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1-лекция
Modern man has a variety of needs. Meet these needs , ie the creation of the material conditions of human life, and is engaged in the economy .
The term "economics" emerged more than two thousand years ago . It is formed from two Greek words " oikos " ( house, household ) and " nomos " (law) . Economy literally means " economics ", " art of housekeeping ."
Origins of economic thought are rooted in antiquity ( Egyptian papyrus , the ancient Indian Vedas , the laws of King Hammurabi ), but the science of economics emerged only in the era of mature slave society . The term "economy" was first proposed by Xenophon , choosing its name works on the rules of the household and farming.
As an independent science economic theory emerged at the turn of 16-17 centuries called political economy (" policy"-"state") . In the center of attention - the socio- economic relations between classes and social groups (Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Karl Marx and others).
The central problem of economics is the distribution of rare resources between different objectives . In 40-50 yy this understanding of the subject of economics has become commonplace .
There are several interpretations of the economy:
economy - a set of social relations associated with the production and economic activities of people ;
economy - this economy of an area , country, group of countries and around the world ;
economy - it is a scientific discipline that studies any area of economic life of society .
Economic theory - the science that investigates the behavior of people in the process of production, consumption and distribution of wealth .
Economic theory - the science that studies human behavior in terms of relations between its objectives ( needs) and limited resources in alternative uses.
The subject of economic theory is the nature and patterns of development of economic processes in their interrelationship and interdependence in resource-limited settings .
Economic theory considers three main issues:
What to produce ( what needs to be considered important and how to allocate limited resources) ?
How to produce ( who should produce with what resources and what technologies ) ?
For whom to produce ( how to distribute the work) ?
2. The course structure of economic theory
Economic theory is divided into two distinct sections: microeconomics and macroeconomics . Microeconomics deals with individual elements ( parts) of economic systems ( enterprise, industry ). Macroeconomics examines the economic system as a whole ( the global economy , the national economy ) .
4 . Function of economic theory
Economic phenomena and processes in a society run by economic laws that are objective , since it does not depend on the will and desires of the people and begin to show up only when people start to produce , exchange, distribute and consume goods. Economic science has identified the following types of economic laws :specific;special; general.
Economic theory , like any other scientific discipline , performs a number of functions , which are divided into major and minor .
The main features are :
cognitive function involves the study and explanation of economic laws and phenomena ;
practical ( pragmatic ) function - Identify principles and practices of good housekeeping and application of the theory studied objects in practice;
methodological feature means that economic theory is a fundamental , academic science , which forms the basis of other economic sciences, their methodological base .
Auxiliary functions of economic theory are:
Education ( ideological ) function is manifested in the fact that the study of economic theory makes it possible to obtain individuals of modern economic knowledge ;
ideological function reflected in the fact that with the help of economic theory possible justification sense of global political ideas and the main goals of social development.
2-лекция
1. Man's economic activity
Need - the desire of people to produce and consume material goods and services to meet their needs. Requirements are :
1)on the subjects of ( media ) : individual, group , collective , public ;
2) for the project: material, spiritual , ethical , aesthetic ;
3)byareas:labor,communication,recreation,economic .
Economic needs associated with the production , distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and services.
Needs form a system of needs, ie interrelated and evolving needs of the individual unity , social groups and society as a whole in various benefits . Human needs evolve with the development of human society.
Need - a state of dissatisfaction or needs that people overcome by using the items or goods. Requirements are a kind of motive in human behavior , as they reflect a mismatch between the internal and external conditions of life , and encourage people to a specific activity, aimed at eliminating the discrepancy.
Benefit - a subject that has the ability to meet any need. Benefits are divided into two kinds :
Natural , ie created by nature (land, forests, minerals , etc.);
Economic, ie those whose creator is human. Are 2 types of economic benefits : commodities and means of production.
Production needs and influence each other .
production:
1) provides specific benefits and thus contributes to the satisfaction of certain human needs;
2)acceleration of STP generates new needs;
3)affects the application of methods and forms of useful things everyday culture.
Economic needs :
1)are the internal motivation for reference and creative activity ;
2)change rapidly in quantitative and qualitative terms ;
3)cause the movement of economic activity from lower to higher.
2. mode of production
Resources directly involved in the production , take the form factors of production ( productive forces ) . Concept of resources is much broader than the concept of " factors of production " and "productive forces":
Land - natural resources , good nature, used in the production process ( for example, water , minerals , etc );
capital - investment resources it exists in the form of money and means of production (machinery , equipment, tools , etc.);
labor - is a conscious , purposeful activity to create wealth , designed to meet the needs. Work - a collection of physical and mental abilities ;
entrepreneurial skills - the ability to organize and combining factors of production to achieve specific goals .
Function of the entrepreneur are as follows:
taking the initiative for connecting various resources in the production process of goods and services ;
decisions by management ;
innovation ( new products and technologies );
taking responsibility for the economic risk .
Some economists as the fifth factor of production considering the information - the collection, processing and dissemination of knowledge necessary for the production and realization of economic benefits .
Factors of production is always someone owns , the owners of factors of production are willing to earn income from their use :
factors of production
factor income
labor
wages
capital
interest
land
rent
entrepreneurial skills
profit
On the expenditure of resources to meet the needs of all related problems of economic development . And the solution to these problems is based on two axioms :
1) The needs of society are endless completely unquenchable ;
2) society's resources needed to produce goods and services are limited and rare.
3-лекция
1. Economic and legal content property
Property - a complex phenomenon that is studied from different angles by several social sciences. Economic theory analyzes the economic content of the phenomenon and the law - legal .
Property is in an economic sense understand the existing relationship between people and the appropriation of economic use of tangible and intangible goods . Property in the legal sense shows how the real property and fixed communications are made in legal forms and the law that establishes the state mandatory for all citizens.
Comprehensive study of the property allows you to answer 3 questions:
1)who have economic power (assigns factors and results of production) ?
2)what economic ties contribute to better use of the property ?
3)who gets the income from economic activities ?
Therefore, the system of economic relations of the property consists of three parts:
1) the assignment of factors and results of production . Assignment - this connection between people , which establishes their relation to things as his . This assignment is the basis of the production process , during which it assigns a natural substance and energy to meet the needs . Methods of appropriation : creative labor ( creative , that is something that is created by human labor and creativity , can be assigned to them ) , kapitaloorientirovanny ( capital gains allow to get good ) , rent-seeking ( mastery of rental income , and then use them to purchase goods ) socialized ( state activities to ensure the benefits of certain members of society . Contrary assigned alienation - when a part of society captures all the means of production, and the other part is left without means of existence or when products are created by some people , without compensation assigned to other ( feudal lords and serfs employed on serfdom )
2) the use of economic factors and results of production . Relationship between economic use arise owner and entrepreneur, when the owner gives you the opportunity to use their property for commercial purposes under certain conditions ( eg , rent) ;
3)receive income from the property , as the property economically justified or generates income to its owner. Income is created product or part .
Thus, property rise in people's economic interests , chief among them - multiply -owned goods in order to better meet your needs. But it may conflict with the interests of the whole society. Prevention of such conflicts has been the state and law. After the state will regulate property relations between the subject property , they are entitled property. This right includes the powers of the owner to possess, use and dispose of property.
Possession - is the physical possession of the thing. Lawful possession of property is the legal basis (law , contract, administrative act ).
Use is the right person to consume or productive thing to meet their own needs and interests , depending on its purpose. The owner may transfer their property to other persons at a time and under certain conditions. In this case, the conditions of use are established on a legal basis ( such as a lease ) .
Order - the right to change the assignment ( accessory) property. It is implemented through the execution of various transactions (purchase , exchange, gift , etc.)
The set of proprietary rights
Nobel laureate Robert Coase and other supporters of the economic theory of property rights identified a bundle of rights possessed by the subject property :
1) ownership ( exclusive monopoly right to object) ;
2) the right to use (application object);
3) the right to control or disposition of the object ( decisions about goals , how to use the site);
4 ) The right to income from the use of the facility;
5) the right of the sovereign ( to dispose of, , alteration or destruction of the object) ;
6 ) The right to safety, the right to protection from expropriation and the object of harm from the external environment ;
7) the right to transfer the object inheritance, gift ;
8 ) the right to indefinite possession of the object ;
9) the right to ban the use of way that is detrimental to the external environment ;
10 ) The right to be liable to a penalty , that is possible to recover goods in payment of a debt ;
11 ) The right to a residual character ( restoration of disturbed powers) .
2. Subjects and objects of property
In every respect of the property there are two sides : the subject (owner) and the object ( the property ) .
There are 3 types of owners : the potential (successor ) , the owner of the thing as a consumer (the owner) , the full owner . This relationship can be expressed as a formula : "owner - property-other entities (other owners or non-owners." Legislate distinguished:
1)subjects of property rights (citizens or individuals, legal persons or organizations , state and local governments );
2) proprietary rights :
immovable property (land , forests , buildings , etc.);
movables ( cash, securities , etc. , not related to real estate );
intellectual property ( trademark , brand name , etc.)
3 . forms of ownership
The history of human society known tribal and communal forms of ownership - the expansion of the primitive community , family selection and appearance based on this private property. Communal property is a prototype of public property. Classification of property in its original form originated in ancient Rome. Mainstay of the Roman law was the right of private property. In the late 19th - early 20th century in the U.S. and other countries arose corporate law . In the 20th century in all countries has increased the state's role in the socio- economic development of society and there state and municipal property . In accordance with the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan in Kazakhstan recognizes two forms of ownership: private and public .
In the economic literature of the West , the term "private" refers to any non-state property management, enterprise . Distinguish between private labor and private property unearned . Private assignment means that individuals are the property as a personal source of enrichment. Private ownership forms traits of economic psychology sole owner :
individualistic awareness of their own interests ;
alienation of the individual and society ;
selfish attitude to meet the needs of others ;
ideology enrichment based on private property and inequality in the distribution of wealth in society ;
idea of private property as sacred and inviolable and responsive nature of man ;
personal financial interest in the Property enrichment at the expense of their property.
Currently, private ownership is represented not only an individual (labor and non-labor ), but also the collective equity : equity and cooperative .
Municipal property (related to urban management). Usually in the municipal property is property authorities and the administrative and territorial entity . In RK similar property called communal property . Cooperative, stock, municipal ownership equated with public. Public property includes:
1)objects that are in public ownership , are recognized as an integral and eternal membership community of citizens living in a certain area ;
2)public ownership - the basis of justice in economic relations ;
3)public property sold in the rights of citizens to participate in economic and political life .
4-лекция
1.Commodity and subsistence farming
Agriculture Society is a specific set of economic actors. Economy can be organized in different ways . Depending on this, distinguish between two forms of agriculture :
1) natural ;
2) commodity (market ) .
Subsistence farming - is a form of organization when farming society consists of closed economic units , not connected with each other by whatever was economic relations. Consequently, subsistence oriented to the needs of only the producer and his family.
Production, possibly forever would form a natural economy , if not the desire of manufacturers to improve its efficiency , which leads to the need for division of labor.
Social division of labor - specialization of individual producers in the production of certain goods .
With the division of labor in production and consumption are social. Manufacturers produce the products that they produce . Therefore, we need a special mechanism that reduced the consumer and the manufacturer . This mechanism is the market . In this case the product of labor takes social form - the form of commodities .
Goods - is the product of labor , created not for personal use , and for sharing. With the increase in productivity is expanding the number of products submitted to the market. There is a need of money.
Thus, the commodity economy - a form of organization when farming society consists of economic units associated with each other commodity-money relations .
There are two types of commodity production : simple commodity production and capitalist commodity production.
Simple commodity production was inherent to humanity in the early stages of its development , when the productive forces of society were underdeveloped , the means of production were primitive and inefficient . Producers here - it's simple artisans and peasants - produce their goods alone , doing their own work and the work of his family. The main characteristic of simple commodity production - is: 1)it is based on a small private property , and 2) it uses personal labor producers.
Capitalist commodity production - is a higher stage of development of commodity economy. Eighteenth-century Industrial Revolution gave a powerful impetus to the development of industries , which led to the rapid development of the resources used in production - material and personal factors of production.
Intensified the process of social division of labor , specialization deepened , and on the other hand, the efforts and the process of socialization of production , ie integration and unification. Now all goods produced not alone, " not scattered grind E producers and large enterprises where collective work of hundreds and thousands of people. And here is the hired labor , although ownership of the means of production, as in the simple commodity production , remains private, it is only large private property.
This stage is characterized by the development of commodity economy universality of coverage trademarks connections : everything is bought and sold , all products and even services are generally produced for sale, are commodities. Moreover, becomes a commodity , and - human labor : the relationship between the owners of the basic means of production and wage-workers carried out by sales . Price labor , i.e. wages, set in accordance with the demand for her and her proposal.
Thus, the main distinguishing features of the capitalist commodity economy are: a) large-scale private ownership of the means of production , b) the use of hired labor, universal commodity relations
2. The concept and properties of the goods
For many eras people produce material wealth not as a commodity but as a useful things , specifically designed for their own consumption.
Goods - is the product of labor , able to meet any kind of human need and produced for exchange , for sale. Each item has two properties: a) the use-value and b) value.
Use-value goods - thing is the ability to satisfy any human need. For example , bread , meat, butter and other food products satisfy the human need for food , suits, coats , etc. - Need for clothing . Use-value for the most part is in direct proportion to the natural properties of things .
Cost of goods - is the ability to share things on other useful things . Since the exchange of one commodity for another occurs in dividing proportions , the value of goods is as exchange value. The exchange value is the external form of value. In establishing the exchange proportions of great importance for the buyer and seller has utility and value of things exchanged, so the price is as an expression of exchange value is set , as a rule, taking into account both the utility and valuable goods and taking into account the cost of the inner content . Internal maintenance cost are labor costs ( living and past ) committed in creating this product. Miscellaneous goods exchanged for each other just because they have a common property , making them a comparative between the exchange - it is something they are the products of labor , that they took a certain property of human labor . How much labor is embodied in what - that a particular product of labor costs , can only be found in an exchange in the new proportions.
How to use value all foreign goods and qualitatively comparable to each other ( for example, that the lower and yuney human violin, an apple or a coat , etc. ) as well as the cost of goods cross qualitatively homogeneous ie they are human labor costs, but differ only quantitatively, ie on some goods spent ore more on others - less .
These two properties exist in the product in indissoluble unity , without use value can not exist and all the goods cost at all , just and without cost , without the exchange of the results of labor is no recognition and use value . It should be noted that the economic theory of Marx product category, the value is removed very much attention. On the basis of studying the position founders of classical political economy of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, Marx created a labor theory of value , according to which all goods owes its origin to a single factor ( resource) - labor rights, and other factors , for example, means of production, themselves the result of previous work and can move on with their help created goods worth more than is contained in them themselves . New source of value they can not be. Creates new value only living labor . Therefore, Marx made an absolute role of labor in a commodity economy , researched work in a variety of ways.
Thus, analyzing the properties of the goods , Marx concludes that the dual nature of the goods due to the dual nature of the labor that creates goods. On the one hand , all the goods as diverse use values are various kinds of concrete labor , which differ from one another in their purpose , used tools and objects of labor , expertise , results : labor embodied in the table joiner, in a suit - labor tailor bread - labor of the farmer , etc. This labor expended in a specific , concrete form, called concrete labor .
On the other hand , the value of all the goods as whitebait are human labor in general, costs clot human brain , nerves, muscles , ie cost of human labor in the physiological sense. Work producers , acting as the expenditure of human labor in general, regardless of its particular form , called abstract labor . Abstract and concrete labor - are two sides of the labor embodied in a particular product.
The problem of the cost of goods associated with Marx's qualitative characteristic of labor that creates products that labor is simple and complex , skilled and unskilled , mental and physical . Obviously, these different types of labor per unit of time creating and different value because , say , complex or skilled labor implies greater than simple labor , the cost of mental energy , nerves, physical resources , etc. , since their implementation requires prior training, for which the same was expended labor. Therefore, fewer skilled labor equals more labor simple , complex labor appears as multiplied or Raised simple labor .
This situation is closely connected with the problem of the magnitude of value of goods. How to measure the labor embodied in a particular product? How much is a particular product ?
Direct measure of labor input is working time. Distinguish the individual labor time , showing the individual costs of labor , the individual value of goods and socially necessary labor time , reflecting the socio- needed labor and social value of the goods.
Socially necessary labor time characterizes the time , writes K.Mapkc , "required to make any use value in cash socially normal conditions of production, and with the average level in the society and skillful labor intensity."
Under normal conditions of public understands Marx typical prevailing at a given time in the economy , conditions.
Socially necessary labor time tends to the individual working time manufacturers producing the bulk of this product. For example, if one spends a commodity producer to produce a unit of goods 3:00 individual working time, second - 4 hours , and the third - 5:00 and at the same time deliver to the market : the first 100 units sold , the second - 500 units , the third - 150 units, the socio- necessary labor time to produce a unit of goods will tend to value. equal to 4 hours. This is because it is the second largest mass producer supplies this product. Thus, the cost of the goods will be determined in this case by the socially necessary time of approximately 4 hours. Individual staff time second manufacturer coincide with socially necessary expenditures of working time.
It should be noted that the concrete labor producers as particular work. Due to the economic isolation of producers from each other their work is private, private labor: everyone defines it , how and for whom the creation of products , each one chooses a particular type of work , guided by their private interests.
However, this is the most private labor and social labor , since by virtue of the social division of labor , each commodity producer is working to meet the needs of others , creates goods for themselves, not for their own consumption, but for others, for society. In fact, it appears that the producers are working for each other. However, the social character of labor appears on the market, after the goods by the private labor of the individual producer to be sold , which means that society recognized this particular work, considers it necessary for society and included it in the system of social needs. If the item will not be sold , then this particular work is not found public recognition and remained a private labor. Created goods coincided with the actual structure and the volume of consumer demand . In short, only the market can or not to recognize the private activities of the manufacturer a necessary part of the social labor that supports the existence and development of society .
This contradiction between private and social labor Marx called the basic contradiction of commodity economy . This is where , in his opinion , lies the economic basis of the crises of natural fluctuations in commodity prices , leading to the ruin of many producers, to further differentiate the company , bundle it into rich and poor , haves and have nots .
Thus, the labor theory of value is not worth considering as a natural , a natural property of the goods as well as public property , as an objective socio-productive relations between producers , mediated through the products of their labor. Second, the cost - is the embodiment of social labor manufacturers and only one work, without taking into account other factors of production. Third, the cost - a category of production rather than exchange.
In general, logically rigorous and convincing position Marxian labor theory of value meet no less convincing objections of his opponents . Thus, proponents of the theory of marginal utility believe that if the goods are sold on the market, it does not happen because someone regarded labor costs , but because this product for the buyer has a certain effect, it is useful , it is valuable. A value - is a subjective category . " Cost - not something an intrinsic property good, any of its property or an independent thing existing in itself - says one of the representatives of this theory, the founder of the Austrian school marginalists Carl Menger. - It is a proposition that economic man makes about the importance wealth at its disposal to maintain their life or well-being. Therefore, the value does not exist outside of human consciousness. Objectification value, which by its nature is a manifestation of a subjective nature , made a lot of confusion in the basic principles of our science."
As can be seen from here, according marginalists, cost is formed in the human mind , only the utility of the item, its value to the individual consumer in exchange gives labor costs socially necessary character. Cost- a category of exchange, not production, because without market values is not possible to identify the beneficial effect of the item, its value to a specific buyer .
3 . Appearance and essence of money
One of the main categories of the market economy is money. Therefore, the analysis of their nature , essence, the laws of motion represents an important economic problems.
The problem of the origin of money , their essence has long attracted the attention of scientists . Different schools have considered these issues in different ways, but were unanimous in the view that the origin of the money associated with the process of the development of exchange , trade, expansion and consolidation of market forms of agriculture .
There are two concepts of the origin of money: the rationalist and evolutionary. The first explains the origin of money as a result of an agreement between people. First she appeared in the work of Aristotle's " Nicomachean Ethics." This idea is embodied in the legislative ancient and medieval societies. Marx and other scientists in the development of money see the evolutionary process that led to the fact that some of the items stand out from the masses and occupied a special place. In the Marxist labor theory of value is given by the following definition of money : money - this is a special , socially recognized commodity - a universal equivalent .
The modern theory of monetary circulation connects with five types of general equivalents : inventory counting , inventory weight , metal- stamped and deposit- electronic.
Inventory-counting equivalent appeared in connection with a major social division of labor . Isolation of the pastoral tribes turned livestock in the basic instrument of exchange.
Inventories equivalent weight was the result of the second major division of labor - the selection of craft farming. Now play a role equivalent bread, rice , maize and a number maloportyaschiesya plant products , as well as metals such as iron , tin, lead , copper, silver and gold.
Hammered metal type universal equivalent associated with the circulation of gold and silver coins . Over time, there is a universal equivalent emission type presented in banknotes value, real carrier which acts externally paper . * - *
Unlike banknotes deposit money is qualitatively different from the universal equivalent - deposit and electronic. Here carrier monetary relations acts not paper, and bank account. Based on bank deposits arise special subspecies of credit money - credit cards and electronic money. In the XVI-XVII centuries . appeared metal theory of money, whose supporters were in favor of sustainable metallic circulation . They identified with the wealth of the state money, but the money itself - with noble metals , and the essence of money they are associated with the natural properties of noble metals. Thus, the German economist Knies believed that the concept of " paper money " is the same nonsense as "paper roll". Money is understood as a thing and not as a social relation . Later, in the XVI-XVII centuries . appeared nominalist theory of money , whose members believed that the money - it is a product of the government, it is only common counting units that focus on the exchange of goods that each currency means " common atoms value." Money , according to one of the representatives of nominalism , a German economist Knapp - is " the product of law " , the creation of the government. State-created money accepted payments regardless of their metal content : they are free from any contact with the metal , they are symbols that the state gives a certain payment and indicate the strength provided by members of the public service , which gives the right to receive a counter services . As seen here, the money is understood as a product of human consciousness , it is "more a concept than a thing."
5-лекция
1. Demand : the concept , and the law of demand factors
Supply and demand - the fundamental categories of the market economy . They explain how to interact , they establish market prices and trade volume .
Demand (D - from the English . «Demand») shows the quantity that consumers are willing and able to buy at each of the proposed prices in the market . That is the demand - it 's solvency need.
The dynamics of demand affect price and non-price factors :
1.price of the product (P) ;
2.prices of other goods (substitutes and compliments ) ( Ps , Pc );
3 . current income consumers (V);
4.tastes and preferences of consumers (Z);
5 . objective (external ) conditions of consumption (N);
6. consumer expectations (E).
Dependence of demand on these factors is called the demand function :
QD = f ( P, ... Rsn PS1 , Rc1 ... PCM , V, Z, N, E),
where QD - the volume of demand .
Demand function of price : QD = f (P).
The relationship between the cost and the number of purchases can be expressed graphically by means of the demand curve.
The demand curve shows the relationship between the market price and the quantity of demand for this product . Movement along the demand curve is a change in quantity demanded when price changes
2. Offer: concept factors and the law of supply
Offer (S) - the amount of goods that sellers are willing to submit to a sale at a given price at a given time . Conditions under which a supply volume is called supply factors .
Supply factors :
1. price of the product (P) ;
2. prices of other goods - compliments ( the PC ) and substitutes (PS );
3. production costs and technology level (C);
4. taxes and subsidies (T) ;
5. objective (external ) conditions of production (N);
6. producers' expectations (E).
Supply function reflects the dependence of the «S» of the factors that determine it :
QS = f ( P, ... Rsn PS1 , Rc1 ... PCM , C, N, E, T).
Supply function of the price : QS = f (P).
Supply curve - a graphic representation of the relationship between the price of goods and the value of the supply of goods on the market.
Movement along the supply curve is the change in quantity supplied when the price changes.
Market equilibrium
When the amount of demand there is more volume of supply shortages , when the volume of supply is more than the volume of demand - surplus goods.
Changes in market equilibrium result from changes in non-price factors .
6-лекция
1. Socio- economic essence of entrepreneurship
The term "entrepreneurship " was first introduced by Richard Cantillon (18th century) , which invested in the concept of human initiative on the organization of production to generate revenue in a market risk.
Entrepreneurship - a special area of human activity that differs from other kinds of work.
"Being an entrepreneur - do not mean that others do " ( Joseph Alois Schumpeter ) .
"Entrepreneur - a person who organizes people within the production unit "(Jean Baptiste Say ).
Entrepreneurship is a specific factor of production because :
entrepreneurship can not be measured ;
profit as the price has no business or market valuation , that is not the price per unit of entrepreneurship;
invention and do not disappear opening entrepreneurs in the manufacturing process .
In modern economic literature, entrepreneurship is seen from three perspectives :
entrepreneurship as an economic category - economic activity is subject to the most efficient use of factors of production in order to maximize revenues. Business entity may be private individuals, corporations and government . The object of entrepreneurship are the factors of production ;
as a method of farming enterprise - a creative activity aimed at achieving commercial success and increase profits ;
as a particular type of economic thinking entrepreneurship - a collection of original views and approaches to the adoption and implementation of economic decisions .
In the economic literature there are three business functions :
1) resource ( for economic activity required material factors (resources and articles of manufacture ) and workers with the necessary knowledge and skills );
2) organizational ( to ensure that the connection of production factors that best contributes to this objective );
3)creative associated with organizational and economic innovation.
In the economic literature frequently identified the concept of " business" and " business." These concepts , though related, but not identical . Business - is any kind of income-generating activities. Entrepreneurship - this is not just an activity aimed at generating income , but also innovation. Entrepreneur - this inventor. Therefore, people do business , not all are entrepreneurs .
Entrepreneurship - this initiative and independent activities of individuals or businesses , aimed at gaining profits or personal income, is at your own risk and your financial responsibility .
Entrepreneurship is permitted in any branch of economic activity not prohibited by law: industry, agriculture, trade , consumer services, etc. The main business fields are: production, commerce and commercial mediation .
Entrepreneurship can be classified in a variety of symptoms:
1) the scale of the following types of businesses:
individual entrepreneurship aimed at obtaining personal gain or profit by an individual or his family ;
collective entrepreneurship involves the implementation of a collective subject of business transactions . Formed for this venture.
2) the nature of business are the following forms:
non-profit business not associated with the sale of products for the enrichment ( charity);
commercial or business activities - gainful employment. It includes : non-manufacturing business, trading business, business services, manufacturing business.
Entrepreneurship exists in certain legal forms. The choice of a legal form of organization depends on:
spheres of activity;
financial capabilities;
advantages of a particular organizational form.
In accordance with the legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan legal forms of business are sole individual households , business partnerships and economic society.
In accordance with the Civil Code states that the legal forms of entrepreneurial activity.
entrepreneurship:
1) Private - individual entrepreneur, a production cooperative business partnerships (legal entity );
2) State - state-owned enterprise.
2 . production function
Production - is a process of human impact on the substance of nature in order to create wealth and services required for the development of society. Production is the main activity of the company . To implement it, purchased inputs . Demand for factors of production is not the primary and derivative character as important to consumers to get the finished product , not a resource .
Demand for resources is dependent on:
prices ;
demand for products manufactured using this resource. If demand for products increases, the demand for the resource is also increasing and the demand curve shifts to the right of the resource up. Conversely, if the demand for the resource decreases, the demand curve goes down to the left ;
resource productivity. With the growth of resource productivity increases the demand for it ;
price to other resources
The manufacturing process is considered as a resource conversion products .
Technological relationship between the cost structure of resources (factors of production) and the maximum possible production output expressed by the production function. Production function reflects the technological relationship between the amount of resources used and the amount received from their application products. In the most general form of the production function as follows:
Q = f (F1, F2, F3, .... Fn.), Wherein
Q - quantity of product produced,
F - value of resources used
Production function shows the maximum output that can produce firm at each individual combination of factors of production . Most often the production function is represented as:
Q = f (K, L).
Two-factor production function can be represented in graphical form isoquant :
Q1; Q2; Q3 - isoquant map.
Isoquant ( equal product curve ) shows the various combinations of costs, which provide the same amount of output.
7-лекция
1. Fixed and working capital
Accounting functional forms of capital movements and the features it allows you to split the entire capital of the company into fixed and circulating .
Called core capital that part of productive capital , which for a long time ( more than one year ) is involved in the production process . By core capital includes buildings , structures, machinery , equipment, tools , etc. The cost of capital is transferred to the finished product parts for several circuits , as they are used .
Working capital - is that part of the firm's capital , the elements of which a short time involved in the movement of capital , and therefore quick to change its original shape . By working capital include raw materials, semi-finished products , fuel, are totally consumed during a single production cycle. Another part of the working capital exists in the form of commodities and money . All the elements of working capital in a short time alter its original shape : raw materials are converted into finished product (commodity ) goods are sold , becoming money , and money sent to purchase means of production and labor to resume production . Fixed and circulating capital differently involved in education costs. Working capital is wholly involved in the formation of the firm's cost .
In the course of its turnover capital firm acts as a set of funds involved in the production of goods , and at the same time as the source of their formation. This fact is the basis for the division of capital assets and liabilities .
Company assets are funds that invest in equity. This - fixed and circulating capital , actually involved in the production and circulation .
Liabilities of the enterprise is the funding of the company. They included equity and debt capital .
2. Circuit and the circulation of capital
In the modern market economy, the production process is carried out within the individual production units-firms. Performance of the company associated with the use of its existing capital. Often under capital refers to any money. However, between the money and capital, a distinction is related to the fact that the main condition for the transformation of money into capital is an opportunity for the owner to find on the market a product that can create new value, though larger than itself has. In economic theory, there is no unity of views on the nature of capital. According to Adam Smith , David Ricardo, and P.Samuelsona U.Nordhausa , capital - is a means of production. JB Say and D. Robinson , and others believe that the capital - it's money , securities , finance. There is also a view that the capital - is the knowledge , skills, human energy used in production . However, most fully revealed the essence of capital, Karl Marx , who believed that capital externally can act in various ways: the means of production (constant capital) , in humans (variable capital), money (money capital). Marx gives several definitions of this concept, according to which the capital - is the cost, which produces surplus value (self-expanding value), as well as a social relation between people.
Circulation of capital - is the process of constantly renewed movement of capital, including a plurality of individual circuits as unity of the processes of production and circulation .
Movement means the company has a lot of practical sense . Based on their specified capital structure, reveals the contents of costs and revenues , identifies conditions that ensure the efficiency of any firm. Consequently, the circulation of capital turnover and associated process of forming the entire system of economic management of the economy.
3 . Depreciation and obsolescence . amortization
Fixed capital for a long time used in the manufacturing process . As a result , the formation of the cost of capital is represented by two interrelated processes: its depreciation and amortization.
Depreciation - is the gradual loss of their initial capital stock of properties. There are two types of wear of fixed capital: physical and moral .
Physical depreciation of fixed capital - a process of gradual loss of capital elements of their useful properties . Eventually there comes a time when the company is going to have a complete replacement of equipment and physically unfit worn machines with new equipment and new machines. Time physical depreciation of capital is determined by structural and qualitative composition used by technical means. But much depends on the particular level of organization of production. Technologically well-formed manufacturing process extends the life of the main elements of capital as to minimize their use of unproductive .
Obsolescence of fixed capital - capital depreciation is happening in lowering costs and the advent of more sophisticated tools. Obsolescence is the basis of scientific and technical progress .
Impairment of fixed capital is twofold - partial and full . Partial impairment occurs when the market of production factors come relatively cheaper machines , equipment, tools and other elements of capital , of which the company formed its capital . Full depreciation of capital occurs when the national economy begins to rapidly develop high- technology , move on to the production of new types of products. In these circumstances, firms using outdated means of production is impractical, is their complete impairment.
The cost side of the wear and tear of fixed capital characterizes amortization. Depreciation is a process of gradual transfer of capital value for manufactured goods. Intensity transfer value of the capital reveals the depreciation rate is expressed by the formula :
N a = AO * 100 % / K
where AO - depreciation - the value of transferred value for a certain period of time ( one year );
K - fixed assets ;
N a - depreciation rate .
The depreciation rate is directly dependent on the time of wear of fixed capital - physical and moral . Technologically reasonable wear and tear of fixed capital provides full transfer cost for manufactured goods. Obsolescence complicates the process of depreciation. Lost as a result of obsolescence of fixed capital cost is not transferred to the product . Consequently, the portion of the actual costs misses the total turnover of the capital , the depreciation rate is reduced.
Transfer of capital value to the finished product can take place at different speeds , which determines the degree of intensity and different education costs, cost recovery , profit generation . It depends on the depreciation method used . The most common method is straight-line depreciation, accelerated depreciation and degressive depreciation method.
8-лекция
1. Classification of costs of the enterprise
The main motive of the company in a market economy - profit maximization . Real possibilities for the implementation of this goal are limited production costs and demand for manufactured products .
Production costs (C) - are cash costs of acquiring resources.
Distinguish between economic and accounting approach to the calculation of costs.
Accounting costs - is the actual cost of the company for the purchase of production factors. They go through the accounting documents and acquire explicit form .
Explicit costs (external ) - is cash payments for resources obtained from the side. These include: wage of workers , payment of raw materials , payment of transport, financial , legal and other services .
Economic costs include not only the obvious costs for the purchase of resources , but also implicit , internal costs by using their own resources. Apart from the obvious , these costs are not paid and are not reflected in the financial statements . They are hidden. The magnitude of the implicit cost is determined by the income that could bring these resources at their most profitable alternative use . These include : the percentage of equity, the rent , pay for a managerial job entrepreneur himself thus : Sack . = Sbuhg . + Sneyavn ..
From the point of view of the dependence of costs on the volume of products are distinguished:
fixed costs (FC), which do not depend on the volume of production ;
variable costs (VC), which vary with changes in output ;
total costs (TC) - a collection of all costs on a production and sales :
2. Total, average and marginal revenue
Profit - the difference between gross income and total costs of production.
Gross revenue (TR), received by the firm is equal to the price of goods , multiplied by the number of its units .TR = P * Q
Average revenue (AR) is the income derived from the sale of one unit of output .AR = TR / Q = P
Marginal revenue ( MR ) - is income received by the company from the sale of an additional unit of output.
MR = ΔTR / ΔQ
As customary to distinguish between economic and accounting costs , allocate the economic and accounting profit.
Accounting profit is defined as the difference between gross income and accounting costs. Economic profit is the difference between gross income and economic costs .
In an effort to maximize profits , a competitive firm should choose a production volume at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
9-лекция
1.The concept and features of the market of production factors
In a market economy occupies a special place market factors of production (resources). The need for its operation determined by the needs of production of goods that can not be produced without the use of resources, which are bought and sold . Functioning of the market of production factors significantly affect the efficiency of the enterprises, the formation and distribution of factor incomes.
Market factors of production is called the scope of the economy in which they are being sales and where the interaction of supply and demand are prices for labor, natural resources,capital and entrepreneurial activity in the form of wages, rent , interest income, profits.
Different types of factors of production correspond to types of markets: the labor market, the land market, the capital market. They function in the relationship and interaction.
Factor markets differ significantly from markets for goods and services:
1) the market for factors of production is a derived character, as determined by the needs of its need for the production of goods for consumers. On the other hand, the size of the market for goods and services depends on the degree of development of the market of production factors ;
2)changing economic roles of major market actors: firms and households. Factor market firms act as buyers , and their behavior is described by the demand curve (market goods company - sellers), households in the market of production factors are sellers and their behavior is characterized by the supply curve ( household goods on the market - buyers) ;
3)differences in the economic interests of firms and households on the affected markets. Sellers tend to sell their goods more expensive , and buyers - to buy cheaper;
4)in the market of production factors formed the production demand , production factors and selling used for productive consumption ;
5)the factors of production are purchased for use in the production of the joint and therefore structure their proposals should focus on the nature of production and the associated costs;
6)the fungibility of resources within certain limits ;
7)features in the formation of prices of production factors associated with the decision of the firm's cost minimization problems .
Factor markets performs specific functions:
determines the level of the prices of factors of production;
rationally allocate scarce resources among industries and firms ;
promotes more efficient production of goods and services ;
determines how and in what manner and with what combination of resources to produce selected products and maximize profits;
determines the nature of the distribution of factor incomes and their sizes ;
determine for whom to produce goods and services, as payment economic resources is a major source of income for their owners;
involved in establishing the overall microeconomic equilibrium.
2 . Factor income
Incomes of owners of factors of production are formed on the basis of the laws of supply and demand, and the marginal productivity of factors.
Wages and salaries - is revenue from the use of labor as a factor of production. In economic theory, there are several approaches to the definition of wages:
1)the classical school of political economy (Adam Smith , David Ricardo , Karl Marx ) focused on the search for the factors determining wages (the cost of consumer goods and services necessary for the existence of workers and the supply and demand in the labor market );
2)A. Marshall highlights two factors that determine the value of wages : marginal productivity of labor and the cost of reproduction, training and maintenance workers;
3)human capital theory . Salary depends on education, experience of the employee .
Distinguish between nominal and real wages. Nominal wages in terms of money that an employee receives for his labor. Real wages determined by the amount of goods and services that a worker can be purchased at its nominal salary.
Percent - have an income from the use of capital as a factor of production. F. Aquinas considers the percentage as a fee for the time. Theory premiums or abstinence theory as regards the percentage of the premium paid for the opportunity of owning a commodity that would otherwise be available only in the future. Classical school of political economy justifies the need for interest that money tend to generate income. Marx represents the percentage of the portion of profit .
Distinguish between real and nominal interest rate . Nominal interest rate - the current market rate of interest , excluding inflation. The real interest rate - the nominal rate minus expected inflation .
Annuity - income that gets the landowner at the time of its lease or the price paid by the lessee for the use of land and other natural resources , or the number of stocks are strictly limited. The magnitude of the rent depends on the natural conditions of land and its location. Absolute monopoly rents generated by private ownership of land and is paid regardless of the characteristics of the land. Differential rent is determined by taking into account the qualitative characteristics of the land.
Profit - is :
income of those who provide the economy entrepreneurial abilities ;
Trader reward for risk , new ideas and effort he puts into the business ;
unconditional income from factors of production ;
monopoly revenue .
Profit performs the following functions:
1)account (profit as the main criterion of efficiency of the enterprise) ;
2)distribution ( distribution of net income between the company and its employees , between the spheres of social production );
3)Enabling (profit as a factor of production efficiency ) .
Normal profit - compensation for the performance of business functions, is an element of internal costs , along with internal rent and internal salary.
Monopoly profit - profit monopoly union above the average .
3.Wages as payment for work.
There are several points of view on the nature of wages. Marxist theory comes from the fact that the wages of employees is a converted form of cost or price of their commodity - labor , which appears to be how to pay for all the work . In this case, based on the amount of wages is the cost of consumer goods necessary for the existence of workers and their families, as well as the cost of training. Apart from the cost of goods "labor force", the amount of wages affected by market factors, especially the ratio of labor supply and demand, competition, etc.
Different understanding of wages represented neoclassical English economist A.Marshall. He put forward two main factors generating wages:marginal productivity of labor, which is different for different people, and that affects the amount of wages, cost of production, training and maintenance workers. If the first factor determines the demand for labor, the second - his proposal. And their interaction determines the level of wages.
Isolation of A.Marshall as part of the second factor wage costs for training contributed further formation of human capital theory. According to this theory, investment in human capital (in the development of knowledge, skills, abilities, etc.) increase the efficiency of labor, which, in turn, further accompanied by an increase in wages.
Most common in the moment to get an understanding of wages associated with the theory of factors of production, whose forefather was JB Sy. According to this theory, each factor of production is involved in the creation of the product and its value is a market data service factors. The fee for these services is called the cost factor, or its income. When entrepreneurs buy goods "work", they do not buy a man and his services to create value for the goods and the right price , which are the result of his labor. Consequently, the wages of market relations on the surface acts as the price of labor as a commodity .
However, the essence of wages unlawfully reduced to the external form of manifestation of the sale of labor as a commodity at a certain price - wage. In fact, there appear deeper economic relationship between the owner of the capital and commodity "labor force". The owner of this product requires an employer to its equivalent in the form of wages, equal to cost of his labor. But because it gives the employee the right to dispose of his employer workforce, the latter with the need not cover all of his work, but only labor. Otherwise, the entrepreneur could not make a profit, which is formed at the expense of his personal business income, investments allocated for accumulation and expanded reproduction of the enterprise, the money for the payment of taxes to the budget, interest on loans, leases for land, etc. Therefore, in a market economy wage worker objectively should not correspond to all its labor costs and cost of goods "labor force".
value of workers' wages is determined by a complex of factors . First, among the factors that can distinguish the value of the cost of labor , which must ensure the reproduction of labor power . This provision reflects the objective law , however, presupposes a certain elasticity of the law of wages. After all, the value of wages is not constant but varies depending on the quality of the workforce , labor costs, the standard of living in the country , etc.
The elasticity of this law pushes entrepreneurs to reduce wages to the lowest border - biological subsistence , including the funds necessary to sustain a simple low-skilled workers . Therefore, in recent decades in the United States and other developed countries have passed laws guaranteeing minimum wage , which should ensure the normal reproduction conditions for workers. In Russia, the minimum wage is still far below the subsistence minimum calculated from meager " food basket ". Required not only to determine the normal value of the subsistence level and bring the minimum wage up to her level , but also dramatically improve the latter.
Secondly, the level of wages of workers depends on their skills . As more skilled workers and skilled labor creates more value , then the level of wages of such workers should be higher . Of particular importance , this factor acquires modern STR , which requires highly skilled workers and creative activity , possession of computers, knowledge of foreign languages , etc. Naturally, this requires training and related costs , better living conditions , meet social and cultural needs of workers . Unfortunately, at the present time in Russia skills of workers , particularly scientific and engineering , doctors, teachers and others , little consideration in determining wages.
Third, wage affect national differences between countries related to historical differences in economic, social and cultural development, the quality of life of the people. An important role is played here by the utilization of the achievements of scientific and technological revolution and the level of productivity , quality of the workforce, favorable climatic conditions. Because of this, the highest level of wages has historically been in the United States, Germany, Britain, France, Italy and other developed countries of Western Europe as well as in Japan. In underdeveloped countries, the crisis Russian wages are several times lower than in industrialized countries .
Fourth, the level of wages affected by market factors (demand and supply of labor, competition, monopoly , etc.). If the labor market demand exceeds supply , the wages are rising , and if supply exceeds demand , then decreases. This can be seen in Fig . 3, where the ordinate is deferred wages (PL), and the horizontal axis - number of employees in a particular profession.
4. Percentage as the return on capital.
Owners of money trying to get the maximum revenue , solve the problem of their most profitable use. Nor do they usually have two alternatives :
a) invest in the sphere of production or services to at
obtain a profit;
b) send the money into the financial sector in the form of a loan and get
percentage representing the price of the commodity - capital.
In this case, the owner of the money remains capitalist, and the borrower is entitled to use the services of capital goods - for profit . Important role here belongs to the interest rate. It represents the ratio of annual income earned on the loan capital to total capital, to give a loan. So, if a capital of 100 thousand dollars, cast in the loan, the annual income obtained in the form of interest in the amount of six thousand dollars , the interest rate will be 6% When comparing the rate of interest on money income opportunities in other areas of investment, you can find out where they were profitable to direct. So, if the rate of profit from the use of purchased inputs, equal to the ratio of profit to capital advanced, will be greater than the current rate of interest, then the owners of money to be materially interested in investing in their production. For example, the production of cars at the rate of return of 10% will be beneficial when the interest rate is 8%, and unprofitable, if the latter would be above 10 %.
10-лекция
1. The notion of national economy
Of national economies understand the national economy . This collection of all sectors and regions connected in a single organism multilateral economic ties . In the national economy in an indissoluble complex act of production, distribution , exchange and consumption of material goods , services, and spiritual values. It is the product of historical development of the society , and has its own face : private , mixed, state , etc.
The national economy as a whole organism is characterized by the following features :
1. Common economic space with a single law, a single currency , common monetary and financial system.
2 . The close economic ties between economic entities with common reproductive circuit.
3 . Territorial certainty to the overall economic center that performs supervisory and coordinating role .
In the national economy each subject , whether the farm firm , region, or state , including in the economic space , pursues its own interest. Matching same interests guided by the objective economic laws : each individual , having your own interest , thus contributing to the achievement of the greatest good for all .
National economy tends to stability, efficiency, fairness, by ensuring :
1. stable growth in national output ;
2.high and stable level of employment ;
3 . stable price level ;
4. maintaining the equilibrium of the external balance .
The above objectives are achieved through the use of certain tools of macroeconomic regulation .
They are:
- Fiscal policy ( handling the state budget through the tax system and government spending );
- Monetary policy (control of the money supply through interest rates , reserve ratio and other instruments) ;
- Incomes policy ( from the freedom to set wages and prices to control maternity );
- Foreign policy (trade policy, regulation of the exchange rate) .
And the final results of the general functioning of the national economy are the increment of national wealth , the volume of profitable and relevant public goods and services , the most effective use of scarce human and material resources.
2. Macroeconomic model Circular Flows
Consider a two-sector model of the economy, consisting of only two macroeconomic agents - households and firms - and the two markets - the market for goods and services, and market economic resources.
From the diagram it follows that:
1) The cost of each material flow equal to the cash flow;
2) national product is the national income;
3) aggregate demand equals aggregate supply;
4) the total revenues equal total costs.
3. macroeconomic indicators
System of National Accounts (SNA) - a set of interrelated indicators used for the description and analysis of macroeconomic processes. The purpose of national accounting - give quantitative information on the occurrence , distribution and use of the national income.
The main indicators of the SNA are:
1) Gross National Product ( GNP) - is the market value of final goods and services produced in an economy over a certain period of time ( usually a year ). GDP measures the value of output factors of production owned by the citizens of this country, including the territory of other countries;
2) gross domestic product ( GDP) measures the value of final products manufactured in that country for a certain period , regardless of the factors of production are owned by citizens of the country or foreign-owned .
10-лекция
1. The notion of national economy
Of national economies understand the national economy. This collection of all sectors and regions connected in a single organism multilateral economic ties. In the national economy in an indissoluble complex act of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods , services, and spiritual values. It is the product of historical development of the society , and has its own face : private, mixed, state , etc.
The national economy as a whole organism is characterized by the following features :
1. Common economic space with a single law, a single currency , common monetary and financial system.
2. The close economic ties between economic entities with common reproductive circuit.
3. Territorial certainty to the overall economic center that performs supervisory and coordinating role .
In the national economy each subject , whether the farm firm , region, or state , including in the economic space , pursues its own interest. Matching same interests guided by the objective economic laws : each individual , having your own interest , thus contributing to the achievement of the greatest good for all .
National economy tends to stability, efficiency, fairness, by ensuring :
1. stable growth in national output ;
2. high and stable level of employment ;
3. stable price level ;
4. maintaining the equilibrium of the external balance .
The above objectives are achieved through the use of certain tools of macroeconomic regulation .
They are:
- Fiscal policy ( handling the state budget through the tax system and government spending );
- Monetary policy (control of the money supply through interest rates , reserve ratio and other instruments) ;
- Incomes policy ( from the freedom to set wages and prices to control maternity );
- Foreign policy (trade policy, regulation of the exchange rate) .
And the final results of the general functioning of the national economy are the increment of national wealth , the volume of profitable and relevant public goods and services , the most effective use of scarce human and material resources.
2. Macroeconomic model Circular Flows
Consider a two-sector model of the economy, consisting of only two macroeconomic agents - households and firms - and the two markets - the market for goods and services, and market economic resources.
From the diagram it follows that:
1) The cost of each material flow equal to the cash flow;
2) national product is the national income;
3)aggregate demand equals aggregate supply;
4)the total revenues equal total costs.
3 . macroeconomic indicators
System of National Accounts (SNA)-a set of interrelated indicators used for the description and analysis of macroeconomic processes. The purpose of national accounting - give quantitative information on the occurrence , distribution and use of the national income.
The main indicators of the SNA are:
1) Gross National Product ( GNP) - is the market value of final goods and services produced in an economy over a certain period of time ( usually a year ) . GDP measures the value of output factors of production owned by the citizens of this country, including the territory of other countries;
2) gross domestic product ( GDP) measures the value of final products manufactured in that country for a certain period , regardless of the factors of production are owned by citizens of the country or foreign-owned .
11-лекция
1. Macroeconomic equilibrium concept
The challenge of finding an equilibrium model of the dynamics involved in many leading economists , trying to combine two mutually exclusive trends : economic equilibrium and economic dynamics . In economic theory, there are the following kinds of economic equilibrium :
partial equilibrium , ie equilibrium in one of the markets with the sale of any goods which can be instantaneous, short and long term ;
overall balance - balance or in one local market or on the large market of regional character , which can be short-term and long-term ;
macroeconomic equilibrium - the equilibrium level of the national economy as a whole. Macroeconomic equilibrium - the equilibrium in all its diversity : between supply and demand , between production and consumption, between resources and needs , which can be short-term and long-term .
The idea of general macroeconomic equilibrium is rooted to the works of the classical economists . So , Adam Smith put forward the idea that in a free interaction of producers and consumers is not acting chaos and economic order of individuals pursuing interests of personal gain , which leads to the establishment of general equilibrium , beneficial to all.
The possibility in principle of general competitive equilibrium under perfect competition in mathematical form was first expressed by L. Walras. He proved that if all markets except one are in equilibrium , then in the same state of equilibrium will be last and the market . In other words, according to Walras law , if at some market there is excess demand , then in other markets should be an excess supply in the same size. As a result, the total amount of excess supply and demand is always zero . With that achievement of equilibrium implies not only the existence of the conditions of perfect competition, but also the immutability of all supply and demand factors , except the prices . Therefore, the total balance is not typical , and the fleeting moments that characterize the ideal state of a competitive economy .
In characterizing the way to achieve economic equilibrium most widespread neoclassical concept A. Marshall . Its essence is that the producers consumers mutually adjust their plans for sales and purchases to the state of economic conditions. As a result of market equilibrium is established under the influence of excess demand price over the cost of an offer or , on the contrary , the prices of supply over demand price . Responding to such excess , producers respectively increase or decrease the volume of supply .
Currently, the predominant macroeconomic research understanding of the movement toward equilibrium as a stochastic, random process, based on the adjustment of expectations of economic agents, since decisions on the amount of supply and demand are formed at different times. First the concept of expectations in macroeconomic theory was introduced in the early 30 - ies of XX century Swedish economist G. Myrdal .
The basic model of general economic equilibrium equation is expressed in terms of aggregate demand (AD) and aggregate supply (AS).
Aggregate demand (AD) - is the amount of goods and services in the economy as a whole, which consumers, businesses and the government are willing to buy at a certain price level , in other words , is the amount of planned spending on goods and services in the economy as a whole at a given price level .
12-лекция
1. Economic cycle and its variants
Modern market production is not uniform and continuous. Economy works in cycles and periods of economic growth are replaced by recessions and crises .
Cyclicity of economic development - is continuous fluctuations in business activity of economic entities , when economic growth is replaced by the recession , are periodic ups and downs of the market situation , manifested in various forms inconsistencies aggregate demand and aggregate supply .
In economic theory, there are several theoretical perspectives on the causes of cyclical movement of production in market conditions. In particular, Marx cause irregular repetition cyclical crises seen in the periodicity of the bulk update of constant capital . According Dzh.Keynsa , changing phases of the cycle depends on the size of investment due to the ratio of rates of return and rates of interest . Crisis occurs when the rate of return is reduced to the rate of interest , which leads to the fact that entrepreneurs disappears tempted to invest in production development . Modern followers of Keynes , " the neo-Keynesians ," Paul Samuelson in particular , believe that the cyclical nature of ekonomikiobuslovlen declining share of consumption in national income and the influence of the accelerator ( accelerator ), which positively or negatively affect the amplitude of fluctuations of investment , their distribution in time, determines the shift from growth to decline. In contrast to the neo-Keynesians , the founder of " monetarist school" M. Friedman sees the main reason for the cyclic development of market economy in monetary factors , imbalance in the money market . The problem of removing or mitigating cyclical development of the market economy in the majority of economists to reduce state involvement in counter-cyclical programs or direct regulation of the economy .
The structure of isolated cycle peaks and troughs of activity and in between are the decay phase ( recession ) and lifting ( expansion ) . If extremely deep recession , there is a depression . The time interval between two equal states economic conditions, ie honey two adjacent troughs or higher activity, called the economic cycle .
Periods of increased economic activity characterized mainly by extensive development and periods of reduced economic activity - mainly the beginning of intensive development. Consequently , the cycle is a constant dynamic characteristic of a market economy , without it there is no economic development. Economic cycle - is a form of motion and development of a market economy.
In the economic literature cycles of varying lengths were named after their researchers. Thus, cycles of 3-4 years are referred to as Kitchin cycles , 10 - year cycles - cycles or cycles Zhuglyara Marx , 15 -20- year cycles - Kuznets cycles , 40 -60- year cycles - Kondratieff cycles .
For the duration of the course and a repetition frequency of cycles are :
short ( associated with fluctuations in economic conditions in the consumer market , the duration - from several months to 1.5-2 years) ;
industrial ( related to the dynamics of demand for real capital) ;
business cycles ( related to the introduction , spread and an average life of new equipment and technology , about 6-9 years old) ;
or long wave ( caused by pulses that are a consequence of the latest achievements of science and technology related to the development of new technological mode of production ) .
2 phases of the economic cycle and the dynamics of macroeconomic indicators
Basis of the economic cycle is recurring economic crises . Movement of production from one crisis to the beginning of another is called the business cycle .
Economic cycle has four phases: crisis, depression , recovery and growth. Main phase of the economic cycle of the crisis . Source of the crisis is traditionally considered the increase in the mass of unsold goods , which leads to a drop in the rate of profit , national output , bankruptcy of enterprises.
Downturn (recession ) is also characterized by a decrease in GDP , but over time the rate of reduction in output is slowing, structural transformation of the economy, the business begins to accumulate funds to finance investments , expecting a favorable economic situation .
In the recovery phase growing national product increases aggregate demand and employment resources , increase prices and profits , continues the rapid update of capital , the growth of demand for credit increases interest rates . Expansion reaches its peak , in which there is extra high employment resources , high prices, wage rates and interest. Production growth is replaced by the recession and economic crisis comes again .
The most common indicators used to describe the economic situation , is the dynamics of income , defined and associated with a variety of macroeconomic variables , which can be divided into :
procyclical variables that grow during the economic boom and decline during recessions ( cumulative release , the general price level , employment resources , monetary aggregates , the velocity of money , short-term interest rates , profits of firms) ;
countercyclical variables tend to increase with drop in production and a fall - with the rise of production ( stocks of finished goods and factors of production , the level and duration of unemployment , bankruptcies , etc.).
13-лекция
1. Concept , performance , types and causes of unemployment
The problem of unemployment - one of the most acute problems of economic theory. Representatives of different schools of economy differently explain unemployment. In particular, the Malthusian theory links the emergence of unemployment in excess of the population. Keynesian school argues that this phenomenon is due to insufficient market demand. The theory of free enterprise school says that unemployment is generated by high-wage , that is voluntary. The same point of view and monetarists . Accumulation theory of Marx and modern technological theory argue that unemployment is due , first, to the accumulation of capital , and secondly, progress in technology .
So, unemployment -is socio-economic phenomenon , when a part of the economically active population can not apply its workforce . Cause of unemployment is the imbalance between supply and demand in the labor market . However, the reasons leading to these disparities may be different .
For reasons of the following types of unemployment :
frictional unemployment - this is a temporary lack of employment during the transition worker from one enterprise to another . In this case, the lack of employment caused only by finding the best place of employment , frictional unemployment arises from a voluntary initiative of the workers themselves ;
structural unemployment - is the lack of sufficient demand for this work in the sphere of economic activity , it is due to changes in the structure of consumer demand and the structure of demand for certain kinds of concrete labor ;
cyclical unemployment - is the lack of sufficient demand for labor in general , it is due to the decline in production of goods. It is caused by the onset of the corresponding phase of the economic cycle . Sometimes identified as technological unemployment due to technological innovations that make cost-effective reduction of jobs and causing changes in the structure of labor demand .
By the nature of manifestation distinguish partial employment or disguised unemployment . Contingent this category unemployment - salaried workers were forced to work part normative working hours.
Absolute absence of unemployment can not be considered unnecessary and in economic life. Frictional unemployment and structural variations in the economy seen as organically inherent elements . On this basis, and is determined by the value of the natural rate of unemployment. Natural rate of unemployment wounded friction levels and the amount of structural unemployment .
Used for measuring unemployment figures :
unemployment rate - the percentage ratio of the number of unemployed to the economically active population ;
duration of unemployment .
Economic consequences of unemployment are very diverse and mixed ( Figure 1). At the national level , unemployment reduces the amount of gross domestic product. A. Okun's law states that if " the actual unemployment rate exceeds the natural rate of one percent , the backlog of GNP is 2,5 ° / o."
Unemployment is not only negative , but also positive value . Unemployment - an essential condition of the normal and smooth functioning of the economy. It provides for the formation of the labor pool as the most important factor in the development of a market economy .
In order to overcome the negative effects of unemployment held state employment policy aimed at realizing the potential of labor society. IIrogrammy employment generally include training the unemployed and the unemployed , assistance to small and medium-sized businesses , financial support to the unemployed , promotion of vocational rehabilitation and employment of persons with disabilities.
2 . Inflation : concept, causes , types and effects of inflation
Another manifestation of macroeconomic instability - inflation . Research inflation traditionally paid much attention , but despite this, inflation remains one of the most neglected and discussion in economic theory. We can distinguish two generalizing approach to the study and definition of the essence of inflation: monetarist and reproduction . In accordance with the monetarist approach , inflation is seen as a phenomenon of the money market and is defined as the increase in the general price level as a result of the overflow channels of circulation money supply. Reproduction approach defines inflation as a complex and contradictory socio-economic phenomenon , expressed in a stable macroeconomic disequilibrium in the direction of aggregate demand.
Inflation - a violation of the law of monetary circulation, expressed in the overflow of the circulation of money signs that lead to their devaluation , reduction of purchasing power , and is expressed in the overall rise in prices for goods and services.
Inflation is the result of an imbalance between supply and demand . Inflation, developing under the influence of the growth of effective demand , called demand-pull inflation . As a result, there is excess demand inflation of money in relation to the goods , as a result of rising prices . Cost inflation - is inflation , growing under the influence of rising production costs . Cost inflation is always threatened reduction in commodity supply and ultimately generates recession and job cuts . Thus, inflation has two options - from the increase in demand and by the increase in production costs .
Allocate monetary and structural causes of inflation. For monetary reasons , causing inflation demand include excess government spending over income , the implementation of investment projects , militarization of the economy , inflation expectations , macroeconomic policies . Structural causes of inflation costs, can be considered as technological backwardness of the economy , the structural imbalances of the economy , monopoly pricing of large companies ; macroeconomic policies (eg , tax increases ) .
Effects of inflation are complex and varied , depend on its quality characteristics - the pace and dynamics of price growth . First, small inflation contribute to the growth of prices and profit margins , thus becoming a factor temporary revival environment. Secondly, the deepening inflation turns into a serious obstacle to reproduction. Lose money rates and cease to perform their functions , barter disorganized processes , production is reduced , economic ties are broken , worthless savings, thirdly, there is a significant redistribution of income in society in favor of monopoly enterprises , financial institutions , the shadow economy. To overcome inflation various governments conduct anti-inflationary policies . Anti-inflationary policy - a set of different methods used to overcome inflation
Relationship of unemployment and inflation is described now as a whole near the theoretical approaches and concepts. The basis of many of these views are put British economist AW Phillips.
Theoretical generalizations are reduced to the fact that the higher the growth of aggregate demand , the higher arising in connection with the growth of inflation and the real product , but the lower level of unemployment. And vice versa - the lower the rate of growth of aggregate demand , the lower the inflation rate , the real product and higher unemployment rates ( Figure 4). Theoretical conclusions were the need to regulate the position of the aggregate demand . This implied a tough alternative to either a decrease in unemployment and higher inflation , or a decline in inflation and unemployment extension.
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1. Objectives and instruments of economic policy implementation
The huge role of the state and its ability to regulate certain economic processes depends on the relationship of economics and politics , from the formulation of economic policy.
State represents the rod of the existing social system, it concentrates power , authorizes the existence of all other non-governmental institutions . State formulates principles and organizing forms of social life , forming the basis of the institutional hierarchy. The state has created a new form of social conditioning of human behavior , separating general interest from the private .
Therefore, the emergence and existence of the state is not only a historical necessity , but also socially progressive and significant factor in development.
The economic policy of the state is an integral and necessary element of a link of the market system . " The visible hand " of the government should regulate the " invisible hand " of competition , which Adam Smith wrote . In view of these circumstances, the State becomes the object of study of economic theory. It should be noted that for a long time there was the identification of the economic role of the state with the science and political economy. Therefore, so far , attempts to bring economic theory to economic policy .
State intervention in the economy is objectively necessary for any government whether it is market economy , or command and distribution . In the distribution economy, the state assumes the rights and obligations of the production and distribution of goods and services . There is simply nothing to regulate . However, this system actually proved its inefficiency and inconsistency.
In a market economy the government faces challenges not directly organize the production of goods and resource allocation. It does not have the right to freely dispose of resources, capital and manufactured goods, as is the command- economy distribution . Market system - this is primarily the prerogative of decision-making producers and consumers. Yet the regulatory functions of the state and is of utmost importance . However, the market mechanism can not resolve all the problems of economic growth.
Historically, there are two major methodological approach to the regulation of the market economy developed countries :
1) Keynesian school (the theory of the economic mechanism of state regulation );
2)synthesis of Keynesian , sometimes conservative , laissez-faire doctrines in the economic life of society.
Both of these trends have a common theoretical framework. They see the state as an economic system with a certain amount of property and economic functions for the conduct of economic policies aimed at achieving the strategic objectives of the society .
The differences between the methods used to reduce public exposure , up to a total denial of the impact. Thus, the Austrian economist Hayek noted that the state should only perform the role of " night watchman » (laissez-faire), without interfering in the economic processes. JM Keynes and post-Keynesian representatives believe that supervision of the state parameters of the market is one of the functions of the state ( government). Any non-equilibrium effects must be registered and on the basis of automatic stabilizers is directed to the equilibrium balanced growth path . So the government acts on a particular market segment.
What objective circumstances caused the need for state regulation of economic growth?
State intended to correct the shortcomings that are inherent to the market mechanism . As you know, the market has a negative side :
does not contribute to the conservation of non-renewable resources and environmental protection ;
can not regulate the use of resources belonging to all mankind , for example fish resources of the ocean.
in market conditions sometimes ignored the potential negative consequences of decisions and creating incentives for the production of goods and services for communities , can not be guaranteed the right to work and income is not provided targeted development of basic research in science.
market mainly focused not on production of socially - necessary goods and to meet the demands of those who have money.
the market is subject to the inherent unstable development this recessionary and inflationary processes .
Thus, the state assumes the responsibility for the creation of relatively equal conditions for mutual rivalry entrepreneurial firms to compete effectively with the limitations of the monopolized production. The State is required to direct economic resources to meet the collective needs of the people , to create the production of public goods and services. Participation of the state in economic life is dictated by the fact that he has to take care of the disabled , children, the elderly , the poor , to regulate the labor market , to take measures to reduce unemployment . Do not forget about the foreign policy , the regulation of the balance of payments and exchange rates.
In general, the state is implementing political and socio- economic principles of community citizens. It actively participates in the formation of macro-and microeconomic processes .
In a market economy the state regulation ( GRE ) is a system of legislative, executive and supervisory nature performed by competent government agencies to leverage existing socio-economic system to changing economic conditions .
Many economists agree that government regulation of the economy - is focused , coordinating the process of managerial influence of the government on individual segments of the domestic and external markets through micro-and macro-economic controls in order to achieve equilibrium growth overall economic system.
Purpose of government regulation are closely related , are not equivalent in meaning , the scale of impact and consequences. In the tree can be identified goals GRE general and specific objectives .
Among the general objectives are a priority :
achievement of economic and social stability ,
ensuring national competitive advantage ,
economic security ,
adaptation of the market mechanism to different situations .
Specific objectives differ subject to state regulation , but always come from the need to integrate public and private interests .
The objects of regulation should be attributed to the supranational level of interstate unions of the national economy , individual sectors and regions where problems can not be resolved by market regulators .
GRE entities serving central , regional, municipal or communal authorities .
The state intervenes in the life of the market only to the extent that is required to maintain the stability of macroeconomic equilibrium , for the operation mechanism of competition or to control those markets in which free competition is not feasible.
Economic functions of the modern state are diverse and complex . You can highlight the fundamental group of the economic functions performed by the state :
• providing support to the functioning of the market system and create a competitive environment , the protection of competition through antitrust laws ;
• redistribution of income and wealth , the adjustment of resource allocation in order to change the structure of the national product , to stabilize the economy by controlling the level of employment and inflation ;
• limitation of certain elements of the market mechanism. So hard limit the use of market elements observed in the allocation of budgetary resources for the support and maintenance of public order , national defense , transportation system , maintenance of infrastructure facilities , water supply , etc. Limitations apply in aggregate consumption and ensure socio- normal life education, health care. National and regional authorities ensure the functioning of education, health , environmental controls, taking into account the market and the public interest ;
• achieving and maintaining the national competitive advantage in the global economy .
These functions are carried out through the development of state capacity of firms to compete in new and existing traditional industries in the global market .
Gosudarstennogo methods of economic regulation
Customary division methods of state regulation on the legal, administrative, economic, direct, indirect .
Legal regulation is to establish the rules of the state of "economic game" for manufacturers and consumers. System of legislative rules and regulations and determine the forms of property rights, contracts and conditions of firms , mutual obligations in the field of labor relations and trade unions and employers , etc.
Administrative regulations include measures to regulate , quotas , licensing, quotas , etc. With the help of administrative measures (in the form of measures securing permissions , coercion ) the state oversight over prices , income , discount rate , the exchange rate .
Economic methods suggest impact on the nature of market relations and expanding market within the field of Education through its influence on aggregate demand , aggregate supply , the degree of concentration of capital , the structuring of the economy and social conditions , the use of growth factors . Used for this purpose :
• budgetary and fiscal policies ;
• monetary policy ;
• programming;
• forecasting and planning .
Financial policy involves the use of fiscal and fiscal mechanism for achieving national economic and social goals .
Monetary policy involves the use of the indirect impact of the Central Bank on the elements of the market mechanism and especially the optimality of monetary circulation .
The highest form of state regulation are programming, forecasting and planning . Their use is associated with the increasing complexity of economic relations and the need to use complex methods to achieve short-, medium - and long-term goals . Objects such targeted programs are the industry (including the agricultural sector ) , regions, social conditions , research trends , etc. Programs are regular , targeted , extraordinary .
Direct control methods based on vlastnorasporyaditelnyh relations and reduce the administrative impact on the functioning and effectiveness of management subjects . Among the methods of direct GRE dominated by various forms of repayable funding target sectors , regions, firms in the form of subsidies or subsidies , including subsidies , grants additional cost of special budgetary and extra-budgetary funds of the national and regional levels , as well as soft loans. The purpose of these methods is to achieve development priorities , the protection of socially necessary sectors and groups. Addition to the positive effect of these measures may have negative consequences in the form of real deformation of the costs and prices , reduce competition , reduce the balancing function of the market.
Direct impact on the economy of the state carries through investment in certain sectors of the economy . It can go in two directions: development or public enterprise , or subsidizing private sector enterprises .
The State shall regulate and maintain by individual enterprises or joint individual private ownership. This is achieved by providing them with products and services at low prices or subsidies . State of the revenue earmarked for the development of the national economy . State implements a program to support areas such as education, health, environmental protection, that without his help would have developed more slowly than other industries , or the prices of their services would be established so high that would be available to few . These industries are a constant subject of subsidizing many states , as well as agricultural production , mining, transport, etc. The state also has a direct regulatory effect on exports , freeing exporter from payment of import duties on certain commodities , creating preferential export credits or presenting state guarantees for foreign loans . State exercises and direct impact on the national market . It can affect the size , structure and direction of the market by government order . Under him understand the state assignment company to manufacture a particular product in the regulated time and in a specific size for a unique , particularly deficient products .
2 . Monetary policy
The banking system in a market economy is usually a two-tier and includes the Central Bank (emission ) and commercial ( depository ) banks of various kinds. The main functions of commercial banks are considered to attract deposits (deposits) and lending . Central Bank will issue the national currency , foreign exchange reserves of the country stores , mandatory reserves of commercial banks, acts as interbank settlement center . It usually is a lender of last resort to commercial banks , as well as the financial agent of the government. Central Bank can act as a seller and the buyer in international money markets .
Objectives of monetary policy , economic growth, full employment , price stability and a stable balance of payments.
Intermediate targets : money , interest rate , exchange rate .
tools :
a) lending limits , the direct regulation of interest rates ;
b) changes in reserve requirements ;
c) change in the discount rate ( refinancing rate );
d) open market operations .
a) - direct , (b , c, d) - indirect regulation is closely related to the degree of development of the money market.
Required reserves - is part of the amount of deposits that commercial banks must keep with the Central Bank . Reserve requirements are set in % of total deposits . The increase of reserves leads to a reduction in the money supply. Thus , the Central Bank has an impact on the dynamics of the money supply.
Another instrument of monetary regulation is the change in the discount rate ( refinancing rate ) at which the Central Bank grants loans to commercial banks. If the discount rate is increased , the amount of borrowing from the Central Bank reduced and , consequently, reduced and operations of commercial banks to provide loans. Money supply in the economy is reduced.
Open market operations - the third method of controlling the money supply . It is widely used in developed markets, securities and involves the sale by the Central Bank in government securities ( T-bills) . When the Central Bank buys securities from a commercial bank , it increases the amount of the reserve account of the bank , respectively, into the banking system receives additional " high-powered money " and begins the process of expanding the money supply multiplier . If the Central Bank sells securities , the process proceeds in the opposite direction. Often these operations are carried out in the form of Central Bank repurchase agreements ( repos) . In this case, the bank sells securities with a commitment to repurchase them at a certain ( higher) price after a certain period of time.
With the help of these tools target the Central Bank implements monetary policy : maintaining a certain level of money supply ( tight monetary policy ) or interest (flexible monetary policy ) .
There are four level gear monetary policy :
1. change in the real money supply ( M / P ) S as a result of the Central Bank of the policy;
2 . change in interest rates in the money market ;
3 . response of total expenditures (especially investment spending ) on the dynamics of interest rates ;
4 . change in volume production in response to changes in aggregate demand ( total expenditure ) .
Obviously, in violation of any link transmission mechanism may lead to the reduction or even the absence of any results of the monetary policy .
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1. Growth concept and its measurement
One of the major goals of society is economic growth . Economic growth - are progressive changes in the economy lead to increase the ability of the national economy to produce a product that meets the needs of people.
Criterion of economic growth is the increasing surplus product as a source of economic development, the expansion of production , the development of science and culture. Economic growth allows to predict the prospects of development of society, creates conditions for solving the problem of limited resources. Overall economic growth is an indicator of the economic strength of the country , the central task of any state. However, you can highlight the negative consequences of this process : environmental degradation , irreplaceable resource , retraining problems , overcrowding of big cities , the growth of the intensity of labor , etc.
* - * As economic growth using the growth rate of the produced GDP ( or GDP) growth rate of GNP (or GDP) , the growth rate and the growth rate of per capita measures . GNP growth rate determined by the ratio of GNP period studied to the same value of the base period , multiplied by 100 %. Similarly defined and the growth rate of GDP per capita.
Growth factors can be classified as follows:
mediated by the degree of impact on growth - both direct and indirect ;
on the effects on certain aspects of the national market - demand factors and supply factors ;
on sources of economic growth - both internal and external ;
on the impact on labor productivity and capital - intensive and extensive .
The direct factors directly affecting the economy include:
volume and quality of raw materials, energy and natural resources;
population , including the economically active , level of education and training ;
amounts of capital and the level of its use;
STP and the degree of its impact on the economy .
Called indirect institutional, cultural , political and psychological factors of economic growth that can stimulate or inhibit growth. Their contribution to economic growth is virtually impossible to quantify, but their significance in the development of the economy is increasing.
Besides growth factors exist and reduction factors . These include: an imbalance of aggregate demand and aggregate supply , which arises as a result of non-compliance rate of savings and savings in the economy, the flow of investment and capital stock , income growth and population , etc. Each of growth factors contributing to the results. All growth factors are interrelated and interdependent . And the role of each of them is constantly changing during the translational movement of the economy .
2 . Types and growth factors
Depending on which group of factors plays a dominant role in the economy , distinguish extensive and intensive growth patterns .
Faster growth of domestic production by increasing the physical factors of production characterizes the extensive economic growth ( in Latin - "expandable "). Extensive growth of production - the simplest and historically the first way of expanded reproduction . He is peculiar technical stagnation, in which the quantitative increase in production is not accompanied by technical and economic progress . Extensive expansion of production in the country requires a sufficient amount of labor and natural resources , the expense of which may increase the scale of the economy. As a result, economic growth is increasingly starting to wear costly nature .
More sophisticated type of intensive economic growth ( in French - "stress" ) . It is characterized by improvement of applicable factors of production on the basis of the NTP and their optimal placement, change their qualitative parameters. His main criterion - the growth of average labor productivity in society or exceeded output growth over the growth of employment .
In real life, the extensive and intensive factors do not individually exist in a pure form, and are combined with each other in a specific combination . Translating economic development into predominantly intensive growth factors - an objective process.
But it requires a lot of effort on the part of society , as involves finding fundamentally new technical , technological , organizational and administrative decisions. Modern type of economic growth due to the change of its sources , the transition to a predominantly intensive growth factors . Of high performance is associated not with the influx of additional production of natural resources, raw materials, and to transfer it to the labor-saving , fondosberegayuschie and Material Technology . The solution to this problem is directly related to fundamental changes in the training and skills on the one hand , and more complete penetration of science in industrial activity , on the other hand . Consequence of the implementation of this direction are structural changes throughout the economic complex . First of all, change the proportions between the mining and processing industries , between two units of social production in favor of the final product .