St. Phonost Stylistic lexicology st
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Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the principles and effects of choice and usage of different language elements in rendering thoughts and emotions under different conditions of communicating.
Tasks:
- The investigation of the inventory of the special language media which by their anthological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance. (SD and EM)
- Certain type of text which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication (functional styles of language)
Object of St – the study of the nature functions and structure of SD and EM on the one hand and the study of the functional styles on the other hand.
Branches of st:
Linguo-st., Phonost, Stylistic lexicology, st. morphology, stylistic syntax, st. semasiology.
Levels of the analysis:
- Phonemic, where phonemes are analyzed,
- Morphemic, where morphemes are analyzed,
- Lexical, where words are analized,
- Syntactical, where sentences are analyzed,
- Textual, where the whole text is analized.
Aims of the analysis: to analyze choices of language meaning how these choices are combined , what is the result of this combination, feeling what is normal, usual in the language, and what is new and how these things are expressed.
The EM are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms which exist in the language-as-a-system for the purpose of logical and emotional intensification of the utterance.
The SD are conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and semantic property of a language unit making a generalized pattern.
EM are:
Phonetic: pitch, melody, rhythm, stress, pauses, whispering, singing,
Morphological: emotionally colored suffixes (-let, -y, )
Lexical: words, archaic words, colloquial words, slang, vulgarisms…
Syntactical: emphatic syntactic constructions. ( John went away – Away went John, John did go away, It was John who went away.)
SD unlike EM are not language phenomena, they are formed in speech and most of them don’t exast out of context.
Poetry:
Yambic metre: -/-/-/-/
Trochaic metre /-/-/-/-
Dactylic metre: /--/--/--/--
Amphibrachic: -/--/--/--/-
Anapaest: --/--/--/--/
Rhyme is the accord of the syllables in words.
Vertical:
Adjacent aabb
Cross abab
Reverse abba
Horizontal:
Male - the last syllables are stressed,
Female – the next syllable to the last is stressed
Rhythm is a recurring stress pattern in poetry.
Occasionalism: I am an undersecretary in underbureau.
Metaphor is the result of transference of the name of one object to another based on the similarity of them. Communicative functions: the main function is aesthetic, it is the most powerful means of creating images, used mostly in poetry and fiction prose.
According to the degree of freshnes: Trite and original
According to the structure: simple and sustained.
According to their stylistic potential:
- Nominational: don’t render any st. info. They are intended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world. Leg of the table, foot of the hill
- Cognitive – personification (another day died, road led him there.
- Imaginative is the most expressive. They are occasional and individual, bright, image-creating, picturesque.
Metonimy: is a transference of a name of one object to another based upon the principle of cognitivity of two objects. Communicative functions: builds up imagery, points out some features of the object described, and makes speech economical.
Types: 1. The sighn for the thing signified (a symbol – dove is a symbol of peace), 2. The container for the thing contained (did you drink coffee? – yes, I drank a cup), 3. The name of the creator instead of the creature (I read Pushkin), 4. The material for the thing made of it (the silk fattens), 5. The instrument for the doer or the action (and here the violins started)
Synecdoche :
-the part instead of the whole (hand instead of a worker)
-the specific name (concrete) instead of the generic name (general): (two heads are better than one)
Irony: is a LS SD in which the words change their meaning from the positive to negative (She turned back with a sweet smile of alligator)CF: to convey negative meaning or emotions: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction, displeasure. In the oral speech in order to help the listener decode the irony the speaker usually uses definite intonation and gestures.
Play on words (pun): using of words which can be understood in a few different meanings. The effect is humorous. In fact pun is based upon misinterpretation of the words, breaking the listener’s expectations. (Did you see any spirits? Or drink one? - spirits = overnatural force, ghost, and alcohol). Types: 1. Based on the polysemy and homonymy (My husband can’t bear children! – He is a man, it’s not in his nature) 2. Based on the similarity of pronunciation(Carry on! – I never eat carrion)
Violation of the phraseological unit: There are phraseologisma, set expressions, clichés, in which words lose part of their literary meaning and get a figurative one. The violation breaks this stable stereotype by making some words be understood literally (He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth, but it was too big)
Sometimes we can observe such phenomenon in one word: relying – telling the same lies twice, beheld – to have somebody hold you.
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a feature. The function is to intensify the feature. I told you hundred times.
Understatement is an opposite to hyperbole, underestimating of the features or state of the character. The function is, curiously enough, to intensify the real state, which is clearly understood from the context and certain intonation of a speaker in the oral speech. (I am furious but I say – I am a bit upset)
Epithet is an attributive characterization of an object. Having a logical meaning, it gets in the context also emotive meaning, rendering the subjective attitude of the writer to the person or thing described. It offers opportunities to qualify the object from the author’s individual viewpoint, which is used in creative prose, poetry, publicist style.
According to structure: simple (true love), compound ((heart-breaking news), phrase (a move-if-you-dare look), reversed (this devil of a woman, the giant of a man, the toy of a girl, the toy of THE girl = the girl’s toy), chain of epithets.
According to meaning: effective – just a real characteristic (gorgeous, beautiful, nasty…) and figurative – formed of metaphors, metonimies, similies… It characterizes the object by adding a feature which is not typical for it. (smiling sun)
Oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory notions, that helps to emphasize contradictory qualities existing at ones in the described object. One of the words shows the feature which can be observed, and the other word offers a new, subjective individual perception of the object. Was loved by Shakespeare. (old boy, sick health)
Antonomasia: Lexical SD in which a proper name is used instead of a common or vice versa. Purpose – not to classify the object as one of the similar objects, but to thte contrary – to single it out of the group of similar objects, to individualize one particular object. (Every Caesar has his Brutus. He is a Shakespeare of prose. Dr Rest, Dr Diet Dr Fresh Air)
Rhetorical questions don’t imply an answer. If the question is answered immediately in the text – it is not a rhetorical. (Why should I believe this nonsense?)
Ellipsis is a deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence to show the high emotional state of the character, to reflect the natural omission typical for the oral speech, to make it more realistic in creative prose. (What! All the guests to one room?) It is used in drama as the author’s remark and stage comments. (Goes away. To the audience)
Aposiopesis is a break, which is also used mainly in the dialogue imitating spontaneous speech. It reflects emotional and psychological state of the speaker: a sentence may be broken because the speaker’s emotions prevent him from finishing it, or because the speaker doesn’t want to talk further, or uncertainty what to say, or the continuation is obvious and understandable for both speaker and listener. (It depends)
Inversion is a SD in which the direct word order is changed so that the predicate precedes the subject (completely) or the object precedes the subject (partially). Mustn’t be confused with the grammatical inversion which is the norm of literature language for interrogative questions. (Your mother is at home?) Its aim is attaching logical stress to certain words or syntagms in the sentence.
Detachment is one of the secondary parts of the sentence is detached from the word it refers to and is made to seem independent of this word. Although the semantic ties retain. Such detached words are marked off by commas, full stop, round brackets, dashes, exclamatory signs. (I have to beg you for money. Daily!) CF: to put stress to the detached part, to intensify all the utterance.
Suspense is a deliberate separation of the two tied members of the sentence by putting between them some les important information. CF: to raise the attention and tension in the reader/listener, to evoke his interest.
Repetition is a recurrence of the same word, WC, phrase for 2 and more times. Repetition is a powerful means of emphasis.
Anaphora(a…, a…), epiphora(…a, …a), framing(a…a), catch(…a,a…), chain(a…b,b…c,c…d), Ordinary(a…,…a…,…a), successive repetition(…a,a,a…).
Parallel constructions this is a purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences (clauses), and not of their lexical meaning. Always include some type of lexical repetition too.And all this produces a very strong effect, foregrounding at one logical, rhythmical, emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance. (I was sick and you visited me, I was weak and you supported me)
Chiasmus is a reversed PC. Can be lexical and syntactical. (The last can be first and the first can be last. The second part of CH is in fact the reverse of the first construction.
Asyndeton is omitting conjunctions between the homogeneous members of the sentence. CF is to make the illusion of the very fast succession of events, to create the effect of tense energetic active prose. Or routines.
Polysyndeton – insistent repeating conjunctions. CF: to convey the succession, maybe a bit extended.
Attachment the gap-sentence link, The second part of th utterance is separated from the first one by a full stop, though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong. (I don’t want to go there. And so does my friend)
Climax – raising of meaning in a chain of synonyms. CF: to show the increase in semantic significance or emotional tension. (She doesn’t want to talk to him, she doesn’t want to see him, she doesn’t want to hear of him, to know about his existence) Negative form of climax is decreasing order. (No trees, no branches, no leaves, no grass). It can be logical, emotional and quantitative. The most common is three-step for logical, and two-step for emotional.
Anticlimax is a climax suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of thoughts which defeats the reader’s expectations and ends in the complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea. (he lost his family, his health - and his watch.)We use the punctuation between the increasing and decreasing parts of the anticlimax.
Antithesis is another part of parallelism but with the opposite meaning in the parallel utterances. Antithesis is a semantic opposition emphasized by its realization in the similar structures. CF: to emphasize the semantic contraast of the two structures. (Some people have much to live on and little to live for. We don’t know who loses by this, but we do know who gains.)
Simile is an imaginative comparison of two unlike objects belonging to different classes. The compared one is called the tenor, and the one to which we compare is called the vehicle. They form two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected with conjunctions “like, as if, as though, as like, such as, as…as”. S. shouldn’t be confused with a comparison. Structurally identical, consisting of the tenor, vehicle and uniting element, they are semantically different. In a simple comparison we compare objects belonging to the same class (she is like her mother), and in the simile we compare objects from different classes. The tenor and the vehicle may be expressed by one word, or may be extended. This type is called Homeric simile. CF: to make the image more vivid, to brighten the speech. (She is like a rose)
Periphrasis using a roundabout form of expression instead of simple naming the object. CF: to convey a purely individual perception of the described object. Can be figurative(metaphoric) and logical. The often repeated periphrasis becomes trite and serves as synonyms(my better half – my spouse) Euphemism is a variant of periphrasis.
Litotes is two-compound structure in which two negative expressions give general positive meaning. (not unhandsome – handsome)CF: the same as in understatement – to weaken the effect of the utterance. The uniqueness of the L. lies in its specific double negative structure and in its weakening the positive meaning.
Vocabulary
Literary vocabulary:
Literary (bookish) – typical for formal styles – scientific, official, publicist; terms – professionalisms; poetic words, archaic words; barbarisms and foreignisms; colloquial – typical for the lower style;
Colloquial vocabulary:
Common colloquial words, slang, jargonisms, vulgarisms, professional words, dialectal words
Ranges – upper and lower.
Stylistically neutral words constitute the central notion in the group of synonyms – dominant. They only name the notion. Their synonyms bring some connotation: endearing, derogatory (trash), humorous, rude, vulgar, ironical, approving… (It is cool – approving connotation and slang. To fix=to repair – neutral, rude words are not to be spoken between the educated people and are taboo, but they are typical for uneducated low-social elements of the society. They are often replaced by euphemisms. Standard English is used in the written lang. mass media, literature, oral speeches, etc. Dialects are found in different geographical parts of the country. They are the versions of eng. Used only in GB. In other countries they are not dialects but variants of eng. : USA, Canada, Australia, Ne Zealand… Sottish dialect has much in common with celtic language, (hus = house, ut=out, dun=down, stain=stone, raid=road, Daence=dance, laest=last) Southern dialect (art=heart, sittin=sitting), Irish dialect – Northern part and Ireland which is part of the UK. The other independent Ireland has its own different lang.
Cliches. Is an expression that has become trite and recognizable. It lost originality, impact by long overuse. (Rosy dreams of youth) Cliche usually means laziness or lack of originality.
Proverbs and sayings are collected in dictionaries. It is impossible to arrange them into a form that could be a pattern. They are differently structured and semantically cover different spheres of people’s lives and language. They have some common features: rhythm, rhyme, alliteration.
Quotations is an exact reproduction of original words of the author, repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech, film…CF – we give to the utterance an importance and give it the status of a stable language unit. Used to prove something or to make a background for some thoughts and ideas.
Epigrams = афоризмы. It's a short figurative and very imaginative utterance, containing an idea. It is like a proverb, but unlike it, the epigram has the author while the proverb’s author is people itself.
A Good that can be understood is no God. (Somerset Maugham)
Allusion is an indirect reference by word or phrase to a certain historical or mythical person, fact, event, a piece of art, a Bible, etc. Something that everyone is supposed to know and understand.
Functional styles two main groups: Bookish and Colloquial.
Bookish: the style of official documents, scientific prose, newspaper, publicistic style, belletristic style.
Colloquial: literary colloquial, informal colloquial, substandard (unprintable)
We choose the style according to the extralingual factors: the character of communication, the relations between the communicators, the aim of communication, oral or written communication.
5 FS:
Official is represented in all kinds of official documents and papers.
Scientific is represented in articles, brochures, monographs, scientific and academic publications.
Publicistic covers such genres as essay, feature article (очерк), *new journalism*, public speeches, etc.
Newspaper is observed in the majority of the information materials printed in the newspaper and magazines, radio and TV.
Belle-lettre embraces numerous and versatile genres of imaginative prose.
Flexible boundaries: scientific+B-L = popular scifi, new journalism =publ+newsp+B-L.
Each style is represented in two forms – written and oral.
written is not the same as literary, oral not the same as colloquial. Written-oral – a form of presentation, literary-colloquial – the choice of lang. means.
Scientific is employed in professional communication. Lots of terms, professionalisms denoting objects, phenomena and processes, characteristics of some fields of science and techniques. Precision, clarity, logic. It is an instrument for promoting sci ideas and exchanging sci info, It is as bookish and formal as the style of official docs.
Graphical peculiarities: number- or letter-indexed paragraphing, system of headlines, titles and subtitles, footnotes, pictures, tables, schemes and formulae.
Vocabulary: special terms of international origin.
Morphological: personal pronoun WE in the meaning of I
Syntax: long sentences of all structural types, always two-member and non-elliptical. Complicated by secondary predications, detachments, passive constructions.
Official The most conservative style. It preserves cast-iron forms of structuring, syntactical constructions and words long known as archaic and not observed anywhere else. Addressing dox and official letters, signing them, expressing the reasons and considerations, - all this is strictly regulated lexically and syntactically.Emotions and subjectiveness completely absent.
Aim: establishing, developing and controlling business relations between individuals and organizations. Fully impersonal, rational, pragmatic.
Graphical: specific rules of making inscriptions, using capital letters and abbreviations.
Lexical: domination of bookish, borrowed, archaic and obsolescent words, professional terms and clichés.
Morphological: use of subjunctive 1 and suppositional moods, non-finite forms of the verb, impersonal, anticipatory and indefinite pronouns.
Syntax: see Sci style.
Publicist In ancient Greece it was practiced mainly in oral form and was known as oratoric style within which views and sentiments of the speaker (orator) found their expression. Nowadays the author can express his/her political, social, ideological ethical and other statements in written form, and this style is called publicist. The CF is persuasion, influence upon reader, forming his views.
Variants: Oratory style (speeches, lectures, reports), radio and TV programs, essays and journalists articles.
Oratory: direct contact of the speaker with the audience, Language means of addressing Ladies and gentlemen). Repetitions, polysyndeton, parallelisms. Aim – to persuade.
Essays and Journalistic articles deal with political, social, economic, moral ethic philosophical, religious, educational, cultural problems. The choice of lang means depends on the subject. Neutral words,
Belle-lettre Attracts the linguists most of all, because the authors of books use the whole gamma of EM and SD, while creating their images. Function – cognitive – aesthetic. Embraces prose, drama and poetry. The lang of emotive prose is extremely diverse. Most of the books contain the author’s speech and the speech of characters. The author’s speech embodies all stylistic embellishment, which the system of language tolerates. The speech of the characters reflects the people’s natural communication which uses a lot of colloquial style means. The language of drama is also a stylization of the colloquial style , when the colloquial speech is not only an instrument for rendering information, but an effective tool for the description of a personage. Poetry uses mostly bookish, distinguished, highly literary words, barbarisms, obsolent words, fresh and original trops, inversions, repetitions and parallel constructions… Elevation is the most powerful feature of poetry. The style of imaginative prose is the biggest field for stylistics. Besides its own SD BL uses all other styles for its purposes. In books we can find elements of scientific style, publicist, official. The form becomes meaningful and carries additional info. Boundless possibilities of expressing thoughts and emotions. Sometimes poetry is regarded as a separate poetic style. Poetry of the previous centuries had very specific vocabulary – high, literary, obsolete, archaic words… But poetry of the twentieth century is close to the prose vocabulary. And the thematic of poetry isn’t restricted just by specifically poetic topics – love, feelings, eternal questions, but covers all spheres of our life.
Newspaper Found in newspapers, Informative materials, and not found in other publications. To attract the attention to the news, special graphical means are used: change of type, specific headlines, space ordering. Many dates and personal names of countries, territories, institutions. To achieve the effect of objectivity and impartiality in rendering facts most of the newspaper information is published anonymously. But the position and viewpoint of the newspaper is clear from the choice of words. CF: to inform people about all kinds of events, which may be of interest.
Vocabulary: mostly neutral common literary words, many political, social and economic terms. Abbreviations, borrowings, international words and clichés.
Syntax: diversity of all structural types of sentences, (simple, complex, compound, mixed), with a developed system of clauses connected by all types of syntactical connections. The coating of bookishness is created by multicomponent attributive noun groups, participal, infinitive, gerundial word-combinations. Advertising materials may be classified by topics or not classified. Very laconic, omitting all no-informative words, not necessary information.
Graphically: system of headlines. The headlines form a specific genre. They combine three functions: gripping reader’s attention, providing info and evaluating the content of the article. Must be sensational, expressive, informative. Sentences are short, one-member or elliptical, affirmative, negative, interrogative, exclamatory.
Types of narration first person – author’s narrative. Third-person – entrustive narrative. Represented (reported) speech. Speech forms – description, dialogue, monologue, interior speech of a character.
Individual style is a unique combination of lang. units, Ems, SDs, peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer’s works or even utterances easily recognizable. The deliberate choice of language element and the way the chosen element is treated/used are the main features of individual style.
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