Если у вас возникли сложности с курсовой, контрольной, дипломной, рефератом, отчетом по практике, научно-исследовательской и любой другой работой - мы готовы помочь.
Предоплата всего
Подписываем
Lecture 1
The Concept of Note-taking Techniques
In the light of the modern translating activity note-taking techniques may be defined as “a system” of auxiliary notes which are used by an interpreter in the process of producing different kinds of interpretation. Mainly it refers to the consecutive interpretation.
In the scientific literature this system of note-taking is defined by the following terms:
«переводческаяСКОРОПИСЬ» (accordingtoR.K. Minyar-Beloruchev)
«УНИВЕРСАЛЬНАЯ переводческая скоропись» (accordingtoA.P.Chuzhakin)
«переводческаяНОТАЦИЯ» (according to I.S. Aleksseyeva)
«переводческаяСЕМАНТОГРАФИЯ (according to E.V. Alikina)
The above mentioned terms are often used as synonyms because they denote one and the same phenomena in translation activity. However, the terms are different in their internal/inner form because they focus on different semantic aspects.
Thus, the term “скоропись” points out the high tempo of information fixation process.
The term “универсальнаяп.с.” underlines the character of the basic principles which are presented as a system and used as a system for the purpose of translation by many persons not by one individual.
The term “семантография”means that the process of information fixation is more oriented at the semantic and content form of utterances than at the language form of utterances.
The scientist I.S. Aleksseyevawho is dealing with Russian-German interpretation uses the term “переводческаянотация”. In fact this word is a synonym of the term “скоропись” derived from its German equivalent “Notizentechnik”.
Admitting the role of all the terms discussed today, we will use in our everyday activity the most traditional term “переводческаяскоропись”in Russian or “note-taking” in English. Therefore, the subject I teach is called “Техникапереводческойзаписи”in Russian or “Note-taking techniques” in English.
Lecture 2
From the History of Note-Taking
Note-taking in the form of a system of information fixation in interpretation exists for about a century. The history of note-taking is described in the special study literature. At the beginning of the 20th century it was a personal matter for an interpreter whether to use notes or not. Officially, note-taking used as a professional tool of written fixation of information, appeared in the 1930th of the 20th century. It was connected with the activity of the League of Nations. The procedure of meetings was preserved in two languages French and English. The rule of conducting meetings required that a speaker could deliver a speech till the end without interruption. Immediately after finishing a speech an interpreter preserved the whole interpretation. In this connection the demand arose both to a translated text and to accuracy of interpretation.
In 1956 J-F.Rozan, J.Erber’s follower illustrated the above mentioned principles giving the appropriate examples. He also offered symbols denoting certain categories, that is tense and voice of verbs, number and gender of nouns. Moreover, he has formulated the principles of vertical lay out of notes on paper.
R.K. Minyar-Beloruchev, in addition to the previous systems, carried out functional classification of note-taking signs. He cleared out symbols of a predicative, modality, symbols of time, quality etc.
In 1980th of the 20th century French scientist and translator D.Seleskovitch described mnemonic function of note-taking from the psycholinguistic point of view. “Mnemonic” means the role memorizing and actualization of information in brain and subsequent reproduction of information in the process of interpretation.
A.P.Chuzhakin updated the principles of vertical lay out of notes by offering stepped and diagonal notes on paper. According to the principles, a group of a subject should appear on paper first of all. Then a group of a predicate will appear below and slightly to the right under a group of a subject. Then the direct object will appear below the group of a predicate even more to the right as the previous group, etc.
E.N.Sladkovskaya in addition to the stepped and diagonal principle suggested that attention should be paid not to the syntactic but to the semantic features of utterance. According to her, a semantic subject is taken as a note first of all, then below and to the right a note of an action will appear, then below and to the right a semantic object will appear.
Lecture 3
The Role of Note-Taking in Mastering Interpretation
Why is it necessary to apply note-taking techniques? First, a written fixation of information lessens the overloading of memory and reduces stress caused by psychic and mental tension in the process of interpretation. Second, an interpreter when he writes notes looks more professional and feels more confident because he is not distracted by visual images. Then an interpreter when he writes notes is more concentrated on the content of a text he listens to. Learning note-taking techniques plays a significant role among the disciplines dealing with training of interpreters.
A few very simple principles give the note-taking system its sound base and precision, and make using it straightforward. There are seven of these principles, in order they are
1 noting the ideas and not the words
2 the rules of abbreviation
3 links
4 negations
5 emphases
6 verticality
7 shift
There is a specific technique that interpreters can try to develop, and which can be compared to a pianist reading music while playing but not sight-reading. The pianist who has practised a piece is in a similar situation to the consecutive interpreter: essentially they know what they want to play but the sheet-music is there to remind them. The pianist looks at the opening bars and then starts playing, and continues reading ahead of the notes they are playing, their eyes on the music always being a little ahead of their fingers on the keyboard. Similarly the interpreter should look at the first page of the notes then start speaking while looking up at the audience. As the interpreter moves towards the end of the passage they have looked at, they glance down at their notes again to read the next passage. In other words they do not wait until they finished one passage to look again at their notes, which would mean that the interpretation would become jerky, reading then speaking, reading then speaking. Rather the interpreter, while still talking, is already reading ahead, preparing the next passage, thus providing for a smooth, uninterrupted and efficient interpretation.
Organizing of a Note-taking Activity
To be properly prepared for a note-taking activity is of great importance if we want to benefit from using it.
When you interpret at official negotiations or meetings it is better to use A-4 format sheets of paper, especially when you sit at the table. In case you interpret standing next to a speaker, it is more preferable to use A-8 format note-pad in a hard cover. You can hold a note-pad in your hand or on your knees. In this case a spiraled note-pad is more convenient in comparison with all the other kinds of note-pads.
Whether you use A-4 or A-8 format of paper or pad, you should note down only on one side of a paper. If you take notes on A-4 format you can just turn over a page and put a sheet of paper aside and continue writing on the next sheet of paper. If you take notes on A-8 format you can just turn over a page and continue writing on the next sheet of paper. When all the sheets are over you will turn over all of them and, respectively, start writing on their other side. In order not to get confused in sheets you’d better number the pages in advance.
In the course of learning note-taking techniques it is necessary to choose the size of notes. Don’t make them too small otherwise it will be difficult to decipher them at a distance. On the other hand, very big notes are also not a good decision because it requires more time and paper to write them down. Do not take notes with a pencil or a marker and also a soft-tip/felt-tip pen. Try to use pens and have one more pen, to be on the safe side. You should start taking start taking notes at the time when an orator starts speaking and finish taking notes just after an orator finishes speaking.
Lecture 5
Noting Ideas
Everyone will tell you to note ideas and not words. But what constitutes an idea? Below is a simple introduction to recognizing ideas which can help in the early stages of learning consecutive interpreting. Often equivalent to a sentence or Subject-Verb-Object group ideas are divided from one another on the page with a horizontal line. Interestingly, J-F.Rozan did not explicitly suggest this in his book, but he did do it in all the example notes he gave and his example has been widely followed.
|
What is an idea? Well let's ask ourselves what is the basic unit for communicating an idea in language. Answer: the sentence. And what are the basic units of a sentence? Answer: Subject, Verb, (Complement, often but not always, an Object) |
It is through the analysis and notation of the ideas that the interpreter will avoid mistakes and a labored delivery. Example 1: Let us take the following, from Russian into English: “Этооченьхорошийшанс, чтобы…”/ There is a very good chance that…” If we base our notation of this expression on the words, the kea word is “chance”. If we base it on the idea, it is “probable”. The notes will have to be read 20 minutes- even an hour- after the idea was originally expressed. In the first example it would be very difficult not to make mistake. Having noted “chance” the interpreter might, if the context allowed, render it “there is a chance that” or “by chance”. If on the other hand he noted “probable”, the mistake cannot be made. The issue of style is also dealt with in the second example where one would automatically say (interpreting into English), “It is probable that”, or “It is likely that”, or “In all likelihood”, whereas in the first example, even if the interpreter will correctly recalled the idea that the word ‘chance” represented, he/she will be a prisoner to that word and might easily produce a Gallicism. Example 2: “We should try to live up to…” It would be absurd to note the word “live” and it would greatly increase the risk of making a mistake. Although it would seem to be very different from the original it would be more appropriate to note in Russian, for example, “всоответствиис…” (in English “to be up to…”). This is the result of analyzing the idea behind what is said and noting it idiomatically in the target language. It would be just as useful to note “be=”, representing “being equal to”, which could very easily be read back idiomatically in interpretation, (i.e. “всоответствиис…” in Russian and “to be up to” in English).
Whenever taking notes, the interpreter must concentrate on the major idea and how this can be noted clearly and simply (preferably in the target language, although this is not essential).
Lecture 6, 7
Abbreviations in Note-Taking
It is usually not necessary or useful to try to record every word that is said. Nevertheless, if you are going to take notes efficiently, you will want to save yourself as much writing time as possible, and this is where the use of symbols and abbreviations comes in. Abbreviations are used in order to make notes more quickly. You must decide:
The Rules of Abbreviation
The rule of thumb is that unless a word is short (4-5 letters) the interpreter should note it in an abbreviated form. If we have to note “specialized” it is more meaningful and reliable to note spedthan to write spec.
Having abbreviated a word or an idea (be it by the use of a symbol or a contraction of its component letters) it can also be very helpful to give the indication of number and tense. Thus in the expression: “I will come back to it a little later”, noting the future tense will render the words “a little later” superfluous. We will see below that “I speak” can be noted: I “. Therefore we note: I ll “. The expression “those mentioned” must be noted: rfd(referred), because rfalone can be read back as “those which mention”. To indicate number we add sor 2to the symbol or abbreviation. To indicate tense we add llfor the future or d for the past.
The expression “which have contributed to” is long. The word “help” is short. Wherever possible we must abbreviate by using a word which coveys the same meaning but is shorter. Similarly “…which are worth looking” can be noted intg(interesting). “In order to arrive at some conclusions” can be noted to end. “Taking into account the situation at the present time” can be noted as siton now.
Lecture 8, 9
Symbols in Note-Taking
A "symbol" is anything, a mark, sign, letter or short word, used to represent a thing, or group of synonymous concepts. Symbols are used in note-taking: a) for speed, b) to show the relationships between words and within the text.Symbols are great....but it is worth abiding by a few basic principles to make sure they HELP rather than HINDER. This gives us the three main families of symbols which we need to use:
It would also seem useful to have a number of symbols for concept wordswhich recur most frequently. 7 would seem to suffice. In total then there are 20 symbols, easy to understand, remember and use. Of the 20 only 10 are indispensable. Symbols denote only a general notion or direction: their exact meaning is determined by the context in which they appear.
They denote the four main forms of expression: thought, speech, debate and judgement (favourable and unfavourable).
I.THOUGHT
The symbol denotes all the ideas derived from “to think” or “thought”, the most common of which are: believe, consider.
II.SPEECH
When we make quotations we place those words between the inverted commas. The natural choice of symbol for speech is then: [“].
The symbol denotes all the ideas derived from “to say” and “speech”, the most common of which are: to speak, comment, declare, declaration, join in the discussion, debate.
III.DISCUSSION
This symbol represents a discussion.
ok
The symbol denotes all the ideas derived from “to discuss” and “discussion”, the most common of which are: to look at, to deal with, to debate.
IV.APPROVAL
This symbol denotes approval – and when crossed through or preceded by “no”, disapproval. The symbol is self-explanatory. It expresses ideas derived from “to approve” and “approval”, the most common of which are: to adopt, adoption, to support, support, to back, backing, to side with, to join, etc.
→
These three symbols are in fact just variations on a single one, an arrow, pointing in different directions depending on the context.
This symbol, the horizontal arrow, denotes movement from A to B, communication, transfer and a trend to. Its exact meaning is determined by the context but is always clear. Example:
↑
Payments to Eastern European countries - payments →E. Eur.
This symbol, an arrow pointing diagonally upwards, denotes increase, development, progress, etc. Its meaning is always clear and the word to be used depends strictly upon the context.
↑country’s- country’s development
↓
THE ARROW FOR DECREASE
This symbol, an arrow pointing downwards, denotes decrease, decline, fall, etc.
So we have: ↓prices - a drop in prices
≠
[ ] ]]]]]]]}}}[]]}
FRAMING
Lecture 10
Links in Note-Taking
The first key to understanding a speech is the identification of the main ideas; the second is an analysis of the links between those ideas. A speech is not just a sequence of juxtaposed sentences. The sentences are related to one another in a particular way, and it is this relationship that determines the overall meaning of a speech. The number of ways in which ideas may be linked is in fact fairly limited.
Kea -words for links
|
effect -> cause (logical cause) cosoras;why |
|||||||||||||||||
|
because, the main reason for this, what is causing this, what’s behind this?, since, given the fact that, as, due to |
|||||||||||||||||
|
cause -> effect(logical consequence)tfeor so |
|||||||||||||||||
|
hence, this means that, the result of this is, the consequence of this is, so that,as a result, so, therefore, thus |
|||||||||||||||||
|
conclusion → so we can conclude, therefore, this would suggest that, |
|||||||||||||||||
|
because, the main reason for this, what is causing this, what’s behind this? |
|||||||||||||||||
|
purpose, objectiveto |
|||||||||||||||||
|
(in order) to, in such a way as to, so that, with the aim of, the purpose being to, |
|||||||||||||||||
|
following limit, contradiction (opposition) but |
|||||||||||||||||
|
but, however, nonetheless, nevertheless, on the other hand, in spite of this |
|||||||||||||||||
|
preceding limit, contradiction (opposition) tho |
|||||||||||||||||
|
although, despite (the fact that), even though |
|||||||||||||||||
|
conditionandconsequenceif |
|||||||||||||||||
|
if .....then... (or inversion of same), had I known, were this to happen |
|||||||||||||||||
|
reference as to as far as smth is concerned, on the matter of, as to questionwot, wen, y, wer, who, ? |
|
||||||||||||||||
|
The following symbols are also extremely useful: +conveys the idea of additional precision |
|
|
|||||||||||||||
|
also, in addition, and, not only…but; on top of that there is; furthermore, = conveys the idea of equality or correspondence the same goes for, one might say, the same of ≠ conveys the idea of difference or lack of correspondence on the other hand, contrary to || conveys that there is no link, a `zero link' |
Lecture 11
Using Margins in Note-taking
Many interpreters use a margin on the left hand side of the page when taking notes in consecutive. Sometimes the interpreter leaves an imaginary margin. Be it real or virtual, a margin can be a very useful part of note-taking technique.
WHAT do we note in the margin?
1. Links (Conjunctions)
2. Contrasting the actions of two subjects
3. Structuralmarkers
|
|
paragraphs |
|| |
|
|
listnumbering |
1.....2..... |
|
|
digressions |
{ } |
|
|
questionmarks |
? |
4. dates
5. anythingimportant!
Lecture 12
Emphasis and Negation
Emphasis is defined in a number of ways.
The word “emphasis” is derived via Latin from Greek: meaning, (in rhetoric) significant stress; from the Greek - "to display"
To emphasize a word we can underline it (twice if we are dealing with a superlative or absolute).
Example:
„ (The study) is interesting”: intg
„ (The study) is very interesting”: intg
„ (The study) is extremely interesting”: intg
In some cases the line may be replaced by a circumflex to avoid confusion arising from the use of verticality.
Alternatively emphasis can be noted with a dotted line.
Example:
„This report might be useful”: useful
The use of underlining to denote nuance allows us to qualify the word (or idea) underlined without noting the qualifier.
Example:
„important question” becomes:?
„we should look at this very carefully” becomes: look at
„I would like to say in the strongest possible terms” becomes: I say
„...an imperfect solution” becomes: soltn
Negation might be noted by means of a line running through a word or symbol.
Example:
If we use OK to signify „agree”, then „disagree” will be OK . It is also possible to write the word no before the word to be negated (thus in our example we would note no OK). This second method is clearer and since „no” is a very short word using it is not a problem.
Lecture 13
Modality and Tenses of Verbs in Note-taking
The main things to be noted by an interpreter are
Verb tenses and modes. When noting verbs, interpreters should take care to note the tense correctly. It is also important, if appropriate, to note the mode, in particular, conditional. The modes and tenses of verbs have decisive influence on the meaning of a sentence.
Verb tenses. Some interpreters use the symbol ┘for past tenses and symbol └forfuture tenses. However, symbols denoting grammatical aspects such as tenses of verbs are not used often. Partially, it may be explained by phenomena of a language redundancy. For example, if the date of the event is indicated in the text it is no use trying to note the tenses of verbs.
Let us consider the opposite example. Thus in the expression: „I will come back to this a little later”, noting the future tense will render the words „a little later” superfluous. We will see below that „I speak” can be noted: I”. Therefore we note: I ll”.The expression: „those mentioned”, must be noted:rfd; because rf alone could be read back as „those which mention”.
Modality.In linguistics, modals are expressions associated with notions of possibility and necessity. Modals have a wide variety of interpretations which depend not only upon the particular modal used, but also upon where the modal occurs in a sentence, the meaning of the sentence independent of the modal, the conversational context, and a variety of other factors. Modal Verbs are unlike other verbs. They do not denote actions or states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the actions expressed by the infinitive is combination with which they form compound modal predicates. These Modal Verbs may show that the action (or state, of process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, order etc. Modal Verbs are used only with the infinitive. The choice of meaning is to a great degree determined by a communicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive. It is important to realize that the Modal Verbs have no meaning by themselves.
Modality is expressed in different ways by different languages. Modality can be expressed via grammaticized elements such as auxiliary verbs or verb endings, via indirect means such as a prepositional phrase or a clause, or in other ways, such as via adverbs.
Lecture 14
Precision Information in Note-Taking
Precision information is the base information in a speaker’s messages. Numbers, proper names, lists of things and terminology are some in the group of the elements that cannot be recalled on the basis of analytical and logical thinking in a given context.Note-taking is an important tool in order to overcome the difficulties connected with memorizing and notation of precision information.
In notation ofverbal precision informationit is recommended that an interpreter use so-called “Arabicapproach”, that is abbreviations of polysyllabic (more than one syllable) words, in which all and not all the consonant letters are used, meanwhile, all the vowels are not used except if they are not the first letter and the last letter of the word. The main condition of making abbreviations here is to leave abbreviated words easily recognizable, as in МсквmeaningМоскваor Птрбmeaning Санкт-Петербург.
Numerical precision information
Example:
t (тыс.); m (млн.); b (млрд.); tr (трилл.) after numerals; (e.g. 17bU = 17миллиардовдолларовСША, U = USD).
Lecture 15
Tips on Verticality, Step-patterns and Note-taking in General
A good note should give the main ideas of the speech, the links between those ideas, tenses of verbs, figures and numbers, lists of things, proper names, if mentioned, so as to relieve interpreter’s memory. A good note should be as economical as possible with abbreviations and graphic symbols.
The following is taken from tips given by Christopher Thiéry:
1. Write the thing that comes most quickly to your pen
2. Don't look for equivalences while listening, now is not the time (unless the speaker pauses for some reason)
3. If you are not understanding, STOP taking notes and LISTEN!
4. Note legibly
5. Abbreviate long words
6. Use the space available to portray the hierarchy of ideas and...
7. ...to place those ideas relative to one another
8. Separate the different parts of the message (which often correspond to sentences), using horizontal lines
9. The structure of the page should be visible from 3 feet away
10. Use signs and symbols which already exist
11. Use individual letters as symbols if they are clear in a given meeting or context
12. Make sure that the colour of the pen (or pencil) and paper that you use is such that the former clearly stands out against the latter
13. Number the pages if they are not bound
14. Cross out each passage in your notes as you complete reading it back
15. Glance at each section of your notes BEFORE speaking
16. Look up at your audience
Comparing and analyzing these tips given by the prominent scholars and practitioners in interpreting, one may take them into consideration while learning and practicing note-taking techniques.