valuable orders.

Exercise 111. Translate the Ukrainian texts of publicistic and newspaper style into English. Be careful to convey their stylistic and pragmatic peculiarities.

1. ДЕЯКІ ПИТАННЯ ДЕРЖАВОТВОРЧОЇ ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ ІНТЕЛІГЕНЦІЇ (1917-1918)

Падіння царського самодержавства, яке для українців було уособленням і соціального, і національного гніту, викликало величезний ентузіазм серед демократично настроєної свідомої інтелігенції. З'явилися надії на відродження мови, культури, української державності.

За свідченням видатного діяча українського національного руху Д.Дорошенка, як тільки до Києва дійшла звістка про повалення самодержавства, члени керівної ради «Товариства українських поступовців» прийняли рішення заложити загальну організацію, яка об'єднувала б усі українські національні організації й стала на чолі руху.

Протягом перших днів Лютневої революції у Києві осередком українського політичного життя став клуб «Родина», членами якого з 1914р. були С.Русова, М.Ішуніна, Ф.Матушевський, С.Черкасенко, С.Єфремов, М.Лисенко, Л.Старицька-Черняхівська, М.Старицька, О.Стешенко. Вони ввійшли до первісного складу новітньої суспільної організації -Української Ради. Центральна Рада, яка виникла 3 березня 1917 p., спочатку виконувала функції органу, який координував діяльність існуючих суспільних і політичних організацій. З 9 по 15 березня засідання Ради вів Київський адвокат Ф.Крижанівський. На посаду другого заступника запросили літератора В. Науменка. Як голова Ради М. Грушевський виступив тільки 15 березня.

Прагнення до національного відродження охопило широкі народні маси. Члени Ради розуміли, що це проявиться в маніфестаціях українців, і взяли участь у їх підготовці. На 19 березня була запланована українська маніфестація у Києві. Комісію по її підготовці очолив Д.Антонович.

Маніфестація 19 березня зібрала близько 100 тисяч

434

 

учасників. «Це був грандіозний вибух національного почуття, демонстрація національної радості, слава визвольній революції», -згадував В.Винниченко.

2. ТРИДЦЯТЬ ТРИ НЕСКОРЕНІ УКРАЇНЦІ

Згідно з сумнозвісною ленінською національною політикою робилося все можливе, щоб ампутувати історичну пам'ять української нації, знищити остаточно нашу мову і культуру. Хто вважає, ніби зросійщення в Україні - це ледь не природний процес, хай оцінить подію 1951 року в Харківському університеті, коли студенти відмовилися складати іспити російською мовою. Тоді 800 з них було репресовано, а 33-х студентів на закритому засіданні суду було засуджено до смертної кари і розстріляно. Так діяла радянська влада проти української мови та її оборонців на нашій українській землі. Через 10 років після цієї трагічної події, 23 травня 1961 року, студенти Київського університету ім. Тараса Шевченка намалювали чи написали чорною фарбою число 33 на стінах, на підлозі, навіть у підвалах сімох приміщень університету. То був символ шани і пам'яті про тих 33-х нескорених українців. Хвала і слава вам, безіменні герої багатостраждальної України!

3. ПИЛИП ОРЛИК-ТВОРЕЦЬ ПЕРШОЇ УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ КОНСТИТУЦІЇ

Серед поборників української національної державної ідеї постать гетьмана Пилипа Орлика посідає особливе місце. Насамперед тому, що він є творцем однієї з перших в Європі державних конституцій під назвою «Конституція прав і свобод Запорізького Війська». Вона стала для свого часу маніфестом державної волі українського народу перед усім цивілізованим світом. Це був перший документ української державотворчої історії, в якому було гармонійно поєднано інтереси гетьманату та старшини як провідної верстви України та Запоріжжя, як військової сили, і відображено права і вольності українського народу.

Цей документ випереджав свій час. Своїми ідеями, демократичними засадами, змістом і державницькою спрямованістю «Конституція» випереджала і суспільну думку тодішньої Європи. Навіть французькі просвітителі ще тільки

435

 

наближалися до розробки тих громадянських ідей, які були закладені в «Конституції» Орлика 1721 року. «Конституція» стала реальною моделлю вільної, незалежної держави, яка б заснувалась на природному праві на свободу і самовизначення. «Конституція» складалася з 16 статей, які передбачали встановлення національного суверенітету і визначення кордонів Української держави, забезпечення демократичних прав людини, визнання непорушності трьох складових чинників правового суспільства, а саме - єдність і взаємодію законодавчої (виборна Генеральна Рада, що мала скликатися тричі на рік), виконавчої (гетьман, обмежений законом у своїх діях, генеральна старшина й обрані представники від кожного полку) і судова влада -підзвітна і контрольована. Такими в «Конституції» визначилися принципи побудови української держави. Кожна ж із статей формулювала конституційні норми в усіх галузях державного життя при головній умові - відторгнення майбутньої української держави від Росії.

436

 

NEW ITEMS FOR CLASS AND HOME WRITTEN OR ORAL TRANSLATION

1. HAZAR COULD INVEST US $78 MN INTO ODESA

ODESA. A delegation from Hazar construction company of Turkey is due to visit Odesa to hold talks on implementing a US $78mn investment project in the city. The news was revealed by the head of the city council's foreign economic development unit Konstiantyn Rzhepishevskyi March 10. He noted Hazar has to build a 5-star hotel in Odesa, a fun park and a cinema on condition the city lease land for the project on a long-term basis. The receiving а В + international credit rating guaranties the success of the project.

2. THE LEONIDS THROUGH THE AGES

COMET Р55ЯЕМРЕІ-ТиТТІЕ and its associated Leonids meteor storm have long been known to astronomers, but have a tendency to disappear for extensive stretches of time. The comet probably crossed Earth's orbit for the first time in 868 A.D., say astronomers. The first written account comes from Chinese astronomers in 902 A.D. Through the centuries, witnesses continued to record the appearances of the Leonids storm in awestruck terms. «Stars fell like rain,» reads one account. Observers generally failed to notice the cyclical nature of the event, however.

Following a particularly intense Leonids storm in 1833, in which 240,000 meteors per hour were estimated to have fallen over Boston during a 9-hour period, interest in the Leonids picked up. In fact, the Leonids storm is credited with sparking the formation of a religious revival movement that swept the United States in the 1830s.

In 1866, Ernst Tempel and Horace Tuttle calculated the comet's orbit to be every 33.3 years. That same year, the Leonids stalled Europe with another intensive storm, proving the accuracy of Tempel's and Turtle's calculations. Then, inexplicably, the Leonids storm faded from view for the next 100 years.

437

 

3. RUSSIAN CUTS CUSTOMS POINTS FROM 15 TO 4

MOSCOW. According to a report from Ukrainian News, the Russian government has reduced the number of customs border points at the Russian-Ukrainian border through which Ukraine can export goods like alcohol and cigarettes. The number has been cut from 15 to 4 and comes in the wake of protests from Russian domestic producers who are afraid that VAT-free goods from Ukraine will compete unfairly. VAT on goods between the two countries was scrapped Feb.

4. ITALIAN EMBASSY UNVEILS CARRA EXHIBITION

KYIV. The Italian Embassy and Ministry of Culture have teamed up to unveil an art exhibition of the works of Carlo Carra. The exhibition will run one week before heading to L'viv. This is the first event held by the Italian Embassy in accordance with the co-operation agreement it signed with Ukraine's Culture Ministry.

5. COMMITTEE APPROVES UKRTYTAN FOUNDING

KYIV. The anti-monopoly committee has given the green light for the creation of the UkrTytan corporation in Kyiv. The co-founders of the new corporation are the Zaporizhya titanium-magnesium integrated works, the Tytanium research institute and UkrKolyorProm, both of whom are state-run, and the Paton Institute of Welding. The main aim of the new company will be to raise funds for the modernization of production of titanium sponge at the Zaporizhyan integrated works and the installation of equipment to cast sponge ingots. The total value of the project is estimated at US $20mn. UkrTytan's president will be Volodymyr Bakumenko, general manager of the Zaporizhya titanium-magnesium plant.

6. NBU URGES TO INITIATE BANKING CHANGES

KYIV. The NBU has urged the VR to supplement its law on banks and banking with a new provision ordering commercial banks

438

 

to notify the former by April 1 whether they have increased their statutory funds to the mandatory level of ECU 1 mn. According to the NBU, two commercial banks have failed to comply with the demand, while 17 others have increased their statutory funds but failed to notify the NBU about changes made.

7. CONSULTANTS TO COMPILE BETTER MATEMAIL

KYIV. The organizing committee for the EBRD Congress approved a decision March 10 to attract leaders of international consulting firms operating in Ukraine to contribute their ideas in preparing analytical articles for inclusion in the official EBRD Congress catalogue Ukraine: Outlook for the XXI Century. A representative of the Newbiznet Kharkiv Regional Center for Business Development, Oleksandr Dudka, told EE March 11 that after reviewing information received from official state source and ministers, organizers decided to get a different point of view from international business «in order to make the publication more interesting». The firms will be asked to write analytical pieces on the investment attractiveness of different sectors, trading conditions and obstacles to trade. Two companies, Newbiznet and Computer Systems will translate these articles and produce 5,000 printed copies and 10,000 CD's which will be distributed amongst all the companies registered to take part in the congress in May.

8. PROJECT FOR NEW BUSINESS CENTER UNVEILED

KYIV. A presentation of the project for a new business center took place at the Kyiv Administration's Architecture Department March 11. The project was developed for Kyiv company H&F Forum by German ZBF-Berlin and Kyiv Architecture Union with the participation of architects from Austria and Australia. According to the project, a 4-star hotel, trading area, restaurants, cafes, and office will be built around the Lesya Ukrainka Ploshcha in Kyiv. The complex will cover an area of 42,000 sq. m. Construction of the business center with some investment funds from Germany is expected to start this autumn.

439

 

9. «ГАЛИЦЬКІ БУДИТЕЛІ» (Маркіян Шашкевич, Іван Вагилевич, Яків Головацький)

У пам'яті нащадків ім'я Маркіяна Шашкевича постає разом з іменами Івана Вагилевича та Якова Головацького - «Руської трійці» громадсько-літературного угрупування, об'єднання однодумців, яке в 30-х роках XIX століття розпочало подвижницьку справу відродження українства в Галичині. Ще в 1834 р. Шашкевич склав альманах своїх творів, під назвою «Зоря», писаних народною українською мовою, включивши до нього поезії своїх товаришів та народні пісні.

У жовтні 1836 р. було отримано дозвіл, а в грудні того ж року з'явилася датована 1837 роком сама книжка під назвою «Русалка Дністровая». Вона складалася із збірки народних дум, пісень, «ладкань» (веселі наспіви), з «передговором» (вступом) І.Вагилевича, оригінальних творів Шашкевича, перекладів сербського епосу та Краледворського рукопису, які зробили Головацький і Шашкевич.

Незважаючи на поміркованість поглядів «Руської трійці», реакція офіційних властей на видання «Русалки Дністрової» була досить суворою. 800 примірників збірки було затримано у Відні. Багато «небезпечних місць» побачила й львівська цензура і не допустила транспорт з тиражем у місто. Безумовно, «Руську трійцю» не можна порівнювати з «грандами» національної ідеї, їх сучасниками Т.Шевченком, П.Кулішем, М.Костомаровим. Одначе вони були першими, хто пробудив національну свідомість українців у Галичині, залучив їх до загальної справи народу, що перебував на історичному узбіччі. Вони «оживили» українську мову, зірвавши з неї пута книжництва, започаткували нову українську літературу в Галичині, їх хитання і непослідовність, можливо, не йшли від особистих рис характеру, а певною мірою були притаманні українству взагалі, яке дуже часто попри об'єктивні реалії в романтичному запалі виборювало для свого народу право на майбутнє, на щасливішу долю.

440

 

10. ЗА ПРАВО ЖИТИ

Після 17 з'їзду ВКП(б) 1934 р. машина політичного терору, яка з часу так званої пролетарської революції в Росії 1917р. ніколи не зупинялася повністю, діяла вже на всю потужність. Основний удар було спрямовано проти України. І це не випадково. Україна в стратегічних розрахунках російських більшовиків-шовіністів завжди розглядалася як вирішальний плацдарм. 1933 року в «загальній атмосфері загострення класової боротьби» покінчили життя самогубством дві провідні політичні постаті в Україні -комуністи Микола Хвильовий і партійно-державний діяч, соратник Леніна, Микола Скрипник, член Політбюро ЦК КП(б)У, тодішній заступник Голови Раднаркому і Голова Держплану УРСР. На цей самий рік припадає ще один вияв бурхливого «розквіту» української радянської нації- страхітливий голод, який забрав у могилу кілька мільйонів (називають цифру 8-9 мільйонів) українських життів і довів наш народ до людоїдства. 1932 рік був урожайний. Москва «спустила» Україні завищені плани хлібоздачі. Але «єдність партії та народу» була вже «повна», і партійно-державний апарат України, цілковито безконтрольний перед суспільством, висунув так званий зустрічний план - ще вищий. Хліб від українських селян вимели дочиста. Вимирали цілі села - по всій радянській Україні маяли чорні прапори смерті (не метафорично, а в прямому значенні слова: стихійно утвердилась практика вивішувати над обезлюднілими селами чорні прапори). А газети кричали про розквіт українського народу. Зібраний хліб лежав у «засіках батьківщини» і поза ними, просто неба. Лежав, і чимало його пропадало. А люди пухли й помирали з голоду і «держава трудящих, робітників і селян» не подала їм ніякої допомоги. Вона боролася з «українським націоналізмом». Терор значною мірою захопив і позаполітичну людність. Так, 22 червня 1944 р. суворо таємним наказом № 0078/42 Берії і Жукова було вирішено «вислати у віддалені місця СРСР всіх українців, що проживали під владою німецьких окупантів». На 22-му з'їзді КПРС Нікіта Хрущов згадував, що тільки численність української нації врятувала її від ще одного сталінського етапу «розквіту» - від переселення на безмежні простори Сибіру. Нація лежала біля ніг радянської Росії цілковито паралізована. (Ю.Бадзьо)

441

 

11. НА ПЛАЩАНИЦІ КРОВ ІСУСА?

Разюче відкриття, яке може перевернути всі уявлення про земне існування Ісуса Христа, зробили американські вчені з Центру передових технологій ДНК Техаського університету.

Ученим цього центру, повідомляє у новій книзі «Кров і плащаниця» Ян Вілсон, пощастило виявити сліди ДНК людини на знаменитій Туринській плащаниці - полотні, у яке, згідно з легендами, було загорнуто тіло Ісуса Христа після того, як його зняли з хреста.

На жаль, подані для дослідження зразки настільки малі, що сліди ДНК на них неможливо використати для подальших досліджень, заявив мікробіолог Техаського університету Леонсіо Гарза-Вальдес. «Однак, - наголосив він, - з певністю можна сказати, що ми виявили сліди людської крові і це - кров чоловіка». Рівень розпаду достатній, зазначив Гарза-Вальдес, щоб припустити, що власне плащаницю можна віднести до першого століття нашої ери, а розміщення слідів крові, рани на руках і ногах від розп'яття на хресті ясно свідчать про існування Христа, повідомляє ІТАР-ТАРС.

12. НОВА НАФТОВА МАГІСТРАЛЬ

Після заяви президента Азербайджану Ґейдара Алієва про те, що каспійська нафта у будь-якому разі пройде територією Грузії, до Тбілісі прибув керівник компанії «Шеврон Оверсіз» Річард Мацке. Він та керівник грузинської компанії «Нафтопродукти» підписали контракт про спорудження в Грузії нового трубопроводу та реконструкції існуючого.

Під існуючим мають на увазі трубопровід, що зв'язує грузинські міста Хашурі та Батумі. Його довжина 232 кілометри. Ця «труба» зв'яже Грузію з азербайджанським містом Алі-Байрамли. Остаточну здачу об'єкта намічено на першу половину 1999 року. А відновлювані роботи планують завершити до травня нинішнього року. Нафтопроводом транспортуватиметься нафта з казахстанського родовища Тенгіз, а також каспійська нафта.

Як заявив на прес-конференції Річард Мацке, діятиме також і залізнична транзитна переправа, якою за півтора року вже

442

 

перевезено більш як півтора мільйони тонн казахстанської нафти. Планують перевозити територією Грузії і скраплений газ та сірку. Нинішній проект - перша гілка трубопроводу, яка через Грузію зв'яже Каспійський басейн із зовнішнім світом. Нагадуємо, що на кінець року має стати до ладу трубопровід західного маршруту перекачування ранньої каспійської нафти. Як очікують, у червні Азербайджанський операційний консорціум схвалить остаточне рішення про маршрут доставки на Захід так званої «великої нафти». На думку експертів, цей маршрут пройде територією Грузії, звідти -до країн Західної Європи, Туреччини та України.

13. ВІЛЬНЮСЬКИЙ МІЖНАРОДНИЙ СУД НАД КПРС

Усе більше і більше відкривається страхітливих злочинів комуністичної імперії проти нашого народу. Це страшний і повчальний урок для нас живих.

Сьогодні завдяки відновленню української державності ми маємо можливість і повинні належно оцінити це жахливе минуле, засудити столітні варварства московської імперії на нашій святій землі. Україна рясно вкрита ще донедавна таємними похованнями, як биківнянські, і мабуть найзрозуміліше висловився Василь Симоненко у своєму запитанні: «Де зараз ви, кати мого народу?»

Багато наших батьків невинними розтріляли більшовики в ті страшні тридцяті. Ми, їхні діти, онуки, повинні засудити злочини більшовицьких нелюдів. На Міжнародному конгресі в листопаді 1995 року вже вирішувалося питання про трибунал для суду над комуністами-злочинцями. Але далі гучних слів і гнівного осуду конґрес так і не пішов. І ось, нарешті, червень 2000 року і перший міжнародний суд у Вільнюсі. Ідею організації міжнародного трибуналу над КПСС (Нюрнберг-2) підхопила Литва.

Для покарання фашистських вожаків потрібен був міжнародний процес. Подібний суд обов'язково повинен відбутися і над організаторами масових убивств невинних людей колишнім режимом.

Матеріалів для організації такого трибуналу є більш, ніж достатньо, починаючи від мільйонів смертей «куркулів» і їхніх

443

 

дітей на Соловках і в Сибіру 1929-1930 років і закінчуючи страхітливим голодомором 1933р., репресіями 1937-1938рр. та винищенням українців за підтримку діяльності ОУН. Нашим депутатам Верховної Ради, багато з яких схвалюють ідею створення трибуналу, необхідно розглянути питання про засекречені процеси над радянськими людьми і домогтися рішення владних структкр про широке висвітлення правди про ті підступні «судові» процеси, про вироки трійок без суду та слідства, про тортури заарештованих.

Справжня гласність, висвітлення всіх злочинів і конкретних злочинців - це не помста принижених і мучених, це наш обов'язок перед пам'яттю закатованих.

Орґанізацію в Україні суду над КПРС тепер вестиме Громадське представництво, якому вже зараз необхідно перш за все звернутися до прогресивного людства, до антикомуністичних комітетів тих країн. Де такі комітети є, аби вони вплинули на парламенти своїх держав.

Дуже добре було б, якби справу створення такого трибуналу своїм конкретним рішенням чи заявою офіційно підтримала влада нашої держави, адже колись навіть сам генсек комуністів М.С.Хрущов засудив злочини сталінізму!

444

 

A LIST OF LITERATURE USED AND RECOMMENDED

Ажнюк Б.М. Українські власні назви (антропоніми й топоніми) в англійському написанні. Мовознавство, 1993, №1.

Бархударов Л.С. Язьік й перевод. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1975.

Біблія або Книги Святого Письма. - Київ: - Видання Місійного Товариства "Нове Життя", 1992.

Граур А. Научно-техническая революция й задачи интернационализации научно-технической терминологии. - В кн.: Интернациональньїе злементьі в лексике й терминологии. -Харьков: Вьісш. шк. Изд-во при Харьков. ун-те, 1980.

Зорівчак Р.П. Фразеологічна одиниця як перекладознавча категорія. -Львів: Вища шк. Вид-во при Львів, ун-ті, 1983.

Карабан В.І. Посібник-Довідник з перекладу англійської наукової і технічної літератури на українську мову. Ч. І-ІІ - К.: Політична думка, 1997, 1999.

Комиссаров В.Н. Теория перевода. - М.: «Вьюшая школа», 1990.

Коптілов В.В. Теорія і практика перекладу. - К.: Видавництво Київ, університету, 1982.

Корунець І.В. Теорія і практика перекладу. - К.: Вища школа, 1986.

Корунець І.В. Принципи і способи передачі українських особових і географічних назв англійською мовою. Мовознавство, 1993, №3.

Кунин А.В. Фразеология современного английского язьїка. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1972.

Марчук Ю.Н. Проблеми машинного перевода. - М.: Наука, 1983.

Москальская О.Й. Грамматика текста. - М.: Вьісш. шк., 1981.

Найда Ю.А. К науке переводить. Принципи соответствий. -В кн.: ВопросьІ теории перевода в заруб, лингвистике. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1978.

Новий завіт (Проект). - Київ: Біблійні товариства, 1997.

Нойберт А. Прагматические аспектьі перевода. - В кн.: ВопросьІ теории перевода в заруб, лингвистике. - М.: Междунар. отношения, 1978.

445

 

РецкерЯ.И. Теория перевода й переводческая практика. -М.: Междунар.отношения, 1974.

Семенец О.Е., Панасьев А.Н., История перевода. - К.: Либідь, 1989, 1991.

Сучасна українська літературна мова. Лексика. Синтаксис. За ред. І.К. Білодіда. - К.: Наукова думка, 1972.

Тисячоліття. Поетичний переклад України-Руси. - Київ, Дніпро, 1995.

Федоров А.В. Основи общей теории перевода. - М.: Вьісш. шк., 1983.

Чередниченко О.І., Коваль Я.Г. Теорія і практика перекладу (французька мова). - К.: Либідь, 1995.

Швейцар А.Д. Теория перевода. - М.: Наука, 1988.

McDowell Josh and Stewart. The Bible. Here's Life Publishers INC. San Bernardino, California, 1983.

Draper J.W. The Theory of translation in the 18.Century. In:

Franzel W. Geschichte des Obersetzens im 18Jahrhundert, Leipzig, 1914.

Gentzler E. Contemporary Translation Theories. - London and New York. Routledge, 1993.

Hoey Michael. Patterns of Lexis in Text. - Oxford: Ox.University Press, 1991.

Nida E. Componental Analysis of Meaning. - The Hague -Paris: Moton, 1975.

Pohling Heide. Zur Geschichte der Ubersetzung. In: Studien zur... Ubersetzungwissenschaft. - Leipzig, 1971.

Povey J., Walshe I. An English Teache's Handbook of Educational Terms. 2 nd Rev.Ed. - M.: Vyssaja Skola, 1982.

J.Seidl/McMordie W. English Idioms and How to Use Them. -М.: Вьісшая школа, 1983.

Rayevska R.M. Modem English Grammar. - К.: Вища школа. Головне видавництво, 1976.

British, Ukrainian and American newspapers, journals and dictionaries: К.Т.Баранцев. Англо-український фразеологічний словник. К.:Рад. школа, 1969.

Hornby A.S. Oxford Andvanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. -Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980.

Spears R.A., Georgeoliani D. Essential American Idioms. -Lincolnwood (Chicago): NTC Publishing Group, 1997.

446

 

Навчальне видання

Корунець Ілько Вакулович

ТЕОРІЯ І ПРАКТИКА ПЕРЕКЛАДУ

(АСПЕКТНИЙ ПЕРЕКЛАД)

Формат 60/801/16.Друк офсетний. Папір офсетний. Ум.друк.арк. 28.

Видавництво «Нова Книга»

Свідоцтво ДК №103

м.Вінниця, вул.Стеценка, 46/85

8 (0432) 53-71-88 E-mail: newbook@svitonline.com

Віддруковано на ДП «Державна картографічна фабрика» з плівок замовника. Зам №31, тир 1500 прим.

 




1. Основы естествознания1
2. Потребительский рынок Евразии- современное состояние теория и практика в условиях Таможенного союза и ВТО
3. Реферат- Разработка сайта с использованием CSS
4. я Владимира греков Бахрушин ~ хря сменва исто формаций Фроянов ~ хрво идеология которая может прими
5. Тема 39 Україна під час Другої світової війни 19391945 рр
6. 1 Психология осмотра места происшествия
7. Размеры здания в плане 198 х 216м между крайними осями
8. историческом виде м
9. Экономика и планирование городского хозяйства Январь 2014 г
10. тема управления направлявшая в основном свои усилия на критику зарубежного опыта управления.html
11. Объективные результаты того или иного события явления действия учреждения необходимо строго отделять от с
12. ВВЕДЕНИЕ Повышение уровня жизни информационная осведомленность населения особенно в европейских страна
13. тема СПУ представляет собой разновидность оперативнопроизводственного планирования обеспечивающая динам
14. забытым скандалом вокруг армии обезьянмутантов Сталина Дэвид Кетчпул Илья Иванович Иванов Прим.html
15.  Учебная деятельность специфический вид деятельности Теория учебной деятельности в общей теории уче
16. ФЕНИКС Москва 1994 ББК 36
17. Иконопись и ее особенности Иконописные школы Древней Руси
18. Реферат- Модель развития группы
19. 'о'амды' денсаулы' са'тау Кафедра- Жалпы гигиена ж'не экология Курс- 2 Семестр- 4
20. Погрузчики TOYOT