Если у вас возникли сложности с курсовой, контрольной, дипломной, рефератом, отчетом по практике, научно-исследовательской и любой другой работой - мы готовы помочь.
Предоплата всего
Подписываем
The United Nations (UN) (French: Organisation des Nations unies (ONU) is an international organization. It was started in 1945, after World War II with the idea of making a stronger version of the League of Nations. (The League was supposed to stop wars from happening, but it failed.) Most nations are members of the UN and send people to the headquarters to hold meetings and pass resolutions (make decisions) about global issues. There are 193 member countries of the United Nations which includes all the internationally recognized countries except for Vatican City and Palestine which are observer countries.
The goals of the United Nations are:
The headquarters of the United Nations has served as the official headquarters of the United Nations since its completion in 1952. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan, on spacious grounds overlooking the East River.
The main aims of the UN are set forth in the Preamble to the Charter, in which "the peoples of the United Nations," assembled in San Francisco in June 1945, expressed their determination
"to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, …
"to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, …
"to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and
"to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom…."
To accomplish these goals, they agreed
"to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, …
"to unite their strength to maintain international peace and security, …
"to ensure by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and
"to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples …."
The United Nations (UN) (French: Organisation des Nations unies (ONU) is an international organization. It was started in 1945, after World War II with the idea of making a stronger version of the League of Nations. (The League was supposed to stop wars from happening, but it failed.) Most nations are members of the UN and send people to the headquarters to hold meetings and pass resolutions (make decisions) about global issues. There are 193 member countries of the United Nations which includes all the internationally recognized countries except for Vatican City and Palestine which are observer countries.
The goals of the United Nations are:
The headquarters of the United Nations has served as the official headquarters of the United Nations since its completion in 1952. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan, on spacious grounds overlooking the East River.
The General Assembly (GA) is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the UN.
Decisions on important questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority. Decisions on other questions are by simple majority.
Each country has one vote. Some Member States in arrear of payment may be granted the right to vote. See the list of countries in arrears in the payment of their financial contributions.
The A During its 58th session, the General Assembly identified as a priority the need to make its work more focused and relevant by :
ssembly has adopted its own rules of procedure and elects its President for each session.
The United Nations (UN) (French: Organisation des Nations unies (ONU) is an international organization. It was started in 1945, after World War II with the idea of making a stronger version of the League of Nations. (The League was supposed to stop wars from happening, but it failed.) Most nations are members of the UN and send people to the headquarters to hold meetings and pass resolutions (make decisions) about global issues. There are 193 member countries of the United Nations which includes all the internationally recognized countries except for Vatican City and Palestine which are observer countries.
The goals of the United Nations are:
The headquarters of the United Nations has served as the official headquarters of the United Nations since its completion in 1952. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan, on spacious grounds overlooking the East River.
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions; it is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states. The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946.
The Security Council consists of fifteen members. The great powers that were the victors of World War II—China, France, Russia, the UK, and the US—serve as the body's five permanent members. These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General. The Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The body's presidency rotates monthly between its members.
Security Council resolutions are typically enforced by UN peacekeepers, military forces voluntarily provided by member states and funded independently of the main UN budget. As of 2013, 116,837 peacekeeping soldiers and other personnel are deployed on 15 missions around the world. Evaluations of the Security Council's effectiveness are mixed, and calls for its reform pre-date the body's first meeting; however, little consensus exists on how its structure should be changed.
The United Nations (UN) (French: Organisation des Nations unies (ONU) is an international organization. It was started in 1945, after World War II with the idea of making a stronger version of the League of Nations. (The League was supposed to stop wars from happening, but it failed.) Most nations are members of the UN and send people to the headquarters to hold meetings and pass resolutions (make decisions) about global issues. There are 193 member countries of the United Nations which includes all the internationally recognized countries except for Vatican City and Palestine which are observer countries.
The goals of the United Nations are:
The headquarters of the United Nations has served as the official headquarters of the United Nations since its completion in 1952. It is located in the Turtle Bay neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan, on spacious grounds overlooking the East River.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the judicial wing of the United Nations (UN). It is seated in the Peace Palace, the Hague, Netherlands. The ICJ is also called World Court because its duty is to settle legal disputes submitted to it by member states and to give advice and answer legal questions submitted to it by international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.
The UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council elect the judges of the ICJ. The ICJ has 15 judges elected for a nine year term from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
According to article 93 of the UN charter, all UN members are automatically parties to the ICJ’s jurisdiction. However, non-UN states can also become parties to ICJ by complying with the procedure laid down in article 93(2). All member states have to comply with the decisions of the ICJ. In case of non compliance, the parties will be referred to the Security Council for enforcement action. The ICJ applies international in deciding disputes. The law as applicable is summarized in article 38 of the ICJ statute and it is based on international conventions, international custom, and the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations.
The ICJ’s court procedure is set out in the Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice, 1978. The basic procedure followed in the ICJ is as follows:
The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The EU operates through a system of supranational independent institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states. Institutions of the EU include the European Commission, the Council of the European Union, the European Council, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank, the Court of Auditors, and the European Parliament. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens. The EU's de facto capital is Brussels.
The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), formed by the Inner Six countries in 1951 and 1958, respectively. In the intervening years the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union under its current name in 1993. The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.
The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the European Council, the European Central Bank, the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Auditors. Competencies in scrutinising and amending legislation are divided between the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union while executive tasks are carried out by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is governed by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area
The EU operates within those competencies conferred on it by the treaties and according to the principle of subsidiarity (which dictates that action by the EU should only be taken where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms. Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures and those which specifically require national implementation measures
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO; / NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's "Partnership for Peace", with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending. NATO was not much more than a political association until the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organization was drawn into the breakup of Yugoslavia, and conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004.
Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the 11 September 2001 attacks, after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations and in 2011 enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya in accordance with U.N. Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members has been invoked three times, and only by Turkey: once in 2003 over the Iraq War, and twice in 2012 over the Syrian civil war after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F-4 reconnaissance jet and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria.
The main headquarters of NATO is located on Boulevard Léopold III, B-1110 Brussels, which is in Haren, part of the City of Brussels municipality. A new headquarters building is, as of 2010, under construction nearby, due for completion by 2015. The design is an adaptation of the original award-winning scheme designed by Michel Mossessian and his team when he was a Design Partner with Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.
The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states. Non-governmental citizens' groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty Association movement
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participant's adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments. Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).
The organization is attempting to complete negotiations on the Doha Development Round, which was launched in 2001 with an explicit focus on addressing the needs of developing countries. As of June 2012, the future of the Doha Round remained uncertain: the work programme lists 21 subjects in which the original deadline of 1 January 2005 was missed, and the round is still incomplete. The conflict between free trade on industrial goods and services but retention of protectionism on farm subsidies to domestic agricultural sector (requested by developed countries) and the substantiation of the international liberalization of fair trade on agricultural products (requested by developing countries) remain the major obstacles. These points of contention have hindered any progress to launch new WTO negotiations beyond the Doha Development Round. As a result of this impasse, there has been an increasing number of bilateral free trade agreements signed. As of July 2012, there were various negotiation groups in the WTO system for the current agricultural trade negotiation which is in the condition of stalemate
In financial economics, a financial institution is an institution that provides financial services for its clients or members. Probably the most important financial service provided by financial institutions is acting as financial intermediaries. Most financial institutions are regulated by the government.
Broadly speaking, there are three major types of financial institutions:
Depositary Institutions : Deposit-taking institutions that accept and manage deposits and make loans, including banks, building societies, credit unions, trust companies, and mortgage loan companies
Some experts see a tendency of global homogenisation of financial institutions, which means that institutions tend to invest in similar areas and have similar investment strategies. The reason for this tendency sees economist Jayati Gosh in financial deregulation. Consequences might be that there will be no banks that serve specific target groups and e.g. small scale producers are left behind.
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programs.
The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty. According to its Articles of Agreement (as amended effective 16 February 1989), all its decisions must be guided by a commitment to the promotion of foreign investment and international trade and to the facilitation of capital investment.
The World Bank comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA).
The World Bank should not be confused with the World Bank Group, which comprises the World Bank, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 188 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 172 members. Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA)
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that was initiated in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference and formally created in 1945 by 29 member countries. The IMF's stated goal was to assist in the reconstruction of the world's international payment system post–World War II. Countries contribute money to a pool through a quota system from which countries with payment imbalances can borrow funds temporarily. Through this activity and others such as surveillance of its members' economies and the demand for self-correcting policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries.
The IMF describes itself as “an organization of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.” The organization's stated objectives are to promote international economic co-operation, international trade, employment, and exchange rate stability, including by making financial resources available to member countries to meet balance of payments needs. Its headquarters are in Washington, D.C., United States
The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is a multilateral development bank, using investment as a tool to help build market economies. Initially focused on the countries of the former Eastern Bloc it expanded to support development in the democracies of 30 countries from central Europe to central Asia. Besides Europe, member countries of the EBRD are from all 5 continents (North America, Africa, Asia and Australia see below), with the biggest shareholder being the United States, so the name is somewhat a misnomer. Headquartered in London, the EBRD is owned by 64 countries and two EU institutions. Despite its public sector shareholders, it invests mainly in private enterprises, together with commercial partners.
The EBRD is not to be confused with the European Investment Bank (EIB), EU member states owned and supporting EU policy.
The EBRD was founded to support the process of establishing their private sectors in countries of the former Eastern Bloc. To that end, it offers "project financing" for banks, industries and businesses, for new ventures or existing companies. It works with publicly owned companies to support their privatization, as advocated by the WTO since the 1980s and "improvement of municipal services".
The EBRD mandates to work only in countries that are "committed to democratic principles". It promotes "environmentally sound and sustainable development", and does not finance "defense-related activities, the tobacco industry, selected alcoholic products, substances banned by international law and stand-alone gambling facilities"
The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO; Russian: Организация Договора о Коллективной Безопасности Organizatsiya Dogovora o Kollektivnoy Bezopasnosti) is an intergovernmental military alliance which was signed on 15 May 1992. On 7 October 2002, the Presidents of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan signed a charter in Tashkent founding the CSTO.
Nikolai Bordyuzha was appointed secretary general of the new organization. On 23 June 2006, Uzbekistan became a full participant in the CSTO; and its membership was formally ratified by the Uzbek parliament on 28 March 2008. It suspended its membership in 2012. The CSTO is currently an observer organisation at the United Nations General Assembly.
The CSTO charter reaffirmed the desire of all participating states to abstain from the use or threat of force. Signatories would not be able to join other military alliances or other groups of states, while aggression against one signatory would be perceived as an aggression against all. To this end, the CSTO holds yearly military command exercises for the CSTO nations to have an opportunity to improve inter-organisation cooperation. A CSTO military exercise called "Rubezh 2008" was hosted in Armenia, where a combined total of 4,000 troops from all 7 constituent CSTO member countries conducted operative, strategic and tactical training with an emphasis towards furthering efficiency of the collective security element of the CSTO partnership. The largest of such exercises was held in Southern Russia and central Asia in 2011, consisting of more than 10,000 troops and 70 combat aircraft. Also, Russia has won the right to veto the establishment of new foreign military bases in the member states of the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO). In order to deploy military bases of a third country in the territory of the CSTO member-states, it is necessary to obtain the official consent of all its members. But, the tightening of rules for opening extra-regional military bases apparently does not apply to existing facilities, such as the U.S. transit centre in Kyrgyzstan, a German air transit facility in Uzbekistan and French military aircraft based in Tajikistan. However, the decision gains importance in the light of reported plans by the Pentagon to redeploy to Central Asia some of the forces that will be pulled out of Afghanistan in 2014.
The CSTO employs a "rotating presidency" system in which the country leading the CSTO alternates every year. Kyrgyzstan currently has the CSTO presidency.
In May 2007 the CSTO secretary-general Nikolai Bordyuzha suggested Iran could join the CSTO saying, "The CSTO is an open organization. If Iran applies in accordance with our charter, we will consider the application." If Iran joined it would be the first state outside the former Soviet Union to become a member of the organization.
On 28 May 2010 Ukrainian Minister for Foreign Affairs Kostyantyn Hryshchenko stated that Ukraine does not plan to become a member of the CSTO. On 3 June 2010 the Ukrainian parliament, with 226 votes, prohibited Ukrainian membership in any military bloc, but allowed for co-operation with military alliances.
The assembly of the Republic of Serbia will decide in the future on getting a permanent observer status in the CSTO
The Republic of Serbia and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan have been accorded observer status in the CSTO.
The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation or SCO (simplified Chinese: traditional Chinese is a Eurasian political, economic and military organisation which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Except for Uzbekistan, the other countries had been members of the Shanghai Five, founded in 1996; after the inclusion of Uzbekistan in 2001, the members renamed the organisation.The Shanghai Five grouping was originally created 26 April 1996 with the signing of the Treaty on Deepening Military Trust in Border Regions in Shanghai by the heads of states of Kazakhstan, the People's Republic of China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan. April 24, 1997 the same countries signed the Treaty on Reduction of Military Forces in Border Regions in a meeting in Moscow. Russian President Vladimir Putin, Kazakh President NursultanNazarbayev, Former Chinese President Jiang Zemin, Former Kyrgyz President AskarAkayev, and Tajik President EmomaliRakhmonov, at one time the leaders of the Shanghai Five. Subsequent annual summits of the Shanghai Five group occurred in Almaty (Kazakhstan) in 1998, in Bishkek in 1999, and in Dushanbe in 2000.In 2001, the annual summit returned to Shanghai, China. There the five member nations first admitted Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Five mechanism .Then all six heads of state signed on 15 June 2001, the Declaration of Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, praising the role played thus far by the Shanghai Five mechanism and aiming to transform it to a higher level of cooperation. On 16 July 2001, Russia and the PRC, the organisation's two leading nations, signed the Treaty of Good-Neighbourliness and Friendly Cooperation. Its six full members account for 60% of the land mass of Eurasia and its population is a quarter of the world's. With observer states included, its affiliates account for half of the human race. In July 2005, at its fifth and watershed summit in Astana, Kazakhstan, with representatives of India, Iran, Mongolia and Pakistan attending an SCO summit for the first time, the president of the host country, NursultanNazarbayev, greeted the guests in words that had never before been used in any context: "The leaders of the states sitting at this negotiation table are representatives of half of humanity". By 2007 the SCO had initiated over twenty large-scale projects related to transportation, energy and telecommunications and held regular meetings of security, military, defence, foreign affairs, economic, cultural, banking and other officials from its member states.
The Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA) is an inter-governmental forum for enhancing cooperation towards promoting peace, security and stability in Asia. It is a forum based on the recognition that there is close link between peace, security and stability in Asia and in the rest of the world.
The idea of convening the CICA was first proposed by Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev on 5 October 1992, at the 47th Session of the United Nations General Assembly.
The proposal for convening the CICA was welcomed by a number of Asian States. During the next seven years, a series of meetings were held among the interested countries to discuss modalities of convening the CICA and draft basic documents. The first meeting of the CICA Ministers of Foreign Affairs was held in 14 September 1999 with participation of 15 Member States. The Declaration on Principles Guiding Relations between CICA Member States was adopted at this meeting. The first CICA summit was held on 4 June 2002 with participation of 16 Member States and Almaty Act, the charter of the CICA, was adopted. At the second meeting of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs in 2004, CICA Catalogue of Confidence Building Measures and CICA Rules of Procedures were adopted. At the second CICA Summit in 2006, it was decided to admit Thailand and Republic of Korea as new members and to establish a permanent secretariat. At the third meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs in 2008, Jordan and UAE were admitted as new members. At the third CICA Summit in 2010, Turkey assumed Chairmanship of CICA from the founding Chairman Kazakhstan. The third Summit also admitted Iraq and Vietnam as new members and adopted the CICA Convention.
Diplomats are official representatives sent from one nation's government to another nation. It takes high-level social skills and a good working knowledge of history, politics and international relations to be a successful diplomat. The most effective diplomats can change the course of history and usually make a reputation that continues long after their careers are done.
Famous diplomats include presidents, United Nations representatives, secretaries of state and the ambassadors who live full time in a host country. President Thomas Jefferson was an ambassador to France before he became the third American president. Perhaps this accounts for his ability to direct the negotiations that purchased Louisiana for the United States. Madeleine Albright and Henry Kissinger, both former U.S. Secretaries of State, are skilled diplomats who negotiated major international agreements and who continue to be consulted years after their terms of office ended. Kofi Annan and Ban Ki Moon are the seventh and eighth United Nations Secretaries General, respectively. Their reputations as skillful diplomats led to their election to the top position at the United Nations.
The international community created a series of treaties that set the standards for diplomatic relations. Three agreements make the series, which are known as the Vienna Convention. They were established in 1961, 1963 and 1969
Diplomatic missions and embassies have seven important functions. They have to represent their own nation in another nation. This means that the diplomats will attend important state events in the name of their own nation. They have to guard their own nation's political, military, economic and other interests. Since they are on site in the host country, they will be able to respond to issues quickly. Diplomats negotiate agreements on behalf of their own government with the government of the host country. They usually receive instructions by fax, email, telephone or secret channels. Then they can suggest arrangements and compromises. They watch and report about things that are happening in the host country. This can tip off the other government about potential problems or opportunities. Diplomats work to keep friendly relations between their country and the host county. They develop new relations that may result in business and trade opportunities. They also handle requests for documents like visas and passports.
Diplomats and their family members living in a host country are exempt from criminal and civil prosecution in that country. This is called "diplomatic immunity." If a diplomat abuses the laws of the host country so much that that nation wishes to banish him, the host country assigns the unsavory diplomat the title of "persona non grata." A persona non grata is kicked out of the host country and cannot return.