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1. Morphological structure of a word. Classification of Morphemes.
Many words (W) in a lang-ge are made up of smaller units, these are called morphemes(M). The M is the smallest unit having both form (sound) and substance (meaning).
(The notion of morpheme was introduced by Beaudouin de Courtenay as a generalized expression of the components of the word – the stem and the affixes.
Different linguists understand it differently. Some include in the notion of morpheme form-words, parts of speech, e.g. prepositions, and order of words.
The linguists of the Copenhagen school find several morphemes in one and the same element, e.g. in the word-form лесом the ending -ом contains three morphemes, expressing case, number and gender.
Morpheme is represented in the language by its variants: allomorphs, having special form, and sounding differently. E.g. Dreamed-[d], walked-[t], loaded-[id], sometimes allomorphs sound alike (одинаково). e.g. speaker, actor [ ].)
The Antrushina gave definition
The word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication material representing the group of found, processing the meaning, capable of a particular grammatical implement and characterized by formal and semantic unity.
The differences b/n a W and M:
- a W is autonomous unit of a lang-ge in which a particular meaning is associated with a particular sound complex and is able to form a sentence by itself.
- Like a W,a M is an association of a certain meaning with a certain sound pattern. But unlike a W, a M isn’t autonomous unit & can occur in speech only as a constituent part of a W,not independently.
- M-es can’t be divided into smaller meaningfull unit. That’s why the M may be defined as the smallest meaningfull lang-ge unit.
Classifications of M-es
1.Semantic class-tion of M-es. All M-es are subdivided into 2 large classes according to the role they play in constructing Ws:
1)root M-es. They are lexical centres of the Ws,they are basic constituent parts. Ex: London-er,dark-ness.It should be noted that the root in Eng.is very often homonymous(совпадает)with the W itself.Пр:man,dark.
2)affixation M-es (prefixes, suffixes, inflexions).(They have a generalized lexical meaning & the part-of-speech meaning.Пр:-er,-ee,-ist are noun-forming suffixes & have the meaning “doer of an action”. Prefixes and lexical suffixes have word-building functions, together with the root they form the stem of the word; inflexions (окончания) (grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories. /// The auxiliary (вспомогательное) word – morphemes should be interpreted as ‘semi-bound’ morphemes as they form categorial unities with their notional stem-words. E.g. has come.)
The abstract complete morphemic model of the common English word: prefix + root + lexical suffix + grammatical suffix.
2.Structural class-tion:
1)free M-es.A form may stand alone without changing its meaning.Пр:sportive в значении игривый(морфема свободно употр-ся в речи.Because it can occur alone).
2)bound M-es.Пр:elligant(cause it cant occur alone)
3)semy-bound.They can function both as an affix & as a free M.Пр:to do well(free M)-well-known(bound M).
Affixation(derivation) is the formation of new Ws by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems.Affixes(prefixes & suffixes)are derivational M-es.They are used to form new Ws which consists of a root & a prefix or a suffix or both are called derived words. The part of a W consisting of a root & an affix is called a stem.
Degrees of derivation:
1)the zero degree:the stem of such W-s coincides with a root M. Пр.:stree,black,house.
2)the 1st degree:the stem consists of a root M & an affix. Пр.:helpless,darkness.
3)the 2nd degree:words formed by a root M & 2 affixes. Пр.:helplessness.
Word building is one of the main ways off in enriching of vocabulary there are four main ways of word building in modern English:
- affixation (суф-м),
- shortening (сокращением),
- comers ion (из одного вида слова),
- composition (основасложение).
2. Modern English Phraseology
Ws put together to form lexical units,make phrases or W-groups.The degree of structural & semantical cohesion(слияние)of W-groups may vary.Set phrases(or phraseological units)are functionally & semantically inseparable.{W-groups:at least,point of view,to take place}.
There are 2factors which are important in uniting Ws into W-groups:
1)the lexical valency of Ws;
2)the grammatical valency of Ws.
Ws are used in certain lexical contexts that is in combinations with other Ws.So, the lexical valency of the W is its aptness(способность)to appear in various cominations.{‘to raise’&’to lift’ are synonyms but only ‘to raise’is collocated with the N’question’}. Ws are also used in gramm-cal contexts.The aptness of a W to appear in specific gramm-cal(or syntactical)structures is termed gramm-cal valency.{Adj.’clever’&’intelligent’have the same gramm-cal valency but only ‘clever’can be used in the pattern ‘Adj+Prep+N’:to be clever in Maths}.
Class-tions of phraseological units
1)General class-ion of phras. units was suggested by Vinogradov mainly according to the degree of semantic cohesion:
1.Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated W-groups.The meaning of the components has no connection with the meaning of the whole group.{to kick the bucket-умереть, ball&chane-законная жена,to seeze an elephant-узнать жизнь}.
2.Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated W-groups as their meaning can be understood through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phras.unit(as in direct meaning as in indirect meaning).{to skate on thin ice-рисковать,as busy as a bee-очень занятой,to wash one’s dirty linen in public-выносить ссор из избы}.
3.Phraseological collocations are partially or completely motivated W-groups.The meaning of the whole group can be easily understood from the meanings of its constituent parts(составные части).{to pay a visit-нанести визит,to break a promise/a rule/silence-нарушить что-то}.
2)Structural class-tion of phras.units is based on their ability to perform the same syntactical functions as Ws. So, we distinguish set-expressions that are:
1.nominal phrases functioning like nouns{skeleton in the cupboard-семейная тайна,Baker’s dozen-чертова дюжина};
2.verbal phrases functioning like verbs{to take the bull by the horn-действовать решительно,to put a finger into every pie-соваться во все дела;
3.adjectival phrases functioning kike adjectives{cool as a cucumber-хладнокровный,poor as a church mouse-бедный,как церковная мышь};
4.adverbial phrases functioning like adverbs{before you can say “Jack Robinson”-быстро,by hook or by crook-любыми средствами};
5.conjunctional and prepositional phrases{as long as,as soon as,in spite of};
6.interjectional phrases{like hell-черта с два,my foot-держи карман шире}.
3) Genetic class-tion is based on the original content of phras.units.The sources of phras. units are dif-t spheres of life:
*Sea life{to see land-близко к цели,in low waters-быть без денег};
*Fish and fishing{to drink like a fish-пить запоем};
*Sport{The ball is with you-слово за вами,to back the wrong horse-сделать неправильн.выбор};
*Hunting{to turn tail-обратиться в бегство,as hungry as a wolf};
*Animals’ life{lion’s share,it rains cats and dogs};
*Medicine{to sweeten the pill-подсластить лекарство};
*Trade{to talk shop-говорить по делу,best-seller-ходовой товар}.
Proverbs. Besides phras. units which are W equivalents,the lang-ge has set phrases which are equivalents of sentences.They are proverbs,sayings,aphorisms.Пр:Custom is second nature.Proverbs are set phrases because they are not created in the process of speech.They are part of the vocabulary which are created by folk.If we compare Russian&Eng.proverbs or phras. fusions we’ll that both lang-ges have analogues proverbs.{Appetite comes with eating.Don’t look a gift horse into the mouth}.Sometimes the meanings are analogues but the semantic center of the phrases is diff-nt in Russian&Eng.{Rome was not built in a day-Москва не сразу строилась.}
3. The Verb. The categories of Tense and Aspect.
The verb
The verb is a part of speech which expresses a process or an action. The verb is characterized by a developed system of morphological categories. They are:
Verbs are connected:
Morphologically a verb may be in a finite form (личная форма) or non –finite (verbals): gerund, infinitive, participle.
(-ate, -en, -ise – глагольные суффиксы)
The category of tense
The notion of absolute time with its division into past, present and future may not correspond to the grammatical tense. Tense shows the temporal (временные) relationship between the action in question and the moment of speaking.
The past form shows that the time of the action belongs to the time sphere prior to the moment of speaking. The future form shows that the time of the action is included in the time sphere following the moment of speaking. The present form shows that the time of the action and of the moment of speech belong to one and the same time sphere.
According to the traditional grammar, tense is a system of three member opposeme (write – wrote – will write) showing the time of the action in relation to the moment of speech.
These 3 tenses may appear in aspect or correlation categories.
Traditionally it tenses are distinguished in modern English: 4 indefinite, 4 continuous, 4 perfect and 4 perfect continuous. Most of them are made analytically. Some scholars find only 3 genuine (истинных) tenses and these tenses are indefinite (Smernitsky). As to the other tense groups they have the same time reference.
I have cut my finger.
She has got many Oscars.
The perfect forms express priority with regard to the moment of speaking and they are treated as relative tenses the future in the past is also a relative tenses (относительное). Smirnitskiy was of the opinion that future in the past is a mood form. Rogovskaya pointed out that it belongs to a special grammatical category of posteriority (позднейшее обстоятельство) which is expressed by a system of 2 member opposition (will come – would come), the former has meaning of absolute posteriority, the latter – relative posteriority. This category shows whether the action is posterior as to the moment of speech or some moment in the past.
! Barhudarov denies the future tense in modern English and treats will+infinitive as a modal phrase. Thus the English verb has 2 tenses (present and past indefinite) category of correlation (perfect – non-perfect), the category of aspect (continuous – non-cont.) and category of posteriority (absolute future – relative future).
The category of aspect
- shows the manner in which the action is presented. The members of the aspect opposition are the indefinite and continuous forms (speak – is speaking). The indefinite form presents an action as a mere fact. That’s why it is used to denote habitual, recurrent (повторяющиеся), well-known facts.
The continuous form presents an action as a developing process. It is used to denote an action going on at a given moment or period of time.
The continuous aspect may stress the development of the action or its temporary character some of English verbs which usually have no aspect forms to stress one of the above meaning (She is rude. She is being rude)
These verbs are:
Common aspect has a very broad meaning. It can express even a continuous action if it is of many in succession (последовательность)
(I worked in the garden for 2 hours. Than I had a rest and want for a walk.)
The main function of common aspect is naming facts (she works in hospital)
On the contrary the continuous aspect gives an action a descriptive character (I hope I will pass successfully. But I am hoping I will pass successfully – emphasis)
The common aspect cannot denote emotion (irony, disapproval, irritation,…). (They are also quarrelling who has been using my spoon!) In general they use of aspect terms in modern English is often connected with the lexical character of the verb. Various aspective meanings can be expressed lexically (He used to do homework. He fell in love at first sight)
Some foreign scholars consider the category of aspect semantic category, some others do not recognize this category at all, and some do not separate this category from the category of tense.
Plotkin points out that this category includes 2 oppositions: perfect vs non-perfect, continuous vs non-continuous.
So the existence of the category is still a disputed matter.
4. The Latin borrowings of different periods and their historical background
Dark ages
The Germanic tribes who gave rise to the English language traded and fought with the Latin speaking Roman Empire. Many words from Greek.
Anchor, butter, camp, cheese, chest, cook, devil, dish, fork.
Christian missionaries coming to Britain in the sixth and the seventh centuries brought with them Latin religious terms:
Abbot, altar, apostle, candle, clerk, minister, monk, nun, pope, priest, school.
During this time the catholic church had great influence on the development of the old English language. Catholic monks wrote or copied texts in Latin (lingua franca). When a suitable old English word couldn’t be found a Latin words could be chosen instead. (bishop)
Middle ages
The Norman conquest of 1066 gave England a two-layer society with an aristocracy who spoke Anglo-Norman and a lower class who spoke English (many Latin-French borrowings)
Renaissance
During the English renaissance (1500-1650) 1000-1200 words entered the English lexicon including the word ‘lexicon’. (aberration, allusion, anachronism, democratic, enthusiasm, imaginary). Late Latin words also included borrowings from Greek.
Industrial age
The 17 and 18 centuries created the need for new words to describe new knowledge (Latin origin or Latin roots). (Apparatus, component, data, experiment).
Consequences for English. In addition to the large number of historical borrowings (Latinate words) continue to be coined in English – particularly in technical contexts. A number of more subtle consequences include numerous doublets (cow, beef); numerous cases of etymological unrelated terms for closely related concepts (hand, manual). Complicated etymologies due to indirect borrowings
5. French as the most important foreign influence on the English language.
Norman Conquest (1006) made up the new aristocracy – Anglo-Saxons became servants. They spoke Norman dialect of French – AS did not understand them (AS – English, German origin) => bilingual country. For 300 years French was the official language of administration (the king’s court, the law-courts, the church, the army & the castle, the intellectual life, literature & education). Lower classes in towns&countryside – English (only to spoken communication). Firstly without mingling but slowly began to permeate. 1400 loan words – 10000.
Contact with French.
Anglo-Norman Central French
The first period lasted from 1066 to
the loss of Normandy to England under king John
After this there is little or no direct influence of French on English. But the language remained fashionable. And the practice of borrowing words from the continental language continued well into the fifteenth centuries.
The central French period (during which influence from the region around Paris dominated) can be taken as the general status of English. The region is known as Isle de France. The label central French refers to late medieval speech. The difference between Anglo-Norman and central French loans is to be seen in famous pairs of words: catch-chase
Captiare-capture
Borrowings from French
The influx of French words continued in the late 15th & in the late 17th c. These French borrowings mainly pertain to diplomatic relations, social life, art & fashion. French remained the international language of diplomacy for several hundred years; Paris led the fashion in dress, food & in social life & to a certain extent in art & literature; finally, the political events in France in the 18-19th c. were of world-wide significance.
Examples of diplomatic terms are: attache, communique, dossier;
social life: ball, cafe, coquette, hotel, picnic, restaurant;
art: ballet, ensemble, essay, genre;
military terms are: brigade, maneuver, marine, police;
fashions in dress & food: blouse, corsage, cravat, champagne, menu, soup.
Words of miscellaneous character are: comrade, detail, entrance, fatigue, garage, machine, moustache, progress, ticket.
Most of these words haven’t been assimilated in English, retaining their spelling, the sounds & the position of the stress.
6. The Noun
The noun is the main nominative part of speech, having the categorial meaning of “substance” and “thingness”.
The noun is characterized by a set of formal features. It has its word-building distinctions, including typical suffixes, compound stem models, conversion patterns.
It has the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, article determination.
The most characteristic function of the noun is that of the subject in the sentence. The function of the object in the sentence is also typical of the noun. Other syntactic functions, i.e. attribute, adverbial and even predicative are not immediately characteristic of its substantive quality.
The noun is characterized by some special types of combinability. It is the prepositional combinability with another noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb.
E.g. an entrance to the house;
to turn round the corner;
red in the face;
far from its destination.
The casual combinability characterizes the noun alongside of its prepositional combinability with another noun.
E.g. the speech of the President - the president's speech.
English nouns can also easily combine with one another by sheer contact. In the contact group the noun in pre-position plays the role of a semantic qualifier to the noun in post-position. E.g. film festivals, a cannon ball.
The lexico-grammatical status of such combinations has been a big problem for many scholars, who were uncertain as to how to treat this combination: either as one separate compound word or a word-group.
In the history of linguistics it is called “The cannon ball problem” (or the stone wall problem).
Case is the immanent morphological category of the noun, showing the relations of the object to other objects and phenomena.
This category is expressed in English by the opposition of the form in -'s [z, s, iz] usually called the possessive case, or more traditionally, the genitive case, to the unmarked form of the noun, usually called the “common” case.
The apostrophy serves to distinguish in writing the singular noun in the genitive case from the plural noun in the common case.
The genitive of the most of plural nouns remains phonetically unexpressed: the few exceptions concern only some of the irregular plurals: e.g. the actresses' dresses, the children's room.
But the common form is also capable of rendering the genitive semantics, e.g. the leg of the table. So there is no wonder that in the course of linguistic investigation the category of case in English has become one of the problems of theoretical discussion.
Four special views should be considered in the analysis of this problem.
1) The Theory of Positional Cases – Deutschbein
Linguistic formulations of the theory may be found in the works of Deutschbein and other scholars. In accord with the theory of positional cases the unchangable forms of the noun may express different cases due to the functional positions occupied by the noun in the sentence.
Thus, the English noun, on the analogy of classical Latin grammar, would distinguish, besides the inflexional genitive case, also the non-inflexional, i.e. purely positional cases: nominative, vocative, dative and accusative.
E.g. the nominative case: The letter is here. (subject to a verb)
the vocative case: (address) Are you ready, students?
the dative case: (indirect object to a verb) She gave the students some books.
the accusative case: (direct object and also object to a preposition) The books were given by the teacher.
The case form is the morphological form of the noun, but the positional case theory substitutes the functional characteristics of the part of the sentence for the morphological features of the part of speech.
2) The Theory of Prepositional Cases - old school grammar teaching, Curme
It is also connected with the old school grammar teaching. According to it, combinations of nouns with prepositions on some object and attributive word-groups should be understood as morphological case forms. Here belong the dative case (to + noun, for + noun) and the genitive case (of + noun).
Curme calls these prepositions “nflexional prepositions”, i.e. morphemes. It should follow from this that only the of-, to-, and for- phrases, but also all the other prepositional phrases in English must be regarded as “analytical cases”. As a result, the total number of such cases would become indefinitely large (Ilyish).
3) The Limited Case Theory - Sweet, Jespersen and was developed by Smirnitsky, Barkhudarov
It is most broadly accepted among linguists at present. It was formulated by Sweet, Jespersen and was developed by Smirnitsky, Barkhudarov. It is based on the opposition of the possessive or genitive form as the strong member and the common, or “non-genitive” from as the weak member.
It is shown in full with animate nouns, and is restricted with inanimate nouns.
4) Postpositional Theory (No-Case Theory) - Vorontsova
Thus view insists that the English noun has completely lost the category of case in the course of its historical development. The view is advanced by G.N. Vorontsova.
First, the postpositional element -'s is loosely connected with the noun, as it is used not only with single nouns, but also with whole word-groups. E.g. Somebody else's daughter. The blonde I had been dancing with's name was Bernice (Salinger). The girl in my class's mother.
Second, the 's can be attached to few nouns denoting living beings, in other cases the parallel prepositional construction is used.
Opposing this theory linguists consider the previous examples stylistically marked, the more self-dependent the construction with the case-sign 's, the stronger the stylistic colouring. Besides, according to statistical observation, the 's sign is attached to individual nouns in 96 percent of its textual occurrences.
Though the main meaning of the genitive case is possession, it undergoes modifications depending on the lexical meaning of the noun:
John's house - John has a house;
John's happiness - John is happy;
John's smile - John is smiling.
The meaning of possession is limited to nouns denoting animate things while the genitive of the nouns denoting lifeless things is metaphoric. E.g. the river's brink.
Nouns denoting units of distance and time in the Genitive case do not express possession at all: a month's leave, a mile's distance.
Many grammarians find the Genitive polysemantic as it expresses:
1. possession: John's car - John has an car;
2. subject of the action: Mary's dream - Mary has a dream, or Mary dreams;
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between the possessive genitive and the subjective genitive.
3. Adverbial Genitive: Two hour's work – X works for two hours;
4. Objective Genitive: John's surprise - John was surprised or X surprised John.
5. Destination Genitive: children's room - room for children.
In modern English the Genitive and the of-phrase are synonyms and that's why they can be used side by side - the so called double genitive: e.g. a picture of grandfather's.
The genitive can be absolute (independent) and conjoint (dependent). The dependent genitive precedes the head-word and may be of two kinds:
1) The specific genitive (indicating the owner, the doer, bearer of state): uncle's car, my sister's illness. It can be replaced by the -of-phrase (except proper names). The minister's speech - the speech of the Minister; Mary's table.
2) The classifying genitive (indicating quality of the class of similar objects): sheep's eyes, summer's day, a doll's face, mother's care. This genitive cannot be replaced by the of - phrase, but it may easily become a set-phrase.
7. The Verb
The verb is a part of speech, which expresses a process or action. The verb is characterized by a developed system of morphological categories. They are: tense, aspect, voice, mood, correlation, posteriority, person, number. Verbs are connected 1) with a preceding or following noun (children play, play chess); 2) with adverbs which is the most characteristic of the verb (play well); 3) occasionally with adjectives (married young). In a sentence a verb is always a simple verbal predicate.
Morphologically a verb may be in a finite form or non-finite (Indefinite, Gerund, Participle).
Syntactically verbs may be objective and subjective.
Semantically verbs may be terminative and non-terminative, the former expressing an action limited in time, the latter expressing an action having no limits in time.
The category of voice is represented in M. E. by the system of opposemes: loves – is loved, to love – to be loved, etc, and it shows whether the object is the doer of the action or its object. E. g. He opened the door. The door was opened (by him).
The active voice is unmarked, the passive is marked in form and meaning. Some forms of the active voice find no parallel in the passive Future Continuous, Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous, Future Perfect Continuous. In addition to two voices three other voices have been suggested:
So Professor Ilyish finds 5 voices in M. E. This viewpoint was criticized by professor Smirnitsky who believed that there are only two grammatical voices – active and passive, which are clearly opposed structurally and semantically. All the other differences are lexical.
An extreme point of view is expressed nowadays by V. Plotkin, who is of opinion that the English finite verb has no morphological category of voice at all, and the construction be + Ven is the nominal predicate expressing state and consequently it is a syntactical category.
Some of the western linguists find it possible to classify English voice into 3:
O. Jespersen distinguished 2 passive forms: actional passive and stational passive. E.g. The house is painted white every year. The house is painted white.
Generally the combination be + Ven is considered to be passive when it denotes action (The house is painted white every year) or the compound nominal predicate when it denotes state: the house is painted white; he felt tired, etc. This combination may denote even an action of curious meaning (almost active). The man was drowned.
Practically the combination be + Ven is surely the passive voice when it is accompanied by an adverbial, a by-phrase or continuous form; and participle II is of a durative (non-terminative) verb:
The door is closed at midnight (adverbial).
The man was drowned by a criminal.
Dinner is being served (continuous).
He is loved (durative verb).
The Passive Voice and the lexical meaning of the Verb.
There is a close connection between the category of voice and the lexical meaning of the verb in M. E. Verbs of weak dynamic force (belong, fail, lack, own, possess, resemble) are not used in the passive construction because they do not express action and consequently the object to them is not acted upon: the child resembles his mother.
All the English subjective verbs (verbs that combine only with the subject) are not used in passive construction either, e.g. she usually sits here; because the voice member is always combined with object words. Objective verbs connected with the object directly are called transitive and all others are intransitive verbs. Sometimes the English active voice acquires passive meanings: the book sells well. The play reads better than acts. The figures would not add.
8. The Theory of Phrase(Ph)
Syntax – is a part of grammar which treads of phrases of sentences.
The phrase or word group – is a grammatical unit formed by combination of 2 or more notional word.
The notional words – are connected syntactically, they may belong to any part of speech. A word group has no intonation.
Subordinate word-groups fall into two parts: the head (an independent component) and the adjunct (a dependent component)
A good [adjunct] book [head]
Subordinate word-groups can be classified:
The grammatical relations between words in a word-group are primarily expressed by means of word order, prepositions (a good book, the cover of the book).
The structure of a word-group in English must be grammatically complete because of the absence of inflexions. In noun groups the prog-words one (ones), that (those) are extensively used in English: He is a doctor, and a great one.
In verb groups after a transitive verb the formal ‘it’ often occurs in English: ex: I like it here. He found it impossible to utter the next word.
The grammatical characters of the word is determined by the structure of the word-group: Watch me carefully – verb. He was on duty during the morning watch (noun).
Coordinate word-groups
1) syndetic and 2) asyndetic
3) copulative and 4) appositive
e.g. harsh and loud (1,3), the city of Rome (2,4), they all (2,4).
Appositive phrases may be close and loose 1) Wilson the writer; 2) Tolstoy, the great Russian writer, is dead.
Predicative word-groups
Predicative word-groups consist in two parts: a subjectival and a predicatival.
He didn’t want for me [subjectival] to come [predicatival].
I saw him [subjectival] crossing streets[predicatival].
The relations between the subjectival and the predicatival are similar to those of the subject and the predicate. There is no correspondence in person and number between the predicatival and subjectival.
Predicative word-groups like other word-groups are semantic and grammatical units; cannot function as independent sentences as they do not express communications.
The person (thing) expressed by the subject of the sentence and the subjectival are different: Val likes you to look nice. The subject ‘Val’ and the subjectival ‘you’ denote different persons.
Classification of predicative word-groups
There are bound and absolute predicative word-groups:
1) bound predicative word-groups are grammatically connected with the verb-predicate of the sentence. Functioning as subject, object, predicative, adverbial, or with the noun (attribute), the subjectival is unusually having a dependent form (him, their, John’s), they are not isolated.
E.g. They watched him running down the slope (object).
2) Absolute predicative word-groups are always isolated expressing an additional (parallel) quality.
(ex: The situation been intense, we had to discuss a problem.
(They are usually connected by means of intonation with the whole sentence and not only with the verb predicate, the subjectival of the absolute construction denotes a person or a thing other than the object.
E.g. The situation being urgent, we had to go ahead. )
Bound Predicative Word Groups
a) Accusative with the Infinitive.
She saw the girl come in.
b) Accusative with the Participle.
She saw the girl coming in.
Dinny saw her uncle walking out.
c) Accusative with a nominal part of speech: ex: The chaw made the ice insecure.
These constructions are used only after some verbs (to see, to hear, to watch, to feel, to think, to believe, to suppose, etc.)
d) Nominative with the Infinitive.
She is noun to be a talented writer.
Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune.
e) Nominative with the Participle.
They were heard talking together.
f) Infinitive for-phrases: It is a book for you to read.
For me to go back now would be to admit that I am afraid. He didn’t wait for me to finish.
g) gerundial complexes: His coming bag meant a greate dill of work.
Erik’s coming to-night meant that a great deal of work had to be put off.
Both the infinitive for-phrases and gerundial complexes are more independent of the verb predicate as their use is not usually restricted be definite verbs.
Absolute Predicative Word Groups
1) Nominative (isolated) absolute constructions.
Her mother remaining in bed, Dinny dined alone with her aunt.
2) Prepositional absolute constructions (with, without)
I simply couldn’t sit with Hubert on my mind.
Syntactical Relations between the Components of Phrase
They may be divided into 3 groups: 1) agreement; 2) government; 3) adjoinment. Agreement is a means of syntactical relationship between words which implies that the use of one form necessitates the use of the other.
Ex: this book – this books
Government is a means of connecting words consisting in the use of a certain case form of the adjunct required by its headword.
Ex: Whom did you see? I saw him (her, them,you).
Adjoinment is such a way of connecting words when they are joined to one another without any specail forms by only their position and combinability. It is found in the following cases:
Adverbs are joined to adjectives or other adverbs: very interesting, very well.
9 The sentence(S)
The sentence.
When we speak or write we convey our thoughts through sentences. The sentence is the only unit of language which is capable of expressing communication. But the linguists are at difficulty to define it. One of the definitions is:
the sentence is the smallest communication unit expressing a more or less complete thought, having a definite grammatical structure and intonation
Classification of sentences.
Sentences are classified
Composite sentences containing more than one predication.
The two-member sentence pattern is typical of the vast majority of sentences in English.
Types of one-member sentences:
Types of sentences according to their completeness:
Incomplete:
Elliptical are such sentences in which one or several parts are missing, they may freely be changed into complete sentences.
Parts of the sentence
Main parts secondary parts
Subject object
Predicate attribute
Adverbial modifier
10. Categorical structure of the word
The most general notions reflecting the most general properties of phenomena are called categories.
As for the grammatical category itself, it presents a unity of form (that is material factor), and meaning (ideal factor). In other terms it presents a unity of content and expression. The plane of content (ex. plurality) comprises the purely semantic elements contained in the language while the plane of expression (ex. boys) comprises the material (formal) units of the language. The two planes are inseparably connected, so that no meaning can be realized without some material means of expression.
The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a category is a paradigm. Paradigms may be small and large, depending on the number of grammatical categories they express; (ex: the paradigm of the word ‘man’ consists of 4 forms: a man – men (number), man’s – men’s (case)).
Parts of speech represent larger paradigms possessing particular paradigms of case, number (noun), degrees of comparison (adjective, adverb), tense, voice, mood, person (verb), etc. Bigger paradigms after parts of speech are morphology and syntax. The biggest paradigm of a language is its grammatical structure.
The paradigms in a category are arranged in the form of grammatical oppositions. The elements of the opposition have two types of features: common features and differential features. In the opposition ‘boy-boys’ the common features is number, the differential features are singularity (boy)/plurality (boys).
The opposition along the line of one grammatical category is called an opposeme, ex. number opposeme: a table – tables.
The oppositional theory was originally formulated as a phonological theory. The qualitative oppositions are privative (b-d-g, p-t-k); gradual (постепен) - (i:-i-e-a) and equipollent (равноцен) – (m-b). By the number of members were divided into binary, ternary (тройной), quaternary (четвертной), etc. The most important type of opposition is the binary privative opposition. It is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called the ‘marked’ or ‘strong’, or ‘positive’ member, and has the symbol ‘+’ (plus); the member in which the feature is absent - the ‘unmarked’ or ‘weak’, or ‘negative’ member, (minus).
The gradual opposition is formed by a contrastive group of members and shows the degree of feature.
The equipollent opposition is formed by members which have different positive features.
The most important type of opposition in morphology, the same as in phonology, is the binary privative opposition. Ex. in the opposition ‘work-worked’ the marked member is ‘worked’ because it has the differential feature, the morpheme –ed, while the unmarked member ‘work’ has no differential feature.
Equipollent oppositions in English morphology are rare (редкий). Ex. the correlation of the person forms of the verb 'be' - am - is - are. An example of the gradual morphological opposition can be seen in the category of comparison: strong - stronger – the strongest. Both equipollent and gradual oppositions can be reduced to privative oppositions.
In various contextual conditions, one member of an opposition can be used in the position of the other, counter-member. This phenomenon is called oppositional reduction. Ex. the opposition present – future: start – shall start, has been reduced in the sentence (ex. Tonight we start for London) as the weak member ‘start’ replacing the strong member ‘shall start’.
This kind of oppositional reduction is called neutralization of opposition. There is another kind of reduction, by which one of the members of the opposition is placed in conditions uncommon for it. This use is stylistically marked. (Ex. This man is constantly complaining of something.) This contradiction intensifies the implied disapproval of the man's behavior.
11. The theory of phoneme
1) Phonology is a branch of linguistics which deals with the relations among speech sounds in particular languages and contrasting with phonetics. The functional unit – phoneme; each phoneme in a particular language can have several phonetic realizations (allophones).
There are many definitions of the phoneme:
D.Johnes: a phoneme is a family of sounds in a given language which are related in character and are used such a way that no one member (allophone) never occurs in a word in the same phonetic context.
Л.Щерба: is a functional material and abstract unit.
Якобсон: is a minimal sound by which the meaning may be distinguished.
2) Functions of the phoneme:
1. Discriminatory: the phoneme distinguishes one morpheme from another, one word from another. The opposition of the phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning.
Ex. Bath – path; He was heard(t) badly.
2. Recognitive: the phoneme is material, real and objective that means it is realized in speech in the form of speech sound (allophones).
3. Constitutive: allophones of the same phoneme function as the same linguistic unit. Allophones of each phoneme possess a bundle of distinctive features that makes this phoneme functionally different from all other phonemes in a language.
Allophones: dialectical, individual variations, phono-stylistic.
3) Finding allophones&phonemes – the classic way of using minimal pairs (is a pair of words in a language which differ in 2 ways: in meaning, in one&only one phonetic segment. Allophones do not change the meaning.
The behavior of allophones in the phonetic context is called distribution:
1. Contrastive (allophones of different phonemes occur in the same position distinguishing the meaning of different words (bad – mad)).
2. Complementary (allophones of one and the same phoneme never occur in identical positions).
3. Free-variant (allophones of one and the same phoneme occur in the same position but are in capable of differentiating a meaning).
4. Parallel (different phonemes occur in the same phonetic enviroment).
4) The system of Eng. phonemes – vowels&consonants (difference).
1. The auditory: c. are voice&noise combined, v. – only voice.
2. The acoustic: v. are complex periodic vibrations (tones): c. are non-periodic vibrations (noise). Voiceless c. are pure noises, voiced c. are a combination of noise&tone. Sonorans are mostly sounds of tone with a little addition of noise.
3. The articulatory: v. are sounds in the production of which there is no articulatory abstraction to the air stream, the muscular tension is defused, and the force of the air stream is weak. C. –\\– there is an a.a. to the a.s. (complete, incomplete, partially complete), the m.t. is concentrated in the place of abstraction, the force of the a.s. is strong. S. occupied the intermediate position (there is an abstraction but not narrow enough to produce noise, the m.t. is concentrated but the force of a.s. is rather weak).
5) Modifications of phonemes in connected speech:
1. Assimilation (complete – less sugar, partial – at the, intermediate – newspaper).
2. Accomodation (never, man, конь, больно).
3. Vowel reduction (neutral e).
4. Ellision (debt, doubt, high).
11. Lexical stylistic devices
Meaning = grammatical (more abstract) + lexical (more concrete)
Lexical meaning = dennotational (exact naming of the idea) + connotational (emotiveness, expressiveness)
Lexical SDs reveal the following pattern:
- Interplay (interaction) of different types of lexical meaning;
- Intensification of characteristic features of the phenomena described;
- Intentional mixing of words of different stylistic aspects.
Metaphor is transference of meanings on the basis of similarity. It’s a semantic process of associating two referents, one of which in some way resembles the other.
E.g.: the land shouted with grass.
England has two eyes, Oxford and Cambridge.
Metonymy – contiguity of meaning, it’s a semantic process of associating two referents, one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it.
E.g.: to read Agatha Christy.
She saw around her red lips poor dear cheeks.
Types of possible association:
A part of a whole;
A symbol for the thing symbolized;
A material for the thing made of;
The author for his works.
Epithet expresses a characteristic of an object existing or imaginary. Describes the object basing on images.
E.g.: semantically – a cold-blooded murder; structurally – a lip-sticky smile.
Oxymoron is a variety of epithet. It is also an attributive or rarely adverbial word joined with an antonymic word in one combination.
E.g.: crowded loneliness. An ugly beauty. To shout silently. Trite – terribly sorry, awfully nice
Antonomasia is the use of a proper name in the function of common noun and vice a versa. The nominal meaning of the proper name is suppressed by its logical meaning acquires the new nominal component.
E.g.: Miss Simplicity. Some Tom-cat entered our room. I want to meet Count Something.
Pun is a figure, which consists in a humorous use of words identical in sound, but different in meaning or the use of different meanings of the same word.
E.g.: Have you been seen any spirit? Or taken any?
Did you hit a woman with a child? – No, I hit her with a stick.
Zeugma is the use of a verb or adjective in the same grammatical, but different semantic relations to two abjection nouns in the context, the semantic relation being on the one hand literal and on the other – metaphorical. Zeugma is a figure of speech, using a verb or adjective with two nouns, to one of which it is strictly applicable, while the word appropriate to the other is not used.
E. g.: And the boys took their places and their books. With wiping eyes and hearts.
Irony is based on interplay of two logical meanings: dictionary and contextual which stand in opposition to each other.
E.g.: As the champion of freedom he (the Englishman) annexes (завоевывает) half of the world.
She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator.
Hyperbole is a SD in which emphases is achieved through deliberate exaggeration.
E.g.: She was both angler and bones. The maw was like the Rock of Gibraltar.
13. The theory of intonation
It is the variation of tone used when speaking. There is no perfect definitioin but:
Intonation is used unconsciously by native speakers;
Intonation(al): it is the rises and the falls of the pitch of the voice.
Intonational language uses it syntactically to convey surprise&irony or to change a statement to a question (Russian, English).
Tonal language – to convey meaning, the syllabic are contrasted by pitch (Chinese).
Procody is embraced all the components of intonation and substitutes intonation. Every utterance together with its syllabic&phonemic structure has the certain procodic structure:
1. On the perception level Int is a complex formed by significant variations of pitch, loudness&tempo.
2. On the acoustic level pitch correlates with the fundamental frequency of the vibrations of the vocal cords; loudness correlates with the amplitude of the vibrations; tempo correlates with the time during which a speech unit lasts.
3. On the auditory level it is a unity of speech melody, sentence stress, the timbre of the speech which serves to express the speaker’s idea, will, emotional attitude.
American phoneticians: Int = melody + tone.
British (Palmer, Frees, Kingdom): Int = melody + stress.
Russian (Васильев): melody, sentence stress, timbre, tempo.
Melody (tone) is the rise and fall of the pitch of the voice in the process of speaking.
Falling => finality; rising => non-finality.
Sentence stress is a some prominent given to a syllable, word(s) in a sentence.
Usually stressed:
N, Adj, Num, notional V
Isn’t, wasn’t, hasn’t
Negative indefinite pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns in some cases
Interrogative pronouns (who, where…)
Absolute form of possessive pronoun
Just, only, also, too
Usually unstressed:
Pronouns (personal, possessive, reflexive, indefinite)
Auxiliary v
Articles, particles, conjunctions
Rhythm is a kind of framework of speech organization, depends on the language. Basic rhythmic unit is a rhythmic group.
Tempo is the rate of the utterance & pausation. It can be slow, normal, fast. Pauses can be syntactic, emphatic, hesitational.
Syntagm is a sense group. Щерба: it is a word-group organized syntactically&phonetically to express a thought unit.
Structural characteristics (Gramont, Виноградов):
Prehead – unstressed or partially stressed syllables that precede the first strong syllables (types: low, high).
Head – the first stressed syllables which end before the nucleus tone (types: descending-stepping scale, sliding scale…)
Nucleus (terminal) – usually on semantically important words or on the last stressed syllables (low-fall, low-rise, rise-fall, fall-rise, high-wide falling…)
Tail – finally unstressed syllables.
Rising – enumeration, the sense isn’t complete, general question, polite request, greeting or remarks.
Falling – statement, special questions, exclamations, orders, commands.
Functions of intonations:
Organize a sentence;
Determines communicative types of sentence;
Divide a sentence into intonation groups;
Expresses contrasts and attitude.
Tone groups are syntagms which are formed according to some pattern.
14. Phonetic and Graphical stylistic devices
Phonetic stylistic devices
Is the way a word, phrase, sound is pronounced, sometimes may convey additional information.
The existing models of organizing speech or sounds can be divided into two groups: versification and instrumentation.
Versification is from latin “versus” – стих, “facio” – делаю. Versification is the art of creating poetry according to the rules of a certain language and poet’s practice (varieties of poetic feet and metres, rhymes and rhyming patterns).
Instrumentation is the some of speech sound selection and combination message foregrounding the utterance thus creating expressive and emotive connotations (euphony - благозвучие, cackophony – неблагозвучие, alliteration, assonance, onomatopheia).
Onomatopheia (“sound imitation”) – the use of words in which the sound is suggestive of the oblect or action designated : crack, jazz, whistle, etc
- is a combination of speech sounds, which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder), by things (machines or tools), and by people (laughter, sighing, patter of feet).
Ку-ка-ре-ку – cock-a-doo-dle-do; мяу – mew; тик-так - tick-tack.
Things falling into the water: a coin - “plop”; smth larger (dog) – “splash”; human body – “splosh”.
Balloon (пробка от шампанского) – “pop”, “bang”.
Alliteration is a figure of speech which consists in the repetition of consonants (especially initial) in words in close succession or accented syllables.
Ex: “the merry month of May”
Assonance –agreement of vowel sounds.
Ex: “weak and weary”
- is a figure of speech based on the repetition sounds or diphthongs without reguard of consonants, the kind of vowel rhyme. e.g. How sad and bad and mad it was (Browning).
Graphical stylistic devices
They serve to convey in the written form the effects which in the oral type of speech are expressed by intonation and stresses. We refer here the emphatic use of the punctuation and deliberate change of the spelling of a word.
Graphon is the intentional vacation of the graphical shape of a word (word combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation. Graphons indicate irregularities, carelessness of pronunciation, foreign accent.
Temporary: tender age, intoxication, ignorance of the discussed things.
Permanent: social, territorial, educational factors.
Pure Graphical Stylistic Devices
Multiplication: laaarge, r-r-ruin
Hyphonation: I en-vy her
Capitalization: I Love him
The use of italics, the use of punctuation: I Love him!!!
And the use Typical resection (загл.)
15. Syntactical stylistic devices
SSDs deal with the syntactical arrangement of the utterance, which creates the emphasis of the letter irrespective of the lexical meanings of the employed units.
SSD dealing with the length&structure of the sentence:
1. Patens of Inversion is based on the violation of traditional word-order of the sentence, only giving it an additional logical impact or emotional coloring.
Complete – displacement of the predicate;
Partial – displacement of the secondary members.
2. Rhetorical question is based on the statement expressed in the interrogative form.
SSD dealing with the completeness of the sentence:
1. Ellipsis is a deliberate omission of at least one member of a sentence (different connectivity’s).
I went to London, she – to NY.
2. Break the narration (aposiopesis) - (incomplete representation) the sudden intonational breaking off in speech, without completing a thought
- is a stopping short for rhetorical effect (treat, hesitation etc).
Just come home or I’ll.
3. Apokoinu is the omission of the pronominal (adverbial) which create a blend of the main&subordinate clauses. It is asyndeton connection of 2 clauses where one word has 2 syntactical functions.
He was the man (that) killed that deer.
SSD dealing with the arrangement of the sentence:
1. Parallelism – the similarity of the syntactical structure of successive phrases, clauses or sentences.
Partial p. is the p. of the structure of some parts of sensitive sentence or clause.
Complete p. represents identity of structure throughout the correspondent sentences.
Reversed p. (chiasmus) is the repetition of syntactical pattern with a reversed word-order.
2. Repetition (word, word-combination, phrase) – a reiteration of the same word or phrases with the view of expressiveness.
Anaphora (a…, a…).
Epiphora (…a, …a).
Simple (one and the same member of phrase without any strong regularity).
Framing (the beginning of the sentence is repeated at the end).
Catch (anadiplosis: …a, a…).
Chain (several catch r.)
Successive (is a stream of closely following each other repeated units).
3. Detachment is separating a secondary part of a sentence with aims of emphasizing it; it singles out with the help of punctuation.
4. Parenthesis is an explanatory of qualifying sentence, phrase or word which is inserted in longer passage without being grammatically connected with it, marked off by brackets, dashes.
5. Suspense – device to produce a state of uncertainty, usually with anxiety or expection
- is a deliberate postponement of the completing of the sentence.
SSD dealing with different types of connection:
1. Asyndeton: connection without any formal sign; the deliberate avoidance of conjunctions.
- (“bounding together”) the deliberate avoidance of conjunctions.
2. Polysyndeton: repetition of conjunctions in close connection.
3. Attachment: is a deliberate separation of the second part of the utterance from the first one by a full-stop. The second part appears as an afterthought.
16. Parts of Speech
Part of speech is the common name for a word class--a category into which words are placed according to the work they do in a sentence.
Nouns and Pronouns
Nouns are words that describe a "thing" and can be generic (common nouns) or specific (proper nouns). They can serve as the subject or object of a verb or as a possessive or the object of a preposition. Examples: cat, Christianity, Jack
Pronouns are nonspecific words that take the place of nouns. They are small, short words that help avoid repetition and cut back on the need for longer nouns. Examples: he, she, it, his, they
Categories of number of a noun: countable, uncountable, are collective
Categories of case of a noun: the general and possessive
Category of definiteness and uncertainty of a noun
Verbs
Verbs are words that describe an action and come in many different tenses and forms. Examples: walks, carried, holding
The categories: tense, aspect, voice and correlations
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives are words that describe nouns. Examples: blue, happy, tall, fast. In English, they usually come before the noun they modify: "the blue car."
Adverbs are like adjectives in that they are used to describe things, but adverbs describe verbs and adjectives instead of nouns. Examples: quickly, deeply, loudly
Prepositions
Prepositions are words used to describe the relationship between words in a sentence and are the beginning to a prepositional phrase. Examples: about, above, beneath, between, toward
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words used to bring two or more different clauses, phrases, or items together in a sentence. Examples: and, or, but
Interjections
Interjections are words used to show a quick and immediate emotion. They often stand by themselves and are followed by an exclamation mark. Examples: hey!, whoa!
Article - is a determining unit of a specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation.
Kinds of articles : material articles: the and a(n) and “zero” article.
The notional parts of speech are: the noun, the adjective, the stative, the pronoun, the numeral, the verb, the adverb, the modal words, the interjection.
The functional parts of speech are: the preposition, the conjunction, the particle.
(нужно ещё добавить, как знаменательные части речи видоизменяются)
17.Various ways of word-building in ME
Word-building is the process of creating of new Ws from the material of the lang-ge after certain structural & semantic formulas & patterns. Productive ways of W-B are: affixation(paint-painter),word-compouding (ice-cream,weekend);conversion(a monkey-to monkey);shortening(TV).
Affixation is the formation of new W-s by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems.
Prefixation is the formation of Ws with the help of prefixes. According to the general meaning which they give to the Ws prefixes are classified into:
1)negative Pr-s (unusual, nonstop; nonperfect; independent;disagree, amoral,aback);
2)Pr-s of repetition(reread);
3)reversative Pr-s(unbuttened;to form-to deform;to cover-to discover,disconnect);
4)Pr-s of time & order(pre-war;post-war;ex-wife,ex-president);
5)perjorative Pr-s(psudernym);6)locative Pr-s (supermarket; subway; international; transatlantic; overcome).
Suffixation is the formation of the Ws with the help of suffixes to the root morpheme.The most common class-tion is according to the party-of-speech they serve to form:
1)noun-forming suffixes(Ss): doer; sobriety; kingdom; darkness; administration; specialist; communism; development; marriage; variant; askee; actress;
2)adjective-forming Ss:laughable;aimless;thankfull;dramatic,economic;serious;evident;stylish;-ative;
3)adverb-forming Ss:loudly,lonely;forward;4)verb-forming Ss:darken;realize;graduate;classify. According to the general meaning,they give to the W,Ss may be subdivided into the following groups:
1.noun Ss:
1)Ss denoting agent,profession,occupation:-er,-eer(engineer),-ant,-ist;
2)Ss denoting abstract ideas:-ness,-ship,-ment,-ism,-tion,-ty,-hood,-dom,-th;
3)Ss denoting collectivity:-dom,-ship;
4)feminine Ss:-ine,-ess;
5)diminutive Ss:y/ie/ey;
2.adjective Ss:
1)presence of quality:-ous,-full,-able;
2)absence of quality:-less.
Conversion(Conv)is a type of W-B in which from some W already existing in the lang-ge a new W is made.The new W coincides with the old one in its phonetic shape but belongs to a diff-nt word class.There are 2 main cases of Conv:
1)formation of verbs from nouns & rarely from other parts of speech.Пр:N:doctor-to doctor;Adj:thin-to thin;Prep:down-to down.
2)formation of Ns from Vs & rarely from other parts of speech.Пр:V:to cut-cut;Adj:ups-and-downs.
Word-compounding. Compounds(Cs) are made up by joining together at least 2stems,mostly stems of notional parts of speech which occur in the lang-ge as 3 forms.Cs are structurally & phonetically inseparable.Structurally Cs are characterized by the specific order & arrangement of stems.The order is strictly fixed & the 2nd stem is the structural & semantic centre of the C.Semanticaly Cs are motivated units:their meaning is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its components {Пр:a toothbrush}and the structural meaning of its distributional pattern{Пр:a boat-life->a life-boat}.{The semantic centre of the C is the lexical meaning of the 2nd component.Пр:an ear-ring} Cs may be of 3 degrees of motivation:
1)completely motivated:both components are used in their direct meaning{sportsman};
2)partially motivated:one component-in the direct meaning,the other-in indirect meaning{a flower-bed,a chatter-box};
3)completely no motivated:there’s no connection b/n the meaning of the C & the lexical meaning of its components{eye-wash-обмануть}.
According to the degree of a semantic independence of stems:
1)subbordinated:the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance:the head member is the 2nd component{baby-sitter};
2)coordinated:both stems are semantically equal in important:both Ws are structural & semantic centres{fifty-fifty,zig-zag}.
According to the structure Cs may be classified into:
1)natural:formed by simple placing of 1 stem after another without any linking element{headache};
2)morphological:with a linking element: [ou],[i]{handicraft}, [s/z]{statesman,salesman};
3)sintectical:are formed from segments of speech preserving in their structure traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech:articles,prep,adverbs{mother-in-law}.
Neutral Cs (according to the types of stems joined together):
1)simpleCs:consist of simple affixes stems{wall-lamp,bedroom};
2)derivational Cs:one of the stems is derived:either prefix or suffix{fivingroom,type-writer};
3)contracted Cs:one of the stems is concrected or shortened{TV-set,FBR agent}.
Patterns of Cs:
1)C nouns:1.N+N:pencil-box; 2.N+(V+er):peace-fighter;3.N+(V+Convertion:handshake);
2)C adjectives:1.N+Adj:snowwhite;2.N+V-IIIф:home-made;3.Num+N:five-year.
Shortening(Sh) is the way of formation of new Ws by means of substituting(замещения)a part of the W for a whole.2types of Sh:
1)graphical Sh is used in written speech.Пр:in letters{St-street,Rd-road,Mr,Mrs},in dictionary{N,V,etc,e.g,cp-compair},in articles.Graphical abbriviations are formed in 2 diff-nt ways:
1)initial Sh:p.m,a.m.;
2)syllable Sh:Govt-Government.
2)lexical Sh is used in oral speech.Пр:M.P.–a member of parlament,VIP-a very important person.
18. Adjective
The adjective expresses the categorical meaning of property of a substance. Adjectives are distinguished by a specific combinability with nouns, which they modify, usually in pre-position, and occasionally in post-position; by a combinability with link-verbs and modifying adverbs.
In the sentence the adjective performs the functions of an attribute and a predicative. To the derivational features of adjectives belong a number of prefixes and suffixes of which the most important are:
-ful: hopeful; -ive: decorative;
-less: featureless; -ic: basic;
-ish: bluish; -un: unprecedented;
-ous: dangerous; -in: inaccurate;
-pre: premature;
As for the morphological features, the English adjective is distinguished only by the category of comparison. All the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large subclasses: qualitative and relative. Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance: wood – a wooden hut; color- colored postcards. Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances: a difficult task, a hearty welcome.
The category of comparison is a system of opposemes showing quantitative distinctions of qualities (long – longer – the longest), i.e. it shows whether the adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely or relatively as a higher or the highest amount of the property in comparison with that of some other substances.
Traditionally (Otto Gespersen) the adjectives have 3 degrees of comparison: 1) the positive; 2) the comparative; 3) the superlative. The positive degree is not marked, it has zero exponent, the comparative and superlative are expressed in 3 ways. 1) synthetically (with the help of the suffixes –er, -est); 2) analytically (by means of more and most); 3) suppletively (by means of different roots). Suppletive opposemes are few in number , but occur often: good – better – the best; bad – worse – the worst.
There are different opinions about the number of members of opposemes. Smirnitsky was of the opinion that there are three forms of comparison: positive and relative, the latter is expressed in two variants: comparative and superlative. Some other grammarians also consider that only 2 degrees of comparison are to be found in adjectives: 1) the comparative degree, 2) the superlative degree, while the so called positive degree doesn’t express any degree, doesn’t have any grammatical form and is considered to be the basic form to build up the degrees of comparison. V. Plotkin is of the opinion that the adjectives and adverbs have no paradigms, for degrees of comparison have lost the status of morphological category. He gives the following reasons: the morphemes –er, -est have become suffixes (i.e. lexico-grammatical morphemes), because their use is limited to a few adjectives and adverbs (monosyllabic and some syllabic) – polite, narrow, clever, able. On the other hand, the form-words more, most are not equivalents of the suffixes –er, -est as they retain some lexical meaning of their own and are also used with a limited number of adjectives (polysyllabic ones).
With regard to the category of comparison English adjectives are classed into comparables and non- comparables, the latter are derived adjectives: Crimean, woolen, wooden, mathematical, etc. And are called relative adjectives, the former – qualitative ones. Some of the qualitative adjectives have no degree of comparison, they are: 1) those expressing the highest degree: supreme, extreme; 2) those having the suffix –ish: reddish, yellowish; 3) denoting incomparable qualities: deaf, dead, lame.
The superlative often occurs with an absolute meaning (elative) showing a very high degree of quality: the room was furnished in the most refined style. (элатив обозначает безотносительно высокую степень качества - ближайший).
In English speech adjectives can express meaning different from grammemes they belong to: the positive may express comparative or even superlative meanings: as brave as a hare, among them there was no one as brave as John. The analytical forms more, most are used with monosyllabic adjectives when emphasis is intended: e.g. he looked more stern (than his father) then.
English relative adjectives change for degrees of comparison when used figuratively: she has a more iron will than u have. Professor Smirnitsky point out that the grammatical meaning of the degrees of comparison may be lexicalized: his eldest brother is very young.
19. Category of Definiteness – Indefiniteness (The Noun)
By this category grammarians understand the definiteness or indefiniteness of the object named (обозначаемый предмет).
The notion of definiteness-indefiniteness can be expressed by lexical means and grammatically, i.e. by the articles and the determiners.
The indefinite article expresses the indefiniteness of the object named. The definite article expresses the definiteness of the object named and singles it out of a class of similar objects.
The absence of the article is also meaningful and occurs when we would expect the indefinite article to be used with abstract nouns and nouns in the plural with which the indefinite article is not used since it is associated with the idea of “oneness”.
Thus the absence of the article means the absence of the indefinite article mostly and functions as such.
Indefiniteness Definiteness
a man the man
men the men
The determiners this, that, each, every, some, any, which, no, either, much, the conjoint possessive pronouns my, his, etc. are used to express definiteness or indefiniteness. E.g. That room was small. I took off my hat. One day, when we were in love; one wonderful morning in May...
Proper names are identified well enough not to need the articles or the determiners. But as soon as they are not, they are used with the article or some determiner: e.g.The Browns are out of the town. She married a Jackson.
In English article is a sign which expresses the category of determination (definiteness - indefiniteness) grammatically.
It may get the meaning of determination or indetermination only in speech, all the other so called meanings of the articles are its functions. The article itself cannot particularize or classify the noun. The article is a form word, which shows how the noun should be understood (a class noun, a unique thing, etc). So, the context plays the most important part in the use of articles in English Speech.
The Article as a Part of Speech
Neither the meaning of the article nor its nature is studies well yet. In connection with the article there exist two main views.
1) The article is a word (possibly a separate part of speech) and the combination of 'article + noun' is a phrase.
2) The article is the form element in the system of the noun. It is thus a kind of morpheme and the combination 'article + noun' is a morphological formation.
The article serves to specify a noun. From this point of view the article may be divided into 3 classes: 1) the definite article (the); 2) the indefinite article (a); 3) the zero article.
The function of the definite article is particularization, that of the indefinite one is classifying and that of the zero article is generalization (nomination).
Professor Ilyish remarks that such functions of the article as particularizing, generic, demonstrative are not brought about by the article itself but by the context or situation: e.g. The dog is a domestic animal (general statement). The dog has come home (concrete action).
The indefinite article has the following functions:
1) The indefinite article is used with a word which names an object, referring it to a class of similar objects and is said to have the nominating or classifying function.
e.g. This is a table. He works here as a teacher.
In its nominating function the indefinite article may be used with a noun which has some descriptive attributes since the object named can possess a number of qualities or qualification which do not single it out of a class of similar objects but only narrow the class to which the object belongs:
cf. He is a boy.
He is a nice boy.
He is a nice boy of twenty, etc.
2) When the indefinite article is used with a noun which names an average class representative, it is said to have the generalizing function.
E.g. A sentence is a language unit.
In this function the indefinite article comes very near to the meaning of the indefinite pronoun “any” (любой).
E.g. Any sentence is a language unit.
3) The indefinite article is sometimes used with the nouns which name unique things or abstract notions:
E.g. There was a young moon.
It may be called the aspective or stylistic function of the indefinite article. In its aspective function the indefinite article may be used with proper names as well.
E.g. He was met at the door by an angry Elizabeth.
In such cases the indefinite article is used in combination with some descriptive attributes to show that the characteristics ascribed by them to the person named is not permanent but temporary (Elizabeth was not always angry: she was angry at that particular moment).
When the indefinite article is used with a proper name without any attribute (or with the pronoun “certain”) the noun stands for a person, that is not familiar with either to both the hearer and the speaker, or to one of them.
E.g. Is there a Mrs. Langdon? Остановилась ли здесь некая миссис Лэнгдон?
4) The indefinite article is also used to introduce “the new” in a communication. Then it is said to have the communicating function. E.g. The door opened and a man entered the room.
In the Russian sentence we place the word that corresponds to the English word with the indefinite article at the end of the sentence. The indefinite article in this function is often used to introduce a person or a thing. E.g. A boy wants to see you. In a similar case with a noun in the plural form the indefinite pronoun “some” is used. E.g. Some boys want to see you.
All the above mentioned functions of the indefinite article can exist separately or in combination with each other. In the sentence “There was a moon” the indefinite article has two functions: the communicating and the aspective.
The functions of the definite article
The definite article expresses the definiteness of the object named or the familiarity with the object named and has one principle function,
1) the limiting function.
The definite article singles the object named out of a class of similar objects. The noun with the definite article stands for an object, person or thing known from the circumstances, the situation, the context. The limitation expressed by the definite article is not necessarily based on the earlier introduction of the object named but on the situation. That's why the definite article is the situational article.
In its limiting function the definite article is often used with nouns modified by limiting attributes the purpose of which is to single out the object or the person named. E.g. This is the house that Jack built. She was the smartest girl in the room.
The definite article is also used with the names of particularization (the sun, the moon, the earth, the air, the world, the cosmos, etc). In this case the limiting function of the definite article is based on the exclusiveness of the object named.
2) Sometimes the definite article is used with a noun which stands for the whole of a class of similar objects. E.g. The telephone (as a means of communication) was invented by Bell in the 19th century.
This may be called the generic function of the definite article.
3) The definite article is usually used with a noun which expresses “the known” in a communication. E.g. The door opened and a man entered the room.
Instead of the definite article in English the possessive pronoun is sometimes used. The possessive pronouns are usually used with nouns naming parts of body, articles of clothing, etc. E.g. He laid his hand on his sword. Such possessive pronouns are not rendered into Russian and are not meant to express “possession”.
This substitution of the article by possessive pronouns is only possible, however, when the objects expressed by the nouns with possessive pronouns belong to the subject of the sentence, otherwise we must use the definite article.
cf. He took the matter into his hands.
He took the child by the hand.
The absence of the article before a material or abstract noun has a nominating function. E.g. Life goes on.
20. Lexico-syntactical stylistic devices
LSSD: there are certain structures that emphasis depends not only on the arrangement of the sentence members but also on their construction with definite demands on the lexical-semantic aspect of the utterance.
Antithesis is a figure of speech based on opposition or contrast of ideas, expressed by parallelism of strongly contrasted words placed at the beginning and at the end of the sentence or clause. It is often based on the use of antonyms.
Too brief from our passion, too long for our peace.
*Climax is a figure of speech based on such arrangement of part of an utterance which secures a gradual increase of semantic significance or emotional tension.
*Anticlimax is a figure of speech based on such arrangement of part of an utterance which secures a gradual increase of semantic significance or emotional tension. It is aimed at destroying the effect achieved by climax.
Simile is imaginated comparison of 2 unlike objects belonging to different clauses. It consists of 2 semantic parts (poles) which are connected by one of a following link-words: like, as, as like, as…as, such as, as if, seem. Two objects are compared on the grounds of similarity of some quality. If the link between members is expressed by notional verb (resemble, look, seem) is called disguised.
Litotes is a two-component structure in which 2 negations are joined to give positive evaluation. The first component is always the negative particle not, while the second is always negative in semantics.
Her face was not unpretty.
Periphrasis: is a very specific (peculiar) SD which basically consists of using round about form of expression instead of a simple one.
Figurative p. is based on metonymy oк metaphor – root of evil (money), young blood (enthusiasm).
(metonymic, metaphoric)
Logical p. is based on the logical connotation of the periphrasis and in the specific features of the object – strong/weak sex. (figurative periphrases is based on a metonymy or a metaphor)
21. Types of meaning (M)
First of all lang-ge is a means of communication & the most important one. That’s why the main category of Linguistics is M. There are 2kinds of M:
1) the grammatical (is clearly seen in identical sets of individual forms of different words. In the process of communication in a sentence word may have several GM);
2) the lexical (remains stable and unchanged; it is proper to a word as a language unit in all its forms and distributions).
(The former is characteristic of separate Ws which are referable to certain object.The later is a more abstract character & becomes obvious only against the background of meaningful positions.In a sentence a W has several gram.Ms.Lex.M isn’t connected with the changes of gram.forms of 1&the same W.It remains stable&unchanged.In sentence a W is used in 1 of the lex.Ms.{‘go,goes,went,going,gone’ have diff-nt gram.M,but have 1&the same semantic component denoting the process of movement}.)
LM consists of 3components:
1)the denotational component is the word referent to the object;
2)the significational comp. as a typical notion, a complex of features of an object(denotate);
3)the connotational comp. is additional information to a W depicting an attitude of a person to an object.
Connotational M is subdivided into:
1)emotional colouring{‘well-known’,’famous’,’notorious’are synonyms,the 1st W has a general M,the 2nd is in a good sense,the 3d in a sad sense}.
2)stylistic referens;stylistically Ws can be subdivided into:neutral;literary(bookish);coloqual.
Semantic Structure of a W
Ws are not the units of a single M.Monosemantic(однозначные)Ws have one M.Most of Ws convey several notions & thus have several Ms,they are called polysemantic Ws.Смирнитский was the 1st who defined a unit of a W that possesses(cохраняет) its own sound form & lex.M & which keeps unchangeable as a lexical-semantical variant (LSV)of a W.Виноградов was the 1st who spoke about the semantic structure of a W, the semant,structure of a W as an interrelated(взаимосвязан.)&interdependent(взаимозависим.)unity of its LSVs.{different LSVs may be clearly seen in a context:
*in diff-nt combinations:to stand straight,to stand heat;
*in diff-nt syntactical positions:to stand out,to stand for;
*in their phraseological piquliarities:it stands to reason,to stand on end}.
The Ms in the semantic structure of a W are not equal.Traditionally the basic & the minor(второстеп.)Ms are distinguish.Basic M is a kind of a centre of a W,round which all other minor Ms are organized.{The W ‘table’ has about 14 Ms.The basic M is ‘стол’}. The minor Ms stongly depend on a context.{hard work;to keep+Gerund(reading)=to continue doing smth;heavy blow}.
Metaphor (переносное значение слова) – an implied comparison between two seemingly different things.
Metonymy(переносное значение на основе сходства) – is a transfer of meaning on the bases of contiguity.
Secondary ways of semantic changes
Ilivation – is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the curse of time, ex: a boy – a young servant.
Degradational – is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time.
Hyperbely – is a transfer of a meaning when a speaker uses exaggeration.
Litotes - is a transfer of a meaning when a speaker expresses affirmative with the negative and on the contrary.
Polisymy (многозначность)
Homonyms are 2 words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.
Classification:
1. Homonyms proper (identical in pronunciation&spelling). Bank, ball.
2. Homophones (identical in sound but different in spelling). Meet-meat, right-wright.
3. Homographs (of accidentally the same spelling but of different sound). To wind – wind, to lead – lead.
(Смирницкий:
1. Full homonyms are words of the same category of part of speech with identical paradigm but different lexical meaning. Match, ball, bank.
2. Partial homonyms:
Simple lexico-grammatical: words of the same category of part of speech having one identical form in their paradigm and different LM. To found (основывать) – found (форма от to find).
Complex lexico-grammatical: words of different categories of part of speech having one identical form in their paradigm and different LM. Rose (N) – rose (to rise), light (N) – light (adj).
Partial lexical: words of the same category of part of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms. Paradigm of V (past ind – past participle): to cut-cut-cut; possessive case singular – common case plural: Student’s mistake. – Students made a mistake.)