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Theoretical questions on Lingua-cultural studies

1. Role and place of Culture and Language study in a system of sciences (Ethnolinguistics,

Sociolinguistics, Lingua-culture study)

2. Define the notions Culture and Language. Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, defined by everything from language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. Today, in the United States as in other countries populated largely by immigrants, the culture is influenced by the many groups of people that now make up the country. Language is the human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics. As an object of linguistic study, "language" has two primary meanings: an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e.g. "French". The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, who defined the modern discipline of linguistics, first explicitly formulated the distinction using the French word langage for language as a concept, langue as a specific instance of a language system, and parole for the concrete usage of speech in a particular language.

3. Evaluate the relationship between Culture and Language. It is generally agreed that language and culture are closely related. Language can be viewed as a verbal expression of culture. It is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties. Language provides us with many of the categories we use for expression of our thoughts, so it is therefore natural to assume that our thinking is influenced by the language which we use. The values and customs in the country we grow up in shape the way in which we think to a certain extent.

Cultures hiding in languages, examines the link between Japanese language and culture. An Insight into Korean Culture through the Korean Language discusses how Korean culture influences the language.

4. Compare and contrast the notions Culture and Civilization. There has always been a relationship between the culture and between the civilization of the people that live in different countries. The culture and civilization in different countries almost go hand in hand with one another. The culture will sometimes change from time to time but the original culture is always remembered and used in some kind of way. The civilization in different countries usually does not always change too much. The different cultures of countries is what makes each country unique.

5. Give your understanding of a Linguistic Picture of the World. The notion of the Linguistic Picture of the World (henceforward LPW) is a part of the cognitive paradigm in linguistics. It is used in analysing natural languages. The aim of this poster is to show possible problems and results of applying this theory to a wide variety of artificial languages Linguistic Picture/View of the World• phenomena culturally important for a given group will be reflected and retained in the group’s language (Bartmiński 2006). • the LPW is a “certain set of beliefs more or less fixedin the language, contained in the meanings of words or implied by these meanings, which states the traits and moods of existence of objects from the non-linguistic world”

6. Fine out the difference between a Conceptual and Linguistic Picture of the World. The conceptual form of a picture of the world is the "image" of the world which has been not invested with any system of signs. But it can be transferred in the sign form. Division of the world by means of language is carried out by imposing on the world of a conceptual grid (i.e. by allocation kontseptov) and a situational grid (i.e. by allocation of situations) . Thus, relations between the language form and its function with necessity reflect conceptual structure peculiar to the person and the general principles kognitivnoj kategorizatsii. It is impossible to describe language in conformity terms between the Word and the World if under the World to understand the picture of the world generated by our experience ..Along with a rich conceptual picture of the world (KKM) which in the form of concepts and submissions is in consciousness of the person, in parallel it there is a verbal or language picture of the world (concept vs. The language form). Language is connected with the validity through sign correlation, that is it displays in its sign method.

7. Define factors that create a national picture of the world. The existence of national peculiarities in world mapping (as a process and its result) by the means of mental or public lexicon is a commonplace for the modern linguistics (q.v.: [3; 7; 10]).

8. Identify language that best fits your language personality

9. Find out the role of lexis and grammar in forming of the language personality

10. Comment on the culture as communication/ Each culture has set rules that its members take for granted. Few of us are aware of our own cultural biases because cultural imprinting is begun at a very early age. And while some of a culture's knowledge, rules, beliefs, values, phobias, and anxieties are taught explicitly, most of the information is absorbed subconsciously.\The challenge for multinational communication has never been greater. Worldwide business organizations have discovered that intercultural communication is a subject of importance—not just because of increased globalization, but also because their domestic workforce is growing more and more diverse, ethnically and culturally.\We are all individuals, and no two people belonging to the same culture are guaranteed to respond in exactly the same way. However, generalizations are valid to the extent that they provide clues on what you will most likely encounter when dealing with members of a particular culture.

11. Identify the notion Concept. According to the Russian linguist Stepanov, “concepts are just phrases, fragments of conversation <...>, but they are subtle phrases that force our minds createsuch content, as if it has been familiar to us for a long time” (2007, 248). Concept can be understood as a bunch of culture in the consciousness of people; it is something in the form of which culture enters the mental world. And, moreover, people throughthe concept enter culture and affect it. Concepts are not only contemplated, they are experienced. They are the subject of emotions, likes and dislikes, and sometimes collisions. The concept is also a discrete unit of the collective consciousness, which is stored in the national memory of native speakers in verbally determinate form. As a cognitive unit of meaning, a concept is an abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a “unit of knowledge”, built from other units which act as a concept’s characteristic. A concept is typically associated with a corresponding representation in a language such as a single meaning of a term

12. Comment on the sphere of the Concept in the Lingua-cultural Studies. Linguo-cultural concept as a subject of study of linguo-culture appears (lingvokulturologija) to the researchers as a cultural, mental and linguistic education. According to the Stepanov’s definition, linguo-cultural concept is a mental unit, aimed at a comprehensive study of language, consciousness and culture. The linguo-cultural concept differs from other units in its mental nature. Mentality is perceived as a guided collection of images and perceptions. Bloom defines mentality as the perception of the world in the categories and forms of the native language that connects the intellectual and spiritual qualities of national character in its typical manifestatio. Many scholars agree that the mentality is easier to describe than to define. Mentality of deeper thinking, standards of behaviour represents the internal willingness of a person to act in a certain way. Linguo-cultural concept differs from other mental units by the presence of the value component. Value is always in the centre of the concept.A linguo-concept consists of distinct evaluative, figurative and conceptual components. The notional component of the concept is stored in the verbal

13. Define the notions of Natural character and Mentality

14. Evaluate the role of stereotypes in culture. The stereotype would be the 'normal type' or point-of-reference that all other individuals would be measured against. For example: He was the stereotypical high school bully save for the fact that he was fascinated with flowers and objects of art of a disturbingly Raphealian era. In a scientific real the stereotype would be referred to as a control sample.

15. Identify the functions of stereotypes in culture. One of the biggest challenges we face today is the understanding of socio-cultural differences. This diversity will likely be the key to eliminating stereotypes; through cross-cultural contact, the understanding of differences can emerge. We realize that in its purest form there is no such thing as stereotypes; no one person is exactly like another person and no individual is a carbon copy of another member of a group.\However, while cultural diversity provides different ways of thinking, ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world, beyond local and nationalistic perspectives, interacting with people from different cultures can be problematic requiring a solid understanding of how others values, attitudes, behaviors and communication styles differ.\When interacting with someone from another culture, understanding the norms of that culture is essential and enhanced communication skill is required. Unfortunately the stereotypes associated within cross-cultural generalizations among African-Americans, Asian-Americans and Latin-Americans, leaves strong impressions and affects perceptions, particularly when accepting stereotypes as truths.

16. Evaluate the notional component of the concept. The notional component of the concept is stored in the verbal form.

17. Comment on the difference between artifact and stereotype. Cultural artifact is a term used in the social sciences, particularly anthropology,[1] ethnology,[2] and sociology[citation needed] for anything created by humans which gives information about the culture of its creator and users. Usage of this term encompasses the type of archaeological artifact which is recovered at archaeological sites; however, current objects of modern or near-modern society are also cultural artifacts. For example, in an anthropological context, a 17th-century lathe, a piece of faience, or a television each provide a wealth of information about the time in which they were manufactured and used. Cultural artifacts can provide knowledge about technological processes, economy and social makeup, and a host of other subjects. There are many ways how cultural artifacts constitute stereotypes of racial identity. We associate stereotypes with cultural artifacts all of the time. In fact, that is exactly how a stereotype is made. Stereotypes are basically myths that we as people make of how a certain group of people are expected to act or look like. Cultural artifacts are used in stereotypes to strengthen a stereotype or and to associate a group with a certain artifact that they use all of the time or that they are affiliated with.For example, we as people constructed the stereotype of the gangster. The stereotype of the gangster is an African American man who is very masculine and wears very baggy clothing. The gangster is associated with drugs and crime and is also very violent. That stereotype would not be able to be constructed without all of those cultural artifacts. We associate the gangster with baggy clothing because they wear baggy clothing to hide their drugs and hold their guns and when we see a gangster we usually see them wearing baggy clothing. They also usually carry guns which is brought out by their criminal and violent side. They use the guns in gang fights and to rob stores. By no means are all of these assumptions accurate but that is what is seen in the stereotype.

18. Identify different types of stereotypes. (how about all blondes are dumb, or all black people have low IQ's, deal drugs, and excel in sports, or all hispanics are illegal aliens, or people who wear glasses are smarter, or all Texans live on cattle ranches and have oil wells and live like JR on "Dallas", or everyone in Louisiana has a gator in the backyard, or all Asians are smarter than other ethnic groups, or all fat people are jolly and have no self control. ) Racial stereotypes
Religious stereotypes
Ethnic stereotypes
National stereotypes
"Gender" stereotypes (including ones based on sex and on sexual orientation)
Age stereotypes
Physical stereotypes (those based on weight, height, hair color, etc.)
Disability stereotypes (physical or mental)
Professional stereotypes (based on jobs--e.g., plumbers, dentists, etc.)
Cultural stereotypes (based on subculture--e.g., goths, emo kids, preps, etc.)

19. Evaluate the role of borrowings in bearing connotative linguacultural meaning

20. Comment on the conceptual and national-linguistic world pictures. The conceptual form of a picture of the world is the "image" of the world which has been not invested with any system of signs. But it can be transferred in the sign form. Division of the world by means of language is carried out by imposing on the world of a conceptual grid (i.e. by allocation kontseptov) and a situational grid (i.e. by allocation of situations) . Thus, relations between the language form and its function with necessity reflect conceptual structure peculiar to the person and the general principles kognitivnoj kategorizatsii. It is impossible to describe language in conformity terms between the Word and the World if under the World to understand the picture of the world generated by our experience ..Along with a rich conceptual picture of the world (KKM) which in the form of concepts and submissions is in consciousness of the person, in parallel it there is a verbal or language picture of the world (concept vs. The language form). Language is connected with the validity through sign correlation, that is it displays in its sign method.

21. Clarify and comment on the components of world picture

22. Define the notion of concept in cognitive linguistics and linguacultural stuies

23. Clarify and comment on cultural concept as the basic unit of linguacultural studies

24. Define the notion of linguistic personality. linguistic personality: a man, living in a specific linguistic space — communication, stereotypical behavior, fixed in a language, notions of linguistic units, text meanings. The study of linguistic personality in linguistics of our country is connected with J.N. Karaulov, who understands linguistic personality as “a complex of abilities and characteristics of a human, determining his creation of speech production (texts)” [2; 3].After Karaulov, who suggested analysing linguistic personality according to three levels (structural-linguistic, cognitive, motivational), other linguists suggested their own three level model. For example, I.P. Susov points out three levels in

linguistic personality: formal-semantic, cognitive-interpretational and socialinteractive [3; 7-13]. V.D. Lyutikova holds different opinion: “The level model of linguistic personality, developed by linguists, reflects a general type of a personality, so it can hardly be applied to the analysis of every specific personality. Verbal, cognitive and pragmatic levels are identified in an individual verbal situation.

Moreover, any personality combines elements of stability and changeability; it is affected by outer influence and is not devoid of inner conflicts. The presence of stability and changeability in linguistic personality, being influenced by various factors, makes the structure of linguistic personality even more complex”.

25. Comment on the national and individual world picture

26. Comment on the interrelation of conceptual, national and individual world pictures.

27. Define the notion of linguacultural analysis of language entities

28. Comment on the borrowings as a subject of linguistic analysis

29. Clarify the linguacultural aspect of phraseology. An idiom most often reflects the national specificity of the people. It is a figurative interpretation of reality and an emotional model of communication. Idioms are highly interactive items. They are strong and colorful examples of cross-cultural relations. The source of their origin is sometimes difficult to ascertain. They are firmly assimilated in various languages and have become part and the whole of these cultures. The main difficulty is whether an idiom is appropriate in the given context when a non-native speaker tries to translate an idiom from his native language into English. It may confuse a listener. The problem is often one of collocation, which is a central characteristic of the language in use. The way native speakers use English in the real world is largely idiomatic and it assumes that a fluent non-native speaker should be similarly idiomatic. When even very good learners of the language speak or write English, the effect is slightly odd. Since idioms evaluate the whole narrative summarizing the main events or opinion,a native speakers’ unconscious knowledge of collocation is an essential component of their idiomatic and fluent language use and is, therefore, an important part of their communicative competence.\A large number of idioms are of folk origin; however, there are huge numbers of the biblical, mythological and author-specific idioms. Knowing culture, literature and traditions of different nationalities will help the language learner to communicate with a native speaker adequately. In this way, an idiom is the key, which enables people to open the gate of the national culture, history, traditions and beliefs of different people.\Luke Prodromouremarks that the love of puns and wordplay, often based on idiomatic sayings, is a common feature of a native speaker: “What is striking about informal uses of English is not only how common the idiom principle is, but just how common creativity with idioms is among native-speakers” (L. Prodromou, 2003, 42). Indeed, the need for greater idiomatic competence is precisely what linguists propose for the non-native speaker.

30. Identify metaphor as a means of cultural representation. A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the same as another otherwise unrelated object. "A cultural metaphor is any activity, phenomenon, or institution with which members of a given culture emotionally and/or cognitively identify. As such, the metaphor represents the underlying values expressive of the culture itself. Frequently, outsiders have a difficult time relating to and/or understanding the underlying values of a culture, and this book is designed to address this difficulty. Culture allows us to fill in the blanks, often unconsciously, when action is required, and cultural metaphors help us to see the values leading to action. This is probably the most interesting feature of culture."

31. Identify and comment on the types of metaphor. Metaphors can be classified in a range of different ways, based on various criteria, from complexity to level of usage.

Absolute metaphor: Separated subject and vehicle.
Active metaphor: New and not established.
Complex metaphor: Multi-layered.
Compound metaphor: With many parts.
Dead metaphor: Normal language, no longer recognized as metaphor.
Dormant metaphor: Weak connection between vehicle and subject.
Dying metaphor: Unfashionable cliché.
Extended metaphor: One subject, many sub-elements.
Implicit metaphor: Incomplete description.
Mixed metaphor: Mismatched combination of metaphors.
Pataphor: Extreme form of metaphor.
Root metaphor: Unrealized basic driver.
Simple metaphor: Single meaning and linkage.
Submerged metaphor: Use a part as a metaphor for something else.
Synechdochic metaphor: Use a part as metaphor for the whole.

Dead metaphor:A metaphor that has lost its force and meaning through overuse. Examples: world wide web, flowerbed, fishing for compliments, windfall.

Burlesque:A figurative metaphor that the comparison is the grotesque, comic or the exaggerated.Example: "It was a very black night and the girl was dressed in cream-coloured muslin, and must have glimmered under the tall trees of the dark park like a phosphorescent fish in a cupboard." (Ford Maddox Ford, The Good Soldier, 1915). Primary: A metaphor that is immediately understood. Examples: knowing is seeing, time is motion.

Complex:A metaphor where the literal meaning is expressed through more than one figurative term or primary terms. Examples: lose our cool, anger welling-up inside, person flaring up, and outburst of anger. Conceptual: A metaphor where one idea or concept is understood as another. Example: Time is money.

Conduit:

A type of conceptual metaphor, used in English to talk about the process of communication.

32. Symbols as a stereotypical cultural phenomenon/

33. Define simile in linguacultural aspect

34. Metaphor as the way of cultural phenomenon. A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the same as another otherwise unrelated object. "A cultural metaphor is any activity, phenomenon, or institution with which members of a given culture emotionally and/or cognitively identify. As such, the metaphor represents the underlying values expressive of the culture itself. Frequently, outsiders have a difficult time relating to and/or understanding the underlying values of a culture, and this book is designed to address this difficulty. Culture allows us to fill in the blanks, often unconsciously, when action is required, and cultural metaphors help us to see the values leading to action. This is probably the most interesting feature of culture."

35. Symbol as a cultural phenomenon. As people use symbols when they commincate, the use of symbols is essential for social interaction and hence the organization of society. The study of symbols is also of fundamental importance for the interpretation and understanding of various cultural phenomena.Symbols and symbol use is an important area of social anthropological research. In a broad sense, a symbol can be understood as a sign that in a meaningful way stands for something other than itself.Through studying the use of symbols social anthropologists can gain an insight into how people orient themselves in the world they live in and of the images they form of it. Thus, a focus on symbols is also necessary in order to study different world views and the ritual activities associated with them.

36. Clarify the linguacultural aspect of phraseology

37. Comment on the types of metaphor. Metaphors can be classified in a range of different ways, based on various criteria, from complexity to level of usage.

Absolute metaphor: Separated subject and vehicle.
Active metaphor: New and not established.
Complex metaphor: Multi-layered.
Compound metaphor: With many parts.
Dead metaphor: Normal language, no longer recognized as metaphor.
Dormant metaphor: Weak connection between vehicle and subject.
Dying metaphor: Unfashionable cliché.
Extended metaphor: One subject, many sub-elements.
Implicit metaphor: Incomplete description.
Mixed metaphor: Mismatched combination of metaphors.
Pataphor: Extreme form of metaphor.
Root metaphor: Unrealized basic driver.
Simple metaphor: Single meaning and linkage.
Submerged metaphor: Use a part as a metaphor for something else.
Synechdochic metaphor: Use a part as metaphor for the whole.

Dead metaphor:A metaphor that has lost its force and meaning through overuse. Examples: world wide web, flowerbed, fishing for compliments, windfall.

Conduit:

A type of conceptual metaphor, used in English to talk about the process of communication.

38. Clarify simile as a cultural phenomenon. A common figure of speech that explicitly compares two things usually considered different. Most similes are introduced by like or as: “The realization hit me like a bucket of cold water.” (Comparemetaphor.)Some similes, such as “sleeping like a log,” have become clichés.

39. Define simile in linguacultural aspect. Of all figures of speech, simile is said to be the simplest and the most common used. Simile is utilized popularly in numerous

languages and linguistic fields. There are a variety of ways to define simile, the briefest of all may be attributed to C.

Jonathan (1995) in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary “Simile is a comparison of one thing with another.” Kirssner and

Mandell (1987) mention in The Brief Holt Handbook, however, give a more specific definition: “A simile is a comparison

between two essentially unlike items on the basis of a shared quality; similes are produced by like or as”.

The objectives compared in a simile do not usually belong to the same semantic groups or classes. A person can be compared to an animal or a thing. By way of illustration, in the simile “He was as cunning as a fox” a man’s characteristic is compared with a fox’s one. Another similar example is “He swims like a fish”. Actually, a fish is so good at swimming. The action of “swimming” of a man is compared with that of a fish. That is to say he swims very well. Let us consider another example, “He was like a bull in a china shop, treading on everyone’s feet and apologize constantly.” In this case, only the topic “He” and the image of the simile “a bull in a china shop” are given out. The point of similarity, however, is implicit. To analyze this simile, we can state the two propositions explicitly as follows: 1. He is extremely careless and clumsy. 2. A bull in a china shop is extremely careless and clumsy. Subsequently, the implicit information becomes apparent.

40. Define the concept of authenticity. The concept of authenticity -- the idea of `being oneself' or being `true to oneself' -- is central tomodern moral thought. The concept of authenticity has been explored throughout history by many writers, from ancient Greek philosophers to Enlightenment authors, to existentialists and contemporary social theorists. The social barrier to achieving authenticity (or self-realization) was emphasized by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), who argued that personal authenticity is diminished by the need for the esteem of others in societies characterized by hierarchy, inequality, and interdependence. According to Rousseau, authenticity is derived from the natural self, whereas inauthenticity is a result of external influences.\The existential philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) said that authenticity is choosing the nature of one’s existence and identity. He also linked authenticity to an awareness of mortality, since only by keeping in mind one’s inevitable death can one lead a truly authentic life. His project of realizing one’s identity in the context of an external world with its influences, implies a complex relationship between authenticity and inauthenticity which means that they should be viewed not as mutually exclusive concepts, but as complementary and interdependent. Heidegger argued that both authenticity and inauthenticity are basic forms of being in the world, and they cannot be separated.

41. Identify the notion of ethnography. The term ethnography has come to be equated with virtually any qualitative research project (e.g., see Research Gateway) where the intent is to provide a detailed, in-depth description of everyday life and practice. This is sometimes referred to as "thick description" -- a term attributed to the anthropologist Clifford Geertz writing on the idea of an interpretive theory of culture in the early 1970s (e.g., see The Interpretation of Cultures, first published as a collection in 1973). The use of the term "qualitative" is meant to distinguish this kind of social science research from more "quantitative" or statistically oriented research. The two approaches, i.e., quantitative and qualitative, while often complementary, ultimately have different aims.While an ethnographic approach to social research is no longer purely that of the cultural anthropologist, a more precise definition must be rooted in ethnography's disciplinary home of anthropology. Thus, ethnography may be defined as both a qualitative research process or method (one conducts an ethnography) and product (the outcome of this process is an ethnography) whose aim is cultural interpretation. The ethnographer goes beyond reporting events and details of experience. Specifically, he or see attempts to explain how these represent what we might call "webs of meaning" (Geertz again), the cultural constructions, in which we live.\Ethnographers generate understandings of culture through representation of what we call an emic perspective, or what might be described as the "'insider's point of view." The emphasis in this representation is thus on allowing critical categories and meanings to emerge from the ethnographic encounter rather than imposing these from existing models. An etic perspective, by contrast, refers to a more distant, analytical orientation to experience.An ethnographic understanding is developed through close exploration of several sources of data. Using these data sources as a foundation, the ethnographer relies on a cultural frame of analysis.

42. Comment on the phraseological unit. Phraseological unit / set expression / idiom – a complex word-equivalent in which the globality of nomination reigns supreme over the formal separability of elements. It is reproduced in speech. –See Idiom proper. Sources of idioms:

1. from our everyday lifeEx.: to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth

to sail under false colour (прятать истинное лицо)
to loose track of smb (потерять кого-либо из виду, давно не видеть)
a leopard can(’t) change its spots

2. from the Bible

Ex.: black sheep, lost sheep (заблудшая овца)
To cast pearls before swine (метать бисер перед свиньями)

3. World literature

Ex.: to fight against Windmills
an ugly duckling (Danish) – гадкий утенок

4. different languages

Ex.: to lose face (Chinese)
“The course of true love has never run smooth” Shakespeare “The 12th night”
“The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia” – “the Times”

5. from history

Ex.: to cross the Rubicon
Labours of Hercules
To bell the cat

43. Identify the Linguocultural aspect of phraseology . phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently. For example, ‘Dutch auction’ is composed of the words Dutch ‘of or pertaining to the Netherlands’ and auction ‘a public sale in which goods are sold to the highest bidder’, but its meaning is not ‘a sale in the Netherlands where goods are sold to the highest bidder’. Instead, the phrase has a conventionalized meaning referring to any auction where, instead of rising, the prices fall.

44. Clarify the pragmatic aspects of authentic texts as the source of linguo-cultural

competence formation. The use of 'authentic texts' has been one of the most important criteria acknowledged by writers of textbooks for foreign language teaching. In recent years, many scholars in language education have questioned conventional beliefs in 'authenticity'. Some claim that the concept of authenticity is an 'illusion' for classroom teaching. On the basis of the review, it looks at authenticity from a perspective that takes intercultural communicative competence as a point of departure. In this connection, it addresses four fundamental issues of authenticity for textbook writing in countries where English is taught as a foreign or second language, namely mutual representations, intention and interpretation, diachrony and synchrony and principles of contrivance. To illustrate the perspective, the paper will then examines the influence of the concept of authenticity on ELT textbook writing in China as represented in recent literature about College English teaching. College English, the most widely-used ELT textbook series, is used as the focus of analysis in broad terms in accordance with the four dimensions identified.\The issue of authenticity in language teaching materials is one with a substantial history and development. Proponents of using authentic materials, defined as the 'real' language created by native speakers of that language in pursuit of communicative outcomes (Little, Devitt, & Singleton, 1989), believe that the stamp of using authentic materials in foreign language education ensures a direct relationship to educational objectives. The enthusiasm for using authentic materials in foreign language textbooks has become intensified with the increasing popularity of the communicative orientation to language teaching in the last few decades because, from the communicative language teaching perspective, students need to constantly refer to the contextually appropriate ways native speakers actually put the target language in use. In response to this orientation, many English language textbooks have been written, particularly in the 1980s, with the claim of using authentic materials (for examples, Abbs and Freebairn, 1980; Grellet, 1981; Walter, 1982; Cook, 1983; Forrester, 1984; Ellis and Ellis 1987 and Schinke-Llano, 1989). There have also been studies into the methodology and effects of using authentic texts on EFL/ESL learners. ELT professionals (e.g. Morton, 1999; Peacock, 1997; Morrison, 1989; Swaffar, 1985 and Zhu, 1984) have experimented with practical methods to teach English courses with authentic texts of various types and levels and they show overall positive outcomes both with respect to motivating learners in learning the target language and in terms of developing in them communicative competence.

45. Identify the pragmatic aspects of authentic texts. The use of 'authentic texts' has been one of the most important criteria acknowledged by writers of textbooks for foreign language teaching. In recent years, many scholars in language education have questioned conventional beliefs in 'authenticity'. Some claim that the concept of authenticity is an 'illusion' for classroom teaching. On the basis of the review, it looks at authenticity from a perspective that takes intercultural communicative competence as a point of departure. In this connection, it addresses four fundamental issues of authenticity for textbook writing in countries where English is taught as a foreign or second language, namely mutual representations, intention and interpretation, diachrony and synchrony and principles of contrivance. To illustrate the perspective, the paper will then examines the influence of the concept of authenticity on ELT textbook writing in China as represented in recent literature about College English teaching. College English, the most widely-used ELT textbook series, is used as the focus of analysis in broad terms in accordance with the four dimensions identified.\The issue of authenticity in language teaching materials is one with a substantial history and development. Proponents of using authentic materials, defined as the 'real' language created by native speakers of that language in pursuit of communicative outcomes (Little, Devitt, & Singleton, 1989), believe that the stamp of using authentic materials in foreign language education ensures a direct relationship to educational objectives. The enthusiasm for using authentic materials in foreign language textbooks has become intensified with the increasing popularity of the communicative orientation to language teaching in the last few decades because, from the communicative language teaching perspective, students need to constantly refer to the contextually appropriate ways native speakers actually put the target language in use. In response to this orientation, many English language textbooks have been written, particularly in the 1980s, with the claim of using authentic materials (for examples, Abbs and Freebairn, 1980; Grellet, 1981; Walter, 1982; Cook, 1983; Forrester, 1984; Ellis and Ellis 1987 and Schinke-Llano, 1989). There have also been studies into the methodology and effects of using authentic texts on EFL/ESL learners. ELT professionals (e.g. Morton, 1999; Peacock, 1997; Morrison, 1989; Swaffar, 1985 and Zhu, 1984) have experimented with practical methods to teach English courses with authentic texts of various types and levels and they show overall positive outcomes both with respect to motivating learners in learning the target language and in terms of developing in them communicative competence.

46. Identify means of nonverbal communication. Interpersonal communication not only involves the explicit meaning of words, the information or message conveyed, but also refers to implicit messages, whether intentional or not, which are expressed through non-verbal behaviours.Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the communicators (proxemics). These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional information and meaning over and above spoken (verbal) communication.Non-verbal Messages Allow People To:Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may nod their heads vigorously when saying "Yes" to emphasise that they agree with the other person, but a shrug of the shoulders and a sad expression when saying "I'm fine thanks,” may imply that things are not really fine at all!

Convey information about their emotional state.

Define or reinforce the relationship between people.

Provide feedback to the other person.

Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signalling to others that they have finished speaking or wish to say something..The types of interpersonal communication that are not expressed verbally are called non-verbal communications. These include:Body Movements (Kinesics),Posture,Eye Contact,Para-language,Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics),Facial Expressions,Physiological Changes

47. Define the linguistic anthropology. Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavor to document endangered languages, and has grown over the past 100 years to encompass almost any aspect of language structure and use.[1]Linguistic anthropology explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops a common cultural representation of natural and social worlds.[2] Language is part of what makes us human. Linguistic anthropologists study language, and how language is used in order to understand culture. Linguistic anthropologists are interested in how many languages there are, how those languages are distributed across the world, and their contemporary and historical relationships. We are also interested in language variation, why variations exist, how the variations are used (i.e., do you say ‘tomAto’ or ‘tomahto’?!), and what they mean when they are used in various contexts. Our specializations at CSULB include language and education, language socialization, language and gender, language in medical settings, language and policy, language loss, maintenance, and revitalization. Increasingly, linguistic anthropologists are in the forefront of these fields providing essential information for program development, policy formation, and practical solutions to everyday language and cultural issues. There are many opportunities for students to become involved with linguistic anthropological research in local and international contexts through CSULB.

48. Define the notion of linguaconcept

49. Comment on the phraseological picture of the world. National specific features of phraseological units may reflect the history of the nation, its original traditions and customs, its character primordially laid in PU prototypes. Let’s take as an example three Russian phraseological units.\The stable unit “во всю ивановскую” – 1. “very loudly (cry, snore, etc.); 2. “very quickly, using all one’s force” is derived from the expression “звонить во всю ивановскую” – with the etymology “in all the bells of Ivan the Great bell tower in Moscow Kremlin” and “кричать во всю ивановскую” – “from the name of Ivan’s square in Moscow Kremlin where tsar’s edicts were formerly announced”[PDRL 1967:177]. \ Phraseological units in both languages may have the same meaning but be based on different images of highly national character. The typical example of such kind of expressions is the units “ездить в Тулу со своим самоваром” and “carry coals to Newcastle” with specific topographical denominators.\We can’t overstate the role of national peculiarities in the phraseological picture of the world [Maslova 2001]. There are a lot of international phraseological units and expressions based on the knowledge of the real world common to all mankind in the phraseological systems of the Russian and English languages. The differences in PU images can be explained by the lack of coincidence of the technique of secondary nomination in different languages rather than by their cultural peculiarities.

50. Define the notion of national picture of the world

2. Типовая задача

1. The discipline that studies similarities and differences in language structures and culture of various ethnic groups is called … Lingua-culture Studies

2. … is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society.

3. … is a basic attitude expressing the belief that one’s own ethnic group or one’s own culture is superior to other ethnic groups or cultures, and that one’s cultural standards can be applied in a universal manner. Ethnocentrism

4. A language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another languages is called… Endangered language

5. A language that is no longer spoken by anyone as a native language is called… An extinct language

6. The coexistence of distinct varieties within a single language is called… heteroglossia

7. … is the total way of life of a people including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. Culture

8. A real group of people who share something about the way in which they use language is called …

9. … is the written description of the social organization, social activities, symbolic and material resources, and interpretive practices characteristic of a particular group of people.

10. The anthropocentric paradigm in linguistics focuses on … researchers not only to record language facts as dependent on human activity,but also to learn the underlying mechanisms of mind, which form the base of language tools functioning. Within this paradigm, metaphor is considered as a mechanism that reflects one of the basic ways of human thinking, not as a result of reconsidering the word meaning. Thus, metaphor is interpreted as the main principle of world modelling; and metaphorisation mechanism is regarded as the leading interpretation principle for a set of linguo-cognitive phenomena.

11. ...is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life.

12. The principle of linguistic relativity is popularly known as Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined as having two versions:

13. … is a process of communication through sending and receiving wordless cues between people.

14. Ethnographic research usually involves… observing target users in their natural, real-world setting, rather than in the artificial environment of a lab or focus group. The aim is to gather insight into how people live; what they do; how they use things; or what they need in their everyday or professional lives.

15. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis claims that… the structure of a language defines the way a person behaves and thinks, must surely have it wrong according to many cognitive scientists, including Noam Chomsky, Steven Pinker, and others. Although the basic hypothesis of linguistic determinism surely has flaws, one should not overly criticize the first people who began thinking about this interesting subject. After all the subject refers to a hypothesis, not a theory, and certainly not fact (yet).-Linguists today generally support either a 'strong' or a 'weak' interpretation of the hypothesis, and the leaning seems to fall against the strong interpretation. Needless to say, the subject gets hotly debated and I think many of the arguers confuse the ideas between the strong and weak interpretation. I don't claim to know the correct answer and I'll let the scientists do their thing. Stephen Pinker seems to have a solid argument against the strong interpretation (The Language Instinct). Unfortunately, he believes that Korzybski touted the strong view. I see no evidence for this at all. However, the weak interpretation (Korzybski's view) does have, and I think you will agree, an obvious effect on the way we express, or fail to express thoughts.

16. …. Is any human aggregate characterized by regular and frequent interaction by means of a shared body of verbal signs and set off from similar aggregates by significant differences in language usage

17. ….is a specialized terminology that may spread from a narrow group (e.g., professional jargon) until used or understood by a wider auditory

18. … is a habitual or characteristic mental attitude that determines how you will interpret and respond to situations

19. ...is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings. They are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups based on some prior assumptions

20. Combination of words in a language that happens very often and more frequently that would happen by chance , is….

21. ...is the study of fixed sets of words or “phrases.” Generally, efforts in phraseology are related to explaining the meanings and histories of these sets of words.

22. ...is the belief that the culture in which we are raised determines who we are at emotional and behavioral levels. This supports the theory that environmental influences dominate who we are instead of biologically inherited traits.

23. Who says: “Socio pragmatic norms are not acquired through simple immersion, and that some form of explicit instruction is helpful”.

24. Who says: “An understanding of pragmatics is important, not only for people who settle in a country where the dominant language and culture is not their own but, by implication, for those who interpret for them”.

25. ...is- teaching a second language by relying heavily on the native language of the speaker. The theory is that maintaining a strong sense of one's one culture and language is necessary to acquire another language and culture.

26. … is a simplified and often misleading representation of an ethnic group, composed of what are thought to be typical characteristics of members of a given ethnic group.

27. … is the attitudes, opinions, beliefs or theories that we all have about language

28. … is a regionally or socially distinctive variety of a language, characterized by a particular set of words and grammatical structures.

29. A language historically derived from two or more languages in a context of cultural and linguistic contact is called…

30. Ethnolinguistics sometimes is called …

31. A language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to speaking another languages is called…

32. … is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on society.

33. The phenomenon in which different dialects of a language or different languages are spoken by a person in different social situations is called...

34. ...is a person with the cultural-linguistic and communicative activity-related values, knowledge, attitudes and behaviors.

35. ...is Something that represents something else by association, resemblance, or convention, especially a material object used to represent something invisible.

36. ...is the study of various aspects of linguistic communication between people who cannot make themselves understood by means of their different first languages.

37. ...is a variety of language (a dialect) associated with a social group such as a socioeconomic class, an ethnic group (precisely termed ethnolect), an age group, etc.

38. …is a language used by people in a multilingual setting as a means of enabling native speakers of disparate languages to communicate with each other; e.g., Swahili in Africa, English throughout the world.

39. …is the act of using polyglotism, or using multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers.

40. What does a linguo-concept consist of?

41. ...is combining knowledge of linguistics and civilization is a field under development within the realm of applied linguistics.

42. ...refers to the branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms.

43. ...Structural differences between languages are paralleled by nonlinguistic cognitive differences (the structure of the language itself effects cognition).

44. Lingua-culture studies includes various elements like verbal culture. Give other possible elements

45. … is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate. Cross-cultural communication

46. Who are the authors of the book 'Metaphors we live by'?George Lacoff, Mark Johnson

47. What do speech acts include? A speech act in linguistics and the philosophy of language is an utterance that has performative function in language and communication.

The contemporary use of the term goes back to J. L. Austin's development of performative utterances and his theory of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating.

Speech acts can be analysed on three levels:

A locutionary act, the performance of an utterance: the actual utterance and its ostensible meaning, comprising phonetic, phatic and rhetic acts corresponding to the verbal, syntactic and semantic aspects of any meaningful utterance;
an illocutionary act: the pragmatic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its intended significance as a socially valid verbal action (see below);
and in certain cases a further perlocutionary act: its actual effect, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something, whether intended or not (Austin 19)

48. Analyze the structure of the concept “good”. Every language has the word good, which has the meaning

‘possessing the right quality and moral excellence’ (Britannica 2008). Good is a

broad concept but typically it is associated with life, continuity, happiness, prosperity and truth. The dichotomy of Good and evIl is inseparable. It is difficult to describe the concept of good without the opposition of bad or evil. Thus resting on this

dichotomy and depending on the context, good (and evil) may represent judgments,

norms, claims of absolute value related to human nature or to various standards.

According to the writer, editor and film maker Jobie Weetaluktuk, the Genesis

gives a description of the concept Good. Adam and Eve knew God and because of

that knowledge they knew what is good. In a monotheistic (one God, religious) contexts, the concept of God is derived as an infinite projection of love and goodness in

people’s lives. What is good and what is evil is determined for all humanity by God.

The concept of good apart from God is an illusion. God is the absolute concept of

‘good’. People cannot categorize God’s deeds into “good” and “bad”, but unambiguously, what God does is good. Thus God is the initial and absolute concept of good.

The good is light, love, life, heaven and positiveness (Weetaluktuk 2010). Goodness

is not something over and above what can be found in each good thing; it never exists apart from good things, it is merely a quality that can be found in each.

As a philosophical concept, Good might represent a hope that natural love can

be continuous, expansive, and all-inclusive. Theories of moral goodness are interes-32

Filologija 2011 (16)

ted in various sorts of things that are good, and in the abstract meaning of the word

good. In other contexts, good is whatever produces the best consequences upon the

people’s lives and their states of wellbeing (Britannica 2008).

49. Allocate the realia in the sentence “An emblem of Italian cuisine, spaghetti is frequently served with tomato sauce, which may contain various herbs, olive oil, meat, or vegetables”.

50. Allocate the realia in the sentence “Architecturally, the igloo is unique in that it is a house that can be raised out of independent blocks leaning on each other and polished to fit without an additional supporting structure during construction.”

51. Allocate the realia in the sentence “In 1941, Miss Phyllis Thompson became the first woman licensed to drive a double-decker in England.”

52. Allocate the realia in the sentence “In the United States, the relationship between the sheriff and other police departments varies widely from state to state, and indeed in some states from county to county.”

53. Allocate the realia in the sentence “Besbarmak is usually eaten with a boiled pasta sheet and a meat broth called shorpa, and is traditionally served in Kazakh bowls called kese.”

54. Allocate the realia in the sentence “The production of matryoshkas is done by highly skilled craftsmen who pass down their skills generation to generation.”

55. Means of nonverbal communication: 1. Facial Expression2. Gestures3. Paralinguistics

4. Body Language and Posture5. Proxemics6. Eye Gaze7. Haptics8. Appearance

56. Ethnographic research usually involves… observing target users in their natural, real-world setting, rather than in the artificial environment of a lab or focus group. The aim is to gather insight into how people live; what they do; how they use things; or what they need in their everyday or professional lives.

57. … is a speaker who uses a first language or mother tongue. Native speaker

58. … is the distinct form of a language spoken in a certain geographical area. A regional dialect

59. … is a person's native language--that is, a language learned from birth. A first language (also native language, mother tongue

60. … is discrimination based on language or dialect: linguistically argued racism. linguicism

61. Which components can be identified in the content of the language person?

62. What are some nicknames that are known to you friends, classmates, politicians. What kind of culture is the phenomenon itself?

63. … it is the practice and science (study) of classification of things or concepts. Taxonomy

64. … it refers to a culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups. Folk culture

65. ...is a term, developed in the late 19th and early 20th century, that refers to the relationship between artifacts and social relations. Material Culture

66. ...is a type of social interaction occuring between two people where they will converse or exchange knowledge, an example of this type of communication is a simple conversation between friends. face-to-face interaction

67. Give an example of discourse community . "Use of the term 'discourse community' testifies to the increasingly common assumption that discourse operates within conventions defined by communities, be they academic disciplines or social groups. The pedagogies associated with writing across the curriculum and academic Englishnow use the notion of 'discourse community' to signify a cluster of ideas: that language use in a group is a form of social behavior, that discourse is a means of maintaining and extending the group's knowledge and of initiating new members into the group, and that discourse is epistemic or constitutive of the group's knowledge."

68. Give an example of distinctive culture.

69. Do face-to-face interactions are still valuable?

70. What does the linguistic communication consist of? of communicating by the use of sounds or conventional symbols

71. What does folk culture refer to? Folk culture refers to a culture traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation from other groups.[1] Historically, handed down through oral tradition, it demonstrates the "old ways" over novelty and relates to a sense of community. Folk culture is quite often imbued with a sense of place. If elements of a folk culture are copied by, or moved to, a foreign locale, they will still carry strong connotations of their original place of creation.

72. What did Ward Good enough emphasize?

73. … is one of the basic concepts of any culture and has a great axiological (=philosophical study) value.

74. What does a linguo-concept consist of?

75. How many components of the concept “good” you know, describe them.

3. Прагма- профессиональные задания

1. What are the problems affecting lingua cultural science?

2. Do you use language situation in common life? What kind of?

3. What are components of “good”

4. What is the concept of good apart from God?

5. What might “God” represent?

6. When has ethnolinguistic research gained substantial popularity?

7. What is a leading metaphor for the focus of ethnolinguistic research efforts?

8. What does the visual metaphor of pictures imply?

9. Are all elements of consciousness are the product of cultural life? Express your thoughts

10. Who does linguistic worldview unite in a given social environment?

11. What does linguistic worldview create?

12. What does linguistic worldview influence?

13. What is the worldview is in the sense of Apresyan?

14. What does the lexis provide?

15. What did Sapir emphasize? Do you agree with his statements

16. What is the horse in traditional village culture?

17. What are cultural equivalents of the horse?

18. What is important in defining words?

19. What is an important aspect of linguistic worldview?

20. How the conceptualizations of natural phenomena can be revealed?

21. What do names contain?

22. What the ‘phraseological picture of the world’ is usually based on?

23. What do the metaphors represent?

24. How many simultaneous pressure does metaphorical conceptualization in natural

situations occur?

25. What simultaneous pressure do you know?

26. What is determined by local culture?

27. What is the most obvious dimension along which metaphors vary?

28. What has the use of 'authentic texts' been?

29. What is the concept of authenticity?

30. What do foreign language teachers have to do in order to achieve cultural authenticity?

31. Why did politeness appear?

32. Concepts as elements of consciousness are …

33. Who introduced the term heteroglossia?

34. What is also possible to do with authentic texts?

35. Give the examples of “linguistic personality” displays in daily routine?

36. What difficulties do teachers see in teaching and developing materials based on

the use of authentic texts?

37. Give the examples of “speech acts” displays in daily routine?

38. What concept can these proverbs illustrate: “Affection blinds reason”,

“Faults are thick where love is thin”, “To hide the key to your heart is to risk

forgetting where you placed it”?

39. Can you find an example of an untranslatable word or structure in one of the

languages you speak?

40. Compare/contrast the notions culture and civilization. Firstly, civilization in theory is bigger than culture in which an entire civilization can encompass one single unit of culture. Civilization is a bigger unit than culture because it is a complex aggregate of the society that dwells within a certain area, along with its forms of government, norms, and even culture. Thus, culture is just a spec or a portion of an entire civilization. For example, the Egyptian civilization has an Egyptian culture in the same way as the Greek civilization has their Greek culture.A culture ordinarily exists within a civilization. In this regard, each civilization can contain not only one but several cultures. Comparing culture and civilization is like showing the difference between language and the country to which it is being used.Culture can be something that is tangible and it can also be something that isn’t. Culture can become a physical material if it is a product of the beliefs, customs and practices of a certain people with a definite culture. But a civilization is something that can be seen as a whole and it is more or less tangible although its basic components, like culture, can be immaterial.

Summary :1.Culture is by definition smaller than a civilization.

2.Culture can grow and exist without residing in a formal civilization whereas a civilization will never grow and exist without the element of culture.

3.Culture can be tangible or intangible whereas civilization is something that is more tangible because it is what you see as a whole

4.Culture can be transmitted through symbols in the form of language whereas an entire civilization cannot be transmitted by mere language alone

41. Give the examples of “concept” displays in daily routine?

42. What classifications can culture have? Culture is a hot topic. Scholars (Fukoyama and Huntington, to mention but two) disagree about whether this is the end of history or the beginning of a particularly nasty chapter of it.

What makes cultures tick and why some of them tick discernibly better than others are the main bones of contention. Cultural interaction is no longer precipitated only via face-to-face encounters, immigration, visits, tourism, and trade. The emergence of radio, television, the Internet, and smartphones has created a virtual and global melting pot. One can benefit from cultural exchanges, be influenced by civilizations foreign and far-away, and react (positively or negatively) to them from the comfort of one’s swivel chair. The need to classify cultures has, therefore, become all that more urgent.\We can view cultures through the prism of their attitude towards their constituents: the individuals they are comprised of. More so, we can classify them in accordance with their approach towards "humanness", the experience of being human.\Some cultures are evidently anthropocentric – others are anthropo-transcendental.\A culture which cherishes the human potential and strives to create the conditions needed for its fullest realization and manifestation is an anthropocentric culture. Such striving is accepted to be the top priority, the crowning achievement, the measuring rod of such a culture’s attainment: its criterion for success or failure.\On the other pole of the dichotomy we find cultures which look beyond humanity. To paraphrase Hanna Arendt, they sacrifice the individual to advance the human species. This "transcendental" ouytlook has multiple purposes.\Some cultures want to transcend human limitations, others to derive meaning from such transcendence, yet others to leverage it in order to maintain social equilibrium. But what is common to all of them – regardless of purpose – is the subjugation of human endeavour, of human experience, human potential, really of all things human to this attempt at transcendence.

Guiding principles

Classify by visual appearance, not by use, except when use dictates appearance
Only objects over a certain size: roughly human-scale and larger
Only objects which are typically found "outdoors"
Only objects which are placed upon the terrain, not modifications to the terrain itself, e.g. tunnels and embankments
Plants and Animals are handled separately.

Open Issues

The hierarchy used here is entirely arbitrary and subjective.
This is an unavoidable since human language concepts are imprecise, and categorization is never a simple directed graph. (For example, is a tent a building? Is the space shuttle an air vehicle or a space vehicle?)
It seems advisable that any use of this classification should make as much use of the lowest-level classification as possible, de-emphasizing the less-objective parents.
How to handle synonyms, and other cases where there are multiple names for objects which are visually the same? For now, separate with commas (e.g. Satellite Dish, Radio Telescope)
Biased towards American English (we could handle other dialects/languages with comma notation)
With subjects such as airplanes, it is tempting to simply use the Manufacturer/Model as the classification, since there are a reasonable number of these and they are well-described. Should we actually do that, or attempt a higher-level classification ("jumbo jet", "business jet", etc.)

43. What are the differences between culture and nature? The nature–culture divide, refers to a theoretical foundation of contemporary anthropology. Early anthropologists sought theoretical insight from the perceived tensions between culture, as a social entity, and nature, as a bio-physical entity. The argument became framed as to whether the two entities function separately from one another, or if they have a continuous biotic relationship with each other. Debate during the 1960s and '70s extended the debate to the role of women (as nature) and men (as culture).

44. The relationship between language and culture. Varies studies have been carried out, among them, a well known hypothesis is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis made by two American linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis describes the relationship between language, culture and thought. The core idea is that man’s language moulds his perception of reality. We see the world in the way that our language describes it, so that the world we live in is a linguistic construct(Liu Runqing). The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two major components: linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. The former holds the idea that the way one thinks is determined by the language one speaks, because one can only perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language. The latter means that the categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommensurable with those of others, therefore, the difference among languages must be reflected in the differences in the worldviews of their speakers. Since the formulation of the hypothesis, discussions have never been ended. Many linguists and philosophers are against the linguistic determinism. They argue if language determines thought totally, and if there is no thought without language, speakers of different languages will never understand each other. Nevertheless, the weak interpretation of the hypothesis is now widely accepted that language do have influence on thought and culture. Evidence is easy to be found. A well known example is that Eskimos have countless words for snow while there is only one word ‘snow’ in English. Therefore, a ‘snow world’ in a Eskimo’s eye and an English speaker’s eye would be so different. This example shows that people’s perceptions of their surroundings are modified by the conceptual categories their languages happen to provide(Liu Runqing). Questions still remains: which goes first, the language or the culture? Is it the native language gives people different perceptions? Or on contrary, is the different worldviews and cultures determine the language?

45. Compare the different ways that speakers of English and Navajo express their intentions and

actions (note that Navajo utterances have been translated into English):

ENGLISH SPEAKER: I must go there.

NAVAJO SPEAKER: It is only good that I shall go there.

ENGLISH SPEAKER: I make the horse run.

NAVAJO SPEAKER: The horse is running for me.

46. Give examples of sociolinguistic varieties. In sociolinguistics a variety, also called a lect, is a specific form of a language or language cluster. This may include languages, dialects, accents,registers, styles or other sociolinguistic variation, as well as the standard variety itself.[1] "Variety" avoids the terms language, which many people associate only with the standard language, and dialect, which is associated with non-standard varieties thought of as less prestigious or "correct" than the standard.[2]Linguists speak of both standard and non-standard varieties. "Lect" avoids the problem in ambiguous cases of deciding whether or not two varieties are distinct languages or dialects of a single language.Variation at the level of the lexicon, such as slang and argot, is often considered in relation to particular styles or levels of formality (also called registers), but such uses are sometimes discussed as varieties themselves. For example, Trudgill suggests the following sentence as an example of a nonstandard dialect used with the technical register of physical geography:

There was two eskers what we saw in them U-shaped valleys.[8]

47. Describe the possible reconstructions of the linguistic worldview

48. What kind a difference between a language and a dialect is determinative? Language: speech varieties are different languages if they are not mutually intelligible.

Dialect: speech varieties are dialects of a language if they are mutually intelligible but differ in systematic ways.

49. What are the differences between Anthropological linguistics and Ethno linguistics? Anthropological linguistics is the study of the relations between language and culture and the relations between human biology, cognition and language. This strongly overlaps the field of linguistic anthropology, which is the branch of anthropology that studies humans through the languages that they use. Ethnolinguistics: Analyzing the relationship between culture, thought, and language. Ethnolinguistics looks at the relationship between discourse and language, while linguistic anthropology tends to make more general claims about vocabulary and grammar.

50. Which social and cultural factors can influence on language? a nation’s characteristic and contains historical and cultural backgrounds of the nation.

51. Which knowledge does pragma-linguistics include? Pragmalinguistics, combining knowledge of linguistics and civilization, is a field under development within the realm of applied linguistics. It is concerned with the pragmatism of speech acts, which calls for knowledge of the relation between one linguistic element and the persons producing, using, and receiving it during the communicative situation. Pragmalinguistics attempts to develop a systematic inventory of all that belongs to communicative competence. Communicative competence includes not only grammar but also the way of living and the view of life specific to the competent speaker, since he needs them to make use of his ability to perform speech acts. Foreign language instruction should include these dimensions, as well as instruction in casual speech and fast speech rules in second language learning, since the highly conventional style taught by high school teachers is inappropriate for the majority of conversations the student will have.

52. Give the examples of “cognitive linguistics” displays in daily routine?

53. What does linguistic competence provide? to successful provision of services as are scientific, technical, and clinical knowledge and skills. linguistics refer to integrated patterns of human behavior that include language, thoughts, communications, actions, customs, beliefs, values, and institutions of racial, ethnic, religious, or other groups (e.g., gender, gender identity/gender expression, age, national origin, sexual orientation, disability). Cultural and linguistic competence is a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system, agency, or among professionals that enables effective work in cross-cultural situations.

54. Which knowledge does cross-cultural communication include? Be aware of the possibility of cultural difference
Acknowledge and respect difference
Strive to understand

Ideas for better cross-cultural communication include:

Speak clearly, normal pace, normal volume, no colloquialisms, (i.e. ‘hang on a tick’) or double negatives (i.e. ‘not bad’)
Use short sentences
Provide instructions in a clear sequence
Summarise
Check understanding - ask questions which require more than a 'yes' or 'no' answer
Demonstrate if possible
Write instructions down if necessary
Make procedures very clear
Be aware of non-verbal signals
Be patient non-English speakers may have to translate what you’ve said into their home language then try to convert their response back into English

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