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The United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles. The British Isles consists of two large islands, Great Britain and Ireland, and about five thousands small islands. Their total area is over 244 000 square kilometers.
The United Kingdom is one of the world's smaller countries. Its population is over 57 million. About 80 percent of the population is urban.
The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Their capitals are London, Cardiff, Edinburgh and Belfast respectively. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales and does not include Northern Ireland. But in everyday speech Great Britain is used in the meaning of the United Kingdom of Great Britain is used in the meaning of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The capital of the UK is London.
The British Isles are separated from the continent by the North Sea and the British Channel. The western coast of Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Rea.
The surface of the British Isles varies very much. The north of Scotland is mountainous and is called the Highlands. The South, which has beautiful valleys and plains, is called the Lowlands. The north and eastern parts of England are a vast plain. Mountains are not very high. Ben Nevis in Scotland is the highest mountain (1343 m). There are a lot of rivers in Great Britain, but they are not very long. The Severn is the longest river, while the Thames is the deepest and the most important one. The mountains, the Atlantic Ocean and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream influence the climate of the British Isles. It is mild the whole year round.
The UK is a highly developed industrial country. It is produces and exports machinery, electronics, textile. One of the chief industries of the country is shipbuilding.
The UK is a constitutional monarchy with a parliament and the Queen as Head of State.
London
London is the capital of the United Kingdom, its economic, political and cultural centre. It is one of the world's most important ports and one of the largest cities in the world. London with its suburbs has a population of about million people.
London has been a capital for nearly a thousand years. Many of its ancient buildings still stand. The most famous of them are the Tower of London, where the crown jewels are kept, Westminster Abbey and St. Paul's Cathedral. Most visitors also want to see the Houses of Parliament, Buckingham Palace (the Queen's home with its Changing of the Guards) and the many magnificent museums.
Once London was a small Roman town on the north bank of the Thames. Slowly it grew into one of the word's major cities.
Different areas of London seem like different cities. The West End is a rich man's world of shops, offices and theatres. The City of London is the district where most offices and banks are concentrated; the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England are here, too. The East End is the district where mostly working people live. The old port area is now called " Docklands". There are now new office buildings in Docklands, and thousands of new flats and houses.
By the day the whole of London is busy. At night, offices are quiet and empty, but the West End stays alive, because this is where Londoners come to enjoy themselves. There are two opera houses here, several concert halls and many theatres, as well as cinemas. In nearby Soho the pubs, restaurants and night clubs are busy half the night.
Like all big cities, London has street and concrete buildings, but it also has many big parks, full of trees, flowers and grass. In the middle of Hyde Park or Kensington Gardens you will think that you are in the country, miles away.
Many people live outside the centre of London in the suburbs, and they travel to work in shops and offices by train, bus or underground ("The Tube").
London's Places of Interest
London is not only the political, economic and cultural centre of the United Kingdom. It is the main tourist attraction of the country. There are a lot of places of interest in London which attract thousands of tourists every year. They usually want to see Westminster Abbey, the Houses of Parliament, Buckingham Palace, St. Paul's Cathedral, the London Bridge, the Tower of London.
Westminster is now the political centre of London. In the 1th century King Edward the Confessor decided to build a great abbey church there. There are many royal tombs in the Abbey, like the tomb of Edward the Confessor himself, and memorials to famous men and women. The most: popular ones are those to writers, poets and musicians in the Poet's Corner. William the Conqueror was crowned there, and since then all the coronations have taken place in the Abbey.
During the reign of Edward the Confessor the Palace of Westminster was built, too. It was the royal residence and also the country's main court. The Parliament met here since the 16th till the 1.9th century. The present Houses of Parliament were built after the lire in the Palace of Westminster in 1834. There are two houses in the Parliament: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. St. Stephen's lower of the Houses of Parliament contains the famous Big Ben.
Buckingham Palace is the Queen's official London residence. Londoners usually watch the Changing of the Guards in the forecourt of the palace. It lasts about 30 minutes. St Paul's Cathedral is Sir Christopher Wren's masterpiece. It was built since 1675 until I 70(). It is crowned with a huge dome. Inside the dome there is the famous Whispering Gallery. There are many memorials in the Cathedral, including memorials to Wellington and Nelson.
The Tower of London is associated with many important events in the British history. It has been a fortress, a palace, a prison, a mint. The lower of London is famous for its prisoners, like Sir Thomas More and Guy Fawkes. The White Tower was built by William the Conqueror to protect the city. The Tower is guarded by «Beefeaters», the Yeomen Guards.
London is noted for its museums and art galleries. Among them are the National Gallery, the National Portrait Gallery, the Tate. the Museum of London, the Museum of Moving Image. Madame Tussau's Museum and many others.
USA
The United Sates of America are situated in the central part of the North American continent. Its western coast is washed by the Pacific Ocean and its eastern coast - by the Atlantic Ocean.
The total area of the USA is over nine million square kilometers.
The population of the USA is more than 236 million people; most of the population lives in towns and cities.
The USA is very large country, so it has several different climatic regions. The coldest regions are the north and north-east. The south has a subtropical climate.
The United States is a land of rivers and lakes. The northern state of Minnesota is the land of 10 000 lakes. The longest rivers in the USA are the Mississippi, the Missouri and the Rio Grande. The highest mountains are the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and the Sierra Nevada.
The United States are rich in natural and mineral resources. It produces copper, oil, iron ore and coat. It is a highly-developed industrial and agricultural country.
There are many big cities in the USA, such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia and others. The national capital is Washington, D.C. Its population is about 3,4 million. Washington was built in the late eighteenth century especially as the centre of government. It was named after George Washington.
The USA became the world leading country at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Washington, D.C.
The United States is a federal union which is made up of fifty states and one independent district - the District of Columbia. The District of Columbia is the territory of the national capital of the USA, Washington, with its own laws and regulations.
Washington, D.C. is situated on both banks of the Potomac river, between the two states, Maryland and Virginia. This place was chosen by the first American President George Washington The plot of land of a hundred square miles was bought from private owners by the state. In 1790 George Washington laid the corner-stone of the Capitol where the Congress sits The place was called the District of Columbia in honor of Columbus, the discoverer of America The capital got the name of Washington after the name of its founder Washington has been the federal capital since 1800.
Washington is sometimes called the heart of America. It is the place where the federal government works and where each President of the United States lives. Washington is smaller in size than the largest cities of the USA, such as New York, Chicago, Detroit or Los Angeles. The population of Washington is about 11 million people. The buildings in Washington are not very tall because no building must be taller than the Capitol. But in political sense Washington is the centre of the country and the most important city or, the United States.
New York
New York is one of the largest cities in the world. It was founded three hundred years ago at the mouth of the Hudson river.
The center of New York is Manhattan Island. In 1626 it was bought from the Indians for a handful of trinkets that cost twenty-four dollars. Today Manhattan is the centre of business and finance. Numerous skyscrapers house banks and officers of American business. Broadway bigins here, the Stock Exchange is located here, too. Very few people live in Manhattan, though the majority work here. Numerous bridges link Manhattan with the opposite shores.
New York is inhabited by people of almost all nationalities and races. It is called "Modern Babylon". At the turn of twentieth century a lot of people came to the USA from different countries of the world. They entered the USA through New York, the Gateway of America.
New York is one of the leading manufacturing cities in the world. The important industries are those producing paper products, vehicles, glass, chemicals, machinery. New York has a heavy traffic. The sea encircles many of the city areas and the ships go over or under. New York traffic routes.
Russia
Russia is one of the largest countries of the world. The vast territory of the Russia lies in the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia.
Russia is washed by twelve seas and three oceans. The oceans are the Arctic, the Atlantic, the Pacific. The seas are: the White Sea, the Barents sea, the Okhotsk Sea, the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea and others.
Russia borders on many countries, such as Mongolia and China in the south-east, Finland and Norway in the north-west, and so on.
The land of Russia varies very much from forest to deserts, from high mountains to deep valleys. The mountains cans are the Urals, the Caucasus and the Altai. There are a lot of great rivers and deep lakes on opts territory. The longest rivers are the Volga in Europe and the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena in Asia. The largest lakes are Ladoga and Baikal. Baikal is the deepest lake in the world and its water is the purest on earth.
The Russian Federation is rich in natural and mineral resources. It has deposits of oil, gas, coal, iron, gold and many others.
The current population of Russia is more than 150 million people. The European part of the country is densely people, and most population live in cities and towns and their outskirts.
The capital of Russia Federation is Moscow, with the population of about 10 million people.
Russia is a presidential republic. It is one of the leading powers in the world.
State System of Russia
Russia is a parliamentary republic. Head of State in this country is the President. The government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. The President controls each of them.
The legislative power is exercised by the Federal Assembly. It consists of two chambers: the Council of Federation and the State Duma. Each chamber is headed by Speaker. Bill may be introduced in any chamber. A bill becomes a law if it is approved by both chambers and signed by the President. The President may veto the bill. He can make international treaties. The President may also appoint ministers; the Federal Assembly are elected by the people for four years.
The executive power belongs to the Government, or the Cabinet of Ministers. The government is headed by the Prime Minister.
The judicial power belongs to the system of courts. It consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and other courts.
The national symbol of Russia is a white-blue-and-red banner. The hymn of Russia is "The Patriotic Song" by M. Glinka.
Moscow
Moscow is the capital of Russia, its administrative, economic, political and educational centre. It is one of Russia's major cities with the population of about 9 million people. Its total area is about 900 thousand square kilometers.
The city was founded by Prince Yuri Dolgorukiy and was first mentioned in the chronicles in 1147. At that time it is was small frontier settlement. By the 15th century Moscow had grown into a wealthy city.
In the 16th century, under Ivan the Terrible, Moscow became the capital of the state of Muscovy . In the 18th century Peter the Create transferred the capital to St. Petersburg, but Moscow remained the heart of Russia. That is why it became the main target of Napoleon's attack in 1812. During the war of 1812 three quarters of the city were destroyed by fire, but by the middle of the 19th century Moscow completely rebuilt.
The present-day Moscow is the seat of the government of the Russian Federation. President of Russia lives and works here; government offices are located here, too.
Moscow is major industrial city. Its leading industrials are engineering chemical and light industries.
Moscow is known for its many historical buildings, museum and art galleries, as well as for the famous Boishoi, Maly and Art theatres. There are more than 80 museums in Moscow, among them the unique Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the State Tretyakov Gallery, the Andrey Rublyov Museum of Early Russian Art and many others.
Moscow is a city of science and learning. There are over 80 higher educational institutions in the city, including a number of universities.
Newspapers of Russia
Russians are reading nations. It is impossible to imagine our life without newspapers. Million of copies of them appear every day. Many people subscribe to two or more newspapers, others buy newspapers at the news-stands.
There are many national daily newspapers, such as "Izvestiya", "Segodnya", "Komsomolskaya Pravda", "Trud", "Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta", "nesavisimaya Gazeta", "Sovetskaya Rossiya", There are also national weekly newspapers, such as "Argumenti i Fakti", "Nedelya", Literaturnaya Gazeta". Most national newspapers express a political opinion, and people choose them according, to their political beliefs.
Most nespapers contains news, detailed articles on home and international affairs, reiems of books, art and TV shows. Many of them also cover sports events.
There are local newspapers in every city and town of Russia. The most popular local newspapers in Moscow are "Moskovsky Komsomolets", and "Vechernyaya Moskva". There are also a lot of free newpapers in Moscow. They are delivered to people's homes whether they like it or not. They usually contains advertisements.
One you can also find newspapers for teenagers and children, for sports fans and people of different professions, and newspapers for women.
There is also a newspaper for people studing the English language, "Moscow news". When one reads this newspaper, he or she learns much about everyday life in Russia and Great Britain. One also learns a lot of English words and phrases.
St. Petersburg
St. Petersburg is the second largest city in Russia and one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great as the "Window to the West". Thousands of workmen were brought from all parts of Russia to built a new city on the swampy land at the mouth of the Neva River. Peter the great was in hurry. The work was fast and hard, and women dropped dead by the hundreds. But the work went on. St. Petersburg, a city of great beauty, with palaces, cathedrals, churches, government buildings became the capital.
Under later rulers the new capital of the Russia Empire grew rapidly in wealth and beauty. Architects were brought from western Europe to lay out the city in harmonious squares. Buildings were constructed of grey and rose-colored granite. The Hermitage Palace and the Winter palace, the homes of the tsars, were equal to any in Europe.
When the first world war began in 1914, the German-sounding name, St. Petersburg, was changed to Petrograd. After the Great October Revolution the city was renamed after Lenin.
During the Great Patriotic War the city suffered a great deal. The German armies laid seige to i in 1941, and for the next year and a brought in, and people died of starvation. Daily shelling and air raids destroyed parts of the city, thousands of people were killed. Rebuilding took years.
Now St. Petersburg is an important industrial, cultural and educational center. The population of the city is over 5 million.
St. Petersburg is indeed a wonderful city. At every turn there is something to catch your eye. The Winter Palace, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, St. Isaac's Cathedral, the Peter-and-Paul Fortress, the Admiralty building, attract thousands of tourists from every coner of the world.
Petersburg’s many museums houses some of the world's famous art collections. The Hermitage, for example, contains the richest collection of pictures in the world. The city is called
Northern Venice because there are 65 rivers and canals there with artistically decorated brid It's also famous for its beautiful white nights.
MANAGEMENT
Management is the art of getting things done through other people. It includes the personnel who have the right to make decisions that influence company's affairs.
There are three management levels: top management, middle management and operating management. Top management includes the president, vice presidents, and the general manager. Middle management includes department managers and plant managers. Operating management includes supervisors, foremen, etc.
The most important responsibility of any manager is decision making. Successful management is a skill of choosing from alternatives.
Decision makings are divided into: recognizing the problem, defining and analyzing the problem, evaluating alternative solutions, choosing the most favorable solution and implementing the approach chosen.
Management functions are planning, organizing, directing, controlling, staffing and innovating. It should be noted that successful management is based on three basic elements: leadership, motivation and communication.
To operate a successful business one should have management skills because effective management is the key to business success.
MARKETING
Marketing is the performance of business activities connected with the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers. Marketing includes the following operations: transporting, storing, pricing and selling goods. The most important thing in marketing is finding out who the customers are and what they want. Marketing is the process of having the right product at the right time in the right place, the rocess that brings mutual benefit to customers and vendors.
Transporting means carrying goods from the place of their production to the place of their selling.
Storing is necessary because the consumer desires to buy goods without waiting.
Pricing involves the art of determining what price is the best.
Selling involves helping consumers to discover their needs. Marketers should inform potential buyers of where goods can be bought and how much they cost.
Marketing research is also very important. The following are steps in marketing research: defining the problem, collecting data, compiling data and analyzing the results, advertising.
Marketing operations are very expensive and one should consider the value added through marketing. Marketing becomes too costly only when cost exceeds the value it adds.
POLLUTION
People have designed and produced up-to-date machines and technologies to make their life easier and more comfortable. But all these activities result in air and water pollution.
One of the most important problems is the oceans. A lot of ships crossing the oceans and seas, especially those that carry oil, put their wastes into water, and the water becomes dirty. As a result many birds and fish die because of polluted water, others are getting contaminated and
people may get sick from eating them.
The second problem is air pollution. Cars and plants pollute the atmosphere with their wastes. They destroy the ozone layer which protects us from the dangerous light of the Sun. They also destroy forests which are dying from acid rains.
Now people begin to realize the danger of their activities. People are concerned about the air and the water used by everyone, they are also concerned about the future of the planet because they understand that these activities affect the balance of nature.
In order to make our life not only easier but better and healthier we must learn to protect the water, the air and the earth from pollution. Our planet belongs to our children and if we want our children to live in a healthier world we must do everything to protect them from the catastrophe.
ISAAK NEWTON
Isaak Newton was born in 1642 in the family of a poor farmer. The boy began his first scientific experiments at school.
While studying at Cambridge University, Newton formulated the binomial theorem. In 1662 Cambridge was closed because of the plague and Newton returned to his native village. For the next two years he
devoted himself to scientific experimentation.
.Newton's great discovery was the law of decomposition of light. The scientist proved that the white light of the sun is composed of rays of light of all colors of the rainbow. He also discovered the Law of Universal
Gravitation which states that "every particle of matter is attracted by every other particle of matter with a force inversely proportional to the square of their distance apart",
Newton applied the principle of gravitation to prove that the power which guides the moon around the earth and the planets around the sun is the force of gravity. Another application of the law of universal gravitation was Newton's exploration of the tides.
Newton was highly honored by his countrymen and in 1703 he was elected President of the Royal Society. Sir Isaak Newton died in 1727 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
MICHAEL FARADAY
Michael Faraday, English experimental physicist, was born in 1791in a poor family. The boy began to work as an apprentice at a bookbinder's at an early age. One day a man entered the shop and found the boy studying an article on electricity. The man was surprised to see a boy so interested in such a difficult subject and gave him four tickets for the lectures at the Royal Institutions.
The boy went to the lectures and made notes of what he heard. At the of the lecture he came to Sir Humphry Davy, the great English scientist, and showed him his notes. Davy was surprised. Later he made is assistant and helped him in his education.
Faraday had many important discoveries. Among his works are the concept of the magnetic field and the magnetic "lines of force", production new kinds of optical glass, and research on electrolysis.
Faraday produced the first mechanical motion by means of a permanent magnet and an electric current. This is the principle upon which the modern electric motor is based.
Faraday was very modest and he loved his work more than honors. He refused to become President of the Royal Society and also refused to be knighted.
M. V. LOMONOSOV
M. V. Lomonosov was born in 1711 in the village of Denisovka near Arkhangelsk in the family of a fisherman. At the age of 17 he left his native village and made his way to Moscow. In Moscow he entered the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy. Lomonosov didn't finish his last grade, as he was sent with eleven other pupils to St. Petersburg to study at the Academy of Sciences.
Less than a year after he came to Petersburg Lomonosov was sent abroad to study metallurgy and mining. In 1741 Lomonosov returned to Russia and began to teach chemistry and physics at the Academy.
Lomonosov established the fundamental law of chemical change of substance which is called the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Lomonosov founded a new science that we call today physical chemistry. He also studied electrical phenomena in atmosphere of the Earth, the nature of light, and designed an improved telescope. Lomonosov
considered nature to be in a state of constant change and development. Coal, oil, etc. were all formed as a result of evolution.
Lomonosov was a great scientist. His works in poetry had a great influence on Russian literature. Owing to his efforts, the first Russian University was founded in Moscow in 1755. This university bearing his
name became the centre of knowledge and science in Russia.
DMITRY MENDELEEV
D. I. Mendeleev was born in 1834 at Tobolsk in the family of the director of the town gymnasium. He received his secondary education at Tobolsk and then entered the Petersburg Pedagogical Institute. After
graduation he worked as a teacher for two years.
In 1859 he presented his thesis, received his master's degree and went abroad on a two-year scientific commission. Upon his return to Russia he was elected professor of the Petersburg University, where he
carried on his scientific and pedagogical activity for 23 years. In 1906 he issued a book, under the title Contribution to the Knowledge of Russia which contained thoughts of the further development of Russian industry and economy. The greatest result of Mendeleev's creative effort was the discovery of the Periodic Table of Elements.
One of Mendeleev's prominent works is his book Principles of Chemistry in which inorganic chemistry was for the first time explained from the standpoint of the Periodic Law.
A great scientist, Mendeleev devoted his life and energies to the progress of his country. His works embrace various fields of science — chemistry, physics, physical chemistry, geophysics.
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