Если у вас возникли сложности с курсовой, контрольной, дипломной, рефератом, отчетом по практике, научно-исследовательской и любой другой работой - мы готовы помочь.
Предоплата всего
Подписываем
1.Morphology and syntax as parts of gr. Main units and types of relations between gr. units in language and speech
Units of gr: morpheme, word, w group, sentence, supraphrasal unities. Every unit stays in relations with other units of the same level. Synt-linear rel, in speech. Paradigm- rel outside the lines, in lang.
Funct word- a unit of lang both gr & lexical, sem & struct unity, ready-made u, naming u=> nominative func. Sentence u of lang & u of speech, not a ready-made u, naming & communicative u => nominative& communicative func.
Grammar is devided into:-morphology -syntax
Morphology studies paradigmatic rel of ws (structure, forms, classific of ws) Syntax studies syntagmatic rel of ws & paradmatic& synt rel of sent(structure, forms, classific of sents)
Paradigmatic syntax-diff forms of sents(- ? !) Syntagmatic morphology –linear connection of ws
The basic units are :morphemes and words.
A paradigm-is a set of unit related to each other by association with some distinctive features.:
teachers learns writes speaks
grammeme-is a paradigme based on the sameness of grammar forms. Lexeme
2.Main gr notions.gr mng and gr.form. Gr categories. Method of opposition.
Gr mng.- plane of content. It is general, abstract, indirect(connected with objective reality through the lexical mng), obligatory, relative(it is revealed in relations of w forms: speak-speaks)
Gr form- plane of expression- wide sence: all means of expressing gr mngs.; narrow s- denote means of exp a particular gr mng. In En no direct correspondence btw gr mng & gr form=> 1.2 or more units of the plane of expression mau correspond to 1 unit of plane of content(allomorphs)-boys-children. 2. 2 or more units of the plane of content -//-1 unit of plane expression (polysemy, homonymy) –s: boy’s, dogs, asks.
A gr category - is a generalized gram mg revealed through formal & meaningful opposition of variants of 1 & same unit.
The features of gram category: 1.is represented by 2 gramm form( at least) 2.one word can represent diff gram categories: boy’s (number and case) 3.one word form can express only one gram mg of the same category 4.one particular gram mg can not be expressed in all forms of the word
asked- past tense, non-cont aspect, non-perfect order, active voice.
Gr categories are revealed on the basis on the method of oppositions. Types of opp: 1) acc to the number of members( binary, ternary, quaternary) 2)-//- quality: privative (strong memb(special marker)<-> weak- dog-dogs); equipollent-both membs strong & marked(am-is); gradual- degrees of comparison.
Oppositional reduction: 1.neutralisation- the weak memb acquires the mng of the strong one(Tonight we start for London) 2)Transposition-the strong memb is used in the context typical for the weak memb(She is always complaining of smth)
3. Structure of words. Types of morphemes.
The main task of morphology is the study of the structure of ws. The smallest meaningful unit of gr-morpheme. Free m-can occur as separate ws <-> bound. Monomorphemic <-> polymorphemic w.
Morph: lexical(roots), lexico-gramm(w-build affixes) & gr(form-building aff).
Positional variants of morpheme- allomorphs( cats, dogs, foses, oxen.)
3types of morphemic distribution: contrastive(position same< mng –diff: charming-charmed), non-contrastive (position&mng-same: learned-learnt), complementary( posit-diff, mng-same: asks-theaches)
Zero morpheme-mengful absence of m(book-books)
Semi-bound m-word m(funct of the m performed by a separate w : will work)
Means of form- b & gram f are divided: 1)synthetical (bound m: inflextions, sound interchange, suppletivity) 2)analytical 1.2 parts(w-operator& notional p) 2.anal f develop gr idiomaticity – is writing 3. within a cat anal f should be opposed to synth ones(is writing-writes) 4. funct as 1 memb in the sent 5. aux are lexically empty 5. lex mng is understood from the notional part 6. aux change grammatically.
4. Means of form-building. Synthetic and analytical forms.
Means of form- b & gram f are divided: 1)synthetical (bound m: inflextions, sound interchange (sell-sold), suppletivity)
2)analytical (with the help of semi-bound m) 1.2 parts(w-operator& notional p) 2.anal f develop gr idiomaticity(the mng of the whole differs from the mng of its parts) – is writing 3. within a cat anal f should be opposed to synth ones(is writing-writes) 4. funct as 1 memb in the sent 5. aux are lexically empty 6 lex mng is understood from the notional part 7. aux change grammatically
is more difficult an analytical comparative degree or is more difficult a free phrase?
an analytical form: 1) The actual meaning of formations like more difficult, (the) most difficult does not differ from that of the degrees of compar larger, (the) largest. 2) Qualitative adjectives, like difficult, express properties which may be present in different degrees, and therefore they are bound to have degrees of comparison.
a free phrase: 1) The words more and most have the same meaning in these phrases as in other phrases in which they may appear, e.g. more time, most people, etc. 2) there are also the phrases less difficult, (the) least difficult, and there seems to be no sufficient reason for treating the two sets of phrases in different ways, saying that more difficult is an analytical form, while less difficult is not. Besides, the very fact that more and less, (the) most and (the) least can equally well combine with difficult, would seem to show that they are free phrases and none of them is an analytical form
5. Parts of speech. Principles of classification
A part of speech-grammatically relevant class of ws which is specified on the basis of gr, semantic & lexical properties.
Criteria for grouping into classes:1)Semantic(mng)-generalized mng which is an abstraction from lexical mngs of constituent ws( N-substance)
2)Formal(morphological)-inflectional(form-b feat: fights) & derivational(w-b feat: whitness) features
3)Functional(syntactic). Synt properties are: distribution(set of all possible environments of a w=> combinability: adj with N) Typical syntactic func(N-subj, obj)
POS-as a field: central elements & marginal(substantivized adj)
1-criterion classifications:
1)Morphological(Sweet):in(particles)/declinable(N-ws, adj-ws…)
2)Syntactico-distributional(Fries)-each class of ws is characterized by a set of positions in a sentence=> 4 main classes of ws(1-N, 2-V, 3-adj, 4-adv) & funct ws(15 classes)
6. Notional and functional classes of words
All the words of the English language are grouped into different types of classes. This classification is based on three main principles: 1) their grammatical meaning; 2) their form and 3) their syntactical characteristics.
Criteria for differentiating N & F ws: 1)the prominence of their lexical mng 2) peculiarities of their combinability 3) ability to be substituted by a w of a more general mng 4)ability to add(create new items)
N ws:1)complete nominative mng 2) self-dependent fnc, can be used in isolation 3)subst by a w with more general mng 4)open class.
F ws: 1)incomplete nominative fnc 2)obligatory combinability, linking/ specifying fnc 3)cannot be -//- 4)closed class
F ws(Fries): 1.with unilateral combinability(art, aux, modals, particles) 2.with bilateral comb(prep, conj which connect 2 or more not ws) 3. heterogeneous(interrogative ws, it/there)
7. The noun. The category of number.
I)Sem cr-substance & thinghs, human beings, animals
II)Morph:a)inflectional(the cat of number, case, gender, article determination) b)derivational (suffixation, compounding, conversion)
III)Func: a) left-hand prep combinability with N, adj, v, adv, casal comb( N’s +N), contact comb(N+N)-stone wall constr(speech sound), comb with art & other determiners b)syntactic: subj, obj, other funct less typical.
Ns denoting things- nucleus of the fild, marginal-process, quality, abstract notions.
Classification : common/ proper; in/animate, un/countable, concrete/abstract
Category of NUMBER. Tree ( weak form ) vs trees ( marked form)
The grammatical category of number( in all languages) depends on the physical nature of the object. The object can be: Discrete vs indiscrete
Discrete ( it has no plural number; it consists of the number of homogeneous separated by visible bounds)Nouns: discrete ( can be count( sg and pl) and uncount.(always pl “police”) indiscrete ( are always sg,uncount)
Plural form of the noun can be lexicalized, it develops a new lexical meaning Ex: colour<-> colours- flag lexicalization
8. The noun. The category of case.
I)Sem cr-substance & thinghs, human beings, animals
II)Morph:a)inflectional(the cat of number, case, gender, article determination) b)derivational (suffixation, compounding, conversion)
III)Func: a) left-hand prep combinability with N, adj, v, adv, casal comb( N’s +N), contact comb(N+N)-stone wall constr(speech sound), comb with art & other determiners b)syntactic: subj, obj, other funct less typical.
Ns denoting things- nucleus of the fild, marginal-process, quality, abstract notions.
Classification : common/ proper; in/animate, un/countable, concrete/abstract
The category of case.Case is a gr category which shows rel of nouns towards other words in a sentence.Ex: boy ( no visible mark) vs boy’s ( reflects the syntactic function) Not every noun changes according to the case. Gen. case in En can denote the following semantic relation: -possession (general): student’s book --subjective genitive: the student’s answer -objective genetive: Napoleon’s defeatness -genitive of origin: sh’s plays --descriptive genetive: a girl’s school –genetive of measure(ten day’s journey)--social relation: Jack’s wife --part of a whole: dog’s tail
Sometimes a noun in genitive case can be used independently.it has a locative meaning. It is the case of lexicalization.: I’m going to the baker’s( a shop).
theory of positional cases(nesfield) of the functional positions occupied by the N in the
sentence. besides the inflexional genitive case, purely positional cases: nominative, vocative, dative, and accusative(the cat caught a rat).
theory of prepositional cases (curm)combinations of N with prep in certain object and attributive collocations should be understood as morphological case forms: "dative" case (to+Noun, for+Noun) and the "genitive" case (of+Noun).
limited case theory (Sweet, O. Jespersen) : the possessive or genitive form as the strong member of the categorial opposition and the common, or "non-genitive
.
Post-positional case theory(Воронцова)s’-special type of postposition
9. The noun. The category of article determination.
I)Sem cr-substance & thinghs, human beings, animals
II)Morph:a)inflectional(the cat of number, case, gender, article determination) b)derivational (suffixation, compounding, conversion)
III)Func: a) left-hand prep combinability with N, adj, v, adv, casal comb( N’s +N), contact comb(N+N)-stone wall constr(speech sound), comb with art & other determiners b)syntactic: subj, obj, other funct less typical.
Ns denoting things- nucleus of the fild, marginal-process, quality, abstract notions.
Classification : common/ proper; in/animate, un/countable, concrete/abstract
The category of article determination Art determination- binary opposition which contrasts the N with the def art against the N with ind/zero art. Zero article- meaningful absence of the article ( is equivalent for indef. Article for uncount nouns).
Peculiarities: 1)spelt separately, 2)can be separated from N by other ws, 3)its position can be occupied by demonstr/ possessive pronoun 4)does not change grammatically as I French 5)Art has its own meaning. Ind art – oneness, classification. Def art- definiteness, specification.
Art help to structure inf(theme-def art rheme-ind art)
10.The adjective. The category of degree of comparison
The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance (either permanent or temporary). It presupposes relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes (material, colour, dimension, position, state, etc.). Form: invariable, but some form degrees of comparison( for qualitative adj.).
Derivational features: suff and pref: -ful, -less, -ish, -un, -un, -
Combinability: nouns both preceding and occasionally following them; with link-verbs (functional and notional); with modifying adverbs (very large)
Function: either an attribute or a predicative , an objective predicative (painted the door green).
two large subclasses: qualitative and relative
There are three degrees of comparison: positive (or absolute), comparative and superlative.
an analytical form: 1) The actual mng of formations like more difficult, (the) most difficult does not differ from that of the degrees of compar larger, (the) largest. 2) Qualitative adj, like diff, express properties which may be present in diff degrees, and therefore they are bound to have degrees of comparison.
a free phrase: 1) The words more and most have the same mng in these phrases as in other phrases in which they may appear, e.g. more time, most people, etc. 2) there are also the phrases less difficult, (the) least difficult, and there seems to be no sufficient reason for treating the two sets of phrases in diff ways, saying that more difficult is an analytical form, while less difficult is not. Besides, the very fact that more and less, (the) most and (the) least can equally well combine with difficult, would seem to show that they are free phrases and none of them is an analytical form
There are 3 ways of forming the comparative and the superlative degrees: synthetic, analytical and suppletive. Synthetic: suffix –er to the comparative degree and the suffix -est to the superl degr.
Analytical: comp word more, the superlative ― most:
Suppletive (Irregular):good ― better ― best
be substantivized -become nouns by conversion (zero-derivation) => adjs acquire some morphological charact of N: sg or pl,used with or without an art & other determiners
Adjectivization of nouns -N becoming adj. A N may stand before another N & modify it: stone wall, speech sound.
11. The verb. The category of tense.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
The gr category denoting time is called tense.it reflects the objective category of time and expresses the relation between the time of the action and the time of the utterance.
time denoted absolutely(with regard to the moment of speaking) & relatively(-// to a certain moment) In most langs:future,past,present tense.(Russian).
Future tense. It’s analytical form (will do). This form developed from the modal form and doesn’t cover modal verbs and it’s homonemous with modal verbs . ( will \shall). According English scolars, it is not analytical form, it’s modal verb. I will have to go back to the hotel.
Time in English expressed by 3 categories : -absolute category of tense (present\past) -relative category of posteriority ,which denotes absolute post(will come) & relative (would come) -the category order( denotes prior action is marked by perfect form have\has\had) –the cat of aspect
12. The category of order \ correlation.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
In English there’re special forms for expressing relative priority-perfect forms→express 1)time(actions preceding a certain moment);2)the way the action is shown to proceed(the connection of the action with the indicated moment in its results or consequences).So the mng of the perfect forms is constituted by 2 semantic components:temporal(priority) & aspective (result,current relevance)=>perf forms have been treated as tense-forms or aspect-forms.
oppositions: comes-has come, is coming-has been coming. These oppositions reveal the cat of order(correlation, retrospect, taxis). Tense &order are closely connected but they’re different categories, revealed through different oppositions: comes-came, comes-has come.
The fact that verbals have the category of order(to come-to have come, coming-having come)& have no category of tense also shows the difference of these categories. The mng of perfect forms may be influenced by the lexical mng of the verb(limitive/unlimitive), tense-form, context & other factors.
13. The category of aspect.( vid)
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
Aspect denote the manner or way in which the action is experienced or regarded: as a mere fact or as taken in progress. Aspect is a major category denoting the character of the action. ( continuous\ not contin. common/cont) tense& aspect- diff cat revealed in diff oppositions( comes-came; comes- is coming). Inf has the cat of aspect.
Aspect denotes the manner,but not the time. the category of aspect is very closely connected with the lexical meaning of the verb. Dynamic <->stative (perception, cognition: know, like, see)Durative=> Terminatice(limitive) V -action implying a certain limit(close, break) Durative(unlimitive) don’t imply any such limit(walk, read)
14.The Category of voice.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
The verbal category of voice shows the direction of an action as viewed by the speaker. .Act V-action issuing from the Subj. Pass V- action directed towards its object. In pass constr the gr subj is the object of the act.
absence of direct correspondence btw meaning & form =>problem of number of voices. Middle voice.mng passive, form active; no opposition in form=> no gr category. The door opened It differs from the act v in meaning and syntactical construction. Reflexive voice: He hurt himself. Meaning – the action is concentrated on one and the same person. Form – verb + reflexive pronoun. But reflexive pronouns can be omitted and the meaning of reflexivity remains: He shaved and dressed. Prof. Ilyish: He hurt himself and the child. Besides: He makes toys – He makes mistakes. And not always reflexive pronouns can be omitted: He found himself in a dark room. pronoun is not lex empty(cat of gender) + add elements Reciprocal voice: They met each other at the station. Meaning – mutuality of the action. The subject is often plural. Form – verb + reciprocal pronoun. But They met at the station.
The cup was broken-Бахударов-pv, compound nominal predicate(смирницкий). 100%Pass V when:1)doer of the act 2)modifying adverbials 3)marked forms of the V( Has been made) 4)modal verbs(can be broken) 5)corresponding act const.
get and become (He got wounded in the war. He became surprised). - the verbs get and become retain to some extent their lexical meaning; - though P is a dependent form
Passive constructions: -Direct P (The letter was written yesterday) -Indirect P (I was given a book) -Prepositional P (The doctor was sent for) -Phraseological P(Care should be taken not to confuse these words) -Adverbial P (The house has not been lived in for many years)
15. The category of mood.
I)Sem cr-prosses developing dynamically in time II)Morph a)form build(Cat of tense, person, number, aspect, order, posteriority, mood, voice, representation) b) wd-build derivational zero-suffixation( to park) sound interchange(feed) –ate (cultivate), -en (broaden be- ( befriend) and prefixes are: re- (remake)III)Synt(funct predicate, non-finite verb performs different functions, combinability:N, adv, prep)
Cat of M denotes modality(relation of the contents of the utt to reality as viewed by the speaker).Means of expr modality: phonetic, lexical(mod v), grammatical(mood).
imperative: let us let him do it. but! don’t let us...
Diversity of moods. causes: 1) cat of mood is in state of development. 2) homonymy of forms(diff to distinguish aux & mod v ; from indicative: do-ind, subj, imper)
Principle for distinguishing forms: meaning, form, mng&form.( Ilyish 3 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive, imperative)- meaning; Prof. Smirnitsky: 6 MOODS (indicative, imperative, subjunctive I, subjunctive II, suppositional, conditional) - form и meaning; L.S.Barhudarov, D.A. Shteling: 2 MOODS (indicative, subjunctive)
Subj I(he be) Supp(he should be)- problematic act, SubjII(he were), Cond(should/would be)- unreal act.
Subj have cat of aspect, order, voice, prospect, person.
16.Verbals. The category of representation.
Inf- properties of the V & N . name the prosses.cat of asp, order, voice. Comb:with finite forms, non-processual parts of sp. Func: subj, obj, adv mod, att. The main theoretical problems are the lexico-grammatical status of the particle ‘to’ & whether the to-inf & the bare inf constitute 1 form of the V
The Gerund is a non-finite form of the V which like the inf combines the properties of the V with those of the N & primarily serves as a verbal name of the process. It’s characterized by the categories of order (asking – having asked) & voice (being asked). The theoretical problem – half G –categorial neutralization(his yawing – him yawing)– is related to ing-+form in general.
The Pr Part (P I) is a non-finite form of the V, combines the properties of a V with an adj\adv. It serves as a qualifying processual name. plane of expression is homogeneous with the G ending –ing & distinguishing the same grammatical category of order, voice. It may combine with a N, proN as direct, indirect, prepositional Obj, adverb or a prep phr as an adv modifier, or with a N or adjective as a predicative. G & PI: posess diff categorical, funct, sem properties
The Past Participle (PII) - a non-finite form of the V which combines the properties of the V with those of the adj. it serves as a qualifying processual name. The PII ia a single form, having no paradigm of its own. order&voice written(both)-loved(pass)-gone(perf)
The cat of representation (Finitude). the 2 subparadigms are opposed both morphologically & syntactically. All finite forms (s) ÷all non-finite forms (w). The differential feature is constituted by the expression of verbal time & mood. The members of the opp are contrasted as predicative & non-predicative. Predicative are marked morphologically through the forms of tense, mood, person & number (so they are strong members) This form represents purely verbal representation. Non-predicative forms are unmarked. They demonstrate 2 types of verbal Predicativity: substantive representation (inf & G) & adjectival representation (PI &PII). Non-finite forms are language specific.
The question arises whether verbals should be included in the class of verb? Whether they should be considered as a separate part of speech? They should be included: 1.every stem takes finite and non-finite forms of the verb; 2. Criteria Principle: a. processual meaning; b. they have some of the v gr cat : voice, order, aspect; c. many of the w-building means are used in the non-finite forms; d. the syntactic functions are different e. the combinability is similar. Non-finite forms do not belong to the class of verbs, but they form a subclass of its own, because they have some specific features. The differences able to speak about the category of finitude which is built on the opposition of finite/non-finite forms.
17. Phrase. Principles of classification.
18. Phrase, Types of relations between its constituents.
equal-coordination. not equal-subordination(government (the use of certain form of subordinate word required by its head word but not coinciding with the form of the head word. Only case in ENG – personal pronouns // invite him), agreement, apposition)
Interdependence- a reciprocal dominational relation within the N+V group.
Means of expressing synt rel: word order, prepositions, conj, case inflection-‘s , morphol expression of the components.
agreement – method of expressing a synthectical relationship which consist in making the subordinate word take a similar form of the head word // this book, those books as to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun and pronoun denoting the subject of the action // a child plays, children play – usually treated on the sentence level
adjoinment( primikanie) – the connection between these words is preserved owning to the grammatical and semantic compatibility of the adv. Only verb + adv
enclosure (zamikanie)– some element of a phrase is enclosed between 2 parts of another elementconnection- (typically English) by meand of formal words : cold but clear ( with the preposition)+
19. Sentence as the main unit of syntax.
Sent-immediate integral unit of speech built according to a def synt pattern & distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. largest unit of lang, smallest unit of speech.
The most essential feat of the sent as a linguistic unit are a) its structural characteristics – subject-predicate relations (primary predication) b) its semantic characteristics – it refers to some fact in the objective reality.
2 func: naming, communicat.
3 main aspects of sent: synt(pre-func- ws/w gr; func-parts of sentence), sematic(reflection of a certain sit, prosses, doer, obj, circum, condit), logico-communicative(2 parts the topic for discussion, the inform abt the topic).
20. Predicativity. Primary and secondary predication.
Compare the following structures: (1)The doctor’s arrival; (2)The doctor arrived=>they name the same event, but (1)is not correlated with the situation of speech,doesn’t convey information about the reality or the time of the event; (2)is correlated with the situation of speech & shows that the event took place in the past.
The correlation of the thought expressed in the sentence with the situation of speech is called predicativity→has 3 components: modality, time, person expressed by the categories of mood, tense & person. The predicativity is expressed by the subject-predicate group(predication) & is also expressed by intonation.
primary & secondary predication: I heard someone singing. ‘Someone singing’-the secondary predication,as it resembles the subject-predicate group,or the primary predication, structurally & semantically: it consists of 2 main components (nominal&verbal) & names the event or situation. But it cannot be correlated with reality directly as verbals have no categ. of mood, tense, person. The secondary predication is related to the situation of speech indirectly, through the primary predications and it cannot constitute an independent unit of communication.
Sent-immediate integral unit of speech built according to a def synt pattern & distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. Based on 2 principles: 1)Communicative –purpose of com-tion(declarative(convey info)e, interroga(ask for inf), imperative, exclamatory) 2)Structural 1.number of predication lines(1 → simple S, 2 or more → composite S), 2.the completeness of the predication line(only 2-member S can be discussed here: complete & incomplete (elliptical)), 3.the ways of its expression(1-member(nominal, adjective, adverbial, verbal) & 2-member S.), 4.in case of multiple predication – all the types of relations between the clauses( 1.equal -> coordination -> compound S (parataxis) 2.unequal -> subordination -> complex S (hypotaxis).
Incomplete (elliptical) 2-member S is built on the model of a 2-member S in which 1 or both principal parts are missing (in conversations, newspaper headlines, ads, stage directions).
One-member Ss are those the predication line of which comprises only 1 principal part which can’t be identified as a subject or a predicate. they are not context-dependent. Mainly used to describe emotions, subjective perception of reality.
22. Compound sentence. Semantic relations between the clauses. parataxis
The compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Coordinate cls may be linked syndetically, asyndetically.Sem relations: 1.Copulative coordination implies that two events or ideas conveyed by coordinate clauses are merely joined in time and place.(and, nor, neither ... nor, not only ...then, besides, again
2. Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction
or contrast. (the conj but, while, whereas, the conj adv yet, still, nevertheless the conjunctive particle only).
3. Disjunctive connection denotes choice, usually between two mutually exclusive alternatives. (or, either ... or, the conj adv else, otherwise):
4. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other ― a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. (for. The days became longer, for it was now springtime.)
23. Complex sentence. Structural classification of complex sentences. Hypotaxis
Complex sent consists of 2 or more clauses the rel bw which are dominational.
Complex Ss are often classified according to the type of sub cls. 2 approaches: 1)on categorical principal (on analogy with class of ws: noun cl, adjective cl) 2)functional principal (the position of what member of the S the cl fills: except predicate).
To characterize the complex S as a complex & to work out the classif of the structural patterns of complex Ss the following criteria are taken into consideration: 1)the structural completeness of the main part; 2)the means of connection & the way the parts are linked; 3)The relative importance of the main & the sub cl.=>Types (structural patterns:1.Inclusive type. The sub cl performs the function of a missing part in the main cl & is included into the structure of the main cl. The main clause is incomplete without the sub.The position of the sub cl results from its function.: What I want to know is why he didn’t come.
2. Ss with pronominal correlation. conj opening the sub cl is correlated with some pronominal element (a pronoun or an adv) in the main cl. The meaning & the function of the sub cl depends on the function of the correlative word. The connection is very tight. sub cl in post-position (sometimes in inter-position), but never precedes the main cl: It was just that which impressed me most.
3. Ss with complement or appositive connection. In this type the main clause contains a word devoid of meaning like ‘it’ or with a very general meaning (question, problem). The sub cl disclose its meaning. The word itself is just an anticipatory element. The sub cl is often joined asyndetically. It can never be in preposition: She has a strange feeling as if smth has happened.
4. Ss with optional sub clause (adv cl of result, concession, cond).
5. Ss with mutual dependent cls: proportional agreement or comparison: The more I read the more I know. with patterns expressing temporal rel: Hardly had I entered the room the bell rang.
24. Syntactical structure of the cl( simple sentence). The model of the members of the sentence.
Parsing-the process of analyzing sent into their parts or constituents.
At the funct level the sss is described in terms of members of the s performing certain funct. Parts of the s –notional s constituents as they name elements of the sit named by the sent: prosses, participants, circumst. They are in diff relations to other parts of the sent. Trad parts of the sent:principal(predication. Subj-structural center, pred-semantic& communicat) & secondary (obj, att, adv mod(they extend the basic structure). The model of parts of speech the basic relation of notional sent constituents (show the linear order of const)
Dep on synt-semanti properties of the v: obligatory (princip part& complem) & optional.
Structurally members: simple(single w), phrasal, complex(secondary predict constr), compound (sub cl)
Objs:in/direct, prep.
Complements- oblig constituent of s , completes the pred , cannot become a Subj in a passive constr.( subj compl:She is a teacher. obj compl: He painted the door green; predicate compl:The table costs $100)
Adverbials: adjuncts(additional inf: he briefly..), disjunct (speaker’s attitude: undoubtedly ), conjunct(logical link: he was wrong so he kept silent)
25. Structural models of sent analysis. Distributional model. IC-mode
S is a structural, sem & communicative unit. It can be analyzed at different levels. The most universally accepted are syntactic, semantic & logical-communicative.
The term distribution total set of environments of a certain element. may be in:1)non-contrastive distribn(the same position,no difference in mng;variants of the same element):hoofs-hooves; 2)contrastive d.(the same position,different mngs):she’s charming-she’s charmed; 3)complementary d.(the same mng,different position;variants of the same element):cows-oxen. class 1-N, cl2- V, cl3-adj, cl4-adv
The DM shows the linear order of sent constituents. The synt structure of the sent is presented as a sequence of positional classes of words:The old man saw a black dog there (D A1 N1 V D A2 N2 Adv)”+”Showing the linear order of classes of words, “-“ doesn’t show how ws are connected semantically; no inf about actual syntactic relations of sentence constituents. The police shot a man in the red cap(in the right arm)
ICM (based on binary principle, shows the hierarchy of members of S). A sent is a structured string of words grouped into phrases, so sent constituents are words & word-group. The basic principle for grouping words into phrases(endo- or exocentric) is cohesion(the possibility to substitute a word for the whole group without destroying the structure of the sentence). Ex:The old man(NP) saw a black dog there(VP)→2 immediate constituents –NP & VP, each has constituents of its own. Constituents which cannot be further divided are called ultimate (UC). The ICM exists in 2 main versions:1)the analytical model & 2)the derivation tree. 1)divides the sentence into IC-s & UC-s. 2)shows the syntactic dependence of sentence constituents. So the ICM shows both the syntactic relations & the linear order of elements.
26. Transformational model (TM)
IC analysis is supplemented with rules for transforming1 S into another Sentences. TM investigates relations between various derivation trees. in which all constituents are obligatory are called basic structures or elementary sentences or kernel sentences.Linguists single out from 2 to 7 kernel sentences:1)NV 2)NVN 3)NVPrepN 4)NisN 5)NisA 6)NisAdv 7)NisPrepN. The structure of all other sentences may be explained as a result of transformations of kernel structures. This analysis, showing derivational relations of sentences, is called TM→is based on ICM and it goes further showing semantic and syntactic relations of different sentence types. TM describes paradigmatic relations of basic and derived structures or the relations of syntactic derivation.
Transf-ions may be subdivided into: intramodel or (1)single base(changing the kernel structure) and (2)2-base(combining 2 structures). (1)may be of 2 types: modifying the kernel structure(ex: she’s working hard-she’s not working hard) & changing it(ex: she’s working hard-her working hard-her hard work).
Some basic types of intramodel tr.:substitution, deletion(have you seen him?-seen him?);movement (he is here-is he here?);nominalization (he arrived-his arrival);
2-base transformations: embedding(I know that he has come) and word-sharing(I saw him cross the street)
TM shows that some sentences are ambiguous because they derive from distinct deep structures: Flying planes can be dangerous→1)Planes are dangerous, 2)Flying is dangerous. So TM is an effective method of deciding grammatical ambiguity.
27.Semantic structure of the sentence.
Case gr:semantic—deep underlying structure; syntactic-surface structure.
The sem structure of the S was 1st described by Fillmore in his book ‘The Case for Case’. The 2 main components of the sem structure are: modality – the features of mood, tense, aspect, negation relating to the S as a whole ; proposition – a tenseless set of relationships . The proposition is constituted by the sem predicate & a set of nominative elements called arguments. S = modality + proposition; P = V +n1+n2+n3 (nominal elements)
a deep case is a certain sem role performed by a nominative component in the act or state or process named by the sem predicate. Types of arguments (Fillmore): 1) agent- does the action, usu animate: Sam planted a tree. 2) Object – smth affected by the action Tom broke the window 3) patient smbd affected by the action 4) instrument He opened the door with the key 5) beneficiary smbd who gains (for) 6) factitive (result) smth that comes into being as a result of the action & didn’t exist before 7) force элементатив) the wind broke the window 8) locative some place experienced as a substance Minsk is a big city 9) temporative some moment or period of time experienced as a substance Yesterday was a busy day.:
Types of pred: material actions, states & processes, mental processes.
The proposition is a reflection of situations & events of the outside world. The semantic predicate determines the number of arguments, or opens up places for arguments.=> types of pred: 1.no participant pred(it rains), 2.1-placepredicates(she cried) 3. 2-place pred(she broke the cup). 4. 3-place pred(she gave me the cup) 5participant unexpended(do you drive(a car))
Chafe (case frame & sem feat of the V)=>types:states (wood is dry), processes (the wood is dried), actions (sang), act-process (he dried the wood), ambient state (it’s hot), ambient act (it’s raining).
28.Communicative structure of the sentence. Functional sentence perspective (FSP).
Linguistic analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain is called the actual division or the analysis of the Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP).
FSP refers to the way the speaker structures the information, the way he identifies the relative importance of utterance parts. Usually the utterance consists of 2 parts: the topic of discussion: smth about which a statement is made & the new information, which adds most to the process of communication. These 2 sections are called the theme & the rheme, or topic & comment. Some sentences contain only the rheme, they are monorhematic: It is getting dark. In the majority of sentences the constituents are either rhematic or thematic. There are also transitional elements. Sentences containing the theme & the rheme are called dirhematic.
Thematic elements are marked by the definite article, loose parenthesis (as for me…),detached parts of the sente;
rhematic elements: by the indefinite article, particles (even, only),negations(none of us can fly), emphatic constructions (It is he, who…).
Progressive information structure- Th-rh.
Some means of preserving the progressive information structure: 1.passive transformations (UNESCO took the first steps. → The first steps were taken by UNESCO) 2.the use of conversives (20 people died in crush. → The crush killed 20 people). 3)The use of personal subject & the nominal predicate –( It was silent in the room. → The room turned silent).
Some means of making the subject rhematic: the constructions there is/there are, it is necessary, inversion,etc.
Thematic elements contribute little to the meaning of the utterance as they reflect what has already been communicated, in other words they have the lowest degree of communicative dynamism (CD). Rhematic elements, containing new information which advances the communicative process have the highest degree of CD.
29. Word order
The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order which is fixed for every type of sentence and is, therefore, meaningful. There exist two ways of arranging words-direct order and inverted order.
The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is Subject-Predicate-(Object), which is called direct word order.
func: gram, communicat, emphatic
Gr: 2)distinguish bw declar & ?sent 2)differentiate synt rel(bw Subj & Direct O(Tom loves Mary) bw Indir O & Dir O(the nurse gave Mary her daughter)) 3)to express attributive connections(People here rise early)
Commun( disting bw TH &RH, connecting sent in the text)
Emph(subjective wo: the new preceeds the given- Very tired she looked)
fixed word order: in many cases, speakers can choose between different constituent orderings or constructional alternations as exemplified in the following sentence pairs: John gave the book to Fred vs. John gave Fred the book, John picked up the book vs. John picked the book up, the President's speech vs. the speech of the President.
30. TEXT In modern linguistics text is considered to be the main unit of linguistic analysis. Discourse refers to a continuous strech of utt larger than a sent.text<->discourse(t-physical product, surface structure, monologue, discourse- dynamic process, deep structure, dialogue)
Supraphrasal unity-2 or more connected sent characterized by the topical unity & semantic-syntactic cohesion.upraph u ch-ed by communicative dynamism: new inf is based on the inf which has been communicated in the previous sent.
A text has texture (текстура, или фактура), and this is what distinguishes it from other linguistic units. The texture is provided by the cohesive relation (когезивные отношения, связующие отношения,) or the co-reference (отнесённости к объекту внеязыковой действительности - реальной или воображаемо) of two elements appearing in anaphoric or cataphoric relations .
Grammatical Cohesive Devices:Anaphora (анафора) is a kind of mng rel bw speech expressions where a subsequent element is interpreted with reference to an initial one. Anaphora is pointing back to some previous item. The presupposed element may be located elsewhere in the preceding context
Cataphora (катафора) is a kind of mng rel where the presupposing element is preceding the presupposed one. Thus cataphora is pointing forwards.
Tie (связка, связь) is a single instance of cohesion (отдельны» случай когезии) and the rel bw a pair of elements standing in anaphoric or cataphoric relations
Personal reference (референция, производимая при помощи личных и притяжательных местоимении) is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person. This reference is performed by personal and possessive (including absolute) pronouns.
Demonstrative reference (указательная референция) is reference by means of location, on a scale of proximity. It is a form of verbal pointing
Comparative reference (сравнительная референция) is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. It is based on comparison