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МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ
______________________
Одеський національний університет імені І.І. Мечникова
Н. О. КОСТЮК, О. М. МIТIНА
Practical Course of English
for lawyers
2005
На базі неадаптованих текстів, що являють собою теоретичний матеріал з основних теоретичних положень права, розроблено систему репродуктивних та репродуктивно-творчих вправ, які мають сприяти закріпленню фахової лексики та удосконаленню навичок ведення бесіди на спеціальні теми.
Посібник містить у собі словник суто юридичних термінів.
Даний посібник призначено для студентів старших курсів, що вивчають право на факультетах університетів, інститутів та академій і складено згідно до програм з англійської мови Міністерства освіти і науки України.
Відповідальний редактор: Л. М. Голубенко, завідувач кафедри німецької філології, декан факультету романо-германської філології ОНУ імені І. І. Мечникова, професор.
Науковий редактор фахового тексту: Погрібний О.О., проректор з навчальної та методичної роботи ОЮІ НУВС, доктор юридичних наук, професор, дійний член Академії правових наук України, заслужений діяч науки і техніки України
Рецензенти: І.М. Колегаєва, завідувач кафедри лексикології і стилістики ОНУ ім. І.І. Мечникова, доктор філолог. наук, професор;
В.Я. Мізецька, завідувач кафедри іноземних мов Одеської національної юридичної академії, доктор філолог. наук, професор;
Г.Г. Єрьомкіна, завідувач кафедри іноземних мов Одеського державного медичного університету, кандидат філологічних наук, доцент.
Друкується за рішенням Вченої Ради Одеського національного університету ім. І.І. Мечникова Протокол № від
© Н.О. Костюк, Мітіна О.М., 2005
ЗМІСТ
I. Вступ..................................................................................................
II. Основний текст................................................................................
Unit I:«A Constitution – the Standart of Legitimacy»………6
Unit II: «The Constitution of the USA»……………………..18
UNIT III. “The Constitution of Ukraine”………………………28.
Unit IV: ”Human Rights”……………………………………….39
Unit V: “Types of Law”………………………………………….
Unit VI: «Misdemeanors and Felonies»………………….……..55
Unit VII: “Legal Definitions of Crime”…………………………62
Unit VIII: “Criminal Justice”……………………………………70
III. Питання, тести для самоконтролю.................................................
IV. Додаткові тексти для індивідуального контролю.........................
V. Бібліографічний опис………………………………………………
VI. Покажчики…………………………………………………………
VII. Довідково-інформаційні дані..........................................................
ВСТУП
Вивчення іноземної мови є невід’ємним елементом підготовки висококваліфікованого спеціаліста, для якого іноземна мова є знаряддям одержання додаткової інформації за фахом і формою спілкування з метою розширення інформації по спеціальності. Тому продовжуючи розвивати та удосконалювати базові елементи мови, які були закладені школою, вивчення іноземної мови в вузах на юридичних відділеннях повинно набувати професійного спрямування і повинно поширювати глосарій студентів для ведення розмови та читання літератури на фахові теми.
В посібнику надано неадаптовані тексти, що являють собою теоретичний матеріал з основних положень юриспруденції, і тісно пов’язані з фаховими дисциплінами: порівняльно правознавство, реформа цивільного та сімейного законодавства, міжнародне приватне право, кримінальне право, судова влада, криміналістичні засоби та методи розкриття злочинів. На базі текстів розроблено систему репродуктивних та репродуктивно-творчих вправ, які мають сприяти закріпленню фахової лексики та удосконаленню навичок ведення бесіди на спеціальні теми (наприклад, конституція – взірець законності, права людини, тяжкі злочини, тощо).
Укладачі також пропонують словник суто юридичних термінів, що в значній мірі полегшує студентам роботу над матеріалом та підвищує значення посібника. Реєстрові слова розміщені за алфавітом і надаються у вихідній формі без зазначення наголосу: іменники – в називному відмінку однини (за винятком тих, що вживаються тільки в множині), прикметники та дієприкметники (в українському глосарії) – у формі називного відмінка однини чоловічого роду, дієслова – у формі інфінітива. Словник містить 400 англійських слів і їх українські та російські відповідники.
До реєстру словника увійшла лексика, що використовується в текстах посібника. Слід мати на увазі, що невнесення до реєстру якогось слова не є свідченням того, що воно в сучасному фаховому мовленні не вживане: адже в короткому словнику практично неможливо вичерпно представити префіксовані, складноскорочені чи складні слова, зворотні дієслова, які творяться майже від усіх прямих форм.
Пропонований словник стане довідником під час відтворення українською або англійською мовою термінів, термінологічних сполучень і слів, слугуватиме джерелом інформації про особливості граматичних форм написання відповідно до чинного українського правопису.
Треба особливо виділити, що в посібнику надається також практичний матеріал що до вживання англійських синонімів і антонімів, які характерні для фахових текстів.
Структура навчального посібника дозволяє його використовувати як на практичних заняттях під керівництвом викладача, так і в процесі самостійної роботи студентів. По закінченню роботи над посібником студенти повинні:
а) Конституція США – Конституція України
б) Права людини в нашій країни (за статутом ООН)
Укладачі підкреслюють, що запропонований навчальний посібник – це продовження створення дидактичного матеріалу для викладання англійської мови юристам в Одеському юридичному інституті Національного університету внутрішніх справ.
Навчальний посібник призначено для студентів і магістрів і складено згідно до програм з англійської мови Міністерства освіти і науки України.
Ми вважаємо необхідним підкреслити той факт, що рецензована робота була видана в Одеському національному університеті ім. І.І. Мечникова (частина перша – в 2003 р., частина друга – в 2004 р., частина третя – в 2005 р.) і в Одеському юридичному інституті Національного університету внутрішніх справ (частина перша – в 2001 р., частина друга в 2005 р.), та пройшла апробацію на ряді нефахових факультетів університету і інституту з позитивним результатом.
Укладачі висловлюють щиру подяку рецензентам: професору Мізецькій В.Я. (ОНЮА), доценту Г.Г. Єрьомкіної.
II. Основний текст
Unit I: «A Constitution – the Standart of Legitimacy»
Exercise 1. Read and remember the following words and word combinations
|
legitimacy законність body кодекс, зведення statute статут, закон to govern правити customary звичайний standing становище virtually фактично to claim претендувати to conduct oneself поводити себе whereby за допомогою якої to venerate шанувати compass межі convention угода, умовність deliberately умисно to adopt приймати essentials основи to enact запроваджувати to devise винаходити, розробляти amendment поправка safeguard гарантія to insert вміщати to ensure гарантувати, забезпечувати provision положення unalterable незмінний distinction відмінність Alexis de Tocqueville А. Токвіль (1805-59) |
Magna Carta Велика хартія вільностей (1215) The Petition of Right Act Закон про права громадян звертатися до суду The Habeas Corpus Act Закон про процесуальні права громадян, правилах арешту та притягнення до суду (1679) The Bill of Rights Біль про права The Act of Settlement Закон про престолонаслідування enactment закон, указ host безліч scores безліч mass безліч unworkable незастосовний volume том Hansard офіційний звіт про засі-дання англійського парламенту minutiae дрібниці, деталі record запис, протокол similarly так само flexible гнучкий rigid негнучкий to abolish скасовувати to forbid забороняти to legislate видавати закони |
Exercise 2. Read the following fluently.
the fundamental organizing principle, a specific written document, as governing political matters, a consistently constitutional manner, the leading legal rules, in essential unchanged, certain provisions are inserted, the leading enactments, without a host of judicial decision, formally enacted, a rigid constitution.
Text
A Constitution – the Standart of Legitimacy
Constitution is the body of doctrines and practices that form the fundamental organizing principle of a political state. In some states, such as the United States, the constitution is a specific written document; in others such as the United Kingdom, it is a collection of documents, statutes, and traditional practices that are generally accepted as governing political matters. States that have written constitutions may also have a body of traditional or customary practices that may or may not be considered to be of constitutional standing. Virtually every state claims to have a constitution, but not every government conducts itself in a consistently constitutional manner.
In its wider sense, the term constitution means the whole scheme whereby a country is governed: and this includes much else besides law.
In its narrower sense, the term ‘constitution’ means the leading legal rules, usually collected into some document that comes to be almost venerated as “The Constitution”. But no country’s constitution can be compressed within the compass of one document, and even where the attempt has been made, it is necessary to consider the extralegal rules, customs, and conventions that grow up around the formal document.
Written constitutions. In most Western countries the constitution, using the term in the narrower sense, is a scheme of government that has been deliberately adopted by the people; examples are the Constitution of the United States, drawn up in 1787 and ratified in 1789 and still in essentials unchanged; the constitution of the Weimar Republic or that of the Federal Republic of Germany, brought into force in 1949; and the constitutions that France has had since the Revolution. The constitution in these countries is the basis of public law; it is usually enacted or adopted with special formalities; special processes are devised for its amendment and sometimes safeguards are inserted to ensure that certain provisions are unalterable.
The English constitution. In England there is no one document or fundamental body of law that can be described as a “constitution” in the sense that has been discussed above. The absence of any such document or of any distinction between public and private law has led to the suggestion (perhaps first made by Alexis de Tocqueville) that there is in England no constitution. Certainly the English constitution has no existence apart from the ordinary law; it is indeed part of that very law. Magna Carta, the Petition of Right act, the Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement are the leading enactments; but they are in no sense a constitutional code; and , without a host of judicial decisions, scores of other statutes of much less importance, and a mass of custom and convention, these statutes would be unworkable. The sources of English constitutional law are diffuse – statutes, judicial precedent, textbooks, lawbooks, the writings of historians and political theorists, the biographies and autobiographies of statesman, the columns of every serious newspaper, the volumes of Hansard, the minutiae of every type of government record and publication. This is what is meant by saying the English constitution is “unwritten”: it is not formally enacted; its rules have to be sought out in a dozen fields, not in any one code. Similarly, it is flexible, and here the contrast is with a rigid constitution. There are no special safeguards for constitutional rules; constitutional law can be changed, amended, or abolished just like any rule of private law; there is no field in which Parliament is forbidden to legislate.
From «Britannica».
Exercise 3. Answer the questions.
Exercise 4. Find out whether these statements are true,
false or you cann’t tell from reading if it is true or false
Exercise 5. Write out from the text words and word combinations
for the following
зведення (кодекс) теоретичних положень, звичайний (юр.), особливий документ, за допомогою якої, які розроблені для порядку внесення поправок, вміщати, шанувати, Білль про права, Закон про престолонаслідування, офіційний звіт про засідання англійського парламенту, скасовувати, в значенні, закон про права громадян звертатись до суду, закон (указ), видавати закони, протокол, незмінний, гнучкий.
Exercise 6. Open the brackets choosing a suitable word or words.
Translate the sentences into Ukrainian
1. In its (wider, narrower) sense, the term “constitution” means the leading rules. 2. In the United Kingdom the constitution is a collection of (documents, statutes) and traditional practices. 3. A body of (traditional or customary) practices may be of constitutional standing. 4. Every state claims to have (a constitution, a body of laws). 5. Not every government (conducts, behaves) itself in a constitutional manner. 6. It is necessary to consider the extralegal (rules, customs) and conventions that grow up around a constitution. 7. The Constitution of the USA was (draw up, ratified) in 1789. 8. No country’s constitution can be compressed within the compass of one (law, statute, document). 9. The constitution may be (written, unwritten). 10. The English constitution has no (power, existence) apart from the ordinary law. 11. The sources of English constitutional law are (statutes, judicial precedents, textbooks), lawbooks and soon. 12. There are no special (safeguards, amendments) for constitutional rules.
Exercise 7. Find the words having similar sound forms and
the same meaning both in English and Ukrainian
Constitution, safeguards, to conduct, to govern, principle, legitimacy, statute, to consider, essential, provision, to collect, collection, country, various, to compress, term, republic, revolution, country, document, to consider, virtually, attempt, to adopt, to be.
Exercise 8. Finish the sentences
Exercise 9.
A) Read and translate the following. Use glossary after the text.
Alexis de Tocqueville and His Book
A. de Toqueville is a French count, publicist, statesman and historian. In 1831 he came to the USA to study the American form of democracy and what it might mean to the rest of the word. After a visit of only nine months he wrote a remarkable book called “Democracy in America”, which is a classic study of the American way of life.
Toqueville had powers of observation. He described not only the democratic system of government and how it operated, but also its effect on how Americans think, feel and act. Many scholars believe that he had a deeper understanding of basic Americans beliefs and values than anyone else who has ever written about the United States. What is so interesting is that many of the traits of the American character which he observed over 150 years ago are still visible and meaningful today.
Another reason why Toqueville’s observations of the American character are important is the time when he visited the United States. He came in the 1830s, before America was industrialized. This was the era of the small farmer, the small businessman, and the setting of the western frontier. The qualities and character traits Toqueville describes are the same ones that Americans take pride in today. He, however, was a neutral observe and saw both the good and the bad sides of these qualities.
Glossary
count граф граф
statesman государственный деятель державний діяч
effect действие, влияние дія, влив
to act действовать, вести себя діяти
scholar ученый вчений
belief вера віра
value ценность цінність
trait черта, штрих риса, штрих
visible видимый, очевидный, явный видимий, явний,
settling поселение селища, колонія
quality характерная черта характерна риса
A
French
the American form
remarkable
Democracy
classic
remarkable powers
basic Americans
small
the western
character
bad
deep
B
book
of observation
study
beliefs and values
trait
of democracy
in America
count
frontier
sides
farmer
understanding
Exercise 10. Enrich your vocabulary
A B
effect politicial
scholar settlement
trait to do
settling special
statesman a lot of
to make influence
specific feature
body control work
test scientist
mass unchangeable
essentials code
unalterable bases
A
unchangeable
settling
to build
count
body
legitimate
unalterable
distinction
scholar
to adopt
visible
volume
B
to ruin
citizen
part
illegal, illegitimate
changeable
metropolis
likeness, similarity
to reject
invisible
variable
ignorant
page
A. Prime minister, count, flexible, statute, republic, statesman, democracy, politician, to abolish, standart, legitimacy, kingdom.
B 1. Accordance with law .
Exercise 11. Make questions. Here are answers.
Constitution forms the fundamental organizing principle of a political state.
In the United Kingdom a collection of documents, statutes and traditional practices are generally accepted as governing political matters.
In its wider sense the term constitution means the whole scheme the country is governed.
Around a constitution the extralegal rules, customs and conventions are grown up.
The basis of public law is the constitution.
He was a count, a statesman and a writer.
Any document or fundamental body of law in the United Kingdom can be described as a constitution.
Leading enactments are in no sense a constitutional code.
In England the sources of constitutional law are diffuse.
He was in the USA in 1831.
It is called “Democracy in America”.
It is a classic study of the American way of life.
Exercise 12. Read and translate the text. Use the glossary after the text.
The Wiemar Republic Constitution
The Weimar Republic Constitution was adopted in 1919 and ratified in 1919. It was in force till 1933.
The constitution included democratic features: freedom of speech and religion, compulsory education for children, freedom of association that protected labor unions.
However, the president of the Weimar Republic was given certain emergency powers. These made it possible for a dictator to take over the government by legal means.
One of its less happy features, however, was proportional representation, which contributed greatly to political instability. During the fourteen years of its existence, the Weimar Republic saw more than twenty different cabinets. The heavy legacy of war required a government that had the full support of its citizens. Throughout most of its brief life, the Weimar Republic failed to win such support.
Glossary
to include - охоплювати
compulsory - обовязковий
to protect - захищати
emergency – критичне становище
legacy - спадщина
throughout – від початку до кінця
brief – короткий
1. States may have a written constitution and a body … traditional practices. 2. Not every government conducts itself … a consistently constitutional manner. 3. The leading legal rules are collected … document venerated as “The Constitution”. 4. No one constitution can ever be compressed … the compass … one document. 5. The Constitution of the USA was drown … in 1787 and ratified in 1789 and is still … essentials unchanged. 6. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany was brought … force in 1949. 7. The leading enactments of the United Kingdom are … no sense a constitutional code. 8. There are no special safeguards … constitutional rules. 9. Toqueville had remarkable powers … observation. 10. Toqueville observed American life … 150 years ago. 11. The Weimar Republic Constitution was … force for 14 years. 12. Proportional representation contributed greatly … political instability.
Exercise 14.
A. Read the text and write down Ukrainian equivalent for the words and expressions in bold type. The Magna Carta
At the Heart of the English system are two principles of government – limited government and representative government. The idea that government was not all-powerful first appeared in the Magna Carta, or Great Charter, that King John (1199-1216) signed in 1215 under the threat of civil war.
Earlier kings of England had issued charters, making promises to their barons. But these were granted by, not exacted from the king and were very generally phrased. Later the tension between the Kings and the nobility increased. Since 1199 John’s barons had to be promised their rights. It is, therefore, not surprising that Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, directed baronial unrest into a demand for a solemn grant of liberties by the king. The document known as the Articles of Barons was at last agreed upon and became the text from which the final version of the charter was drafted and sealed by john on June 15, 1215.
The Magna Carta established the principle of limited government, in which the power of the monarch, or government, was limited, not absolute. This document provided for protection against unjust punishment and the loss of life, liberty, and property except according to law. It stipulated that no citizen could be punished or kept in prison without a fair trial. Under the Magna Carta, the king agreed that certain taxes could not be levied without popular consent.
Although the Magna Carta was originally intended to protect aristocracy and not the ordinary citizens, it came in time to be regarded as a cornerstone of British liberties. It is one of the oldest written constitutional papers.
B. Remember the following meanings of the noun “government” in Ukrainian.
puppet (sovereign) government
Liberal (Labor, Conservative) government
invisible government – сили , які стоять за спиною офіційного уряду
her (his) Majesty’s Government – уряд її (його) величності
to form the government – сформувати уряд
democratic (republican, centralized, parliamentary) government
the local government – місцеве самоврядування
the government of a state – керівництво держави
a system of government
organs of government
Use the expressions above to make sentences of your own.
C. Render the passage below into English.
Велика Хартія Вільностей
Велика Хартія Вільностей – це грамота, яка була підписана в 1215 році англійським королем Іоаном І. Вона написана латиницею і складається з 63 статей. Цей документ з’явився в результаті незадоволення баронів посиленням королівської влади, податковим тягарем і невдалою зовнішньою політикою короля. Більшість статей захищало інтереси аристократії, але й інші групи населення одержали значні права.
Велика Хартія Вільностей гарантувала виконання королем певних обов’язків по відношенню до баронів і забороняла королю збирати податки без згоди підлеглих. Хартія поклала початок свободі людини. Ніхто не міг бути арештованим і ув’язненим, позбавленим майна або захисту закону, висланий або покараний якимось іншим чином без суду рівних людей і відповідно до законів держави.
Хартія – це перший в історії Англії документ, який обмежив владу корони і декларував права і свободи підлеглих. Хартія стала основою англійських свобод. Багато з її статей одержали подальший розвиток в Акті Хабеас Корпус і Білі про права.
Велика Хартія Вільностей і зараз входить до складу діючих актів Великої Британії.
Exercise 15. Read and translate the text.
Habeas Corpus Act
In the Britain, United States and many other English-speaking countries, the law of Habeas Corpus guarantees that nobody can be held in prisoner without trial. Habeas Corpus became a law because of a wild party held in 1621 at the London home of a notoriously rowdy lady, Alice Robinson. When a constable appeared and asked her and her guests to quiet down, Mrs. Robinson allegedly swore at him so violently that he arrested her and a local justice of the peace committed her to jail.
When she was finally brought to trial, Mrs. Robinson’s story of her treatment in prison caused an outcry. She had been put on a punishment diet of bread and water, forced to sleep on the bare earth, stripped, and given 50 lashes. Such treatment was barbaric even by the harsh standards of the time; what made it worse was that Mrs. Robinson was pregnant.
Public anger was so great that she was acquitted, the constable who had arrested her without a warrant was himself sent to prison and the justice of the peace was severely reprimanded and the case, along with other similar cases, led to the passing of the Habeas Corpus Act in Britain in 1679. The law is still on the British statute books. A version of it is used in the United States, where the law was regarded as such an important guarantee of liberty that Article 1 (section 9) of the Constitution declares :“The Privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public safety may require it”.
“Habeas Corpus” is part of a Latin phrase – Habeas Corpus ad subjiciendum – that means “Let the body be brought before the judge”. In effect, a writ of Habeas Corpus is an order in the name of the people (or, in Britain, of the sovereign) to produce an imprisoned person in court at once.
B. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words and expressions.
мировий суддя; ордер на арешт; варварське відношення; бунт, повстання; навала, вторгнення; незадоволення громади; ув’язнити; визвати гнівний протест; привести до прийняття закону; одержати сувору догану; стати перед судом; бути виправданим; від імені народу.
С. Render the following text into English.
Хабеас Корпус
Згідно з цим актом будь-яка персона, заарештована за будь-який кримінальний злочин, мала право звернутись особисто або через свого представника до корони з проханням видати наказ “Хабеас Корпус” голові в’язниці. Одержавши цей наказ, голова в’язниці був зобов’язаний відвести заарештованого до судді, який перевіряв законність арешту.
Хабеас Корпус – це сама важлива гарантія громадських прав і свобод в Англії: жодна людина не може бути арештована без достатніх причин.
Exercise 16.
A. Complete the text using the words:
financial control, more resistance, royal requests, Stuart succession, raising taxes, prevent, restricted, forced.
The Petition of Rights
Parliament began to show … to the monarchy under the … from 1603 by using its gradually acquired weapon of … It was influenced by the gentry and began to refuse … for money. It eventually … Charles I to sign the Petition of Rights in 1628, which further … the monarch’s powers and was intended to … him from … without Parliament’s consent.
B. Translate the text below into English using the information and vocabulary from the text in part A.
Закон про права громадян звертатись до суду
Конституційне протистояння в ХVII ст. виявилось в прийнятті в 1628 році документа, який відомий як Закон про права громадян звертатись до суду. Потребуючи гроші король Карл І намагався одержати їх від своїх підлеглих без втручання Парламенту. Але в 1628 році парламент примусив короля прийняти цей закон, який дозволяв збирати податки тільки зі згоди парламенту. Цей документ гарантував англійським підлеглим і інші права.
Exercise 17. Read the text and write down Ukrainian equivalents for
the underlined words and expressions.
The Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights (1689) is one of the basic instruments of the British constitution, the result of the long 17th – century struggle between the Stuart kings and the English people and Parliament. The Bill of Rights provided the foundation on which the government rested after the Revolution of 1688. The Revolution settlement made monarchy clearly conditional on the will of Parliament and provided a freedom from arbitrary government of which most Englishmen were notably proud during the 18th century.
The main purpose of the act was unequivocally to declare illegal various practices of James II. Among such practices proscribed were the royal prerogative of dispensing with the law in certain cases, the complete suspension of laws without the consent of Parliament, and the levying of taxes and the maintenance of a standing army in peacetime without specific parliamentary authorization. A number of clauses sought to eliminate royal interference in parliamentary matters, stressing that elections must be free and that members of Parliament must have complete freedom of speech. Certain forms of interference in the course of justice were also proscribed. The act also dealt with the proximate succession to the throne, provided the heirs were Protestants. It is the constitutional paper of great importance, which prevented the sovereign from abusing his authority.
Exercise 18. Answer the questions using the information from the
texts in exercises 15-17.
Exercise 1. A. Translate and remember the meanings of the following
words and word combinations.
to appeal pursuit
to repeal to set up
restriction on unified nation
consent to handle
demand for authority
mutiny to design
secession to balance order
to set forth the need for security
to endow tidy results
Translate and learn the given word combinations, then read them fluently.
the restrictions on trade and industry, without their consent, with a demand for the complete submission, certain unalienable rights, the pursuit of happiness, the source of authority, all the ideas and ideals it embraced, which expresses peoples’ yearning to be free, with checks and balances, a clash of views in debate, on bargain and compromise.
Text
In 1774 the American colonies sent their delegates to a congress held in Philadelphia, which was one of the largest towns in the colonies. This congress appealed to the king to repeal the restrictions on trade and industry and not to tax them without their consent. The king replied with a demand for the complete submission of the colonies, declared their action a mutiny, and ordered his troops to put it down.
It was the beginning of the War of Independence (1775-1783).
Congress appointed George Washington Commander-in-Chief of the colonial forces. One colony after another proclaimed their secession from England.
On July 4, 1776 the Continental Congress issued Declaration of Independence, primarily written by Thomas Jefferson, a farmer and a lawyer from Virginia. This document declared that from that time “the United colonies” were “free and independent states” and named them the United States of America.
The Declaration of Independence set forth some of the principles of American democracy. The document says: “ that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and Pursuit of Happiness.” It affirmed the peoples’ right to set up their government and give it appropriate powers, thereby advancing the principle that the people itself is the source of authority, i. e. the concept of democracy.
After the War of Independence was over (1783) the United States was not one unified nation as it is today. Each new state had its own government and was organized very much like an independent nation.
Each made its own laws and handled all of its internal affairs. During the war the states had agreed to work together by sending representatives to a national congress. But this Congress had been given no authority to force any state to do anything. It could not tax any citizen. Only the state in which a citizen lived could do it.
Many Americans worried about the future. They believed that the Congress needed more power.
The Congress asked each state to send delegates to a convention in Philadelphia, the city where the Declaration of Independence had been signed, to discuss the changes which would be necessary to strengthen the Articles of Confederation.
In the course of the Convention the delegates designed a new form of government for the United States. The plan for the government was written in a very simple language in a document called the Constitution of the United States.
The Constitution set up a federal system with a strong government (See Ex. 7). They say the Declaration of Independence was the promise; the Constitution was the fulfillment.
Another basic foundation of representative democracy in the USA is the Bill of Rights adopted in 1791 (See Ex. 8).
Much can be said about the importance of the Constitution, but the following is the best. It was written by the Chairman of the Commission of the Bicentennial of the United States Constitution, Chief Justice of the United States (1969-1986):
«Ever since people began living in tribes and villages, they have had to balance order with liberty. Individual freedom had to be weighed against the need for security of all.
The delegates who wrote this Constitution in Philadelphia in 1787 did not invent all the ideas and ideals it embraced, but drew on the wisdom of the ages to combine the best of the past in a conception of government of rule by “We the People” with limits on government to protect freedom.
This Constitution was not prefect; it is not prefect today even with amendments, but it has continued longer than any other written form of government. It sought to fulfill the promises of the Declaration of Independence of 1776, which expressed peoples’ yearning to be free and to develop the talents given them by their Creator.
This Constitution creates three separate, independent branches of government, with checks and balances that keep the power of government within the boundaries set by law. This system does not always provide tidy results; it depends on a clash of views in debate and on bargain and compromise.
For 200 years this Constitution’s ordered liberty has unleashed the energies and talents of people to create a good life».
Exercise 2. Answer the following questions.
Exercise 3. Find out whether these statements are true, false or you
cann’t tell from the reading if it is true or false.
Exercise 4. Open the brackets choosing a suitable word or words.
Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1) The Congress (appealed, replied to) the King not to tax them without their consent. 2) Philadelphia was a large (city, town). 3) The King (welcomed, declared) their action a mutiny. 4) The Continental Congress (declared, issued) a Declaration of Independence. 5) After 1783 each state was organized like (a separated, an independent) nation. 6) The delegates of the Convention (formulated, designed, described) a new form of government. 7) The delegates of the Congress did not (invent, write, keep) ideas and ideals. 8) The constitution (creates, designs, formulates) three separate branches of government. 9) The Declaration of Independence (shows, expresses) peoples’ yearning to be free. 10) In 1774 the American «state, colonies» sent their delegates to a congress held in «Philadelphia, Oxford». 11) Each «state, republic» handled all of its internal affairs after the War of independence. 12) This Constitution creates three «separate, dependent» branches of government.
Exercise 5. Make up sentences from the following words and word
combinations
of democracy, Athens, forms, had, and, other city-states, of, Greece, ancient.
said, and for the people, of the people, by the people, Abraham Lincoln, the United States, that, a government, had.
freedom, individual, to all, guarantees, the Constitution.
not, any citizen, the Congress, tax, could.
of the colonies, the king, England, of, demanded, complete submission, the
an independent, like, of, thirteen states, nation, each, was organized.
to set up, appropriate, the Declaration, the peoples’, their government, affirmed, right, form, give it, and.
of Independence, a farmer, a lawyer, was written, Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration, by.
to a national Congress, the states, during, agreed, the war, by sending, to work, together, representatives.
Exercise 6. Insert preposition (where necessary)
1) Abraham Lincoln called the United States “a nation conceived … liberty and dedicated … the preposition that all men are created equal. 2) No one has formulated a better way … describing the principles … the American political system as Americans understanding it. 3) The Constitution laws and traditions … the United States give… the people right to determine … who will be the leader of their nation, who will make … laws and what the laws will be. 4) The people have the power to change … the system. 5) The Constitution guarantees … individual freedom to all. 6) The idea that the citizens of a nation should elect … their officials or have a voice … making laws was not a new one when the United States came … being. 7) Democracy as a form of government appeared … ancient Greece. 8) Over the centuries the transformation … the principles and ideals of democracy … practice has been very rare throughout the world. 9) Some of the principles of American democracy were set … by the Declaration of Independence. 10) The United States wasn’t one unified nation after the War of Independence was …
Exercise 7. A. Read and translate the text.
Federal Government
By the Constitution the Government of the United States is composed of three coordinate branches: the executive one, the legislative one and the judicial one.
The executive power is vested in a President. He holds office for 4 years and is elected together with vice-president chosen for the same term by electors from each state. The President must be a native-born citizen, resident in the country for 14 years, and at least 35 years old. The presidential election is held every forth (leap) year on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
The executive power is responsible for administering and executing the laws.
The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate consists of 2 members from each state, chosen for 6 years, one third retiring or seeking re-election every 2 years. The House of Representatives is elected every other year. The number of each state’s representatives depends on the number of people in this particular state.
The function of the legislative branch of government is to make laws and to finance the operation of government through gathering taxes and appropriating money requested by the executive branch of the government.
The judicial branch of the federal government consists of the Supreme Court of the United States and the system of federal courts. It has the responsible for judging the constitutionality of acts of law.
Finish the following sentences.
Retell about the federal government of the USA.
You may use Part B as a plan.
Retell about the government of Ukraine. Use your professional knowledge and active vocabulary of this exercise. Compare the structure of the government in Ukraine and the USA. Define which one you consider to be the best and why.
Describe the composition of the ideal government (from your point of view) either in Ukraine or in any never-being country.
Exercise 8. A. Read and translate the text. Use glossary after the text.
Amendments to the Constitution of the USA
Today there are 26 Amendments to the Constitution.
The first ten Amendments were ratified effective December 15, 1791 and they are known as the Bill of Rights.
This consists of 10 very short paragraphs, which guarantee freedom and individual rights and forbid interference with the lives of individuals by the government. Each paragraph is an Amendment to the original Constitution.
In the Bill of Rights Americans are guaranteed freedom of religion, of speech and of the press. They have the right to assemble in public places, to protect government action and to demand change. They have the right to own weapons if they wish. Because of the Bill of Rights neither police nor soldiers can stop and search a person without good reason. They also cannot search a person’s home without legal permission from a court to do so.
The Bill of Rights guarantees Americans the right to a speedy trail if accused of a crime. The trail must be by a jury and the accused person must be able to call in witness to speak for him or her and must be allowed representation by a lawyer.
Cruel and unusual punishment is forbidden.
There are 16 amendments to the Constitution as of 1991. That is not many changes considering that the Constitution was written in 1787.
Glossary
amendment - поправка - поправка
to ratify - ратифицировать - затверджувати
effective - действующий - що набуває сили
to forbid - запрещать - забороняти
to demand - требовать - вимагати
to search - обыскивать - обшукувати
speedy - быстрый - швидкий
to consider - считать - вважати
B. Answer the following.
Match the words from columns 1 and 2.
the Constitution punishment
the Bill of a lawyer
representation witness
10 short person
guarantee rights
unusual interference
individual to assemble
forbid changes
freedom place
rights of religion, of speech and of the press
public government actions
to protest of Rights
to demand paragraphs
right freedom
search was written in1787
without to own weapon
legal a person
a speedy good reason
accused permission
to call in trail
accused of a crime
Exercise 9. Fill in the blanks with the words given below.
Use your professional knowledge.
the Senate, the authority, departments, occur, executive branch, cabinet, federal, armed forces, confirmation, are headed by, are selected, appoints.
The President has … to appoint federal judges as vacancies … including members of the Supreme Court. All such court appointments are subjected to … by the Senate. Within the … the President has broad powers to issue regulations and directives regarding the work of the … government’s many departments and agencies. He also is commander in chief of the …
The president … the heads and senior officials of the executive branch agencies; the large majority of federal workers however … through a non-political civil service system.
The major departments of the government … appointed secretaries who collectively make up the President’s …
Each appointment must be confirmed by a vote of …
Today these 13 … are: State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Service, Housing, Transportation, Energy and Education.
Exercise 10. Provide Ukrainian equivalents to fit the English expressions.
Exercise 11. Enrich your vocabulary.
I. Synonyms. Match each word in column A with the word of similar
meaning in column B.
|
A |
B |
|
particular, specific |
proper, suitable |
|
to amend |
Document |
|
Appropriate |
Special |
|
Bill |
to improve |
|
Design |
to prohibit |
|
to forbid |
Liberty |
|
Freedom |
Purpose |
|
Authoruty |
to approve |
|
to ratify |
to abolish |
|
to repeal |
Separation |
|
Secession |
Power |
II. Antonyms. Match each word in column A with the word of opposite
meaning in column B.
|
A |
B |
|
to amend |
Unsuitable |
|
Appropriate |
Slavery |
|
Freedom |
Hatred |
|
Love |
to unite |
|
to separate |
to spoil |
III. Definitions. Match each word in part A with the definition of a word in part B.
A. constitution, amendment, authority, love, to sign, secession, concept, appropriate, citizen, freedom, to issue, mutiny.
B. 1) The removal of faults; the altering of a bill, act or other formal papers.
2) Suitable to the occasion.
3) One owing allegiance to a state.
4) A thought or idea.
5) The system of fundamental laws of a nation or society.
6) The state of being free.
7) To put into circulation.
8) A strong and deep feeling of attachment, great affection.
9) Insurrection against or forcible resistance to constituted authority.
10) The right or power to decide and command.
11) The act of separating.
12) To affix one’s name to.
Exercise 12. This paragraph summarizes the unit. Fill in each blank with a word or words that makes sense.
The American Constitution is the world’s oldest …constitution in force. Although the Constitution has changed in many aspects since it was first …, its basic … remain the same as in 1789.
The three main … of government are … and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are delicately … by the power of the two other. Each … serves as a check on potential excesses of the others.
The constitution … all other laws, executive … and regulations.
All … are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its … All states are …, and none can receive special treatment from the … Each state must recognize and … the laws of the others. State government, like the federal government, must be … in form, with final authority resting with the people.
The constitution has been … 26 times since 1789, and it is likely to be … in the future. The most sweeping changes were made within two years of its … In that period, the first ten amendments, known collectively as … , were added. They were approved as a block by … in September 1789, and … by 11 states by the end of 1791.
Exercise 13. Read and translate the text.
Try to understand who is spoken about.
This question is about a person who started life as a rebellious student. In his first year at college he became a student leader and organized a successful strike against the college authorities. After leaving college he got a job as a sports commentator on the radio and from there he moved into films. He went to Hollywood where he became, in his own words, the Errol Flynn of the B movies’, meaning that he wasn’t a very good actor. But despite his luxurious Hollywood life he had not lost his interest in politics. He played such a big role in Hollywood politics that in 1945 his first wife divorced him because of his ‘political obsessions’. In 1950s his film career went into decline; the lowest point came in 1951 when he co-starred in a film with a chimpanzee. At the same time his political stance was moving to the right. He became a Republican and in 1967 was elected governor of California, with Walt Disney organizing his inauguration ceremonies. In 1980, at the age of seventy, he was elected the oldest president ever of the United States. What was his name?
Exercise 14. Read and translate the text. Prepare information about the analogous organization in your country.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation
Charles Bonaparte was an American and a descendent of Napoleon Bonaparte. In the early years of the twentieth century Charles Bonaparte was the Attorney General of the United States, and in the year 1908 he established a new federal government agency. Based in Washington, it was designed to collect information and report to the Attorney General, but for the first years of its existence it was not very effective. In 1924, however, J. Edgar Hoover was appointed director, and he held the job for the next fifty years. He recruited lawyers and accountants rather than ordinary policemen, and built up the world’s largest collection of fingerprints – about two hundred million. The organization led the fight against the gangsters of the 1920s and 1930s. The regular police were jealous of Hoover’s FBI agents, who they called “the college cops”. Today it helps the police in each of the fifty states and also conducts operations against foreign spies. It is the only form of national police force in the United States.
governed by керуючись
on behalf of від імені
adopt приймати
assure гарантувати, забезпечувати
sovereign суверенний
single єдине громадянство
exercise дійснювати, виконувати
body орган, звід, кодекс
anthem гімн
banner стяг
stripe смуга
obligation обов’язок
full development всебічний розвиток
restriction обмеження
gender стать
origin походження
ownership майновий стан
guarantee гарантувати
inviolability недоторканість
dwelling житло
medical care медична допомога
insurance страхування
in compliance with відповідно до
taxes and duties податки і збори
outline намічати, окреслювати
specify точно визначати
branch гілка
legislative законодавчий
executive виконавчий
judicial судовий
Supreme Court Верховний Суд
Suffrage виборче право
law drafting work законопроектна робота
voter виборець
accountable дізвітний
fulfill здійснювати
On behalf of the Ukrainian people a unitarain state, the right to the free development, the Sign of the State, territorial integrity of Ukraine, in the order and amount, on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage, law drafting work, is exercised entirely by courts, courts of general jurisdiction, the territorial structure, consists of, a state holiday.
Governed by the Act of Ukraine’s Independence of August 24, 1991, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on behalf of the Ukrainian people adopted the Constitution – the Fundamental Law on June 28, 1996.
The Constitution establishes the country’s political system, assures rights, freedoms and duties of citizens, and is the basis for its laws.
It asserts that Ukraine is a sovereign and independent, democratic, social, legal state. It is an unitarain state with single citizenship.
Ukraine is a republic. The people are the only source of power which is exercised directly and through the bodies of state power and local self-government.
The land, mineral raw materials, air space, water and other natural resources which are on the territory of Ukraine are objects of the property right of Ukrainian people.
The state language in Ukraine is Ukrainian.
The state symbols of Ukraine are the State Flag, the State Emblem and the State Anthem of Ukraine. The State Flag is a blue and yellow banner made from two equal horizontal stripes. The main element of the Great State Emblem of Ukraine is the Sign of the State of Prince Volodymyr the Great (the Small state Emblem of Ukraine). The State Anthem of Ukraine is the national anthem with the music of M. Verbytsky.
The capital of Ukraine is Kyiv.
The Constitution states that every person has the right to the free development of his/her personally, and has obligations before society where free and full development of the personality is assured. Citizens have equal Constitutional rights and freedoms and are equal before the law. There are no privileges or restrictions based upon face, color of skin, political and other beliefs, gender, ethnic and social origin, property, ownership, position, place of residence, language, religion.
The articles of the Constitution guarantee the rights to life, personal inviolability and the inviolability of dwelling, noninterference in private and family life, free choice of residence, work, rest, education, social security, housing, health protection, medical care and medical insurance, legal assistance, a safe and healthy environment.
Defence of the Motherland and territorial integrity of Ukraine, and respect for the state’s symbols are the duty of citizens. Citizens of Ukraine perform military services in compliance with the law. No person may damage the environment, cultural heritage. Every person shall pay taxes and duties in the order and amount determined by law.
The Constitution outlines the structure of the national government and specifies its powers and duties. Under the Constitution the powers of the government are divided into three branches – the legislative which consists of the Verkhovna Rada, the executive, headed by the President, and the judicial, which is led by the Supreme Court.
The parliament – the Verkhovna Rada is the only body of the legislative power in Ukraine. There are 450 people’s deputies who are elected for a term of four years on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.
The Verkhovna Rada’s main function is making laws. Law drafting work is performed by its Committees.
The Verkhovna Rada adopts the State Budget for the period from January 1 to December 31 and controls the execution of it. The monetary unit of Ukraine is the Hryvnia.
The president of Ukraine is the head of the state and speaks on behalf of it. He is elected by the voters for a term of five years with no more than two full terms.
The highest body of the executive power is the Cabinet of Ministers. It is responsible to the President and is accountable to the Verkhovna Rada. It carries out domestic and foreign policy of the State, the fulfillment of the Constitution, as well as the acts of the President, develops and fulfills national programs on the economic, scientific and technological, social and cultural development of Ukraine.
Justice in Ukraine is exercised entirely by courts. It is administered by the Constitutional Court and by Courts of general jurisdiction. The Supreme Court of Ukraine is the highest juridical body of general jurisdiction.
The Constitution defines the territorial structure of Ukraine. It is composed of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, 24 oblasts, rayons, cities, rayons in cities, settlements and villages. Cities of Kyiv and Sevastopol possess a special status determined by law.
The Constitution of Ukraine consists of 15 chapters, 161 articles.
The day of its adoption is a state holiday – the Day of the Constitution of Ukraine.
Exercises 3. Answer the questions.
When did the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopt the Constitution?
What reason did the Verkhovna Rada have to adopt the Constitution?
What does the Constitution establish?
How is power exercised in Ukraine?
What are objects of the property right of Ukrainian people?
What obligations does personality have before society?
Are there any privileges or restrictions for any personality (according to the Constitution)?
What do the articles of the Constitution guarantee?
What duties of citizens do you remember?
How does the Constitution specify the national government’s powers and duties?
Who speaks on behalf of the state?
Who is justice administered by in Ukraine?
Exercise 4. Find out whether these statements are true, false or you
cannot tell from the reading if it is true or false.
The Verkhovna Rada adopted the Constitution on behalf of the Ukrainian people.
The Constitution establishes the country’s political system.
Ukraine is a republic.
Like Ireland Ukraine is a religious state.
The Constitution of Ukraine is nine years old.
The state symbols of Ukraine are the State Flag and the State Emblem.
The main element of the Great State Emblem of Ukrain is the Sign of the State of Prince Volodimir the Great.
The powers of the government are divided into branches.
The executive power is vested in a President.
The highest body of the executive power is the Verkhovna Rada.
The legislative power in Ukraine is vested in the Cabinet of Ministers.
Justice in Ukraine is exercised entirely by courts.
Exercise 5. Insert prepositions (where necessary).
The Constitution … Ukraine was adopted … June 28, 1996. By the Constitution the government is composed … there branches. The executive power is vested … a President and the Cabinet of Ministers. A President holds office … five years and he speaks … behalf of the state. He is elected directly … the voters (with no more than two full terms). The executive power is responsible … administering and executing the laws. The legislative power is vested … the Verkhovna Rada. Deputies are elected … a term of four years by secret ballot. The function of the legislative branch is to make … laws and to finance the operations of the government through gathering taxes. The judicial branch of the government consists … courts. The Constitutional Court has the responsibility … judging the constitutionality of acts of law.
The Constitution of Ukraine consists … 15 chapters. The day … its adoption is a state holiday – the Day … the Constitution of Ukraine.
1. Ukraine has a (democratic, federal) political system. 2. A President can (make, issue) orders without the (approval, adoption) of the Verkhovna Rada in some matters. 3. The people elects a president to a (four-year, five-year) term. 4. Ukrainian (16,18) years old or older may vote. 5. Ukraine is divided into (24,25) regions and the Crimea. 6. Rukh was established in (1989, 1990) and includes (several, two) political parties. 7. Citizens of Ukraine (perform, are free of) military services. 8. The amount of taxes and duties are determined by the (law, courts of general jurisdiction). 9. Citizens are equal before (the law, regional courts). 10. A president is elected (directly, secretly). 11. A president is elected by (the votes, the people’s deputies). 12. The constitution of Ukraine consists of 161 (chapters, articles).
republic, Ukraine, is, a.
sovereign, independent, democratic, social, legal, Ukraine, is, a, and, state.
the Ukrainian National Republic, was adopted, fundamental law, the, 1918, April, 29, on.
of the state, the mutual relations, basic laws, the structure, citizens, the state, a constitution, are called, prescribing, and, between, and.
Ukraine, courts, justice, entirely, in, is exercised, by.
duties, powers, the national government, outlines the Constitution, the structure, of, and, specifies, its.
the only body, the legislative power, the parliament, Ukraine, is of, in.
the government, branches, is composed, of, of, Ukraine, three.
president, office, five years, a, holds, for.
is, the executive power, the laws, responsible for, executing, administering, and.
structure, Ukraine, the Constitution, the, of, by, territorial, is defined.
Ukraine, the legislative branch, vested, the Verkhovna Rada, power, in, of, is, in.
Exercise 8. Read, translate and retell the following. Use glossary after the text.
Ukrainian Anthem
The Ukrainian anthem “Shche ne umerla Ukraina” (Ukraine Has Not Yet Perished) is of quite recent origin. In Western Ukraine after 1848 there were usually two songs which enjoyed popularity at national celebrations and patriotic demonstrations. One was by the Basilian Father Julian Dobrylovsky (1760-1825) – Grant, O Lord, in Good Time – and the others, the verse of Ivan Hushalevych (1825-1903) – We Bring You Peace, Brothers. In 1848 the latter was recognized by the Supreme Ruthenian Council in Lviv as the national anthem of the Galician Ukrainians. The Carpatho-Ukrainians, on occasions of popular celebration, sang the song by Alexander Dukhnovych (1803-65) – I Was, Am and Will be a Rusyn (Ruthenian). In the central and eastern Ukrainian lands the Testament of Taras Schevchenko was used for many years as a national anthem at manifestations and demonstrations. It was called, not inappropriately, the Ukrainian Marseillaise.
In 1863 the Lviv journal Meta (The Goal) published the poem of Paul Сhubynsky (1839-84), Shche ne umerla Ukraina, which was mistakently ascribed to Taras Shevchenko. In the same year it was set to music by the Galician composer Michael Verbytsky (1815-70), first for solo and later choral performance.
This song as a result of its catchy melody and patriotic text, rapidly became popular and gained broad acceptance among the Galician population as well as among the Ukrainians within the Russian empire. In 1917 it was officially adopted as the anthem of the Ukrainian state.
Glossary
to bear (bore, borne) носити
gules червоний колір
knightly рицарський
shield щит
head of spear наконечник списа
staff древко
self-determination самовизначення
to seek inspiration шукати натхнення
glorious славетний
to revive відроджувати
rampant що стоїть на задніх лапах
simultaneously одночасно
armorial геральдичний
charged with із зображенням
striped смугастий
escutcheon щит герба
to hoist піднімати
provisionally тимчасово
exile вигнання
anthem гімн
recent недавній
verse вірш
testament заповіт
inappropriately без підстав
to ascribe приписувати
choral хоровий
rapidly швидко
acceptance визнання
empire імперія
Galicia Галіція
to establish запроваджувати
unity єдність
The Fundamental Law of Ukraine was adopted…
The Constitution establishes …
Ukraine is a sovereign …
The power is exercised directly …
The state symbols of Ukraine are …
Every person has the right to …
There are no privileges of …
The Constitution guarantees the rights …
Every person shall pay …
The only body of the legislative power in Ukraine is …
The highest body of the executive power is …
The territorial structure of Ukraine is composed of …
standards, yellow, the trident, coat of arms, century, a symbol, a visible symbol, the national flag, Ukrainian National Republic, is found.
Coat of Arms
The oldest … of Ukraine is … . It was the coat of arms of the land of Prince Volodymyr the Great and his dynasty and it was undoubtedly used as early as 10th … . The classic form of the Ukrainian trident … on the gold and silver coins of Volodymyr the Great (979-1015). The coat of arms of the Halych princes – the lion – is known to have been used as early as 1316.
In the middle of the nineteenth century the national revolutions marked the course of European history. The necessity arose for … of the self-determination of the Ukrainian nation. Seeking inspiration in the glorious historical past, the Supreme Ruthenian Rada in Lviv, reviving in 1848 the coat of arms of the former kingdom accepted the armorial tinctures as the combination of national colors of Ukraine. Both the light blue flag with the golden crowned lion and the horizontally striped flag were used at that time and the latter soon became … in Galicia as well as all over Ukraine.
The composition of national colors was decreed by a law of the independent … on March 22, 1918.
The light blue above … flag was established for the Western Ukrainian National Republic on November 13, 1918, and for the Carpatho-Ukrainian Republic on March 15, 1939, as … of the all-Ukrainian unity.
Both the yellow above light blue flag and the light blue above yellow flag were hoisted until 1949, and borne as military … and colors during the War of Liberation of 1917-20. The light blue above yellow flag was provisionally confirmed by the Ukrainian National Rada in exile on June 27, 1949.
Glossary
undoubtedly безсумнівно
to revive відроджувати
armorial геральдичний
tincture відтінок
to hoist підіймати
to bear нести
A. republic, term, anthem, to elect banner, coat of arms, yellow, capital, deputy, emblem, water, to develop.
B. 1.A visual symbol designed according to the rules of heraldry that belongs to a state, city, or family, and is passed on from generation to generation.
The official song of a state or a nation.
A light elementary color between green and orange in the spectrum.
A standart, or a flag of a country or organization.
A chief city.
To advance to a more complete or complex form.
A transparent liquid without color or odor, composed of hydrogen and oxygen.
A symbol.
A state in which the sovereign power is vested in representatives chosen by the people.
10. One appointed to act for another.
11.To choose.
12. A limit or boundary, a fixed period of time.
Exercise 12. Translate into English.
Акт проголошення незалежності України проголошує незалежність України та створення самостійної української держави – України.
Територія України є неподільною і недоторканою.
Віднині на території України мають чинність виключно Конституція і закони України.
Цей акт набирає чинність з моменту його схвалення.
24 серпня 1991 року Верховна Рада України
Exercise 13. Read, translate and learn the given bellow information.
Use glossary after the text.
Types of government
Monarchy: a state ruled by a king or queen. There are also countries that have a monarchy, but the monarch is not the ruler, e.g. The United Kingdom.
Republic: a state governed by representatives (= men or women chosen by the people) and a president, e.g. USA or France. People who believe in this system are republicans.
Democracy: a system of government in which leaders are chosen by the people, e.g. France or the UK. People who believe in this system are democrats.
Dictatorship: a system of government in which one person rules the country (= one person has total power). This person is called a dictator.
Political beliefs
Abstract noun
conservatism
socialism
social democracy
liberalism
communism
fascism
Personal noun/ adjective
conservative
socialist
social democrat
liberal
communist
fascist
Use abstract nouns in the sentences of the following model: People who believe in social democracy are social democrats.
Political positions
What does it mean to be a socialist or a conservative? Often, it means different things in different countries, but in Britain we often talk about someone’s political position like this:
left-wing/on the left (=socialist)
middle of the road/ in the center (=liberal)
right-wing/on the right (=conservative)
Elections
In a democracy, people vote for (= they choose in a formal way/ elect) the political party (e.g. conservatives, liberals or socialists) that they want to form (= make) the government. They do this in an election, and in many countries election take place / are held (= they happen) every four or five years.
42% voted for the socialists in the last election (= the socialists got 42% of the votes).
The president was elected two years ago.
Government
Political systems are different all over the world. In the UK, when a political party wins a majority (= 51% or more) of seats (= official positions in parliament) in an election, they become the government of the country, their leader (= the head of the parry/ person in control) becomes Prime Minister and they are in power.
The government must have policies (= programmes of action) to run (= manage) the country. This means, for example, an economic policy (for the economy), and a foreign policy (for actions taken by the country in other parts of the world).
Glossary
government - уряд
monarchy - монархія
state - держава
rule - правити
representative - представник
believe – вірити, довіряти
democracy - демократія
total power – повна влада
belief – переконання, вірування
conservative - консерватор
left-wing – що належить до лівого крила політичної партії
middle-of-the-road – поміркований, центриський
right-wing – що належить до правого крила політичної партії
election - вибори
vote – голосувати, голос (виборчий)
hold (held /held/ ) - проводити
happen - відбуватися
win (won) - перемагати
majority - більшість
seat – в парламенті
person in control - керівник
power - влада
policy - політика
run - керувати
manage - керувати
foreign – зовнішній (про політику)
gap – пробіл, пропуск (у тексті)
area - регіон
constituency – виборчий округ
on one’s own - самостійно
unfair - несправедливий
reason - причина
justify-виправдовувати, підтримувати
support - підтримувати
compare - порівнювати
suggest - пропонувати
agree - погоджуватися
view - погляд
major – головний, основний
increase - збільшувати
quite - досить
underline - підкреслювати
guess - здогадатися
bilingual - двомовний
monolingual - одномовний
stable-стабільний
Exercise 14. Use information given in Exercise 13 to do the following text.
Complete this world-building table. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary.
|
Abstract noun |
Person |
Adjective |
|
politics |
||
|
democracy |
||
|
dictatorship |
||
|
socialism |
||
|
conservatism |
||
|
liberalism |
Fill the gaps to complete this text about the political system in the United Kingdom. One word in each gap.
Words: Prime, system, form, power, majority, parliament, elections, votes, party.
In the UK _________________ are held every five years. (The _____________ Minister may decide to hold one after four years, but five years is the maximum.)
Some countries have a system of proportional representation: this means in theory, that a political parry with 30% of the winner takes all. This means that the person with the most votes in each political area (called a constituency) wins the seat; and the political ____________ which wins a ______________ of the seats will _________________ the government of their own. As a result of this system, it is possible for a parry to be in_______________ with only 40% of the total vote. Some people think this system is unfair.
What do you think? What possible reasons could there be to justify (= support) this system? Think about your answer, then compare it with the ideas suggested in the key.
Possible reasons to justify this system are: one single party has power, so there is little compromise which produces a strong government; there is a single set of policies; the government has a majority and so is relatively stable and does not need to call elections often.
Answer these questions about your own country. If possible, ask someone else the same questions.
Which parry is in power at the moment?
When were they elected?
Who is the leader of this parry?
Is this person the President or Prime Minister of your country?
Do you agree with most of their policies?
Would you describe yourself as left-wing, right-wing, or in the center?
Do you think your political views have changed much during your lifetime?
How many major (= important) political parries are there?
Who did you vote for in the last election?
Do you think this parry will win the next election? Will you vote for them again?
You can increase your English vocabulary in politics quite easily:
Buy three newspapers (in English if you are an English speaking country, or your own language if you are in your own country), and find the same political story in each one. Read the articles and underline any words that appear in all of them, and any other words you think are important. If your are reading a newspaper in English, try to guess the meaning of these words and then use a dictionary to check.
This exercise is equally useful if you read articles in your own language. You use a bilingual dictionary to fund the English translation /explanation for your underlined words, and you can then look up these words in a monolingual dictionary as well.
commitment
to enshrine
to demand
to educate
to lobby
to uphold
universality
inalienability
indivisibility
decent
dignity
equality
to exist
distinction
to assert
to deny
to space
to sacrifice
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, fundamental human rights and freedoms, government’s responsibility, without distinction, to be upheld and protected, should assert human rights principles, to deny anyone’s basic human rights, are related to each other, can be sacrificed for another.
Human Rights Principles of Universality, Inalienability and Indivisibility
The concept of “Human Rights” is a powerful tool. One hundred eighty-nine countries are members of the United Nations. As such, these governments have made a commitment to the human rights principles enshrined in the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948). The UDHR establishes the principle that fundamental human rights and basic freedoms are guaranteed to all persons. Civil society needs to understand the nature of human rights and governments’ responsibility to protect these rights. This knowledge provides civil society with a base upon which to demand governments take actions to protect the human rights of all persons.
All of us can educate and lobby our governments on how to fulfill their responsibility to uphold and make real the UDHR principles for all people.
Human rights are universal, inalienable and indivisible. Human rights exist in the civil, political, economic, social and cultural spheres. Examples of human rights are the right to life, the right to work and a decent living, the right to freedom from discrimination and the right to education. They are based on fundamental principles of respect for human dignity, equality and non-discrimination.
Universality means that human rights belong to everyone, everywhere, and they are the same for all people. Rights exist without distinction, for example, without regard to nationality, race, sex, religion, class, ethnicity, language or age. All people have the same basic needs and rights, which need to be upheld and protected at all times.
Inalienability means all rights belong to all persons from the moment of birth. We are born with rights and governments should assert human rights principles. No government or person has the right to deny anyone’s basic human rights.
Indivisibility means all human rights are related to each other; consequently rights are interrelated and interdependent. Civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights cannot be viewed as unconnected. They complement each other. One right is not more important than another, and person’s rights are not more important than another person’s rights. The right to speak, or the right to choose the number and spacing of your children, is interdependent with other rights, for example, on the ability to obtain information, and equal rights within the family. No one set of rights can be sacrificed for another.
Exercise 4. Find out whether the following statements are true, false or
you can’t tell from the reading if it is true or false.
powerful
Universal Declaration
fundamental
basic
decent
human
regard to
basic
human rights
equal
the UDHR
fox
rights
example
principles
principles
human right
living
dignity
nationality
tool
of Human Rights
freedoms
needs and rights
1. The theory/concept of Human Rights is a powerful tool. 2. 189 governments/countries are members of the United Nations. 3.Fundamental human rights are guaranteed to / accepted by all people. 4. Governments take actions to establish / to protect the human rights of all persons. 5. We can teach / educate our governments to make real the UDHR principles for all people. 6. Human rights are established/exist in all spheres of life. 7. Right to well being / decent living is among human rights. 8. Human rights are based on fundamental principles / understanding of respect for human dignity, equality and non-discrimination. 9. Universality/indivisibility means that human rights belong to everyone. 10.Universality/inalienability means all rights belong to all persons / men from the moment of birth. 11. All people have the same basic responsibilities / needs and rights. 12. No one set /code of rights can be sacrificed for another.
Exercise 8. Explain how you understand the following.
Exercise 9. How do you account for the fact that:
Exercise 10. Fill in the blanks with the words given below.
commitments, Universal, governments, international, responsibility, organization, headquarters, nature, to fulfill.
What the United Nations is
The United Nations (UN) is a worldwide … made up of 189 … of recognized countries of the world. Its … are in New York and Geneva. It is the formal … system that monitors human rights implementation and violation worldwide. By understanding the … of human rights and the governments’ … to protect human rights. We can pressure governments … their … under … Declaration of Human Rights.
Exercise 11. Find words in the text related to the words given below.
Category of the needed word is marked.
to govern – (noun)…
to be able – (noun)…
understanding – (verb)…
responsible – (noun)…
to distinct – (noun)…
protection – (verb)…
to inform – (noun)…
to educate – (noun)…
to declare – (noun)…
to know – (noun)…
complementary – (verb)…
Exercise 12. A. Read and translate the following.
Use the glossary after the text.
Women’s and Children’s Rights are Human Rights
“The human rights of women and the girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights. The human rights of women should form an integral part of the United Nations human rights activities, including the promotion of all human rights instruments relating to women”. This statement, from the 1993 Vienna Declaration on Human Rights, represents the first official recognition that women’s rights are human rights by the international community.
Saying ‘women’s rights are human rights’ is not claiming ‘special rights’ for women. On the contrary, it is a call to recognize that women have the same basic human rights as men.
The traditional debate on, and interpretation of, human rights, has focused on men’s actions in the public sphere, such as repression of political speech and political participation.
Women’s rights have been largely ignored in this debate, because women are typically seen as actors in the private sphere. As a result, their participation in the public sphere has been largely curtailed, and in the private sphere, controlled.
To ensure that women enjoy all the rights they have, a good starting point is to examine the particular obstacles faced by women. For instance, although the right to education is an universal right for all human beings, girls are more likely than boys to be uneducated. In times of poverty, parents tend to send boys to school rather than girls.
Children have human rights in the same way that adults do. Children’s rights are of equal value to adults’ rights. However, some human rights have a special application to children, reflecting their need for special care and attention, their vulnerability and the difference between childhood and adulthood. Childhood in itself has a value. To recognize this, when we talk about human rights of children, the best interest of the child should be a primary consideration in all actions concerning children, over the interest of a parent or a state.
The human rights of children are set out completely in the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Glossary
promotion - висування, сприяння
to claim - вимагати
repression - придушення
to curtail - скорочувати
obstacle - перешкода, завада
to face - зустрічати лицем до лиця
to tend - мати тенденцію до
adult - дорослі
vulnerability - уразливість
A. to sacrifice, obstacle, principle, freedom, birth, child, promotion, declaration, government, organization, concept, consequently.
B. 1. A rule or law of action or conduct.
2. Act or process of bringing together or arranging related parts into a whole.
3. A thought or idea.
Exercise 14. Summarize information about human rights
in no more than 15 sentences.
Exercise 15. A. Read the text and answer the questions after it.
Prisoners’ Rights
The idea that a prisoner has rights that may be protected by actions in the courts has been developed in Europe and the United States. In England, in the absence of a written constitution, prisoners restoring to the courts have relied on the general principles of administrative law, which, require procedures by disciplinary bodies. Although many actions brought by prisoners have been unsuccessful, prison disciplinary procedures have been improved as a result of such litigation.
In U.S. actions brought under the provisions of the U.S. Constitution (notably the England and the Fourteenth amendments) establish that prisoners are entitled to the protection of the Constitution. Early U.S. court decisions ruled that prisoners had forfeited all of the rights enjoyed by free citizens. Eventually, the courts recognized certain rights and legal remedies available to prisoners, who may now file their own suits, have direct access to the federal courts, and file writs of Habeas Corpus and mandamus. Under Habeas Corpus the prisoner may request release, transfer, or another remedy for some aspect of confinement. Mandamus is a command issue by a court directing a prison administrator to carry out a legal responsibility – to provide a sick prisoner with medical care, for example – or to restore to the prisoner rights that have been illegally denied. Prisoners have sought remedies for many problems, including relief from unreasonable searches, release from solitary confinement, and the procuring of withheld mail. Recent decisions have indicated, however, that the courts are now willing to limit legal writs by prisoners in deference to the security requirements of the prison.
AMENDMENT 8
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual and usual punishments inflicted.
AMENDMENT 14
No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; not shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
What rights do prisoners enjoy in Europe and the United States?
What principles have prisoners resorting to the courts relied on in England?
What do you know about Habeas Corpus and mandamus?
Why are the courts now willing to limit prisoners’ access to the federal courts in the USA?
B. Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions:
to resort the courts; to forfeit a right; release from solitary confinement; procuring of withheld mail; prison security requirements.
C. Write down a list of measures necessary to improve the present prisoners’ rights. Consider the information from the text above and your professional knowledge.
D. Make list of rights that that prisoners enjoy in this country.
Unit V: “Types of Law”
Exercise 1. Read, translate and remember the following words and word
combinations.
dealing
obligation
estate
wrong
injury
tort
offender
apparent
assign
bound
coherent
consistency
enforce
equity
failing
fair
fine
handle
intervene
loss
proper
operation
practitioner
prior
Exercise 2. Translate the following word combinations
and read them fluently.
regulations governing business dealing and personal obligations, real estate laws, private wrongs, financial loss, drunk driving accidents, to establish guilt and assign punishment, guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, rough and relatively recent, apparent failings, rationally organized society, demand for logical consistency, specific situations.
Types of Law
In the United States there are two types of law – civil and criminal.
Civil law consists of regulations governing business and personal obligations. It includes contract and real estate laws. It is primarily concerned with the control of property.
Tort law is a sub-type of civil law concerned with private wrongs that result in injury of financial loss. Many crimes (e.g., drunk driving accidents) can also be defined as torts so offenders can be sued by the victim in civil court as well as prosecuted by the government in criminal court. Civil suits fix the level of loss and compensate the victim. Criminal trails are intended to establish guilt and assign punishment.
Criminal laws define and punish public wrongs. The operation of criminal law is different from civil law in three major ways. First, criminal law requires more proof for conviction than does civil law (i.g., guilt beyond a resonable doubt). The rules that determine what evidence may be introduced in court are much stricter in criminal trails than in civil ones for this reason also. Second, the state brings criminal charges and receives monetary payments (fines) from the guilty person. In civil cases the injured person or business performs this role. Finally, civil penalties almost always center on the distribution of money or other property. Most crimes are punished with a loss of freedom or life. Because life and freedom are considered to be more valuable than property by American culture, the stakes are higher in criminal trail than in a civil one. This fact is frequently used to justify the higher standard of proof required in criminal cases. The division between criminal and civil law is rough and relatively recent. There are several other divisions in the sources of legal rules. Examination of these can help link the idea of law to that of justice as well as explain many of its apparent failings.
Virtually all humans recognize some sort of natural law. Natural law is any philosophy concerning the nature of proper behavior and justice that is felt to be suitable in a rationally organized society. It is usually attributed to powers superior to man or society (e.g., God, nature) and stresses morality and logic. Common law often arises from natural law. It is a body of customs, traditions and prior decisions that are recognized as binding on a specific group of people and uses group traditions (e.g., religion) as its philosophical basis. It serves to unify tribal beliefs into a coherent legal system and provides more stability and consistency than does natural law. Equity is concerned with the equal and fair treatment of persons. It is an appeal to social concepts of fairness that was used by the Romans and early Britons. Equity began as a supplement to common law principles that allowed royalty to intervene in legal disputes. It relies almost entirely on intuition and is not bound by prior decisions or a demand for logical consistency and is thus much less predictable than common law.
Neither Common law nor equity principles need to be written down (i.e., codified) in order to be effective. However, to meet the criteria for effective modern law, government authorities need to provide a logically organized, easily distributed and consistently worded set of rules for legal decision-making. The written decrees that fill this need are generally referred to as statutory laws. Statutory laws include both substantive criminal law and procedural law. Statutory law refers to the rules that are created by acts of legislatures and other governmental bodies. Substantive law is that part of the law which defines and regulates the rights and duties of persons. It includes not only criminal law, but also civil contract law, tort law, law of wills (i.e., probate law), etc. Procedural law, on the other hand, describes the proper methods of enforcing persons’ rights or correcting their violation. It governs the behavior of the agencies and practitioners that carry out legal actions dealing with crime. Case law is used to fill in the gaps between the formal principle (written law) and the specific circumstances of concrete cases brought before a court by using court decisions to interpret and apply specific laws and principles. It consists of judicial interpretations of law supplied by appellate courts in written decisions. Contradictions between laws are also handled through case law decisions. Case Law is guided by the principle of stare decisis which translates as let the decision stand and encourages judges to use prior decisions to guide their application of laws and legal principles to the specific situations brought before them.
Exercise 3. Answer the questions.
What basic types of law do you know?
How can you define “civil law”?
Why can offenders be sued by the victim in civil courts as well as prosecuted by the government in criminal court?
How does the operation of criminal law differ from that of civil law?
What rules are much stricter: in criminal trail or in civil ones?
Why are the stakes higher in a criminal trail than in a civil one?
Do all humans recognize some sort of natural law?
What law serves to unify tribal beliefs into a coherent legal system?
What is equity concerned with?
What kind of law do statutory laws include?
Why is case law used for?
How are contradictions between laws handled?
Exercise 4. Choose the correct word or words from the two given in these
sentences. If you choose two words, use “and” to connect them.
1. (Substantive, case) law fills in the gaps between the written law and the specific circumstances of concrete cases. 2. (Common law, equity principles) don’t need to be written down. 3. Statutory laws include (substantive criminal law, procedural law). 4. All humans recognize some sort of (natural law, common law). 5. There are two types of law in (Ukraine, the United Stats) – civil and criminal. 6. Social concept of fairness was used by (the Romans, the Greeks, the Britons). 7. Equity is less predictable than (case law, common law). 8. (Case law, procedural law) is guided by the principle of stare decisis. 9. Equity began as a supplement to (common law, statutory law) principles. 10. (The connection, the division) between criminal and civil law is rough. 11. In (criminal cases, civil cases) the state brings changes and receives fines. 12. (Common law, natural law) is usually attributed to man or society.
Exercise 5. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. You must use your professional knowledge and active vocabulary of the unit.
Exercise 6. Translate the words in brackets into English.
1. (Юридична дія) of criminal law (відрізняється від) civil law in three major ways. 2. Criminal law requires (більше доказів для звинувачення) than does civil law. 3. The state brings criminal changes (і одержує грошову виплату) from the guilty person. 4. (Життя і свобода вважаються) to be more valuable than property by American culture. 5. (Цей факт часто використовується) to justify the higher standard of proof required (в кримінальних справах). 6. (Фактично всі люди визнають) some sort of natural law. 7. Natural law is usually attributed to power superior to man (або суспільство) and stresses (мораль і логіку). 8. Equity is an appeal to social concepts of fairness that (користувались римляни та британці). 9. Neither Common law nor equity principles (не потребують того, щоб їх записували ) in order to be effective. 10. Statutory law refers to the rules that are created (законодавчими актами) and other governmental bodies. 11. Case law (складається з) judicial interpretations of law supplied by appellate courts (в рішеннях, що написанні). 12. Case law (керується принципом) let the decision stand.
Exercise 7. How do you account for the fact that:
Exercise 8. Match the words according to the text.
A
proper
a reasonable
criminal
drunk
real
business
personal
private
the control
financial
public
monetary
B
dealings
obligations
estate laws
wrongs
of property
loss
driving accident
trials
wrongs
doubt
payments
behavior
Exercise 9. Complete the definitions.
Exercise 10. Make up sentences from the following words and word
combinations.
Exercise 11.
I. Synonyms and antonyms. Match each word in column A with word or words with similar meaning in column B. Then match seven words in column C with the word of opposite meaning in column A.
A B C
Apparent trust unjust
to assign honest unusual
to bound fairness, justice hidden
coherent logical consistency unbelief
common to appoint, to mark out secondary
equity clear, evident incoherent
failing to enclose, to limit injustice
fair customary, usual
law main, essential
belief statute
principal a fault
II. Definitions. Match each word in part A with the definition of a
word in part B.
A. to defend, authority, court, to injury, dealing, consistency, fine, law, sin, criminal, tribe, belief.
B. 1. Logical agreement, as between precept and practice or between two or more statements.
2. Management of business.
3. Money paid as a penalty.
4. That which causes harm or damage.
5. A rule of action sustained by authority.
6. Intellectual acceptance of anything as true.
7. An act that violates the law.
8. One who commits crime.
9. A hall of justice where accused persons are tried.
Exercise 12. Make questions. Here are answers.
Exercise 13. Finish the following sentences. Then use these sentences as
point of the plan and retell the text “Types of law”
Exercise 14. Match words in column A with the translation in column B.
Give Ukrainian equivalent to them, make up sentences of
your own with the English words and word combinations.
A B
Law видання законів
law abiding договірне право
law and order право справедливості
law breaker міжнародне право
law court кодекс честі
law enforcement природне право
law enforcement official цивільне право
law expenses прецедентне право
law in force закони держави
law making судові витрати
law of contract чинний закон
law of equity звичаєве право
law of honour втялення законів у життя
law of nations суд, суд загальногого права
law of nature судовий виконавець
law of the realm закон про неполнолітніх
case law шлюбний закон
child welfare law матеріальне право
civil law закон про дотримання інтересів дитини
customary law самосуд
juvenile law правопорядок
marital law поважаючий закони
mob law закон, право
substantial law правопорушник
to administer a law
to break a law
to enact a law
to evade a law
to incorporate into a law
to infringe a law
to sue at law
обходити закон
включати в закон
застосовувати закон
порушувати закон
вводить закон в дію
переслідувати по закону
порушувати закон
Unit VI: «Misdemeanors and Felonies»
Exercise 1. Read, translate and learn the words of the text.
adequate
aggravate
assault
capital
caution
code
confinement
culpable
enhance
enhancement
gross
harsh
incarceration
inflict
homicide
improper
mandate
mandatory
manslaughter
misdemeanor
offense
sentence
stockade
willful
Misdemeanors and felonies
Punishments for specific criminal acts vary somewhat from state to state but most states recognize misdemeanors and felonies. Misdemeanor offenses are distinguished from felonies by 1) the seriousness of the offense, and 2) the possible length of the imprisonment and 3) where the confinement is to occur. Misdemeanors are typically minor offenses ranging from traffic and health code violations to petty theft and assaults that are punishable by a fine and/or confinement in a city or county jail for up to one year in most states. Persons convicted of these offenses may be referred to as misdemeanants. Misdemeanors are further divided into classes, again on the basis of the seriousness of the act and the severity of the punishment. The most serious offenses are often classified as A and the least serious ones as C.
Principle differences between felonies and misdemeanors
Misdemeanors Felonies
Seriousness Minor Major
Length of Confinement Usually less than 1 year Usually over 1 year
Place of Confinement County Jail or Stockade State/Federal Prison
In most states, felonies are criminal offenses punishable by incarceration in a state prison for a year or more. Any crime for which a death sentence can be imposed is also a felony. Persons convicted of these offenses are known as felons. Like misdemeanors, felonies are divided into classes, which in some states are referred to as degrees (i.e. First, Second, Third degree). Again, the distinction between classes refers primarily to the seriousness of the crime and the severity of punishment. Capital felonies are those for which the death penalty may be imposed. Class A felonies carry the maximum sentence of imprisonment that can be imposed which is often from twenty years to life. Class B’s are usually limited to twenty years or less, class C’s up to 10 years, and class D’s to five years. Different states may use variations on this scheme. The class to which a particular felony offense is assigned depends largely on the severity of harm inflicted and/or the level of danger posed by the crime. When applied to a crime, the term aggravated, indicates especially serious circumstances such as the degree of injury done (or threatened), the age of the victim or the use of a lethal weapon. Killing someone, with or without specific intent, while committing some other felony (e.g., rape, robbery) is known as felony murder. All persons involved in the original crime may be held equally culpable for the death as well. Non-capital homicides include: murder – the willful killing of one human being by another without extreme provocation or legal justification; non-negligent (or voluntary) manslaughter – causing the death of another out of sudden passion arising from an adequate cause (e.g., rage, terror, etc.); involuntary manslaughter – recklessly causing the death of another due to improper caution; and negligent manslaughter – causing the death of another by gross negligence.
Forty-three states also have laws that recognize repeat and habitual felons. Persons convicted under these laws receive harsher penalties that usual for their offenses because of their prior convictions. Repeat felony charges are generally applied to those convicted of a felony who have previously been convicted of a first-degree or aggravated felony. The habitual felon sentence may be used against persons convicted of a felony who have previously been convicted of at least two other felony offenses. Most of these laws provide for sentence enhancement (adding a year or more to the sentence) for offenders with two or more prior convictions. Mandatory life-without-parole sentences may be given for those convicted of a fourth felony regardless of the severity of the criminal behavior in some states. Habitual offender acts are based on the belief that a relatively small number of habitual criminals are responsible for a vast number of serious crimes.
Exercise 2. Find answers in the text for the following questions.
Exercise 3. Match the words according to the text.
lethal
death
severity of
death
state
degree of
felony
aggravated
habitual
sentence
mandatory
criminal
capital
serious
enhancement
weapon
sentence
injury done
felony changes
felony
farm
penalty
prison
circumstances
felonies
behavior
life-without-parole sentence
felon sentence
repeat murder
Exercise 4. Finish the sentences.
Exercise 5. Complete these sentences inserting the prepositions (if necessary).
1. Misdemeanors and felonies are … specific criminal acts. 2. Misdemeanors offences are distinguished … felonies. 3. Misdemeanors rang … traffic and health code violations … petty theft and assaults. 4. Misdemeanors are punishable … a fine. 5. Felonies are punishable … incarceration in a state prison … a year. 6. Misdemeanors and felonies are divided … classes. 7. The destination between classed refers … the seriousness of the crime and the severity … punishment. 8. Forty-three states have laws that recognize repeat and habitual felons. 9. Persons convicted … these laws receive harsher penalties than usual … their offenses because … their prior convictions.
Exercise 6. Find out whether these statements are true false or you cannot tell from the reading if it is true or false.
Punishments for specific criminal acts are the same from state to state.
Felonies rang from traffic and health code violation to assaults.
Assaults are punishable by a fine only.
Persons convicted of health code violations may be referred to as misdemeanants.
Misdemeanors are divided on the basis of the seriousness of the act only.
Felonies are punishable by incarcentration in a state prison for a year and no more.
Felony murders are those for which the death penalty may be imposed.
Killing someone while committing some other felony is known as felony murder.
Laws of forty-two states recognize repeat and habitual felons.
Because of prior convictions persons receive harsher penalties than usual for their offenses.
Offenders with two or more prior convictions receive sentence enhancement (adding a year or more to the sentence).
Law originates in natural law concepts of right, wrong and justice.
Exercise 7. Find in the text equivalents for the following
and use them in sentences of your own.
відповідний, каторжна в’язниця, кодекс, тяжкий злочин, грубий, заточення у в’язниці, завдавати, вбивство, просте вбивство, найменш тяжкий злочин, недбалість, злочин, викладати, вирок, напад, обережність, невідповідний, смертельний, мандат, обов’язковий.
Exercise 8. Retell about misdemeanors and felonies using giving below
words and phrases.
specific criminal acts, typically minor offenses, divided into classes, punishable, crime, the distinction, the seriousness, the severity, capital felonies, aggravated, felony murder, rape, repeat and habitual felons, repeat felony charges, the habitual felon sentence, sentence enhancement, a relatively small number of habitual criminals, a vast number of serious crimes.
Exercise 9. How do you account for the fact that:
Exercise 10. A. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. You must use your professional knowledge and active vocabulary of the unit.
Law is … for making a society safe, stable and predictable. It originates in natural law … of right, wrong and justice but is often formalized by political bodies through … and court decisions. Criminal law thus … from the combined influences of a society’s religion, morality and … and is then further developed by political enactments and judicial decisions. Criminal law is primarily … with the control of individual behavior and reflects the mores of the society at the time. It is enforced by the state and is usually … by loss of freedom or life although … fines may also be imposed. Criminal law is mainly … enforcing mores or norms vital to the protection of society and its citizens.
Criminal laws can be divided into to … on the basis of 1) the seriousness of the offense and 2) the type of punishment imposed on those convicted. Serious crimes for which the penalty may exceed one year of confinement in a state facility are referred to as felonies. Less serious acts for which minor punishments are assigned … as misdemeanors. Felonies and misdemeanors are further subdivided into categories, again on the basis of the act’s seriousness and … of possible penalties. This division of crimes results in a graduated continuum … and penalties which range from capital felonies, the most serious, to class C … which are very minor violations. Different state and national legal codes are fairly similar in how they define the seriousness of a particular act but precise terminology and definitions vary across jurisdictions.
Words: are defined, misdemeanors, monetary, concerned, written statutes, a method, concepts, punished, basic categories, offenses, the penalty, originates, concerned with, the severity, the seriousness, traditions.
B. Match the words according to the text.
1
loss of
the severity of
law is
society’s
one year of
criminal
national legal
a state
a graduated
monetary
basic
the protection of
2
fines
categories
codes
society
confinement
continuum
religion
possible penalties
a method
freedom
facility
law
Exercise 11. Match the words according to the sense. Give Ukrainian equivalents to the following. Make up sentences with English words and word combinations.
A
Felon, felon of himself, felonious, felonious enterprise, felonious injury, felonious intent, felonious wounding, felonry, felony, attempted felony.
Offense, offense against morality, offense against the person, offense aided and abetted, offense in a person, offense triable on indictment, alleged offense, arrestable offense, indictable offense, minor offense, petty offense, serious offense, statutory offense.
B.
Преступные элементы, преступный, фелония (тяжелые преступления), преступное нанесение ранения, покушение на совершение тяжкого уголовного преступления, лицо, совершившее фелонию, самоубийца, деятельность по совершению фелонии, нанесение повреждений, являющихся фелонией, преступное намерение, преступление со стороны какого-либо лица, преступление, предусмотренное законом, посягательство, правонарушение, преступление, преступление против личности, преступление, преследуемое по обвинительному акту, преступление против морали, малозначительное преступление, тяжкое преступление, преступление, совершению которого оказано пособничество, преступление, за которое виновный подлежит аресту, мелкое правонарушение.
C. Define what punishments are recognized for listed in B offenses in this country.
Exercise 12. Match each word in part A with the definition of
a word in part B.
A. prison, inter agency relations, law enforcement, felony, criminal justice system, assault corrections, criminology, jail, criminal justice, social, construction, system.
B. 1. Prison, especially one for those guilty of lesser offenses and sentenced to comparatively short terms.
Unit VII: “Legal Definitions of Crime”
Exercise 1. Read, translate and learn the following words and word
combinations.
act
omission
criminal omission
to occur
conspiracy
solicitation
incomplete
offence
inchoate
failure
contractual
exclussion
command
negligence
culpability
culpable
transfer
relocate
goal
liability
recklessness
blameworthness
insanity
consent
Exercise 2. Translate the words and word combinations then read them fluently.
omissions that constitute criminality, a particular legal relationships, the basic goal, is prohibited by the law, strict liability crimes, driving while intoxicated, a legal defense, self-defense, a justification is accepted, affirmative defense.
Legal Definitions of Crime
Before any behavior can be declared criminal, five specific conditions must be present. First, an act or omission must have actually occurred. The criminal act is reffered to as actus reus. Crimes such as conspiracy, solicitation and attempts to commit crimes (e. g., attempted murder) are incomplete crimes but real criminal intent is apparent in them. They are known as inchoate offences. An omission is the failure to act when there is a legal duty to do so. Omissions that constitute criminality can arise from at least four types of situations: 1) where a law mandates a duty to care of another; 2) where one has particular legal relationship to another that carries specific duties; 3) where one has accepted a contractual duty to care for another and; 4) where one has voluntarily accepted the care of another, to the exclusion of others. A second condition that must be present before a crime can be said to have occurred is that a law forbidding or commanding the act must also exist. Criminal intent (mens rea) or negligence must be also be present before a crime can occur in a legal sense. Mens rea literally means guilty mind and is used to specify the character of the intent or negligence. Intent must not be confused with motive. Motive is what drives or prompts a person to commit an act (i.e., the reason or rationale). Intent refers to the person’s state of mind at the time when the act was committed. The term culpability is a legal reference to the blameworthiness of a person who was committed a criminal act. It refers to both the action and the mental state of the person performing it. Culpable actions are motivated by intent, knowledge, recklessness, or negligence. The exception to this general rule occurs in cases of strict or absolute liability.
American criminal codes recognize several types of criminal intent. General intent is present when the person’s actions show that the basic goal of the act is prohibited by law (e.g., to do someone bodily harm). Specific intent refers to acts with the purpose of accomplishing a particular goal which the law prohibits (e.g., shooting a particular person). Intent can also be transferred from the intended victim to the person actually harmed. Transferred intent relocates the original intent of the act from the intended victim to those who actually suffered the consequences of the unlawful act.
Some crimes are defined in a way that does not require criminal intent. These are known as strict liability crimes. The formal definitions of such unlawful acts do not contain the need for criminal intent to be considered culpable conduct. Most strict liability crimes are acts that endanger the public welfare. They are described in the statutes so that a lack of intent to commit them is not a legal defense. Thus, (voluntary) intoxication is no defense for driving while intoxicated.
A fourth condition for a behavior to constitute a crime is that the act or omission must occur at the same time as the criminal intent or negligence is present. The fifth, and final, condition required for an act or omission to be defined as a crime is that the law must provide punishment for the act or omission.
Crimes are acts and omissions that meet all of these criteria and cannot be excused by a legally recognized defense. The most commonly recognized defenses for criminal conduct are insanity and self-defense. Other defenses recognized in common law are necessity and duress, mistake of law or fact, provocation, involuntary intoxication, consent, entrapment, double jeopardy, and compulsion.
Legal defenses consist of justifications and excuses for acts that would otherwise be defined as criminal. Under criminal law, justifications are just or lawful reasons for committing criminal acts that relieve persons from guilt for having committed them. Excuses lessen or remove their culpability for the act. Self-defense, defense of others and defense of property are generally defined as justifications. The need to prevent immediate harm of self or others justifies the use of force by police officers in certain situations. If a justification is accepted, then no crime has occurred. If an excuse is used successfully, then a crime has occurred but culpability for the act is not attached to the person who committed it. Excuses consist of involuntary intoxication, ignorance, entrapment and consent. Each of these defense is very specifically defined by statutory and case law that varies from one state to the next. The person accused of the crime must prove that one or more of these defenses is applicable to the case. It is for this reason that excuses and justifications are sometimes called affirmative defenses.
Exercise 3. Answer the questions.
Exercise 4. Match the words from A with these from B.
A
strict
transferred
legal
the intended
to accomplish
culpable
state of
to commit
criminal
legal
lawful
affirmative
B
defense
sense
a criminal act
actions
duty
intend
mind
liability crimes
victim
goal
intend
reason
Exercise 5. Choose the correct word from the two given in these sentences.
Exercise 6. Give Ukrainian and Russian words with the similar meaning to each of the following English words.
behavior, conspiracy, criminal act, situation, statute, sense, motive, intoxication, penalty, criteria, literally, specific, original, term, legal.
Exercise 7. Complete the following definitions.
Exercise 8. Make up sentences from the given below words and word
combinations.
Exercise 9. How you account for the fact that:
Exercise 10. Match the words. Use your professional glossary. Then compose sentences of your own with the words given in part A. Give Ukrainian equivalent for word combinations in part B.
Exercise 11. Fill in the blanks with the words given below. You must use your professional knowledge and active vocabulary of the unit.
justification, retributive, an offender, penalty, authority, the value, descriptive, prescriptive, potential, wrong-doers, criminal law, five specific conditions, prescriptive law.
Law is a rule of action sustained by … Some laws are … - they describe people’s usual behavior. Other laws are ... – they prescribe how people must behave. In any society relations between people are regulated by …
If people break these rules or customs they do not suffer any …, but they may be spoken about and criticized by the members of the society. Sometimes they may be remained in isolation.
The person who breaks the law is called … . But before any behavior can be declared criminal, … must be present.
Punishment is probably the most controversial aspect of … . As the legal price for violations of society’s mandate, it is both vengeful and … . As a protection to the public, it is intended to be a deterrent to … . In essence it represents … that society places on the turpitude of the offense and its interest in the offender. The theoretical … for criminal punishment is based on several factors, including: 1. Retribution, 2. Correction. 3. Deterrence, and 4. Incapacitation.
Exercise 12. A. Read and translate the text. Use the glossary.
The purposes of law
Many writers have argued that law developed as a substitute for individual or family vengeance. Others explain that law evolved as method for solving social problems and/or resolving group conflicts. Many believe that law developed out of the folkways and mores of traditional societies. Each of these positions probably has much truth to it. By relating law to folkways and mores the variety of purposes that it serves can be made clear. To explore the purpose of criminal law means that we must examine social norms. Norms are rules developed by all societies in order to guide or control the behavior of their members. They are commonly divided into two types – folkways are the norms that describe socially approved behavior in common situations and are usually prescriptive in nature; mores are norms that serve to protect individuals and social institutions from harm. They define the culture’s morality and are usually proscriptive in nature. Violations of mores are often met with formal punishments such as fines, prison terms or other legal penalties. There are five basic purposes for which laws can be enacted. To govern behavior in such a society, laws may: 1) restate mores; 2) reinforce folkways and mores; 3) formalize folkways; 4) deter or promote social change; and 5) promote morality. Laws restating mores prohibit acts which are considered mala in se, which literally means evil in themselves. These laws deal with acts that are seen as fundamentally wrong by most social groups. Laws reinforcing mores and folkways deal with acts that are considered malum prohibitum or wrong because they are forbidden by law. Because there is less agreement within society that these acts are wrong, there is less public support for them than for laws restating mores. Laws formalizing folkways are aimed at specific sub-groups or industries and often deal with technical practices and procedures so there is often little public interest in them but they may be the subject of intense political controversy among the particular interest groups that they affect. Laws enacted to deter social change are designed to maintain the status-quo by encouraging conformity to old customs. Laws enacted to promote social change are intended to bring about some type of change in the folkways or mores of society.
to argue – спорить - сперечатися
vengeance – месть - помста
to guide – руководить - керувати
prescriptive – предписывающий - наказуючий
proscriptive – запрещающий - забороняючий
to restate - подтверждать - підтверджувати
to reinforce – усиливать - підсилювати
to deter – удерживать - утримувати
1. How did law develop?
Exercise 13. Match each word in part A with the definition of a word
in part B.
A. person, police, code, defence mechanisms, omission, justification, officer, intoxication, to intend, definition, ignorance, punishment.
Exercise 14. Speak on the purposes of law as it is understood in Ukraine. Define what are norms from the point of view of our law. Give legal definitions of crime in Ukraine. Is general intent recognized in our law?
Exercise 15. Give equivalent Ukrainian word combinations for the following in Latin.
Actus reus, male in se, malum prohibitum.
Exercise 1. Read, translate and remember the following key words.
to draw
discipline
enforcement
correction
impact
insight
tension
operation
strictly
goal
orderly
practitioner
encounter
loosely
network
suggest
misleading
assert
Exercise 2. Read, translate and remember the following word combinations, mind the stress.
that draws its ideas from disciplines; law enforcement; scientific insights; science is more oriented to efficiency; to help control crime by identifying; processing and supervising criminals; is both united and divided; the unique personal liberties; loosely organized; it is fragmented and under organized; ignoring the effects of its actions on other agencies; the reader’s personal judgment.
Criminal Justice
Criminal justice is a very broad field of study that draws its ideas from disciplines such as management, political science, law criminology, psychology and sociology. Criminal justice is the study of law enforcement, the courts, and corrections. It deals with 1) the organization of the agencies that perform these tasks; 2) the people employed by those agencies; and 3) the impact of these efforts on crime and offenders. These agencies must base their efforts on laws written by independent government bodies. These laws are often constructed on the basis of what is known of the causes of criminal behavior. Legal issues are therefore of critical interest. So also are the scientific insights into why crime occurs in particular patterns and what motivates some people to commit offenses.
For this reason criminology, the study of 1) why crime occurs and 2) the patterns in which it occurs, is critical to understanding criminal justice. Criminology uses scientific logic to link the motives for crime to methods of controlling it. Justice processes are usually based on legal logic but often employ criminological concepts and theories as well. Law stresses the need for fairness and equal treatment while science is more oriented to efficiency. The tension between the logic of science and that of law sometimes results in problems for agency operations.
Criminal justice agencies and designed to help control crime by identifying, processing and supervising criminals. Each agency carries out a particular part of this process, usually within a strictly limited geographical area. From a legal perspective the criminal process is separated into three stages: 1) pre-trial; 2) trial; 3) post-trial. The process of justice in the USA is both united and divided by two central goals. An orderly and safe society is of great importance to most citizens. So also are the unique personal liberties guaranteed by the Constitution. All criminal justice agencies and practitioners must balance these goals of public safety and personal freedom in their daily operations. For this reason the activities of agencies and practitioners are under the control of other organs of government and frequently encounter criticism from the media. The activities of these agencies are of great legal and ethical concern because of their power to affect the lives of individual citizens. Justice practitioners enjoy much freedom in how they interpret the legal requirements of their job roles. This freedom brings with it the need for 1) a strong sense of ethics to guide decision-making; and 2) constant observation by social “watchdogs” such as the press and civic groups.
Although they are very loosely organized, all justice agencies share a basic concern with the law and those who violate it. This common concern also acts to bring both agencies and practitioners together in a variety of relationships. The term criminal justice system is often used to describe this network of agencies that enforce criminal laws, judge the accused, and handle offenders. The network of agencies that deal with criminals is often defined as a system composed of law enforcement, courts, and corrections. Use of them system indicates that a set of thing, in this case government agencies responsible for dealing with crime, are connected in a rational way so as to form a complex whole. Some suggest that the term “criminal justice system” is misleading because it implies a unity that is not really present in the operation of justice in modern America. This view of American criminal justice asserts that it is fragmented or underorganized – a non-system. Fragmentation means that each agency operates within a sort of vacuum, ignoring the effects of its actions on other agencies. A proper understanding of the justice process requires explicit recognition of the relationships between the various criminal justice agencies. Whether or not these relationships are well enough organized to be called a system is left to the reader’s personal judgment.
Exercise 3. Answer the questions.
Exercise 4. Find out whether these statements are true, false or you cannot tell from the reading if it is true or false.
Exercise 5. Match the words according to the sense.
A
criminal
proper understanding
criminal justice
unique
civic
legal
strictly limited
legal
public
B
system
groups
geographic areas
requirements
safety
justice
of the justice process
personal liberties
logic
Exercise 6. Read and translate the passage. Look at the word “them” (it is underlined) and define the word or phrase in bold text to which it refers.
Many people find the study of English grammar intimidating. There are so many rules to follow. A good reference book, such as REA’s Handbook of English: Grammar. Style and writing can make some sense of them, but there is no substitute for daily reading. Newspaper and magazine articles are a great place to start. Novelist Joseph Conrad, whose first language was Polish, learned English by reading literature some of its finest works.
Exercise 7. Complete the definitions.
Exercise 8. Enrich your vocabulary: match the words from part A, B and C according to the sense and make up sentences with English word combinations on the basic of criminal justice of Ukraine.
A. Criminal; criminal act (action); criminal addict; criminal assault; criminal behavior; criminal case; criminal code; criminal design; criminal history; criminal intend; criminal investigation; criminal investigation technique; Criminal Investigation Department; criminal justice; criminal receiver.
B. Преступное поведение; уголовное дело; уголовный розыск; уголовное расследование; преступное намерение; уголовное правосудие; скупщик, укрыватель награбленного имущества; преступный, уголовный; преступное деяние; криминалистическая, уголовная техника; уголовный кодекс; преступник, ставший наркоманом; преступное нападение; преступный замысел; история преступления.
C. Кримінальний кодекс; злочинна поведінка; злочинний напад; історія злочинності; кримінальна справа; кримінальний розшук; злочинний намір; кримінальне розслідування; злочини, кримінальний; криміналістична кримінальна техніка; кримінальне правосуддя; злочинний напад; злочинець, який став наркоманом; той, хто скупає награбленє (вкрадене); злочинна дія.
Exercise 9. A. Fill in the gaps using the words and word combinations given below.
Types of Criminal Justice Agencies
Virtually all social agencies are mandated … one or two basic types of work. Some … are mainly concerned with collecting information about particular people, sorting the into categories and assigning them particular statuses that indicate how … are to be treated by society and government agencies. These organizations are known as people-processing … . They are guided more by law than by science because they must treat each person in a fair manner. Other agencies are more concerned with changing the perceptions and … of particular individuals. These agencies are … as people-changing organizations. These agencies are more likely to use … to guide their activities. Most of the work done by criminal justice agencies falls into the first, …, type. The people-changing orientation is critical to the long-term effectiveness of the justice process but … by educational, welfare or mental health agencies. Individual practitioners will also tend to be oriented more toward one or the other of these … of work. The practitioner’s orientation does not always match … of the agency, however. A police officer may strive to help neighborhood children avoid … even though she/he works in a people-processing agency.
Words: is usually performed, crime, to perform, behaviors, these individuals, agencies, law, two types, the legally mandated role, scientific principles, organizations, referred to, people-processing.
B. Read, translate and learn the text.
People Processing Agencies
People processing agencies are organized for purpose of efficiently sorting people into categories. These categories are the basis for decisions on how to handle individuals in a way that will help society. These agencies exist mainly to change the status of certain people through some type of deliberate effort. The transition from “citizen” to “convict” is typical of such a process. Because this change in status injures the person’s social and maternal welfare, many safeguards must be used to assure that this power is not misused.
The Role of Bureaucracy
All criminal justice agencies are bureaucratic organizations. Bureaucracy allows a relatively small number of practitioners to handle a rather large number of offenders with minimum expense. It also allows agencies to assure that each practitioner will handle cases in the same way. Bureaucracies are defined by the following traits: 1) hierarchical organization; 2) specialized divisions of labor; 3) rules and procedures guide decision making; 4) employees see their jobs as life-long careers; and 5) record keeping is of paramount importance. Hierarchical organization provides practitioners with a clear chain of command or organization of job roles into different levels of power that forms a coherent system. Commands flow down from the top and information flows upward. Bureaucrats make decisions based on agency rules and/or various laws. In the justice process, however, much is left to the discretion of the practitioner. Discretion in the use of professional judgement to decide which rule applies to a case. This hurts the efficiency of agency activities and leaves practitioners open to charges of bias but is an essential part of the justice process because people-processing consists of efforts to apply general rules to unique situations. Discretion can sometimes humanize the process by taking the uniqueness of individuals and situations into account, however. Because bureaucrats view their jobs as careers and want to be promoted their concern is often focused upon how superiors will react to their decisions. The effects of their decisions on the client or society may thus be neglected. Personal ambition and agency goals may therefore be given more attention than those of the overall process. Reliance on rules and records means that one practitioner can easily be substituted for another. Good recordkeeping also provides a consistent record to justify each decision and is needed to keep track of changes in each offender’s legal status. The records basically indicate why and how the rules were applied to a particular case. Bureaucracies evaluate their employees on the basis of their record-keeping. Bureaucrats are therefore more likely to be familiar with the files and statuses of their clients than with the client as a unique individual. It is for this reason that bureaucracies are often seen as cold and impersonal.
People Changing Agencies
The central goal of people-changing agencies is to alter the nature of people’s behavior. Educational and mental health agencies are excellent examples of people-changing agencies. Education, counseling and punishment are the principal methods by which we attempt to change offenders into law-abiding citizens. Most counseling and educational services for offenders are provided by agencies outside of the justice process. Justice agencies provide a collection point for individuals whose statuses have been legally altered. Practitioners must make decisions as to what sorts of changes in status are needed for each offender.
Status changes are sometimes undesirable because they can have negative effects on a person’s future behavior. The practice of allowing minor first offenders to avoid having their status lowered by the justice process is known as diversion. The decision to divert an offender to a non-criminal justice agency may be left to practitioner judgement but may sometimes be a matter of agency policy or legal mandate.
Exercise 10. Enrich your vocabulary.
I Synonyms. Match each word in column A with the word of similar meaning in column B.
A
to enforce
crime
to criminate
a concept
goal
to convict
descretion
B
to find guilty
difference
a thought
judgement
difference
to accuse
to compel
sin
II Definitions. Match each word in part A with the definition of a word in part B.
Exercise 11. Find in the text of this unit all word combinations with
the following words:
crime act punish
Reproduce the contexts in which they were used. Make up your own sentences with these words.
Exercise 12. Point out the main ideas of the texts of this unit. Make a
list of them.
Exercise 13. Brainstorm: how do you understand the purpose of
criminal justice agencies? In your opinion, how should
Criminal Justice agencies be organized in this country?
Exercise 14. A. Read and translate the text. Match the following
headings with the sections of the text: History.
Application. Techniques. Subject. Objectives.
Criminology
Кримінологія розглядає природу і причини злочинів; вивчення обставин правопорушення за матеріалами справи; кримінологія спирається на досягнення інших наук; проблеми затримання злочинців; виробити діючі принципи; встановити причини злочинності; проблеми запобігання злочинності; використовування на практиці; виправні установи; пом´якшувати покарання; перший крок; наголошувати.
С. Brainstorms.
What is your understanding of these words? Give examples.
III. Питання, тести для самоконтролю
1. CHOOSE TRUE OR FALSE ITEMS
1. Law is a set of rules created by a government to maintain social order so that life is reasonably safe and predictable.
ANSWER: True
2. Law changes slowly but follows society's needs and circumstances in an attempt to reflect current ideas of justice.
ANSWER: True
3. Much can be left to intuition or even common sense when legal issues are involved.
ANSWER: False
4. Tort law is usually applied in cases where someone is injured or loses money due to another's failure to live up to their legal obligations.
ANSWER: True
5. Crimes can not also be defined as civil law violations because of the constitution's protection against double jeopardy.
ANSWER: False
6. In criminal law the victim is the wronged party and controls the prosecution of the case.
ANSWER: False
7. In criminal law the state is the wronged party and controls the prosecution of the case.
ANSWER: True
8. Criminal law requires more proof for conviction than does civil law. ANSWER: True
9. The rules that determine what evidence may be introduced in court are much the same in criminal trials as in civil ones.
ANSWER: False
10. The rules that determine what evidence may be introduced in court are much stricter in criminal trials than in civil ones.
ANSWER: True
11. Natural law is any philosophy concerning the nature of proper behavior and justice that is felt to be suitable in a rationally organized society.
ANSWER: True
12. Case law is usually attributed to powers superior to man or society (e.g.. God, nature) and stresses morality and logic.
ANSWER: False
13. Common law is a body of customs, traditions and prior decisions that are recognized as binding on a specific group of people.
ANSWER: True
14. Natural law serves to unify tribal beliefs into a coherent legal system that provides more stability and consistency than does common law.
ANSWER: False
15. Statutory law consists of written rules that are created by acts of legislatures and other governmental bodies.
ANSWER: True
16. Substantive law is that part of the law which defines and regulates the rights and duties of persons. It includes not only criminal law, but also civil contract law, tort law, law of wills (i.e., probate law), etc.
ANSWER: True
17. Procedural law describes the proper methods of enforcing persons' rights or correcting their violation. It governs the behavior of the agencies and practitioners that carry out legal actions dealing with crime.
ANSWER: True
18. Case law uses court decisions to interpret and apply specific laws and principles.
ANSWER: True
19. Case Law is guided by the principle of stare decisis which translates as let the decision stand.
ANSWER: True
20. Сommon Law is guided by the principle of lex talionis which translates as let the decision stand.
ANSWER: False
21. The principle of lex talionis is well-illustrated in the Bible's reference to an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.
ANSWER: True
22. English Common Law is unique in the history of Western civilization because it was based on Anglo-Saxon traditions more than on Roman law.
ANSWER: True
23. Restitution to the victim was the preferred method of resolving disputes under Anglo-Saxon tradition.
ANSWER: True
24. The Wergild system was democratic in that it ignored the status and power of the victim and offender.
ANSWER: False
25. Lex talionis allowed each family to extract its own penalty from an offender whereas the wergild established government control over the process of punishing offenders.
ANSWER: True
26. Early English Common Law was both formal and rational.
ANSWER: False
27. A formal legal code is one that is independent of other influences such as religion, kinship or personality.
ANSWER: True
28. Folkways are norms that describe socially approved behavior in common situations and are usually prescriptive in nature.
ANSWER: True
29. Mores are norms that serve to protect individuals and social institutions from harm. They define the culture's morality and are usually prescriptive in nature.
ANSWER: True
30. Laws against pornography, gambling, prostitution, drug abuse, and many white-collar crimes serve to restate mores.
ANSWER: False
31. It is legal to think about selling or transporting drugs but once concrete plans are made to do so, a crime has occurred.
ANSWER: True
32. Mens rea literally means guilty mind. This concept is used to specify the character of the intent or negligence.
ANSWER: True
33. Intent and motive refer to the same basic idea in law.
ANSWER: False
34. Motive is what drives or prompts a person to commit an act (i.e. the reason or rationale). Intent refers to the person's state of mind at the time of the act.
ANSWER: True
35. Legally culpable actions are those motivated by intent, knowledge, recklessness, or negligence.
ANSWER: True
36. In assault with the intent to kill the general intent to commit a crime is contained within the specific intent to commit the particular crime of murder.
ANSWER: True
37. Self-Defense, defense of others and defense of property are generally defined as excuses.
ANSWER: False
38. Misdemeanors are offenses that are not punishable by death or incarceration in a state prison.
ANSWER: True
39. Felonies are criminal offenses punishable by death or incarceration in a state prison for a year or more.
ANSWER: True
40. Capital felonies are crimes for which the death penalty may be imposed.
ANSWER: True
41. Nonnegligent (or voluntary) manslaughter means causing the death of another out of sudden passion arising from an adequate cause (e.g., rage, terror, etc), whereas involuntary manslaughter refers to recklessly causing the death of another due to improper caution.
ANSWER: True
42. Negligent manslaughter means causing the death of another through gross negligence.
ANSWER: True
43. Between 15 and 20% of all known criminals can be classified as habitual felons.
ANSWER: True
44. Habitual offender acts are based on the belief that a relatively small number of habitual criminals are responsible for a vast number of serious crimes.
ANSWER: True
45. Robbery, which involves the use or threat of fоrсe to take possession of someone else's property while in their presence and is a crime against both a person and property.
ANSWER: True
46. The field of criminal justice draws upon management, political science, law, criminology, psychology and sociology.
ANSWER: True
47. Criminology uses scientific logic to link the motives for crime to methods of controlling it.
ANSWER: True
48. The courts use scientific logic to link the motives for crime to methods of controlling it.
ANSWER: False
49. Criminal justice agencies are linked to one another by a series of social, legal and political relationships.
ANSWER: True
50. Use of the term system indicates that a set of things, in this case government agencies responsible for dealing with crime, are connected in a rational way so as to form a complex whole.
ANSWER: True
51. The activities of each criminal justice agency have an effect on the duties of others.
ANSWER: True
52. Each justice agency is dependent upon others to some degree because their powers are restricted by law and they lack resources to carry out some functions.
ANSWER: True
53. Inter-agency relations involve the methods by which agencies deal with one another.
ANSWER: True
54. The term jurisdiction can refer to either the geographic area in which particular agencies have legal authority to operate or the type of activity with which an agency is concerned.
ANSWER: True
55. Most geographical jurisdictions are based on political subdivisions of territory.
ANSWER: True
56. Relationships between agencies are usually motivated by the need for resources or the unique legal powers of certain agencies.
ANSWER: True
57. An agency's resources consist of the manpower, money, equipment, information, and legal powers that the agency requires in order to function.
ANSWER: True
58. Power dependency relationships rarely involve criminal justice agencies with other governmental bodies.
ANSWER: False
59. Criminal justice agencies possess fairly equal amounts and types of power.
ANSWER: False
60. The division of power across different agencies is designed to assure that no single agency or branch or government becomes so powerful that democracy is threatened.
ANSWER: True
61. In this country the task of defining crime is performed by legislatures.
ANSWER: True
62. The social power of the audience, and the degree to which it feels threatened by a particular type of crime, predicts how much attention that crime will receive from justice agencies.
ANSWER: True
63. More than any other factor, the amount of danger posed by an act determines how much attention that crime will receive from justice agencies.
ANSWER: False
64. Subcultural norms are often more important to significant other audiences than is the law.
ANSWER: True
65. Bureaucracy is a very effective method of discouraging looping by justice practitioners.
ANSWER: False
2. FILL IN THE BLANK ITEMS
1. A _____ is best defined as a civil wrong that causes injury or loss of mater wealth.
ANSWER: tort
2. _____ law requires more proof for conviction than does civil law because liberty or life, rather than property, is at stake.
ANSWER: Criminal
3. In criminal law, the _____ is the wronged party and controls the prosecution of the case.
ANSWER: state
4. The term __________ refers to the set of principles a person uses to
distinguish right from wrong.
ANSWER: natural law
5. _____ law is a body of customs, traditions and prior decisions that are recognized as binding on a specific group of people even though it has never been written down or voted upon by a legislature.
ANSWER: Common
6. Laws that have been enacted by a legislature and written down are referred to as _____ laws.
ANSWER: statutory
7. _______ law is that part of the law which defines and regulates the rights and duties of persons. It includes not only criminal law, but also civil contract law, tort law, and the law of wills.
ANSWER: Substantive
8. _______ law describes the proper methods of enforcing persons' rights or correcting their violation and governs the behavior of the agencies and practitioners that carry out legal actions dealing with crime.
ANSWER: Procedural
9. ____ law is results from court interpretations of statutory law.
ANSWER: Case
10. ________ to the victim was the preferred method of resolving disputes
under Anglo-Saxon tradition.
ANSWER: Restitution
11. The English system of monetary compensation for crime was known as the
ANSWER: wergild.
12. The victim's needs were displaced in favour of those of the ______ in medieval England.
ANSWER: state, king
13._________ are norms describing what behaviors are acceptable or preferable in everyday life.
ANSWER: Folkways
14. _______ are norms that describe socially approved behavior in common situations and are usually prescriptive in nature.
ANSWER: Folkways
15. ______ are norms that serve to protect individuals and social institutions from harm. They define the culture's morality and are usually prescriptive in nature.
ANSWER: Mores
16. The criminal act is referred to as
ANSWER: actus reus
17. Crimes such as conspiracy, solicitation and attempts to commit crimes (e.g., attempted murder) which are incomplete crimes but demonstrate the presence of real criminal intent are known as _______ offenses.
ANSWER: inchoate
18. A ______ legal code is one that is independent of other influences such as religion, kinship or personality.
ANSWER: formal
19. A _________ legal code is one that is based on predetermined rules, rather than the intuition of a judge or ruler.
ANSWER: rational
20. The American legal system, taken as a whole, is basically _____
ANSWER: formal & rational
21. ________ refers to criminal intent.
ANSWER: Mens rea
22. _________ literally means guilty mind. This concept is used to specify the character of the intent or negligence.
ANSWER: Mens rea
23. The _________ for a crime is what drives or prompts a person to commit an act; it is the reason or rationale for the act.
ANSWER: motive
24. ______ refers to the person's state of mind when the act was committed.
ANSWER: Intent
25. The term __________ is a legal reference to the blameworthiness of a person who has committed a criminal act that refers to both the action and the mental state of the person performing it.
ANSWER: culpability
26. ______ intent is present when the person's actions show that the basic goal of the act is prohibited by law (e.g., to do someone bodily harm).
ANSWER: General
27. _________ intent refers to acts with the purpose of accomplishing a particular goal which the law prohibits (e.g., shooting a particular person).
ANSWER: Specific
28. A crime that is defined in a way that does not require criminal intent is known as a(n) ___________ crime.
ANSWER: strict liability
29. _______ are just or lawful reasons for committing criminal acts that relieve persons from guilt for having committed them.
ANSWER: Justifications
30. Self-Defense, defense of others and defense of property are generally defined as _________ for crime.
ANSWER: justifications
31. _____ lessen or remove culpability for an act that is otherwise illegal.
ANSWER: Excuses
32. A(n) __________ defense is one in which the accused person must prove that a legally accepted defense is applicable to the case.
ANSWER: affirmative
33. _______ are typically minor offenses ranging from traffic and health code violations to petty theft and assaults for which one may be sentenced to jail or a fine.
ANSWER: Misdemeanors
34. Crimes that are punishable by a fine and/or confinement in a city or county jail for up to one year in most states are referred to as _________.
ANSWER: misdemeanors
35. Serious offenses punishable by death or incarceration in a state prison for a year or more are known as ________.
ANSWER: felonies
36. _______ are those for which the death penalty may be imposed.
ANSWER: Capital felonies
37. When applied to a crime, the term _________, indicates especially serious circumstances such as the degree of injury done (or threatened), the age of the victim or the use of a lethal weapon.
ANSWER: aggravated
38. The legal idea that all persons involved in a crime that results in a death are equally guilty of murder, regardless of their intentions, is known as
ANSWER: felony murder
39. Homicides are defined as murder if there is malice aforesight and as _________ if malice aforesight is not present.
ANSWER: manslaughter
40. _______ is defined as the use or threat of force to take possession of someone else's property while in their presence and is a crime against both a person and property.
ANSWER: Robbery
41. _____________is the study of the agencies, people and practices used to control crime.
ANSWER: Criminal justice
42. The study of_________ examines the reasons why crime occurs, the patterns in which it occurs and uses of scientific logic to link the motives for crime to methods of controlling it.
ANSWER: Criminology
43. Use of the term _____indicates that a set of things, such as the government agencies responsible for dealing with crime, are connected in a rational way so as to form a complex whole.
ANSWER: system
44. _________ means that each agency operates within a sort of vacuum and tends to ignore the effects of its actions on other agencies.
ANSWER: Fragmentation
45. A __________ is concerned with the activities that guide the processing of a person by an agency and the relationships between the activities of various agencies.
ANSWER: process approach
46. The _______ approach to criminal justice forces us to examine agencies in the context of the broader environment in which they operate.
ANSWER: process
47. A geographically limited area in which a police agency will routinely exercise its powers is most commonly referred to as its ______.
ANSWER: jurisdiction
48. The geographically limited area from which a court draws its cases is most accurately referred to as its ______.
ANSWER: venue
49. The concept of_______ is used to establish the limits of an organization's powers and responsibilities.
ANSWER: jurisdiction
50. The term _________ refers to both the geographic area in which particular agencies have legal authority to operate and the type of activity with which an agency is concerned.
ANSWER: jurisdiction
51. The manpower, money, equipment, information, and legal powers that an agency requires in order to function are referred to as _______.
ANSWER: resources
52. The arrangement of various types of authority across agencies with similar concerns and/or jurisdictions is referred to as a ________.
ANSWER: power structure
53. It is the _______that are designed to guide and change the behavior of individuals.
ANSWER: law or legal codes
54. ___________ is an efficient way of organizing justice agencies because it allows a relatively small number of practitioners to handle a rather large number of offenders with minimum expense.
ANSWER: Bureaucracy
55. The term _________ refers to the organization of job roles into different levels of power that forms a coherent system in which commands flow down from the top and information flows upward.
ANSWER: chain of command
56. The term _____ refers to the use of personal judgement to decide which rule applies to a case.
ANSWER: discretion
57. Human creations that reflect the needs and power structure of the society at a particular point in time are referred to as _____ _______.
ANSWER: social constructions
58. In the U.S., the task of defining crime is performed by _____.
ANSWER: legislatures.
59. People with the ability to assign labels to actions and persons are commonly referred to as _____ ______.
ANSWER: control agents.
60. ____________ audiences are made up of groups that are concerned with crime because of their involvement in politics.
ANSWER: Society-at-large
61. The term _____ refers to the use of a labeled person's attempts to disprove the validity of the label to reinforce the label.
ANSWER: looping
3. TEST BANK
Multiple. Choice Items
1. Modern law differs from other types of social rules in that it must be:
A. highly specific.
B. formally legitimate.
C. stable.
D. logically consistent.
E. all of the above.
ANSWER: E
2. Tort law is concerned with:
A. properly crimes.
B. violent crimes.
C. private wrongs.
D. public wrongs.
ANSWER: C
3. Laws that have been enacted by a legislature and written down are referred to as _________laws.
A. case
B. statutory
C. tort
D. natural
ANSWER: B
5. law is that part of the law which defines and regulates the rights and duties of persons. It includes not only criminal law, but also civil contract law, tort law, and the law of wills.
A. Case
B. Substantive
C. Natural
D. Procedural
ANSWER: B
6. The criminal act is referred to as:
A. actus reus.
B. mens rea
C. stare decisis.
D. lex talionis.
ANSWER: A
7. Inchoate offenses are:
A. Crimes like murder and rape in which there is bodily harm without monetary profit.
B. Crimes such as conspiracy, solicitation and attempts to commit crimes (e,g., attempted murder) are incomplete crimes but real criminal intent is apparent in them.
C. Violations of civil or procedural codes.
D. Offenses against a group rather than a single individual.
ANSWER: B
8. The basis of Roman law was known as:
A. the Mosaic code.
B. the Code of Hammurabi.
C. the Draconian system.
D. the Laws of the Twelve Tables.
ANSWER: D
9. The first civilization to hold citizens responsible for law enforcement duties was:
A. Greece.
B. Egypt.
C. Babylonia.
D. Rome.
ANSWER: D
10. Which of the following most closely resembled a police force?
A. the Praetorian Guard
B. the Vigiles of Rome
C. the kin police
D. the knights of Hammurabi
ANSWER: B
11. The important principle(s) that evolved from the merger of Anglo-Saxon and Roman law was\were:
A. the King's Peace.
B. the idea that the king was entitled to compensation for any death or injury done to a free man,
C. both of the above.
D. neither of the above.
ANSWER: C
12. The concept of .__ was used to justify the monarch's power because the king promised peace, security and order to his subjects in return for their loyalty.
A. the King's Peace
B. tithings
C. lex talionis
D. all of the above
ANSWER: A
13. ____________is the study of the agencies, people and practices used to
control crime.
A. Criminal justice
B. Criminology
C. Sociology
D. Political Science
ANSWER: A
14. Which of the following is NOT a criminal justice agency:
A. the courts
B. the police
C. prisons
D. schools
E. probation
ANSWER: D
15. Which of the following areas of study are important to Criminal Justice?
A. law
B. sociology
C. criminology
D. management
E. all of the above
ANSWER: E
16. Criminology is:
A. the study of why crime occurs
B. the study of the patterns in which crime occurs.
C. the use of scientific logic to link the motives for crime to methods of controlling it.
D. all of the above
ANSWER: D
17. Decisions made by the courts are based on:
A. criminological studies
B. scientific logic
C. the logic and traditions of law.
D. all of the above
ANSWER: C
18. Which of the following is crucial to the American justice process:
A. preserving the unique personal liberties guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution.
B. assuring an orderly and safe society.
C. both of the above.
D. neither of the above.
ANSWER: C
19. Media criticisms and control of justice agencies by other organs of government are important to:
A. the preservation of liberty and democracy.
B. the efficiency of the justice process.
C. the comfort of practitioners.
D. all of the above.
ANSWER: A
20. The idea that criminal justice agencies form a system is based on each of the following beliefs except:
A. the effects of each agency on others.
B. the efficiency of these agencies
C. the common goals of these agencies.
D. the coherent organization of these agencies.
ANSWER: B
21. From a legal perspective, which of the following are important parts of the criminal process:
A. pre-trial
B. trial
C. post-trial
D. all of the above.
ANSWER: D
22. Criminal justice agencies are linked to one another by a series of________ relationships.
A. social
B. legal
C. political
D. all of the above
ANSWER: D
23. The relationships that unite justice agencies are based on:
A. the guidelines of criminal law.
B. the need to identify, control, change and/or punish offenders.
C. the political party membership of the agency head.
D. all of the above.
E. a & b only.
ANSWER: E
24. A process approach is concerned with:
A. the activities that guide the processing of a person by an agency.
B. relationships between the activities of various agencies.
C. the transfer of control of suspects/offenders from one agency to another.
D. all of the above.
ANSWER: D
25. Which of the following is a type of geographical jurisdiction in which a justice agency might operate?
A. the nation
B. the state
C. the county
D. a city
E. all of the above
ANSWER: E
26. Offenders being processed by the police are most often referred to as suspects while those handled by probation are more often called:
A. defendants.
B. criminals.
C. clients.
D. releasees.
ANSWER: C
27. The two basic types of jurisdiction are best described as:
A. legal and moral.
B. geographical and subject-matter.
C. utilitarian and ethical.
D. comparative and operational.
ANSWER: B
28. The manpower, money, equipment, information, and legal powers that an agency requires in order to function are referred to as:
A. mandates.
B. resources.
C. jurisdiction.
D. functions.
ANSWER: B
29. When an agency lacks the resources to fulfill its mission, it must usually:
A. petition the government for redress.
B. turn to other agencies for help.
C. cease operation.
D. file a lawsuit.
ANSWER: B
30. Criminal justice is mainly concerned with ________power structures.
A. legal
B. social
C. political
D. all of the above
ANSWER: D
31. A power dependency approach:
A. focuses attention on the amount and type of power each agency possesses relative to the others with which it works.
B. infers that a network of agencies is united to some degree by ongoing relationships.
C. examines agencies in the context of their legal, social and political relations with other agencies.
D. all of the above.
ANSWER: D
32. Most criminal justice agencies are designed primarily to:
A. process people and cases.
B. change individual behavior patterns.
C. obtain sufficient resources.
D. survive symmetrical power linkages.
ANSWER: A
33. Justice agencies exist primarily to:
A. change offenders into law-abiding citizens.
B. document exceptions to the guidance of the law.
C. determine what sorts of behavior should be permitted in society.
D. all of the above.
ANSWER: B
34. Which of the following is characteristic of a bureaucracy?
A. They are hierarchically organized.
B. Their division of labor is specialized.
C. Rules and procedures guide decision making.
D. Record-keeping is of paramount importance.
E. all of the above.
ANSWER: E
35. Which of the following is not typical of a bureaucracy?
A. hierarchial organization of authority
B. specialized division of labor
C. use of rules to guide all decision-making
D. consistent focus on the needs of those being served
E. all of the above are typical of a bureaucracy
ANSWER: D
36. Advantages of bureaucratic organization include:
A. emphasis on methods rather than goals & detachment from those being served.
B. equal treatment of cases & a high level of efficiency.
C. professional rather than political criteria in hiring, promotion and disciplinary decisions.
D. all of the above
Е. b & c only.
ANSWER: E
37. Which of the following is the best example of a people-changing agency?
A. a trial court
B. a police academy
C. a probation department
D. a prosecutor
ANSWER: B
38. In this country the task of defining crime is performed by:
A. legislatures.
B. the courts.
C. the voters.
D. the governor or president.
ANSWER: A
39. How serious an act is thought to be is determined by a person's:
A. culture and ethics.
B. race and heredity.
C. wealth and gender.
D. all of the above.
ANSWER: A
40. The __ of each society influence the ways in which it attempts to control crime.
A. political organization
B. geography & history
C. economic needs
D. cultural heritage
E. all of the above
ANSWER: E
41. ____________ are made up of groups that are concerned with crime because of their involvement in politics.
A. criminogenic
B. control agent audiences
C. significant other audiences
D. society-at-large audiences
ANSWER: D
72. The term looping refers to:
A. the cycle of ever-increasing violence in which many offenders become involved.
B. the use of a labeled person's attempts to disprove the validity of the label to reinforce the label.
C. the rate of recidivism for inmates released from a particular facility.
D. none of the above
ANSWER: B
KEY TERMS
Actus Reus refers to the criminal acL
Affirmative Defenses are legally recognized excuses and justifications for acts that are normally defined as criminal. This term is used to indicate that the burden of proof lies with the defense rather than the state or prosecutor.
An Act for improving the Police in and near the Metropolis, of 1829 consolidated the administration of the police of metropolitan London under a central authority. This resulted in the creation of the first really modern police force. It is also known as the "Metropolitan Police Act,"
Capital felonies are crimes for which the death penalty may be imposed. They generally involve especially heinous homicides.
Case law refers to judicial interpretations of statutory and constitutional law, usually rendered at the appellate level in written decisions. It functions to bridge the gap between abstract rules (laws) and concrete situations or cases by instructing judges as to how codes are to be interpreted and applied.
Civil law is a set of rules that assign financial responsibility to various parties and allow for disputes between individuals and/or husinesses to be settled in court with the state (judiciary) acting as an impartial referee.
Class A felonies are second in seriousness only to capital offenses. They usually consist of crimes involving serious bodily injury, which create a risk of death or that causes death.
Class B felonies are crimes which involve some kind of hodily injury of a non-life threatening nature. They are less serious than class A offenses.
Class C felonies includes an assortment of crimes which in general usually involve serious threats to public order or attempts to deprive someone of their property. They are the least serious category of felonies.
Code of Hammurabi is named after the king of Babylon, who ruled from 1947 B.C. to 1905 B,C, This Mesopotamian code was the first standardized set of written laws known. It contained laws concerning sex, violence, and sorcery. It also provided specific punishments for various crimes.
Common law is a body of customs, traditions and prior decisions that originates among, and is recognized as binding on, a specific group of people.
Contes were geographical districts in France during the middle ages that were approximately equivalent to counties in the United States or shires in England.
Criminal Law is a set of rules established by a political authority to govern behavior and punish rule violators, usually through loss of freedom or the death penalty. Representatives of the executive branch of government prosecute accused individuals.
Culpability refers to a person's legal blameworthiness. Except in cases of strict or absolute liability the state is required to demonstrate that the person acted intentionally, knowingly, recklessly or negligently.
Due Process Revolution occurred in the 1960s as a result of the Escobedo, Mapp and Miranda rulings by the U.S. Supreme Court. These rulings demanded that courts enforce the rights of suspects and placed many controls on the behavior of the police. Many see these rulings as favoring criminals over police but many police executives argue that they helped to professionalize American law enforcement.
Equity refers to concern with equal treatment of persons. It is an appeal to societal concepts of fairness that originated as a supplement lo common law principles and could be used to override them by feudal monarchs.
Excuses are a type of legal defense that reduce or remove a person's culpability for a criminal act. If an excuse is used successfully, then a crime has occurred but no liability for the act is attached to the person who committed it.
Felons are persons who have been convicted of a felony offense.
Felonies are serious criminal offenses punishable by confinement in a state or federal prison, usually for more than a year, or death.
Felony murder refers to any situation in which someone dies while being victimized in a felony crime (e.g,, rape, robbery). All persons involved in the original crime may be held equally culpable for the death as well.
Folkways are norms that describe socially acceptable behavior in routine social interactions.
Frankpledge system is a term used lo denote the obligatory avocational policing systems in England, such as the tithing, during the middle ages.
General intent is present when the purpose of an act is prohibited by law.
Habitual felon sentence is a felony charge that may be used against persons convicted of a felony who have previously been convicted of two felony offenses.
Harrison Narcotics Act required all persons dealing in narcotics to register with the Director of Internal Revenue so as to limit trafficking in narcotics to what was medically needed.
Heliaea were juries in ancient Athens whose members were chosen from local Greek tribes.
Homicide refers to the killing of one person by another whether or not the act is legally justified or excusable.
Hue and cry was a term used in England in the middle ages to describe the duty of the tithingrnan to run through the streets announcing that a crime had been committed.
Hundred was a term used during the middle ages in England for a grouping of ten neighboring tithings. Hundreds were later renamed Judicials.
Inchoate offenses are crimes such as conspiracy, solicitation (of prostitution or murder) and criminal attempts (e.g., attempted murder or burglary) in which the act was not completed but real criminal intent is apparent.
Justice of the Peace was an office created under the mutual pledge system in England by Edward II in 1326. Initially the primary function of the office was to assist the Sheriff Over time the Justice of the Peace became the chief magistrate for whom the constable worked.
Justifications are affirmative legal defenses that relieve a person who has committed an otherwise criminal act from guilt. If a justification is accepted, then no crime has occurred.
Kefauver committee was a U.S. Senate committee that conducted a nationwide investigation into organized crime in the early 1950s.
Kin policing is the oldest form of law enforcement in which families band together for mutual aid and protection. It was most common in tribal societies.
King's Peace was a doctrine used during the middle ages that made the king responsible for assuring public order to his subjects in return for their allegiance to him. This made crime an offense against the slate or king as well as the victim.
Laws Divine, Moral and Martial, more commonly known as "Dale's Laws," was Jamestown's system of law enforcement written in Colonial America in the very early 1600s. The code was a combination of civil and military law that contained severe punishments and was strictly enforced.
Lex talionis is equivalent retaliation, the doctrine typified by the expression an eye for eye. It can be traced back to the codes of Hammurabi and is seen by many as the source of blood feuds. Lcs talionis is an ancient expression of the retribution function of law and punishment. Under Mosaic law it is expressed in the formula of "an eye for an eye; a tooth for a tooth". In modem international law it has come to mean ''equivalent retribution" or the rale by which one country can punish a citizen from another country with the same penalties it would impose on its own citizens if they had committed the crime.
Lyitch law was a statute that gave legal authority for citizens to band together as vigilantes and punish criminals in the rural areas of Colonial America.
Mala in se literally means acts which are evil in themselves.
Malice aforesight - premeditated intent to do serious bodily harm that has no legal defense; or recklessness/negligence that would reasonably be expected to result in great bodily harm to someone.
Malum prohibitum literally means acts that are specifically forbidden by law. Manslaughter - The illegal killing of one person by another without malice aforesight.
Mens rea literally means guilty mind and refers to criminal intent. Misdemeanants are persons who have been convicted of a misdemeanor offense.
Misdemeanors are relatively minor offenses that typically are punishable by a fine and/or incarceration in a city or county jail, usually for less than a year.
Mores are norms designed to protect individuals from being harmed by others. They usually prohibit certain behaviors that threaten society or individuals. Their violation generally provokes a harsh response from society.
Murder is the act of intentionally causing the death of a person without legal justification, or intentionally causing the death of another person while attempting or committing another crime. Some form of malice aforesight must he present to distinguish murder from other forms of homicide.
Natural law is any philosophy concerning the nature of reason and justice that is felt to be applicable to a rationally organized society. It is usually attributed to power(s) superior to man or society (e.g., God, nature) and stresses morality and rationality. It's content varies widely across cultures and social sub-groups.
Norms are the rules developed by societies to regulate and/or guide the behavior of citizens.
Obligatory-avocational policing is performed by persons (men) who have other trades or professions that supply their livelihood. Laws and customs obligating citizens to perform police-like work, such as tithingmen, watch members or kin police, were the source of this medieval form of law enforcement.
Omission is the failure to perform a legal duty or obligation.
Pax Romana or Roman Peace was the Roman Empire's justification for conquering less developed societies and imposing their laws,
Pendleton Act was passed in the United States in 1883 to put an end to the "spoils system" for some levels of the federal government by establishing a civil service commission for certain Federal employees,
Pinktrtons were men employed by the Pinkerton Detective agency \vhich was hired by mining companies and railroads to hunt down outlaws in the old West.
Portrait park was the name given a criminal identification system developed by Bertillon of France in the late 1880s, It was based on the characteristics of a person's head but was soon replaced by fingerprinting.
Praetorian Guard was a para-military police force created in 27 B.C. by the Romans to maintain security within emperor's palace.
Rural Police Act, more commonly known as the "Obligatory Act", was passed in England in 1865. It provided for paid police throughout ail of England for the first
time.
Procedural law prescribes the methods of enforcing personal rights or obtaining compensation for their invasion. It governs the behavior of the agencies and practitioners that carry out legal actions dealing with crime, the rules for making arrests, entering pleas, collecting evidence and sentencing the convicted. It also defines the geographical and subject-matter jurisdictions of different agencies and describes their obligations to one another, the public, and suspected/known offenders.
Repeat (or habitual) felony charges are generally used against those convicted of a first-degree felony who have previously been convicted of multiple felonies.
Sentence enhancement refers to legal rules that allow judges to add a year or more to a felon's sentence due lo prior convictions for serious crimes, repeated crimes or aggravating circumstances.
Shires were geographic districts made up of several Hundreds (Judicials) in England during the middle ages. They were approximately equivalent to counties in [he U,S.
Shire-reeve was a person who served as both a judge and head law enforcement officer within a shire in England during the middle ages, departments to reform and incorporate technological innovations into their practices.
Specific intent refers to the criminal act's particular goal of accomplishing something which the law prohibits.
Stare decisis is the legal principle which guides the application of case law. It translates as let the decision stand and helps to assure the stability of legal principles over time and place.
Statutory law refers to the rules of behavior created by acts of legislatures and administrative governmental bodies. It includes both substantive criminal law and procedural law.
Strict liability crimes are acts for which criminal intent need not be present in order to obtain a conviction. Generally, these crimes endanger the public welfare in some way, such as the illegal dumping of toxic wastes or drunken driving.
Spoils system of political patronage allowed elected officials to appoint incompetent friends and relatives to positions of power.
Statute of Winchester was enacted in England in 1285 to replace tithings and tithingmen with parishes and parish constables,
Substantive law is that part of the law which defines and regulates the rights and duties of persons.
Tort law is a sub-type of civil law concerned with private wrongs in which someone is injured or suffers financial loss due to another's failure to live up to their legal obligations. Many crimes can also be defined as torts.
Tithings were geographical subdivisions in England during the middle ages in which ten families lived.
Tithingme D were the adult male residents of tithings who were obligated to insure the peace in England during the middle ages by use of the hue and cry.
Transferred intent relocates the original malice present in an act from the person whom was targeted to the person who actually suffered the consequences of the unlawful ad.
Vigilance committees, more popularly referred to as vigilantes or regulators, were essentially volunteer civilian watches that provided protection against outlaws in the old West.
Volstead Act, or eighteenth amendment, was passed by the United States Congress in 1915 to prohibit sale and manufacture of liquor containing more than one half of one percent alcohol illegal. The Prohibition era that it created was dominated by bootlegging gangs that became extremely rich and powerful.
Watch and ward was a system of policing supervised by constables that was developed in England during the 1200s. Watches were comprised of twelve watchmen in larger towns and from four to six men in smaller ones to guard the entrance to the towns at night.
Wiekersham Commission Report was written by the National Commission on Law Observance in 1931. It was severely critical of American policing and forced
IV. Додаткові тексти для індивідуального контролю.
Translate into English.
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1. Прийнята Генеральною Асамблеєю ООН 10 грудня 1948 р.Загальна декларація прав людини у п.2 ст.16 констатує: “Шлюб може укладатися тільки за умови вільної та повної згоди двох сторін, які вступають до шлюбу”.
Теза про необхідність усім державам – сторонам вживати заходів для ліквідації дискримінації щодо жінок в усіх питаннях, які стосуються шлюбу та сімейних стосунків, й, зокрема, забезпечувати на основі рівності чоловіків і жінок однакові права щодо одруження, однакові права на вільний вибір одруження лише з зі своєї вільної й повної згоди, закріплена у ч.1 ст.16 Конвенції про ліквідацію всіх форм дискримінації щодо жінок, яка прийнята Генеральною Асамблеєю ООН 18 грудня 1979р. Тотожнє положення є і в основному Законі нашої держави. Так ч.1 ст.51 Конституції України, проголошує, що шлюб грунтується на вільній згоді жінки й чоловіка. Кожен член подружжя має рівні права і обов’язки у шлюбі та сімї.
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2. Відповідно до ч.3 ст.24 Конституції України, ”рівність прав жінки і чоловіка забезпечується : наданням рівних з чоловіками можливостей у громадсько – політичній і культурній діяльності, у здобутті освіти і професійній підготовці, у праці та винагороді за неї;спеціальними заходами щодо охорони праці і здоров’я жінок , встановленням пенсійних пільг; створення умов, які дають жінкам можливість поєднувати працю з материнством; правовим захистом, матеріальною і моральною підтримкою материнства і дитинства, включаючи надання оплачуваних відпусток та інших пільг вагітним жінкам матерям”.
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3. Реституція як вид міжнародно-правової відповідальності. У доктрині міжнародного права загальноприйнято розрізняти два види відповідальності – матеріальну (реституція, субституція, репарація) та нематеріальна (тобто політичну й моральну відповідальність - ресторація, сатисфакція, демілітаризація, післявоєнна окупація, обмеження міжнародно-правової суб’єктності тощо). При цьому існують і інші підходи щодо класифікації видів міжнародної відповідальності. Отже, реституція належить до матеріального виду міжнародної відповідальності та є одним із дієвих засобів відновлення права власності держави на певне майно. Реституцію застосовують передусім під час збройних конфліктів з метою відшкодування державою – правопорушницею (противником, агресором) заподіяної шкоди не в формі компенсації, а в натуральній. Прикладом реституції можна назвати повернення майна, що неправомірно затримано, художніх, історичних, археологічних і культурних цінностей, транспортних засобів тощо. Таким чином, у міжнародному праві цілям реституції відповідає передусім повернення індивідуально визначених речей. Разом з тим у мирних договорах з переможеними державами може бути наголошено, що в разі неможливості повернення в натурі вилучених предметів, які мають відповідну цінність, вони підлягають заміні аналогічними предметами або майже рівноцінними. Принцип реституції було проголошено під час другої світової війни в Декларації Організації Об’єднаних Націй від 5 січня 1943р., згідно з якою держави гітлерівського блоку попереджувались про неприпустимість вилучення майна й недійсність будь-яких форм заволодіння ними. Так, під час окупації Одеси румунськими військами до королівських палаців Румунії було вивезено унікальні речі з Одеського оперного театру (головну люстру), Воронцовського палацу (двері з натурального червоного дерева) тощо. Все це було повернуто Україні через здійснення реституції.
У сучасних умовах реституцію розглядають як досить складну міжнародно-правову проблему. Тож не випадково питання стосовно реституції культурних цінностей було присвячено низку резолюцій Генеральної Асамблеї ООН.Щодо України ,то вона приділяє значну увагу питанням міжнародно-правової реституції. Існує близько десятка договорів із Росією та майже така ж кількість з іншими країнами колишнього СРСР. Понад 10 документів стосовно реституції в межах регіональної співпраці підписано нашою державою із Польщею та країнами Балтії. Дотепер триває великий переговорний процес України з ФНР щодо повернення культурних цінностей, вивезених під час другої світової війни.
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4. Отже, проведений аналіз застосування пробації як виду покарання США дає підстави для таких висновків: 1) пробація (випробування)- це ефективний захід кримінально-правового реагування, який отримує особу від увязнення,залишаючи її на волі, разом із своєю сім’єю, друзями та колом улюблених занять; 2) пробація реально дозволяє засудженому перебувати в центрі уваги суспільства, і відчувати на собі його піклування т а самому брати участь у соціальному обслуговуванні, визначеному судом; 3) вона дієво впливає на виправлення та перевиховання засудженого шляхом залучення його до праці, навчання та лікування; 4) Пробація справляє відновлювальний влив на стан речей і предметів, оскільки під час пробації засуджений компенсує заподіяну злочином шкоду тощо. Тож сподіваємося, що позитивний досвід американського кримінального законодавства щодо пробації буде враховано при подальшому реформуванні інституту покарання та пенітенціарної системи в Україні.
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5. Правова база
Фактично до середини 90-х років британська розвідка діяла, не маючи державного статусу, будучи фактично непідзвітною парламенту. МІ-6 фінансується через Міністерство закордонних справ. Закон «Про розвідувальні служби» був прийнятий парламентом Великобританії в 1994р.У ньому вперше дано визначення розвідувальній діяльності як «добування і поширення інформації про діяльність і наміри іноземців за межами Великобританії, а також проведення спеціальних операцій в інтересах національної безпеки».
Крім того, закон звільнив від відповідальності працівників спецслужб за дії, які вчиняють вони за межами країни з метою виконання своїх функцій, навіть у тих випадках, коли в самій Англії вони б розцінювалися як злочинні. Міністрам, у віданні яких перебувають спецслужби, надані повноваження санкціонувати на свій розсуд операції, пов’язані з втручанням у приватне життя, прослуховуванням і негласним проникненням у житлові і службові приміщення.
Законом «Про розвідувальні служби» було передбачено створення парламентського комітету з питань розвідки і безпеки. Вказаному органу надане право контролювати витрачання спецслужбами бюджетних коштів, управління і політику в сфері вирішення основних завдань щодо забезпечення внутрішньої і зовнішньої безпеки держави. В законі не було чітких вказівок щодо повноважень і кола питань, які покликаний вирішувати комітет. Відзначалось лише, що він зобов’язаний подавати прем’єр-міністру, а не парламенту, щорічний звіт, а також інші доповіді на свій розсуд.
Translate into Ukrainian.
***
The duties of state highway patrols center on enforcing traffic laws on major highways and rural thoroughfares. This includes investigating accidents, issuing citations, helping stranded motorists and other tasks related to maintaining the safety of our highways. They are also responsible for many service functions not directly related to law enforcement. While their duties are primarily traffic-related, highway patrol officers are often the only immediately available law enforcers in many isolated rural areas, especially at night so they often encounter fugitives and other offenders in the course of their routine duties. Because they often work alone in isolated areas, they must be especially cautious at all times.
Most highway patrols are sub-divided into troops which are based in barracks. Each troop is responsible for patrolling a particular section of the state. A troop is thus similar to a city precinct and a barracks is similar to a precinct station. This geographic division of labor within highway patrols is a matter of administrative convenience, not jurisdiction. It results in these officers being commonly known as state troopers. They often have to rely on other agencies for routine back-up, detention facilities, and other services. In some rural areas, their duties may overlap with those of the sheriffs office.
***
Any discussion of the police role in modern society should stress that the police are secondary control agents. Agents of primary social control, such as the family, community, and church are informal social institutions in which people value their membership. These groups motivate their members to abide by certain standards of behavior through the use of peer influence and informal discipline. Secondary control agents are the employees of formal bureaucratic agencies who have the power to attach official labels to individuals that may affect their social, psychological and material well-being. Secondary control agents, such as the police, help to preserve the institutions of primary social control from external threats. They also deal with the results of the failures of primary institutions. Secondary forms of social control are always less effective than primary ones. Democracy tends to presume the power of primary control institutions and structures secondary control agencies to serve only as a support mechanism. Law enforcement in democratic nations is usually designed to protect the rights and privacy of citizens. For this reason it is never as efficient as that found in more authoritarian nations.
Factors Shaping the Police Role At least at the local level, the role of a police agency is determined by three closely related factors: 1) legal mandates; 2) distinctive powers; and 3) community characteristics. The legally mandated responsibilities of each police agency require certain relationships with other agencies in the jurisdiction. Legal mandates also control who may become a police officer and how certain aspects of the role will be performed. In most cases, the police have much discretionary power in determining who will be processed by the courts and who will be referred to other agencies. This power makes it critical that police maintain a high level of trust among the citizens they protect. The police possess the power to act in many situations where the general public's behavior is restricted. Additionally, the police have the legal power to use deadly force in many situations where citizens are reluctant or forbidden to do so. The police role is also unique because, unlike most other providers of governmental services, the police are available 24-hours a day, 7 days a week. When people desire governmental services during non-business hours, the police are often expected to act even though the task is the responsibility of another agency.
***
3. The characteristics of each community also influence the role played by the police in local jurisdictions. The larger the jurisdiction, the more likely the police are to be formal in their actions. Also, the larger the population of the jurisdiction, the greater the number and depth of various social problems that will be faced by police. The socio-political climate of the community is critical to how the police role is interpreted. Communities differ in the nature and degree of activity by public interest groups and social segments. The more popular and vocal groups often have a major impact on the function and role definition of the local police.
The appropriate role of the police has been defined in many ways. However, all of the various definitions can be placed in one of three categories - prescribed, preferred or enacted roles. The prescribed police role is that which has been officially mandated by law and allows for little discretion. The preferred police role is the set of tasks and concerns sought by officers and public. There are two theories that address the role preferred by individual officers. The predispositional theory suggests that individual officers enter police work with a particular set of expectations based on their personality, values, and attitudes. Socialization theory proposes that a person's experiences as a police officer guide the development of their preferred role. In all likelihood both theories are at least partly true. Predispositional and socializing forces interact within each officer to create a particular set of role preferences for that individual.
***
4. The history of organized crime in the United States is of importance only to show the interrelationships and the evolution of the families. It is more important to show contemporary problems of society. Law enforce ment officers cannot "just go out and put the hoodlums in jail." The com plexity of the organizations dictates a more comprehensive view.
At the mention of organized crime, people immediately say "the Mafia" or "La Cosa Nostra." This is, of course, the most notorious and probably the most powerful syndicate in America. There are, however, thousands of smaller independently organized groups. Until they become a threat to the "big group," they are permitted to exist and continue to grow. Jimmy Fratianno's testimony when he served as an informer for the Federal Bureau of Investigation is an example. About three decades before turning informer, Fratianno had been a gang member with Johnny Roselli on the East Coast. Roselli, who had been sent to the West Coast in the 1940s by Al Capone, was supposed to obtain some gambling action in southern California. For many years the Roselli group tried unsuccessfully to muscle in on the established West Coast groups. The Roselli group, including Fratianno, was known as the strong arm for anyone who would hire them. With the murder of Roselli and Fratianno's rise to power in one of the local Mafia groups, a murder contract was made on Fratianno. Neither of the gangsters was ever a power figure in the Mafia. Today there appears to be a workable coex istence with a live-and-let-live attitude as all factions quietly rebuild and expand.
Across America "bigness" has become a virtue. Giant cities enlarged from villages of three decades ago dot the landscape. Small businesses have mushroomed into giants or have been absorbed in corporate mergers with complex ownership structures. Into these industries has seeped the money from illegal drug transactions, prostitution, and gambling.
***
5. Family Law is divided into public and private law cases. Public law cases involve local government and other public authorities and include matters such as care of children, supervision and emergency protection orders. Private law cases involve divorce proceedings and access to children by the parents concerned.
When reaching a decision on cases concerning children, the court will make an order only if satisfied that this action is positively better for the child that making no order. In private law cases the child is able to express his or her opinion .In public law cases child is represented by a social worker appointed by the court the welfare of the child.
Everybody involved in the court proceedings has access to the relevant information before the case is heard and all are expected to revel their arguments and evidence in advance. Parents have the legal right to immediate legal aid without a means test in all public law cases involving applications for supervision, care, child assessment orders and emergency protection proceedings.
English –– Ukrainian – Russian vocabulary
|
1 |
Act, n |
Приймати |
принимать действие |
|
2 |
Act, v |
Дія |
действовать, вести себя |
|
3 |
Adequate, a |
діяти, поводитись |
соответствующий |
|
4 |
Adjudge, v |
ввідний, адекватний |
Судить |
|
5 |
Adopt, v |
Судити |
принимать |
|
6 |
Advance, v |
Приймати |
выдвигать |
|
7 |
Affirm, v |
посувати вперед |
подтверждать, утверждать |
|
8 |
Aggravate, v |
стверджувати |
отягчать вину |
|
9 |
Allegiance, n |
посилювати провину |
верность, преданность |
|
10 |
Amendment, n |
вірність, відданість |
поправка |
|
11 |
Anthem, n |
Гімн |
Гимн |
|
12 |
Apparent, a |
Явний |
явный, очевидный |
|
13 |
Appeal, v |
Звертатися |
обращаться |
|
14 |
Appellate court |
апеляційний суд |
апелляционный суд |
|
15 |
Appoint, v |
Призначати |
назначать |
|
16 |
Apprehend, v |
затримувати, заарештовувати |
задерживать, арестовывать |
|
17 |
Appropriate, adj |
Відповідний |
соответствующий |
|
18 |
Armorial, |
геральдичний |
геральдический |
|
19 |
Assault, n |
напад, словесна образа або погроза фізичної розправи |
нападение, словесное оскорбление и угроза физическим насилием |
|
20 |
Assert, v |
Відстоювати |
отстаивать |
|
21 |
Assign, v |
Призначати |
назначать |
|
22 |
Assure, v |
забезпечувати, гарантувати |
обеспечивать, гарантировать |
|
23 |
Balance, v |
перебувати в рівновазі |
находиться в равновесии |
|
24 |
Banner, n |
Стяг |
стяг |
|
25 |
Bargain, n |
угода, вигідна покупка |
сделка, выгодная покупка |
|
26 |
Bear, v |
Носити |
носить |
|
27 |
Belief, n (beliefs, pl.) |
віра, переконання |
вера, убеждения |
|
28 |
Bias, n |
Упередження |
предубежденность |
|
29 |
Blameworthiness, n |
Караність |
наказуемость |
|
30 |
Body |
орган, звід, кодекс |
орган, свод, кодекс |
|
31 |
Bound, v |
Обмежити |
ограничивать |
|
32 |
Boundary, n |
кордон, межа |
граница |
|
33 |
Capital, a |
карається смертю |
караемый смертью |
|
34 |
Caution, n |
Обережність |
осторожность |
|
35 |
Check, n |
перешкода, зупинка, затримка |
преграда |
|
36 |
Citizen, n |
Громадянин |
гражданин |
|
37 |
Civic, a |
громадянський |
гражданский |
|
38 |
Civil, a |
громадянський |
гражданский |
|
39 |
Claim, v |
Претендувати |
претендовать |
|
40 |
Clash, n |
сутичка, протиріччя |
противоречие |
|
41 |
Code, n |
Кодекс |
кодекс |
|
42 |
Coherent |
логічно послідовний, зв´язаний |
логически последовательный, связанный |
|
43 |
Command, v |
наказувати, мати в своєму розпорядженні |
приказывать, иметь в своем распоряжении |
|
44 |
Commander-in-chief, n |
головнокомандуючий |
Главнокомандующий |
|
45 |
Commitment, n |
зобов´язання |
Обязательство |
|
46 |
Common law |
загальне право |
общее право |
|
47 |
Compass, n |
Межа |
граница, предел |
|
48 |
Complement, v |
додавати, доповнювати |
Дополнять |
|
49 |
Complementary |
Додатковий |
Дополнительный |
|
50 |
Compulsion, n |
Примус |
Принуждение |
|
51 |
Compulsory |
обов´язковий |
Обязательный |
|
52 |
Concept, n |
поняття, ідея, загальне уявлення |
понятие, идея, общее представление |
|
53 |
Conception, n |
розуміння, концепція |
понимание, концепция |
|
54 |
Conduct, v |
поводитися |
вести себя |
|
55 |
Confinement, n |
позбавлення волі |
лишение свободы |
|
56 |
Consent, n |
Згода |
Согласие |
|
57 |
Consequence, n |
Наслідок |
Следствие |
|
58 |
Consequently, adv |
отже, тому |
Следовательно |
|
59 |
Consider, v |
брати до уваги, вважати |
принимать во внимание, считать |
|
60 |
Consistency |
послідовність, логічність, сталість |
последовательность, логичность, постоянство |
|
61 |
Conspiracy, n |
злочинна змова |
преступный уговор |
|
62 |
Contractual, a |
Договірний |
Договорной |
|
63 |
Convention, n |
угода, умовність |
Соглашение |
|
64 |
Correction, n |
Виправлення, поправка |
исправление, поправка |
|
65 |
Criminal (culpable) omission |
злочинна бездіяльність |
преступное бездействие |
|
66 |
Culpability, n |
Провина |
Виновность |
|
67 |
Culpable, a |
винуватий, той що заслуговує на покарання |
виновный, заслуживающий наказания |
|
68 |
Customary |
Звичайний |
Обычный |
|
69 |
Dealing |
Угода |
Сделка |
|
70 |
Decent, adj |
пристойний, порядний |
пристойный, порядочный |
|
71 |
Deliberately |
Умисно |
Намеренно |
|
72 |
Demand, v |
Вимагати |
Требовать |
|
73 |
Deny, v |
Заперечувати |
не давать |
|
74 |
Design, v |
складати план, схему |
составлять план, схему |
|
75 |
Deterrent, n |
правова санкція |
правовая санкция |
|
76 |
Device, v |
розробляти, винаходити |
Разрабатывать |
|
77 |
Diffuse, v |
Поширити |
Распространять |
|
78 |
Dignity, n |
Гідність |
Достоинство |
|
79 |
Disciplinary |
Виправний |
дисциплинарный, исправительный |
|
80 |
Discretion, n |
свобода дії |
свобода действий |
|
81 |
Distinction, n |
Відмінність |
Различие |
|
82 |
Double jeopardy |
заборона повторного переслідування за однією і тією ж справою |
запрещение повторного преследования по одному и тому же делу |
|
83 |
Draw, v |
Креслити |
Чертить |
|
84 |
Draw on, v |
Натягувати |
Натягивать |
|
85 |
Duress, n |
фізичний примус |
физическое принуждение |
|
86 |
Dwelling, n |
Житло |
Жильё |
|
87 |
Educate, v |
виховувати, привчати |
воспитывать, приучать |
|
88 |
Effect, n |
дія, вплив |
действие, влияние |
|
89 |
Effective, a |
Діючий |
Действующий |
|
90 |
Efficiency, n |
Ефективність |
Эффективность |
|
91 |
Embrace, v |
вміщувати, містити |
Вмещать |
|
92 |
Emergency, n |
критична ситуація |
критическая ситуация |
|
93 |
Enact, v |
запроваджувати |
вводить в действие, внедрять |
|
94 |
Endow, v |
надавати право, наділяти |
одарять, наделять |
|
95 |
Enforce, v |
примушувати, примусово провадити в життя |
принуждать, принудительно проводить в жизнь |
|
96 |
Enforcement, n |
Підсилення |
Усиление |
|
97 |
Enhance, v |
підсилювати, звеличувати |
увеличивать, усиливать, усугублять (вину) |
|
98 |
Enhancement, n |
підсилення провини |
усиление вины |
|
99 |
Enshrine, v |
Берегти |
хранить, лелеять |
|
100 |
Ensure, v |
гарантувати, забезпечувати |
Гарантировать |
|
101 |
Entitle, v |
надавати право на |
давать право на |
|
102 |
Entrapment, n |
надання особі можливість скоїти злочин, який він не замислював |
предоставление лицу возможности совершить преступление, которое он не замышлял |
|
103 |
Equity, n |
справедливість, право справедливості |
справедливость, право справедливости |
|
104 |
Escutcheon, n |
щит герба |
щит герба |
|
105 |
Essentials, n |
Основи |
Основы |
|
105 |
Evolve, v |
Розвивати |
Развивать |
|
106 |
Exclusion, to the exclusion of |
за винятком |
за исключением |
|
107 |
Excusable homicide |
ненавмисне вбивство |
неумышленное/ непреднамеренное убийство |
|
108 |
Exercise, v |
виконувати, здійснювати |
Выполнять |
|
109 |
Exile, n |
Вигнання |
Изгнание |
|
110 |
Explicit, a |
точний, ясній |
четкий, ясный |
|
111 |
Extend, v |
Розширювати |
Рас ширять |
|
112 |
Extent, n |
Розмір |
Раз мер |
|
113 |
Failing, n |
помилка, невдача |
ошибка, неудача, провал |
|
114 |
Failure, n |
Нездатність |
Неспособность |
|
115 |
Fair |
Справедливий, чесний |
беспристрастный, справедливый, честный |
|
116 |
Felonious homicide |
навмисне вбивство |
умышленное/ преднамеренное убийство |
|
117 |
Felony, n |
фелонія (тяжкий злочин) |
фелония (тяжкое преступление) |
|
118 |
File, v |
подавати документи |
подавать документы |
|
119 |
Fine, n |
Штраф |
Штраф |
|
120 |
Forbid, v |
Забороняти |
Запрещать |
|
121 |
Forfeit, v |
втрачати, губити, конфісковувати |
лишаться, терять, утрачивать, конфисковать |
|
122 |
Gender, n |
Стать |
Пол. |
|
123 |
Glorious |
Славетний |
Славный |
|
124 |
Goal, n |
Ціль |
Цель |
|
125 |
Govern, v |
Керуватись |
Руководствоваться |
|
126 |
Gross, a |
грубий, явний, простий |
грубый, явный, простой |
|
127 |
Gules |
червоне світло |
красный свет |
|
128 |
Handle, v |
керувати, регулювати, розпоряджатися |
управлять, регулировать, распоряжаться |
|
129 |
Harsh, a |
Суворий |
строгий, суровый |
|
130 |
Hoist, v |
Піднімати |
Поднимать |
|
131 |
Homicide, n |
Вбивство |
Убийство |
|
132 |
Impact, n |
удар, зіткнення |
удар, столкновение |
|
133 |
Improper, a |
невідповідний |
Несоответствующий |
|
134 |
Inalienable, a |
невід’ємний |
неотъемлемый |
|
135 |
Incarceration, n |
ув’язнення |
заточение в тюрьму |
|
136 |
Inchoate, a |
Початковий |
Начальный |
|
137 |
Include, v |
Охоплювати |
Охватывать |
|
138 |
Incomplete, a |
не скоєне, не закінчене |
несовершенные, незавершенное |
|
139 |
Indivisible, adj. |
Неподільний |
Неделимый |
|
140 |
Inflict, v |
Завдавати |
Наносить |
|
141 |
Injury |
шкода, тілесне пошкодження |
вред, телесное повреждение |
|
142 |
Insanity, n |
Божевільність |
умопомешательство, невменяемость |
|
143 |
Insert, v |
Вміщати |
Вмещать |
|
144 |
Insight, n |
прозорливість, інституція, розуміння |
прозрачность, институция, понимание |
|
145 |
Inspiration, n |
Натхнення |
Вдохновение |
|
146 |
Insurance, n |
Страхування |
Страховка |
|
147 |
Internal, a |
Внутрішній |
Внутренний |
|
148 |
Intervene, v |
Втручатись |
Вмешиваться |
|
149 |
Invent, v |
Винаходити |
Изобретать |
|
150 |
Inviolability |
недоторканість |
Неприкасаемость |
|
151 |
Issue, v |
випускати, видавати |
выдавать, издавать |
|
152 |
Jeopardy, n |
небезпека, ризик |
опасность, риск |
|
153 |
Justification, n |
виправдання, виправдовуючи обставини, правомірність, підстава |
оправдание, оправдывающее обстоятельство, правомерность, основание |
|
154 |
Knightly |
Рицарський |
Рыцарский |
|
155 |
Legacy, n |
Спадщина |
Наследство |
|
156 |
Legitimacy, n |
Законність |
Законность |
|
157 |
Lethal, a |
Смертельний |
Смертельный |
|
158 |
Liability, n |
відповідальність |
Ответственность |
|
159 |
Limit, n |
кордон, межа |
граница, предел |
|
160 |
Litigation, n |
судова справа |
тяжба, спор |
|
161 |
Lobby, v |
Лобіювати |
пытаться воздействовать на членов законодательного органа |
|
162 |
Loosely |
вільно, незакріплене |
свободно |
|
163 |
Loss |
збиток, шкода |
убыток, ущерб |
|
164 |
Mandamus, n |
судовий наказ нижчому суду або посадовій особі |
судебный приказ нижестоящему суду или должностному лицу |
|
165 |
Mandate, n |
мандат, наказ суду |
мандат, приказ суда |
|
166 |
Mandatory |
імперативний, обов’язковий, примусовий |
императивный, обязательный, принудительный |
|
167 |
Manslaughter |
просте вбивство, ненавмисне вбивство, необережне вбивство |
простое убийство, не принудительное убийство, неосторожное убийство |
|
168 |
Misdemeanour, n |
місдемінор (найменш небезпечний злочин) |
мисдеминор (наименее опасное преступление) |
|
169 |
Mitigate, v |
пом’якшувати, послаблювати |
смягчать |
|
170 |
Mutiny, n |
заколот, повстання |
бунт, мятеж |
|
171 |
Natural law |
природне право |
естественное право |
|
172 |
Need, v |
бути зобов’язаним |
быть обязанным |
|
173 |
Negligence, n |
Недбалість |
небрежность |
|
174 |
Negligent, a |
недбалий, допущений через недбалість |
небрежный, допущенный по небрежности |
|
175 |
Objective, n |
Мета |
цель |
|
176 |
Obligation |
зобов’язання |
обязательство |
|
177 |
Occur, v |
траплятися, відбуватися |
случаться, происходить |
|
178 |
Offender |
правопорушник, злочинець |
правонарушитель, преступник |
|
179 |
Offence (amer.), n |
замах, правопорушення, злочин |
посягательство, правона-рушение, преступление |
|
180 |
Omission, n |
Бездіяльність |
бездействие |
|
181 |
Operation, n |
юридична дія |
юридическое действие |
|
182 |
Origin, n |
Походження |
происхождение |
|
183 |
Paramount, d |
найголовніший |
самый главный |
|
184 |
Perfect, adj. |
досконалій, повний |
совершенный |
|
185 |
Petty, a |
незначний, дрібний |
незначительный, пустячный |
|
186 |
Pose, v |
Формулювати |
излагать, формулировать |
|
187 |
Practioner, n |
практикуючий лікар або юрист |
практикующий врач или юрист |
|
188 |
Prior |
передуючий, попередній, переважний |
предшествующий, предварительный, преимущественный |
|
189 |
Probate law |
право за справами по спадку та затвердженню заповітів |
право по наследственным делам и утверждению завещаний |
|
190 |
Procedural law |
Процесуальне право |
процессуальное право |
|
191 |
Process, v |
виклик, наказ |
вызов, приказ |
|
192 |
Procure, v |
добувати, схиляти |
производить |
|
193 |
Proper |
правильний, відповідний |
надлежащий, правильный |
|
194 |
Prosecute, v |
переслідувати у судовому (кримінальному) порядку |
преследовать в судебном (уголовном) порядке |
|
195 |
Protect, v |
Захищати |
защищать |
|
196 |
Provide, v |
забезпечувати |
обеспечивать |
|
197 |
Provision, n |
умовне постанова, положення (закону, договору) |
условное постановление, положение (закона, договора) |
|
198 |
Provisionally |
Тимчасово |
временно |
|
199 |
Pursuit, n |
пошуки, прагнення |
поиски, стремление |
|
200 |
Quality, n |
характерна риса |
характерная черта |
|
201 |
Range, n |
розмах, межі коливання |
пределы, ряд |
|
202 |
Ratify, v |
ратифікувати, затверджувати |
ратифицировать |
|
203 |
Recklessly |
Нерозсудливо, необачно |
безрассудно, опрометчиво |
|
204 |
Recklessness, n |
безрозсудливість, безвідповідальність |
безрассудность, безответственность |
|
205 |
Regard, v |
брати до уваги |
принимать во внимание |
|
206 |
Regulation |
норма, постанова |
норма, постановление |
|
207 |
Relate, v |
мати відношення |
иметь отношения |
|
208 |
Relocate, v |
Переміщувати |
перемещать |
|
209 |
Rely upon |
покладатись, сподіватись, довіряти |
полагаться, надеяться, доверять |
|
210 |
Remedy, n |
засоби, відшкодування |
средства |
|
211 |
Repeal, v |
анулювати, скасовувати |
аннулировать, отменять |
|
212 |
Resort, v |
вдаватись до |
прибегать |
|
213 |
Restriction, n |
Обмеження |
ограничение |
|
214 |
Retribution |
покарання, відплата |
наказание |
|
215 |
Reveal, v |
виявляти, показувати |
обнаруживать, открывать |
|
216 |
Revive, v |
Відроджувати |
возрождать |
|
217 |
Royalty, n |
королівська влада, член королівської родини |
королевская власть, члены королевской семьи |
|
218 |
Rule, n |
правило |
правило |
|
219 |
Sacrifice, v |
жертвувати |
жертвовать |
|
220 |
Safeguard, n |
гарантія |
гарантия |
|
221 |
Search, v |
обшукувати |
обыскивать |
|
222 |
Session, n |
відокремлення, відпадання |
отделение |
|
223 |
Scholar, n |
вчений |
ученый |
|
224 |
Security, n |
безпека, гарантія |
безопасность |
|
225 |
Seek, v |
шукати |
искать |
|
226 |
Self-determination, n |
самовизначення |
самоопределение |
|
227 |
Sentence, n |
Вирок |
приговор, наказание |
|
228 |
Set, n |
добір, серія, комплект, група |
комплект, набор, серия, ряд |
|
229 |
Set forth |
Формулювати |
излагать, формулировать |
|
230 |
Settling, n |
селище, колонія |
поселение |
|
231 |
Set up |
Сформувати |
сформировать |
|
232 |
Sharp, a |
кислий, їдкий |
едкий, кислый |
|
233 |
Shield, n |
Щит |
щит |
|
234 |
Sign, v |
Підписувати |
подписывать |
|
235 |
Single |
єдине громадянство |
единое гражданство |
|
236 |
Solicitation, n |
клопотання, прохання |
просьба, ходатайство |
|
237 |
Spacing, n |
інтервал, відстань |
интервал, расстояние |
|
238 |
Speedy |
швидкий |
быстрый |
|
239 |
Staff, n |
древко |
древко |
|
240 |
Stake |
застава |
залог |
|
241 |
Standing, n |
Становище |
положение |
|
242 |
Statesman, n |
державний діяч |
государственный деятель |
|
243 |
Statute, n |
статут, закон |
статут |
|
245 |
Stockade, n (амер) |
каторжна в’язниця, табір для ув’язнених |
каторжная тюрьма, лагерь заключенных |
|
246 |
Stripe, n |
Смуга |
полоса |
|
247 |
Submission, n |
підкорення, покірність |
подчинение |
|
248 |
Substantive law |
Матеріальне право |
материальное право |
|
249 |
Sue, v |
бути позивачем у суді, подавати позив |
искать в суде, предъявлять иск |
|
250 |
Suit, n |
позов, судова справа, судовий процес |
иск, судебное дело, судебный процесс |
|
251 |
Supervise, v |
наглядати, завідувати |
надзирать |
|
252 |
Supplement |
Додаток |
приложение, дополнение |
|
253 |
Suspend, v |
вішати, тимчасово припиняти |
вешать, откладывать, временно прекращать |
|
254 |
Tail, v |
Тягтися |
тянуться |
|
255 |
Tax, v |
оподатковувати |
облагаться налогом |
|
256 |
Tension, n |
напруга, напруження |
напряжение |
|
257 |
Thereby, adv |
таким чином |
таким образом |
|
258 |
Tidy, adj |
Охайний |
аккуратный |
|
259 |
Tort |
делікт, цивільне правопорушення |
деликт, гражданское правонарушение |
|
260 |
Trait, n |
штрих, риса |
штрих |
|
261 |
Transfer, n |
перехід права, переказ |
передача, перенос |
|
262 |
Transfer, v |
передавати, переводити |
передавать, переводить |
|
263 |
Treatment |
режим, звертання |
режим, обращение |
|
264 |
Tribe, n |
рід, плем’я |
племя |
|
265 |
Unalienable |
невід’ємний |
неотъемлемый |
|
266 |
Unalterable |
незмінний |
неизменяемый |
|
267 |
Universal, adj |
загальний, універсальний |
общий |
|
268 |
Unleash, v |
не зв’язувати шворкою |
развязывать |
|
269 |
Unity |
єдність |
единство |
|
270 |
Uphold, v |
підтримувати, додержуватись |
поддерживать |
|
271 |
Valid, a |
дійсний, справжній |
действительный |
|
272 |
Value, n |
цінність |
ценность |
|
273 |
Venerate, v |
шанувати |
благоговеть перед |
|
274 |
Violation |
порушення, ґвалт |
нарушение, насилие |
|
275 |
Virtually |
фактично |
фактически |
|
276 |
Visible |
видимий, очевидний, явний |
видимый, очевидный, явный |
|
277 |
Weigh, v |
обмірковувати |
обдумывать |
|
278 |
Whereby |
за допомогою якої |
при помощи которой |
|
279 |
Willful, a |
умисний |
преднамеренный, умышленный |
|
280 |
Withhold, v |
утримувати, відмовляти |
удерживать, отказывать |
|
281 |
Wisdom, n |
мудрість |
мудрость |
|
282 |
Witness, n |
доказ, свідчення |
доказательство |
|
283 |
Writ, n |
судовий наказ |
судебный приказ |
|
284 |
Wrong |
правопорушення |
правонарушение |
|
285 |
Yearn, v |
Прагнути |
жаждать |
V. БІБЛІОГРАФІЯ
Безнхем В. Вступ до права та правової системи США\ Пер. з англ.-Київ: Україна, 1999.-554с.
Борисенко И.И., Саенко В.В. Русско-английский юридический словарь.– К.: Юрінком Інтер, 1999. – 608 с.
Дідківська Л.П., Родніна Л.О. Словотвір, синонімія, стилістика.–Київ: Наукова думка.– 1982.–178с.
Дяков А.С. та ін.Основи термінотворення. : Київ :КМ Acadeмia, 2000-218 с.
Мизецкая В.Я. Юридическая лексическая подсистема и проблема двуязычной лексикографии. -Харьков : Одиссей, 2004.- 104с.
Мостовий М.І. Лексикологія англійської мови. – Харків: Основа, 1993. – 256 с.
Словник синонімів української мови у двох томах/ А.А. Бурячок, Г.М. Гнатюк, С.І. Головащук та ін. – К., 1999.– Т.1– 1040с.; – К., 2000.– Т.2– 960с.
Словник юридичних терминів (російсько-український) // Андреш Ф. та інш. – К.: Юрінком, 1994. – 322 с.
Український правопис.– Київ: Наукова думка, 2000.– 236 с.
Черноватий Л.М., Карабан В.І., Іванко Ю.П. Переклад англомовної юридичної літератури.- Вінниця: Поділля – 2000,2002.- 480с.
Юлиценская Ю.В. Правило “Буквального толкования” в Великобритании и США\\ Треті каразинські читання: методика і лінгвістика–на шляху до інтеграції (матеріали Міжнародної науковометодичної конференцїї ).- Харків: Харківський національний університет- 2003. –С.198-199.
Berman D., Loeb L., Laws and Men. The Challenge of American Politics.-L.- N.Y.,1970.-P.311
Bernham W. Introduction to the Law and Legal System of the United Statutes.-St. Paul., Minn.: West Publishing Co.,1977.-554p.
Course in Modern English Lexicology. /Ginsburg R.S., Khidekel S.S. etc.– M.: V. Sh.– 1966. – 269 p.
15. Edelman M. Political Language: Worlds that Succeed and Polices that Fail.- L.: Academic Press,1977.-164p.
16. Geis M.L. The Language of Polticks.-N.Y.: Springer- Verlag, 1987.- 189p.
17. James P.S. Introduction to English Law.- L.:Butterworths,1989.-24p.
18. James F. Quinn, Ph.D. Criminal Justice: Principles and Perspectives. –Minn.: West Publishing Co., 1996.–925p.
VI. Покажчики
Покажчик українських термінів
А
Адекватний (4) Втрачати (121)
Апеляційний суд (14) Втручатись (148)
Анулювати (211) Внутрішній (147)
Б Г
Берегти (99) Гарантувати (22, 100)
Божевільство (142) Гарантія (220)
Бездіяльність (180) Геральдичний (18)
Безросудливість (204) Гімн (11)
Безпека (224) Громадянин (36)
Громадянський (37, 38)
В Губити (121)
Д
Вбивство (131)
Вважати (59) Державний діяч (242)
вигідна покупка (25) Делікт (259)
Вдаватись до (212) Дія (88)
Вигнання (109) Діючий (89)
Виклик (191) Добір (228)
Виконувати (108) Додаток (252)
Вимагати (72) Доказ ( 282)
Винаходити (149) Древко (239)
Винуватий (67)
Виправдання (153) Е
Виправний (79)
Випускати (151) Ефективність (90)
Вирок (227)
Виховувати (87) Є
Виявляти (215) Єдність (269)
Відмінність (81) Єдине громадянство (235)
Відокремлення (222)
Відпадання (222) З
Відповідний (17)
Відповідальність (158) Заарештовувати (16)
Відроджувати (216) Забезпечувати (196)
Відстоювати (20) Забов’язання (45)
Вільно (162) Загальний (267)
Віра (27) Загальне право (46)
Зальне уявлення (52)
Завдавати (140)
Заколот (170) М
Закон (243)
Законність (156) Мандат (165)
замах (179) Мати в своєму розпорядженні (43)
Заперечувати (73) Матеріальне (248)
Запроваджувати (93) Межа (32,47,159)
Засоби (210) Мета (175)
Застава (240) Місдемінор (168)
Затверджувати )202) Містити (91)
Затримка (35) Мудрість (281)
Затримувати (16)
Захищати (195) Н
Збиток (163) Наглядати (251)
Звеличувати (97) Надавати права (94)
Звертатися (13) Наділяти (94)
Звичайний (68) Найголовніший (183)
Згода (56) Наказ (191)
Зіткнення (132) Наказувати (43)
Злочин (179) Напад (19)
Злочинна бездіяльність (65) Напруга (256)
Злочинна змова (61) Наслідок (57)
Злочинець (178) Натягувати (84)
Знижка (261) Натхнення (145)
Небезпека (152)
І Невідповідний (133)
Імперативний (166) Невід’ємний (134, 265)
Інституція (144) Недбалість (173)
Нездатність (114)
К Незмінний (266)
Караність (29) Незначний (185)
Карається смертю (33) Ненавмисне вбивство (107,167)
Каторжна в’язниця (245) Необачно (203)
Керувати (128) Необережне вбивство (167)
Керуватись (125) Норма (206)
Кислий (232) Нерозсудливо (203)
Кодекс (41) Носити (26)
Колонія 230
Комплект 228 О
Конфіскувати (121) Обережність (34)
Кордон (32) Обмежити (31)
Креслити (83) Обміркувати (277)
Критична ситуація (92) Обов’язкі (51)
Орган (30)
Л Основи (105)
Лобіювати (161) Отже (58)
Охайний (258) Примус (50)
Охоплювати (137) Примушувати (95)
Природне право (171)
П Провина (66)
Перебувати в рівновазі (23) Прозорливість (144)
Передавати (262) Процесуальне право (190)
Передуючий (188) Протиріччя (40)
Переказ (261)
Переміщувати (208) Р
Переслідувати у судовому порядку (194) Ратифікувати (202)
Перехід права (261) Режим (263)
Перешкода (35) Риса (260)
Підкорення (247) Рицарський (154)
Піднімати (130) Рід (264)
Підписувати (234) Розробляти (105)
Підсилення (96) Розуміння (53)
Підсилення провини (98) Розвивати (105)
Підтримувати (270) Розширювати (111)
Плем’я (264) Розмір (112)
Повний (184) Розпоряджатися (128)
Поводитись (3) Розуміння (144)
Поводити себе (54)
Подавати документи (118)
Позбавлення волі (55)
Позов (250)
Покладатись (209)
Помилка (113)
Пом’ягшувати (169)
Поняття (52)
Попередній (188)
Поправка (64)
Порушення (274)
Посилювати провину (9)
Послідовність (60)
Постанова (206)
Походження (182)
Пошуки (199)
Початковий (136)
Правило (218)
Правильний (193)
Правопорушення (179, 284)
Прагнути (285)
Претендувати (39)
Приймати (1,6)
Призначити (15,21)
Примус (50)
Примусовий (166)
Примушувати (95)
Природне право (171)
Провина (66)
Прозорливість (144)
Процесуальне право (190)
Протиріччя (40)
С
Свідчення (282)
Самовизначення (226)
Свобода дії (80)
Селіще (230)
Серія (228)
Скасовувати (211)
Складати план, схему (74)
Славетний (123)
Смертельний (157)
Смуга (246)
Спадщина (155)
Сподіватись (209)
Справедливість (103)
Сталість (60)
Становище ( (241)
Статут (243)
Стать (122)
Стверджувати (8)
Страхування ( 146)
Стяг (24)
Суворий ( 129)
Судити (5)
Судова справа (160, 250)
Судовий наказ нижчому суду (164)
Судовий наказ (283)
Сутичка ( 40)
Сформувати (231)
Т
Тимчасово (198)
Тимчасово припиняти (253)
Траплятися (177)
Тягтися (254)
У
Угода (25,63,69)
Удар (132)
Умисний (279)
Умовність (63)
Упередження (28)
Утримувати (280)
Ф
Фактично (275)
Фелонія (117)
Фізичний примус (85)
Формулювати (186, 229)
Ц
Цивільне правопорушення (259)
Ціль (124)
Цінність (272)
Ч
Червоне світло (127)
Ш Ю
Шкода (163) Юридична дія (181)
Штраф (119)
Штрих (260) Я
Явний (276)
Щ
Щит герба (104)
Покажчик англійських термінів
|
A |
Criminal (culpable) omission |
|
Act |
Culpable |
|
Adequate |
Customary |
|
Adopt |
D |
|
Advance |
Demand |
|
Affirm |
Deny |
|
Amendment (7) |
Design |
|
Anthem |
Deterrent |
|
Appeal |
Dignity |
|
Appoint |
Disciplinary |
|
Assault |
Discretion |
|
Assert |
Distinction |
|
Assure |
E |
|
B |
Educate |
|
Balance |
Effect |
|
Banner |
Emergency |
|
Bargain |
Enact |
|
Bear |
Enforcement |
|
Belief |
Ensure |
|
Bias |
Entitle |
|
Blameworthiness (63) |
Extend |
|
Body |
F |
|
Bound |
Failure |
|
С |
Fair |
|
Capital |
Felony |
|
Caution |
Fine |
|
Check |
Forbid |
|
Citizen |
G |
|
Civil |
Gender |
|
Claim, |
Glorious |
|
Clash |
Goal |
|
Code |
Govern |
|
Commander-in-chief |
H |
|
Common law |
Handle |
|
Complement |
Harsh |
|
Compulsory |
Homicide |
|
Concept |
I |
|
Confinement |
Impact |
|
Consent |
Include |
|
Convention |
Incomplete |
|
Correction |
Inflict |
|
Insert |
Provide |
|
Internal |
Provision |
|
Intervene |
Provisionally |
|
Invent |
Pursuit |
|
Inviolability |
Q |
|
Issue |
Quality |
|
J |
R |
|
Jeopardy |
Range |
|
Justification |
Ratify |
|
L |
Recklessness |
|
Legacy |
Regard |
|
Legitimacy |
Relate |
|
Liability |
Repeal |
|
Limit |
Resort |
|
M |
Restriction |
|
Mandate |
Retribution |
|
Manslaughter |
Reveal |
|
Misdemeanour |
Rule |
|
Mutiny |
Sacrifice |
|
Natural law |
S |
|
N |
Safeguard |
|
Need |
Search |
|
Negligent |
Session |
|
O |
Security |
|
Objective |
Self-determination |
|
Obligation |
Sentence |
|
Occur |
Set |
|
Offender |
Sign |
|
Offence |
Single |
|
Omission |
Staff |
|
P |
Stake |
|
Perfect |
Statesman |
|
Petty |
Statute |
|
Pose |
Submission |
|
Practioner |
Substantive law |
|
Prior |
Sue |
|
Probate law |
Suit |
|
Procedural law |
Suspend |
|
Process |
T |
|
Procure |
Tail |
|
Proper |
Tax |
|
Prosecute |
Tension |
|
Protect |
Tort |
|
Trait |
|
|
Transfer |
|
|
Treatment |
|
|
Tribe |
|
|
U |
|
|
Unalienable |
|
|
Unalterable |
|
|
Universal |
|
|
Unleash |
|
|
Unity |
|
|
Uphold |
|
|
V |
|
|
Valid |
|
|
Value |
|
|
Venerate |
|
|
Violation |
|
|
Virtually |
|
|
Visible |
|
|
W |
|
|
Weigh |
|
|
Whereby |
|
|
Willful |
|
|
Withhold |
|
|
Wisdom |
|
|
Witness |
|
|
Writ |
|
|
Wrong |
|
|
Y |
|
|
Yearn |
Покажчик російських термінів
|
А Адекватний (4) Аккуратный (258) Апелляционный суд (14) Аннулировать (211) Арестовывать (16) |
Губить (121) Д Давать право на (101) Действие (88) Действительный (271) Действовать (2) |
|
Б Бунт (170) Беречь (99) Бездейсвтвие (180) Безрассудно (204) Безопасность (224) Безответственность (204) Беспристрастный (115) Благоговеть перед (273) Быстрый (238) В Вводить в действие (93) Вера (27) Верность(9) Вести себя (54) Вешать (253) Видимый (276) Виновность (67) Вмешиваться (148) Вмещать (91) Внедрять (93) Внутренний (147) Воспитывать (87) Вред (141) Временно прекращать (253) Выдвигать (6) Вызов (191) |
Деликт (259) Дисциплинарный (79) Дополнительный (49) Договорной (62) Достоинство (78) Е Едкий (232) Единое гражданство (235) Единство (269) Естественное право (171) Ж Жаждать (285) Жертвовать (219) Жилье (86) З Заточение в тюрьму (153) Законность (156) Залог (240) Защищать (195) И Икать (225) Исправление(64) Изгнание (109) |
|
Г Гарантировать (22, 100) Гарантия (220) Геральдический (18) Гимн (11) Гражданин (36) Гражданский (37, 38) Гражданское правонарушение (259) Граница (32) К Караемый смертью (33) Каторжная тюрьма (245) Критическая ситуация (92) Кодекс (41) Комплект (228) Королевская власть (217) Л Лагерь заключенных (245) Логически последовательный (42) Лишаться (121) Лишение свободы (55) М Мандат (165) Мисдиминор (168) Мудрость (281) Надзиратель (251) Назначать (15, 21) Наказание (214,227) Намеренно (71) Наносить (140) Нападение (19) Напряжение (256) Нарушение (274) Насилие (274) Наследство (155) Находиться в равновесии ( 23) Начальный (136) Незавершенное (138) Неизменяемый (266) Неотъемлемый (134,265) Несоответствующий (133) Неспособность (114) Неудача (113) Неумышленное убийство (107) Норма (206) Носить (26) О Обеспечивать (22) Обращаться (13) Обычный (68) Общее право (46) Обязательный (51,166) Ограничивать (31) Опасность (152) Оправдание (153) Орган (30) Основание (153) Основы (105) Осторожность (34) Отстаивать(20) Отягчать вину (8) Охватывать (137) Статут (243) Страхование ( 146) Суровый ( 129) Судить (5) Судебное дело(160, 250) Судебный указ (283) У Удар (132) Умышленный (279) Условность (63) Упреждение (28) Удержание (280) Ф Фактично (275) Фелония (117) Физическое принуждение (85) Формулировать (186, 229)
Ц Цель (124) Ценность (272) Ш Штраф (119) Штрих (260) Щ Щит герба (104) Ю Юридическое действие (181) Я Явный (276)
|
Излагать (186) Изобретать (149) Императивный (166) Интервал (237) Интуиция (144) Иск (250) Исправительный (79) П Подавать документы (118) Поднимать (130) Подтверждать (7) Понимание (53,144) Последовательность (60) Посягательство (179) Правовая санкция (75) Правомерность (153) Правонарушение (179) Правонарушитель (178) Приказ суда (165) Принимать (5) Преграда (35) Предел (47) Преступление(179) Преступник (178) Преступное бездействие (65) Преступный сговор (61) Приказывать (43) Принимать во внимание (59) Принудительный (166) Принуждать (95) Пристойный (70) Прозрачность (144) Происхождение (162) Простое убийство (167) Р Развивать (105) Размер (112) Ратифицировать (202) Режим (263) Рыцарский ( 154) С Свобода действий (80) Село (230) Серия (228) Составить план, схему (74) Смертельний (157) Справедливість (103)
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