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АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ
ГРАММАТИКА
Учебное пособие
Санкт-Петербург 2007
Федеральное агентство по образованию
Государственное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет
низкотемпературных и пищевых технологий
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ
ГРАММАТИКА
Учебное пособие
Санкт-Петербург 2007
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2
Д 53
Д 53
Дмитренко Н.А.
Английский язык. Практическая грамматика: Учебное пособие. СПб.: СПбГУНиПТ, 2007. 115 с.
Учебное пособие содержит краткий практический курс грамматики английского языка и грамматические упражнения. Цель пособия – научить основам перевода с английского языка на русский на базе научно-популярной и технической литературы широкого профиля.
Предназначено для студентов и аспирантов технических вузов.
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2
Рецензент
Доктор техн. наук, проф. О.Б. Цветков
Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом уни-верситета
Санкт-Петербургский государственный
университет низкотемпературных
и пищевых технологий, 2007
Дмитренко Н.А., 2007
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ
ГРАММАТИКА
Учебное пособие
Санкт-Петербург 2007
Федеральное агентство по образованию
Государственное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет
низкотемпературных и пищевых технологий
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ
ГРАММАТИКА
Учебное пособие
Санкт-Петербург 2007
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2
Д 53
Д 53
Дмитренко Н.А.
Английский язык. Практическая грамматика: Учебное пособие. СПб.: СПбГУНиПТ, 2007. 115 с.
Учебное пособие содержит краткий практический курс грамматики английского языка и грамматические упражнения. Цель пособия – научить основам перевода с английского языка на русский на базе научно-популярной и технической литературы широкого профиля.
Предназначено для студентов и аспирантов технических вузов.
УДК 811.111
ББК 81.2
Рецензент
Доктор техн. наук, проф. О.Б. Цветков
Рекомендовано к изданию редакционно-издательским советом уни-верситета
Санкт-Петербургский государственный
университет низкотемпературных
и пищевых технологий, 2007
Дмитренко Н.А., 2007
Настоящее учебное пособие предназначено для начального этапа обучения английскому языку в техническом вузе и рассчитано на 80–100 аудиторных часов.
Цель пособия – помочь студентам в сжатые сроки освоить грамматическую систему английского языка, овладеть формальными признаками грамматических явлений и их структурными особенностями для чтения и перевода научно-популярной и технической литературы общего профиля.
Грамматическая основа курса отражает главные характеристики построения предложения общенаучного и технического текста. Использование формального описания грамматических структур в виде таблиц, схем и моделей, составляющих набор обязательных и факультативных компонентов, базируется на теоретических положениях, разработанных структурной и генеративной лингвистикой.
Каждое грамматическое явление представлено в наглядном и компактном виде: название, формула или таблица, функции с иллюстрацией на примерах, перевод. Такая подача теоретического материала дает возможность сэкономить время, позволяет показать системность грамматики, взаимосвязь между структурами, их сходство и различие, не употребляя пространных описаний и сложной терминологии.
Всю работу по изучению структур следует проводить в три этапа:
1) описание формальных признаков структуры методом дистрибутивного анализа;
2) раскрытие смысла, содержащегося в структуре, посредством трансформации ее в структуру, имеющую русский эквивалент;
3) сопоставление с русской структурой и подбор русского эквивалента.
Состав упражнений, следующих за теоретическим материалом, определяется упомянутым выше трех этапным анализом: рецептивные, репродуктивные и творческие. К первому типу упражнений, формирующих навыки анализа текста, относятся упражнения по опознаванию структуры. Наиболее часто используемые упражнения, формирующие репродуктивные грамматические навыки, – это задания на подстановку, завершение, конверсию и трансформацию. Последним типом упражнений является перевод с русского на английский с использованием ранее изученных грамматических структур.
В конце пособия приводятся списки неправильных глаголов, наиболее употребительных английских приставок и суффиксов, приставок и распространенных сокращений, а также правила чтения математических символов.
При работе с данным учебным пособием рекомендуется пользоваться следующими словарями:
Мюллер В.К. Большой англо-русский словарь: в новой редакции – М.: Цитадел-Трейд: Рипол классик, 2005.
Современный англо-русский политехнический словарь / Сост. В.В. Бутник. – М., Вече, 1999.
Англо-русский словарь по химии и химической технологии / Сост. В.В. Кафарова. – М., Рус. яз., 1986.
Англо-русский словарь по пищевой промышленности / Под ред. Л.П. Ковальской – М., Руссо, 1995.
Розенберг М.Б. Англо-русский словарь по холодильной и криогенной технике – М., Рус. яз., 1978.
Автор выражает глубокую благодарность преподавателям и сотрудникам кафедры иностранных языков СПбГУНиПТ за помощь в процессе работы над настоящим пособием.
М О Р Ф О Л О Г И Я
С И Н Т А К С И С
вопросы
Predicates
Сказуемое – главный член предложения, обозначающий действие, состояние или качество предмета.
|
Тип сказуемого |
Пример |
|
Простое (личная форма глагола) |
I am reading a book. I have read a book. I was given a book. |
|
Составное (глагол-связка + именная часть): be существительное; feel прилагательное; keep причастие (I, II); become местоимение; grow + числительное; get инфинитив / turn герундий(-ing form); seem наречие; appear придаточное; и др. предложение |
He is a researcher. My house is new. He seemed tired. That was he. They were five. Our aim is to master English. Our aim is mastering English. She was out. The question is if (whether) he will come. |
|
Сложное а) модальное (модальный глагол + b) видовое (глагол начала, продолжения или конца движения + инфинитив / герундий (-ing form): to begin, to start, to commence, to go on, to continue, to proceed, to stop, to finish, to cease, to give up |
I can do it. He is to go there. He began to translate the article. I have finished writing the exercise. |
Формальные признаки сказуемого, приведенные ниже, позволяют безошибочно определить сказуемое в английском предложении.
|
Вспомогательный глагол |
to be (am, is, are; was, were) to have (have; has; had) to do (do; does; did) shall / should; will / would |
|
Модальный глагол |
can / could; may / might; must, should, would, ought (to) |
|
Окончание |
-о, -(e)s, -(e)d |
–o – отсутствие окончания в Present Simple Tense и в Past Simple Tense (неправильные глаголы)
Articles
Артикль – служебная часть речи, которая является основным определителем существительного.
1. В английском языке используются неопределенный «a / an» и определенный «the» артикли.
|
Артикль Существительное |
a / an |
the |
no article |
|
Исчисляемое в единственном числе |
a tree an apple |
the tree the apple |
– |
|
Исчисляемые во множественном числе |
– |
the trees the apples |
trees apples |
|
Неисчисляемые: вещественные; |
– – |
the water the music |
water music |
2. С некоторыми именами собственными употребляется определенный артикль «the»:
|
Существительное |
Пример |
|
Гостиницы |
the Ambassador (Hotel) |
|
Суда |
the Titanic |
|
Реки |
the Thames |
|
Каналы |
the Suez (Canal) |
|
Моря, океаны |
the Mediterranean (Sea), the Pacific (Ocean) |
|
Группы островов |
the Canaries (Canary Islands) |
|
Группы гор |
the Alps |
|
Страны, области, включающие в себя групповые понятия |
the United Kingdom Great Britain the United States Russia the Netherlands NB France Germany |
|
Фамилии во множественном числе |
the Browns |
3. Артикль «the» не ставится перед именами собственными, обозначающими:
|
Существительное |
Пример |
|
Имена людей (животных) |
Mary Brown, Spot |
|
Города, улицы, площади, |
London, Thames Street, Times Square, Victoria Station |
|
Озера, отдельные острова или горы |
Lake Ontario, Majorca, Everest |
|
Материки |
Europe, Asia, Africa, America, Australia, North / South America |
Exercise 1. Add «a» or «the» where necessary.
1. Are you … student or … teacher?
2. Open … book, please. Read … text on … page 5.
3. Look at … plan. Is it … good plan?
4. … Greens live in … London, … capital of … Great Britain.
5. Yesterday he was in … library and borrowed … book.
6. He often reads … books on … art.
7. She stayed … night in … Grand Hotel, which is in … Brook Street.
8. … ship, … Queens Star, sailed down … English Channel towards … Atlantic Ocean.
9. He went to … North America, where he spent … week near … Lake Superior.
10. Give me … glass of … water.
Prepositions
Предлог – служебная часть речи, которая показывает отношение существительного (местоимения) с другими словами в предложении.
1. Предлоги, обозначающие отношения, выражаемые в русском языке падежными окончаниями:
Английский Русский яз.
язык Именительный – –
Родительный – of The book of the student was
open.
Дательный – to The teacher explained this rule Общий the student.
for This book is for my friend.
Винительный – –
Творительный – by This letter is written by the
student.
with He is writing with a pen.
Предложный – about Tell me all about it.
Притяжательный – родительный – ’s The student’s book was open.
2. Предлоги места:
over out
above (a)round
behind
on
at near / beside / by
below in front of
under / beneath
among (st)
between
3. Предлоги движения
up along across
from
to off
toward (s)
out of
down into
4. Предлоги времени.
from to / till / until
since between after
before
in
within
in – in May;
in spring;
in 1990;
in the 19th century;
on – on Monday;
on May, 10;
on week days;
at – at 5 o’clock;
at present;
at the present time;
at the weekend;
by – by 5 o’clock.
Exercise 2. Answer the following questions stating the place of the object. Use the appropriate preposition. Give all the variants possible.
Example: Where is the clock? (the wall)
It is on the wall.
1. Where is the desk? (the corner)
2. Where is the note-book? (the table)
3. Where is the blackboard? (the classroom)
4. Where is the teacher? (the blackboard)
5. Where is the table? (the window)
6. Where is the lamp? (ceiling)
7. Where is the tree? (the house)
8. Where is the rug? (the chair)
9. Where is the man? (the car)
10. Where are you now?
Exercise 3. Add the prepositions.
1. I was … Canada … 1990.
2. He came … London … 15th August and left again … September.
3. They arrived … half past one.
4. He rests … the weekends but works hard … Monday … Friday.
5. I met him … Wednesday.
6. He is busy … present. He will see you … 30 minutes.
7. Moscow is the capital … Russia.
8. This book is … English history.
9. I cannot write … this pen.
10. This present is … him.
11. I wrote this letter … my friend.
12. The poem was written … Byron.
Exercise 4. Make plurals where possible.
1. I am a student.
2. What is his main subject at the University?
3. Are you an engineer?
4. He is in St. Petersburg now.
5. Is it a class in English?
6. That is a car.
7. It is a car.
8. This is a book.
Pronouns
Местоимения – часть речи, которая употребляется вместо имени существительного или прилагательного.
|
Тип |
Пример |
|
Личные: именительный |
I you he she it we you they me you him her it us you them |
|
Притяжательные: I форма II форма |
my your his her its our your their mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs |
|
Возвратные |
myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves yourselves themselves |
|
Взаимные |
each other one another |
|
Указательные |
this (these) that (those) such the same |
|
Вопросительные |
who whom whose what which |
|
Неопределенные |
some any no none much many little few all both either neither each every one other another |
Exercise 5. Replace the underlined words with pronouns.
1. The letter is from my friend.
2. Come with John and me.
3. Peter does not know her brother.
4. I am glad to meet both you and Ann.
5. Mike and me often see our friends.
6. Mary likes to play with her dog.
7. Tom calls the Browns.
Exercise 6. Choose the correct form of the pronoun.
1. (We, us) are in the laboratory.
2. The building of the University is in front of (we, us).
3. (She, her) is in (she, her) first year.
4. Nick is (we, our) friend.
5. Moscow is the capital of Russian. (She, it) is a large city. (It, its) streets are wide.
6. What are (you, your) main subjects at the University?
7. Give (I, me) this text-book, please.
8. (Them, their) paper is very important.
Exercise 7. Answer the questions using the absolute form of possessive pronouns.
Example: My sister is at home.
– Where is your sister? (at the office).
– Mine is at the office.
1. Our house is in that street. Where is your house? (round the corner)
2. Her bag is on the chair. Where is my bag? (on the sofa)
3. His mother is in the country now. Where is her mother? (in town)
4. My friend is in the library. Where is your friend? (in the laboratory)
5. Your photo is here. Where is his photo? (in the album)
6. Our teacher is in the classroom. Where is their teacher? (at the Dean’s office).
Adverbs
Наречие – часть речи, которая определяет глагол, прилагательное или другое наречие.
|
Тип наречия |
Пример |
|
Места |
here there inside outside above below |
|
Времени |
now then once ever always often sometimes seldom never already usually yet still since soon just ago |
|
Меры и степени |
much little very too so enough nearly almost |
|
Образа действия |
well badly fast quick(ly) slowly easily |
Место наречия в предложении
1. Наречие может располагаться в начале или в конце предложения:
Tomorrow they will go there.
2. Наречие неопределенного времени ставится перед глаголом-сказуемым или между вспомогательным (модальным) и смысловым глаголом:
He often comes early.
We will never forget it.
I can always prove it to be true.
Однако эти наречия ставятся после глагола “to be”:
He is always here at five o’clock.
3. Наречия образа действия ставятся после глагола-сказуемого или прямого дополнения:
He walked slowly.
I answered the question easily.
Exercise 8. Put the adverbs in the correct places in these sentences.
1. (always) Autumn is a pleasant season in New York.
2. (often) They go to the movies on Saturday.
3. (just) He has left.
4. (today) I have seen him.
5. (fast) He is working.
6. (well) You speak English.
7. (seldom) She can come in time.
8. (too) They will be there.
9. (too) There are many mistakes in your test-paper.
10. (yesterday) I met my school fellow.
Present, Past, Future Simple
|
Person/number |
Present |
Past |
Future |
|
1. Sing. pl. |
I am We are |
I was We were |
I shall (will) be We |
|
2. Sing pl. |
You are |
You were |
You will be |
|
3. Sing pl. |
He (she, it) is They are |
He (she, it) was They were |
He (she, it) will be They |
Exercise 9. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the verb “to be”.
1. I am a scientist.
2. Physics is one of the ancient sciences about nature.
3. All the changes in nature are natural phenomena.
4. It will be a fundamental discovery.
5. These were tremendous contributions to physics.
6. He was an experimental physicist.
7. The appearance of this law is important.
6. We shall be theoretical physicists in some years.
Exercise 10. Change the affirmative sentences into interrogative and negative and translate them into Russian.
1. Your laboratory is large.
2. It was an independent study.
3. You are a chemist.
4. The results were important.
5. The question is of importance.
6. This information will be interesting.
7. The last symposium was of interest.
8. The machines are of use.
9. These standard methods were useful.
Exercise 11. Choose the correct form. Translate the sentences into Russian.
A.
1. I (am, are) a first-year student now.
2. My friend (are, is) a first-year student too.
3. We (are, am) at the University.
4. Our teacher (am, is) at the table.
5. My main subjects (is, are) physics, chemistry and mathematics.
6. Peter (is, was) a schoolboy last year. But now he (is, was) not a schoolboy any longer.
7. My friend and I (are, were) students now.
8. In five years you (are, will be) good specialists.
B.
9. (Last, next) year I was a schoolboy. (Now, last year) I am a student.
10. (Some years ago, in some years) we were beginners in English. But (now, five years ago, in five years) we will be good at it.
Exercise 12. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Этот закон очень важен.
2. Эти факты представляют большой интерес для физиков-теоретиков.
3. Доктор Уотсон не химик, он математик.
4. Эти открытия будут весьма важны в будущем.
5. Современная физика – это наука о материи и движении тел.
6. Ваши результаты будут важны для дальнейших исследований.
7. Вклад русских ученых в физику огромен.
8. Этот стандартный метод был очень полезен в нашем самостоятельном исследовании.
9. Последняя конференция была очень важна.
10. Наша лаборатория – большая.
Noun in the Function of an Attribute
Определение – второстепенный член предложения, который обозначает признак предмета и относится к существительному. В английском языке в функции определения может выступать другое существительное.
|
Существительное |
Структура |
|
Существительное в общем падеже |
N N … N power consumption – потребление энергии power consumption data – данные о потреблении энергии |
|
Существительное в притяжательном падеже |
N’ N the teacher’s question – вопрос учителя the teachers’ questions – вопросы учителей |
|
Существительное с предлогом |
N pr. N … pr. N analysis by X-rays – исследование |
|
Перевод: прилагательным, существительным (с предлогом или без) |
Exercise 13. Translate the following noun combinations into Russian.
1) a conference hall; 2) a seminar course; 3) the conservation laws; 4) a general purpose instrument; 5) gravity measurements; 6) electron production; 7) light transfer mechanism; 8) sound phenomena; 9. body motion; 10) the United States Atomic Energy Commission.
Exercise 14. Put the second noun before the first, leaving out the preposition:
1) the students of the college; 2) the program for research; 3) the products of a reaction; 4) the motion of electrons; 5) the system of communication; 6) a course in mathematics; 7) the department of physics; 8) a room for discussions; 9) a hall for conferences; 10) the building of the university.
Exercise 15. Form technical terms from the following words.
1) energy; 2) motion; 3) light; 4) sound; 5) system; 6) law; 7) discovery; 8) phenomenon; 9) velocity; 10) rate; 11) activity; 12) coefficient; 13) efficiency.
Formal Subjects
Формальное подлежащее – в английском предложении стоит перед сказуемым, т.е. на месте подлежащего, но не несет смысловой нагрузки.
|
Тип подлежащего |
Пример |
|
It + be, seem, become, etc. |
It is cold. – Холодно. |
|
One + modal verb, notional verb |
One must do it. – Нужно сделать это. One knows one’s duties. – Каждый знает свои обязанности. / Нужно знать свои обязанности. |
|
There + be, exist, live, appear, modal verb |
There is paper on the table. – На столе бумага. There are many kinds of molecules. – Есть много видов молекул. There exist different sources of energy. – Существуют различные формы энергии. There can be no doubt about it. – В этом не может быть никакого сомнения. |
|
Перевод: не переводится |
Exercise 16. Translate the following sentences into Russian.
1. There is a computer in the laboratory.
2. There are several telescopes there.
3. There was an atomic reactor in the laboratory.
4. There may be different decisions of this problem.
5. There is carbon in this substance.
6. There will be an electron microscope in this research centre.
7. There exist many books on this subject.
Exercise 17. Repeat the following sentences with the subject in the singular.
1. There are several microscopes on the table.
2. There are a few generators there.
3. There were some refrigerators in this room.
4. There will be three centrifuges in our laboratory.
Exercise 18.
A. Substitute “some” by “many” or “much”.
1. There are some figures in this book.
2. There is some gas in the vessel.
3. There are some articles on carbon compounds in this journal.
4. There is some new information on this problem at present.
5. There are some interesting experimental facts in this paper.
B. Say the opposite with “few” or “little”.
1. There were many books on this subject.
2. There will be much information on this process in the future.
3. There are many people on the laboratory staff.
4. There is some progress in your English.
5. There were many ways of doing this work.
6. There are a lot of papers about these phenomena.
7. There was much knowledge about these sciences in the ancient times.
C. Substitute “some” by “a few” or “a little”.
1. There are some interpretations of this phenomenon.
2. There is some metal in this substance.
3. There were some difficult problems in this field.
4. There was some carbon gas in this chamber.
5. There will be some big machines and mechanisms in the laboratory.
6. There are some mistakes in this text.
Exercise 19. Give the question word order with the following nouns and “there + be”.
Example: any information. Is there any information?
1) any discovery; 2) any new facts; 3) any changes; 4) any difficulty; 5) any definite way; 6) any experimental method.
Exercise 20. Learn the patterns of short reply: Yes, there are some. Yes, there are many / a few. Yes, there is much / a little. No, there is / are none. No, there isn’t / aren’t any. Then give short answers to the following questions:
1. Are there any microscopes in your laboratory?
2. Is there any way of resolving your problems?
3. Were there any theories of the origin of life?
4. Are there any other planets besides the Earth in our solar system?
5. Was there any direct information about these phenomena?
Exercise 21. Make the following sentences negative with “not any” / “no”.
1. There were some experimental results in this book.
2. There are some computers in this laboratory.
3. There is some information on hydrogen in this paper.
4. There will be some definite boundary between natural sciences in the future.
5. There was some carbon compound in this vessel.
Exercise 22. Substitute “many” / “much” by an appropriate expression of large quantity:
for many – a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great (good) many, a (large)
number of;
for much – a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a great deal of, a large amount of, a
(large) quantity of.
1. There are many planets in the universe.
2. There will be many methods of analysis in chemistry.
3. There is much light in the room.
4. There were many difficult problems in experimental physics in the 19th century.
5. There was much energy in this substance before the experiment.
Exercise 23. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. В нашей лаборатории много приборов.
2. Есть две главные естественные науки – физика и химия.
3. В этом соединении находится углерод.
4. В нашей статье были новые данные об этих процессах.
5. В этой книге было мало новой информации.
6. В настоящее время нет объяснения этому явлению.
7. В прошлом не было никаких экспериментальных данных по этому вопросу.
10. Спряжение глагола
«to have» Present, Past, Future Simple
|
Рerson/number |
Present |
Past |
Future |
pl. |
I have We |
I had We |
I shall (will) have We |
pl. |
You have |
You had |
You will have |
pl. |
He (she, it) has They have |
He (she, it) had They |
He (she, it) will have They |
Exercise 24. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the verb “to have”.
1. When bodies are in motion, they have kinetic energy.
2. Gas has no definite volume or shape.
3. All the thermometers are identical but each has a different scale.
4. I usually have two or three lectures a day.
5. Researchers of the past noticed that physical and chemical phenomena had much in common.
Exercise 25. Change the affirmative sentences into interrogative and negative and then translate them into Russian.
1. Each atom has an electron cloud in normal conditions.
2. Substances of vegetative and animal origin have carbon.
3. In the future chemistry will have close relations with physics.
4. In the 19th century discoveries in physics had a profound influence on engineering.
Exercise 26. Choose the correct form of the verb “to have”. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. We (have, has) three fundamental particles for the construction of the atom.
2. The energy which a body (have, has, had) because of its motion is kinetic energy.
3. Next century man (have, has, will have) more knowledge of this remote part of the atmosphere.
4. I (have, had, will have) no time yesterday.
5. He (have, had, will have) his scientific paper ready tomorrow.
Exercise 27. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Энергия существует в различных формах.
2. Все науки имеют свой объект и методы анализа.
3. Химическая наука имеет долгую историю.
4. Эти химические соединения имеют углерод.
5. Физика тесно связана с химией.
Слово «it» в английском языке является многозначным, что влияет на его перевод.
|
Функция |
Перевод |
Пример |
|
Указательное местоимение |
Это |
What is it? |
|
Личное местоимение |
Он, она, оно |
Where is your book? It is here. |
|
Формальное подлежащее |
Не переводится |
It is warm. |
|
Часть усилительной |
Именно, лишь, только |
It is this law that he discovered. |
Слова «that» / «those» выполняют в английском языке различные функции.
|
Функции |
Перевод |
Пример |
|
Указательное местоимение |
То, те |
That was an important Those were important |
|
Указательное местоимение |
Тот, та, то, те |
That lecture is interesting. |
|
Заместитель существительного |
Существительное |
The price of tin is higher |
|
Часть усилительной конструкции |
Именно, лишь, |
It is this law that he |
|
Союз |
Который Что То, что (придаточное |
The problem that … We know that … That this theory … |
|
Оборот “that is” |
То есть |
That is a force is a push or a pull. |
Exercise 28. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the words “it”, “that / those”.
1. Study foreign languages, it is important to know them.
2. Mechanics is that branch of physics that deals with the laws of mechanical motion.
3. It was Newton who discovered the law of universal gravitation.
4. Those engineers graduated from our University five years ago.
5. That is the most interesting book that I have ever read.
6. At our University we study theoretical mechanics. It is the science of the common laws of mechanical motion and equilibrium of material bodies.
7. If we force electric current through water, it decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen.
8. It took Einstein many years to develop his theory.
9. The Earth’s radius is larger than that of the Moon.
10. It is interesting to note that the temperature does not change throughout the experiment.
11. That lecture will give much more information than any book.
12. We consider it important to know chemistry well.
13. It was this discovery that laid the foundation for a new science.
14. I know that there are a lot of new trends in modern science.
15. In 1898 the Curies obtained a new element whose radioactivity was several million times stronger than that of uranium.
16. It was Rutherford who discovered the atomic nucleus.
17. I am afraid that I am not qualified to answer this question.
18. It seems desirable to check this result.
19. It was not until 1880’s that Maxwell advanced the idea of the electromagnetic nature of light.
20. I am familiar with that problem. Many scientists are working on it.
21. We look forward to the meeting that will take place next week.
22. That those data fit our theory speaks in their favour.
23. The phenomena are identical with those mentioned above.
24. Dynamics considers the motion of bodies under the action of forces, that is, determines the forces that cause the motion and change it.
25. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the world, but it never occurs naturally in metallic state. It is difficult and expensive to set it free.
Exercise 29. Prefix the following infinitive phrase with suitable it-phrases listed below. Translate into Russian.
Example: ... to talk to him.
It was interesting to talk to him.
1. ... to answer all these questions.
2. ... to study physical phenomena.
3. ... to predict the behaviour of natural systems.
4. ... to use new methods.
5. ... to formulate laws.
6. ... to observe certain experimental conditions.
7. ... to process the data.
It-phrases: it was important; it is necessary; it will be (im)possible; it was useful/less; it is (un)desirable; it will be sufficient; it was essential.
Exercise 30. Prefix the following clauses with suitable it-phrases listed below. Translate into Russian.
Example: ... if/ whether there is another such possibility.
It is important to show if there is another such possibility.
1. ... if our results are valid.
2. ... whether they will discover some new phenomena.
3. ... if our efforts will lead to any results.
4. ... whether this condition is typical.
5. ... if they face the same difficulties.
6. ... whether these compounds are in definite relations.
7. ... if he criticized our plan.
It-phrases: it is interesting to know; it is curious to learn; it is important to show; it is necessary to clear up; it is possible to find out; it is impossible to foresee; it is useful to understand.
Exercise 31. Complete the sentences with infinitive phrases or object clauses introduced by if/whether.
Example: It is essential ...
It is essential to understand this physical law.
It is not clear ...
It is not clear whether this theory will hold true.
1. It is unclear ...
2. It was questionable ...
3. It will be doubtful ...
4. It is easy ...
5. It will be difficult ...
6. It was necessary ...
7. It is pleasant ...
8. It will be important ...
9. It was natural ...
10. It is surprising ...
Exercise 32. Use “it is/was ... who” to emphasize the subject. Translate into Russian.
Example: D.I. Mendeleev formulated the periodic law of chemical elements.
It was D.I. Mendeleev who formulated the periodic law of chemical elements.
1. W. Roengen discovered X-rays.
2. A. Einstein was the founder of the relativity theory.
3. I. Newton formulated the law of gravitation.
4. A. Popov invented the radio.
5. The Curies discovered radium.
Exercise 33. Speak about people who made substantial contribution to science. Begin your sentences with “It was ... who”.
Exercise 34. Use “it is/was ... that” to emphasize the subject, the object and the adverbial modifier in the following sentences.
А. The subject.
Example: This discovery laid the foundation for a new science.
It was this discovery that laid the foundation for a new science.
1. Mechanics deals with the laws of mechanical motion.
2. These ideas are basis of our approach.
3. Organic chemistry came into being only in the second part of the 19th century.
В. The object.
Example: We study the chemical aspect of the problem.
It is the chemical aspect of the problem that we study.
1. The results will depend on the accuracy of measurements.
2. Theoretical mechanics consists of three main parts.
3. Chemistry deals with the properties, composition and structure of substances.
С. The adverbial modifier.
Example: Dr. Sinclair works at Oxford University.
It is at Oxford University that Dr. Sinclair works.
1. In statics we investigate the conditions when the forces are in a state of equilibrium.
2. Mathematics is one of the most important subjects at technical colleges.
3. You will get better results by using the other method.
Exercise 35. Translate from Russian into English.
1. Что это? Это новый аппарат.
2. Химия очень древняя наука. Она изучает вещества и их видоизменения.
3. Вещества, которые состоят из двух или более элементов, – это соединения.
4. Трудна именно эта химическая реакция.
5. Ему потребовалось пять лет, чтобы изучить это явление.
6. Эти данные – более полные, чем данные других ученых.
7. Нет необходимости вдаваться в подробности.
8. Не кто иной, как Резерфорд, открыл ядро атома.
9. То, что этот ученый знает так много языков, говорит в его пользу.
10. Совершено ясно, что ваш эксперимент был успешным.
Слово «one» в английском языке является многозначным.
|
Функция |
Перевод |
Пример |
|
Числительное |
Один |
One method |
|
Заместитель |
Существительное |
This paper is better than that one |
|
Формальное |
Не переводится или: |
One can check the result |
Exercise 36. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the worlds “one/ones”.
1. We processed all the metals in one operation.
2. One never knows what his answer will be.
3. I haven’t got a dictionary. I will buy one.
4. In mechanics we define a force as an action which one body exerts upon another.
5. The previous exercises were easy but the ones which we are doing now are very difficult.
6. New York is one of the largest city in the world.
7. The second element which one needs to determine a force is its magnitude.
8. Metal is a good conductor of heat while wood is a bad one.
9. One can make a definite conclusion from these data.
10. In research one sometimes must use one’s intuition instead of knowledge.
Exercise 37. Answer these questions.
Example: Is chemistry a new or an old science?
It is not a new science. It is an old one.
1. Is force a muscular or mental effort?
2. Are space and time separable or inseparable from matter?
3. Did organic chemistry come into being in the first or second part of the 19th century?
4. Have Russian scientists made a small or tremendous contribution to physics?
5. Does organic chemistry deal with inorganic or organic substances?
Exercise 38. Express a similar idea with “one” in subject position.
Example: It is necessary to keep to the point.
One must keep to the point.
1. It is always possible to find a way out.
2. It is essential to observe certain experimental conditions.
3. It is important to make a conclusion from these data.
4. It is useless to do many things at a time.
5. It is unreasonable to put off this work.
Exercise 39. Add “it”, “there” or “one” in subject position.
1. … is difficult to speak English correctly, don’t you think?
2. … can apply the above principle without risk.
3. Are … any computers in your laboratory?
4. … was convenient to use this method.
5. … is a lot of information about this phenomenon in literature.
6. … commonly associates these temperature changes with molecular motion.
Exercise 40.
Rewrite the following paragraph using the word “one” in place of “you” and making other necessary changes.
Before the experiment you make all the necessary preparations: you check the instruments, choose the samples, etc. When you start the experiment, you take the readings constantly and write down the measurements regularly.
Exercise 41. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.
1. Следует помнить, что материя находится в постоянном движении.
2. Этот метод лучше, чем предыдущий.
3. Сила это действие, которое одно тело оказывает на другое.
4. Этот прибор не очень точный, я возьму другой.
5. Теоретическая механика – это один из наиболее важных предметов в техническом вузе.
6. Температуру измеряют термометром.
7. Мы изучили состав и структуру этих веществ в течение одного эксперимента.
8. Существуют два основных раздела химии: органическая и неорганическая.
9. Углерод – одно из самых распространенных веществ в природе.
10. Нужно выражать свои мысли в сжатой и ясной форме.
Degrees of Comparison of Adjectives
and Adverbs
Многие прилагательные и наречия в английском языке имеют степени сравнения, которые образуются по одним и тем же правилам.
|
Тип |
Степень |
||
|
Положительная |
Сравнительная |
Превосходная |
|
|
Односложные |
long large big easy early |
longer larger bigger easier earlier |
longest largest biggest easiest earliest |
|
Многосложные |
important |
more important |
most important |
|
slowly |
more slowly |
most slowly |
|
|
Исключения |
good well bad little many much far |
better better worse less more more farther (further) |
best best worst least most most farthest (furthest) |
Для сравнения качества предметов или явлений используются следующие конструкции.
|
Тип конструкции |
Пример |
|
|
as ... as |
This result |
is as good as that one. |
|
not so/as ... as |
This result |
is not so/as good as that one. |
|
than |
The result of the experiment is much better than that of the previous one |
|
|
the . . . the |
The more we study more we know. |
Exercise 42. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the degrees of comparison.
1. The most outstanding Russian scientists have made a tremendous contribution to physics.
2. This chemical element is more common than the other two.
3. These were the worst results in my research.
4. The Earth is no more than a speck in space.
5. It is the greatest technical achievement of our time.
6. This point of your report is less important than that one.
7. Theoretical mechanics helps scientists to solve the most complex problems.
8. All of the earlier hypotheses were quite unable to explain this phenomenon.
9. It is one of the best methods at present.
10. Another hypothesis supposed that the sun had once been larger and hotter than now.
11. Computers are the most reliable machines for making calculations.
12. This catastrophe is of greater academic than practical interest to us.
13. It is the least possible explanation of the results.
Exercise 43. Change the positive statement into negative and vice versa using “as … as” or “not so/as … as”.
1. This interpretation is as good as the other one.
2. Our studies are not so fruitful as theirs.
3. My interest in this subject is as academic as yours.
4. His understanding of the problem is not so profound as hers.
5. This method is not so practical as that one.
Exercise 44. Make sentences with the adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree and “than”.
1. Sorry I am late. It took me … to get here … I expected (long).
2. The problem is not so complicated. It is … you think (simple).
3. Your English has improved. You speak much … you did when we last met (fluently).
4. This method is … that one (practicable).
5. He has … scientific training … his collegues (good).
Exercise 45. Add “than”, “then” or “that”. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The atomic weight of sulphur is twice as large as … of oxygen.
2. This apparatus is less sensible … … one.
3. In ancient times people believed … the Earth was flat.
4. He was a student … .
5. It is this side reaction … is difficult.
6. Easier said … done.
7. We took a bus to the city centre and … caught a train to London.
8. This method seems more suitable … … used in such experiments.
9. It is another characteristic feature of the device … the two valves open simultaneously.
10. I have the impression … our latest results are rather questionable.
Exercise 46. Complete the following sentences to make “the … the” type of comparative construction. Translate the sentences into Russia.
1. The better the experimental technique …
2. The shorter is the distance …
3. The clearer the definition of a phenomenon …
4. The more complicated is the problem …
5. The smaller is the experimental error …
6. The less we know …
7. The narrower the research problem …
8. The more accurate the calculations …
The Four Basic Forms of the Verb
Английский глагол имеет 4 основные формы, которые в сочетании с вспомогательными глаголами образуют систему времен действительного и страдательного залога.
|
Основные формы |
Соответствующие |
Характерные |
Правильные глаголы |
Русские |
Неправильные глаголы |
Русские |
|
Infinitive |
Инфини-тив |
“to”: –ть, –ти |
to play |
играть |
to write |
писать |
|
Past |
Прошед-шее время |
правильный неправильный |
play-ed |
играл |
wrote |
писал |
|
Participle |
Причастие прошедшего времени |
-ed : -енн- -анн-/-янн- -т- |
play -ed |
сыгранный |
written |
написанный |
|
Participle |
Причастие настоящего времени |
-ing: -ащ-/-ящ- ущ-/ -ющ- |
play-ing |
играющий |
writ-ing |
пишущий |
___________
/E/ – English; /P/ – Русский.
Ниже приведена таблица оразование видовременных форм глагола (схема формальных признаков сказуемого).
|
Tense |
Active Voice |
Passive Voice |
||||
|
Present |
Past |
Future |
Present |
Past |
Future |
|
|
Simple |
V1 V1 (e)s |
V2 |
Shall V1 Will |
Am Is V3 Are |
Was V3 Were |
Shall be V3 Will |
|
Continuous |
Am Is V4 Are |
Was V4 Were |
Shall be V4 Will |
Am Is being V3 Are |
Was being V3 Were |
– |
|
Perfect |
Have V3 Has |
Had V3 |
Shall have V3 Will |
Have been V3 Has |
Had been V3 |
Shall have been V3 Will |
|
Perfect Continuous |
Have been V4 Has |
Had been V4 |
Shall have been V4 Will |
– |
– |
– |
___________
V1 V2 V3 V4 – основные формы глаголов.
При согласовании времен в функции вспомогательных глаголов употребляются формы прошедшего времени от shall и will – should и would.
Exercise 47. Translate the following sentences from English into Russian paying attention to the tense of the predicates.
1. The sun is running down and in some billions of years will become a cold dead body in space.
2. The molecule is the smallest particle of matter which still retains the identity of the original substance.
3. People have already used different units of measurements in ancient times.
4. A liquid body does not possess a constant shape.
Сводная таблица употребления времен (изъявительное наклонение)
часть 1
|
Active Voice to ask |
|||||
|
Simple |
Continuous |
||||
|
to ask (V1) / asked (V2) |
to be asking (V4) |
||||
|
Present |
Past |
Future |
Present |
Past |
Future |
|
ask(s) do/does |
asked did |
shall ask will |
am is asking are |
was asking were |
shall be asking will |
|
Употребление |
|||||
|
Дйствие как факт (обычное, |
Действие как процесс |
||||
|
usually every day often seldom sometimes |
yesterday last week 5 days ago |
tomorrow next week |
now |
at 4 o’clock, from 6 o’clock till 7 o’clock другое действие |
|
|
Перевод |
|||||
|
Глагол несовершенного/совершенного вида: что делаю, что делал, что сделал, что буду делать, что сделаю? |
Глагол несовершенного вида: что делаю, делал, буду делать? |
||||
|
Passive Voice to be asked (V3) |
|||||
|
to be asked (V3) |
to be being asked (V3) |
||||
|
am is asked are |
was asked were |
shall be asked will |
am is being asked are |
was being asked were |
– |
Сводная таблица употребления времен (изъявительное наклонение)
часть 2
|
Active Voice to ask |
|||||
|
Perfect |
Perfect Continuous |
||||
|
To have asked (V3) |
to have been asking (V4) |
||||
|
Present |
Past |
Future |
Present |
Past |
Future |
|
have asked has |
had asked |
shall have asked will |
have been asking has |
had been asking |
shall have been asking will |
|
Употребление |
|||||
|
Действие, предшествующее какому-то моменту, связанное с ним |
Действие, начавшееся в прошлом и продолжающееся вплоть до какого-нибудь момента |
||||
|
today this week already ever, never just, not yet |
by 4 o’clock другое действие |
for – в течение since – с (ever) since – с тех пор как |
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|
Перевод |
|||||
|
Глагол совершенного вида |
Глагол несовершенного вида что делаю, что делал, что буду делать? |
||||
|
прошедшего что сделал? |
что сделаю? |
||||
|
Passive Voice to be asked (V3) |
|||||
|
to have been asked (V3) |
– |
||||
|
have been asked has |
had been asked |
shall have been asked will |
– |
5. Discoveries in physics resulted in the appearance of artificial earth satellites and spaceships.
6. We are now looking for an optimal solution, since there is a choice.
7. «E» stands for the work which we have done in lifting the body from the given level.
8. These materials were burning and emitting heat.
9. Nowadays it has become evident that neither of these hypotheses turned out to be true.
10. Dynamics considers the motion of bodies under the action of forces.
11. How long had you been studying English before you went to England?
12. I know that she was teaching chemistry last year.
13. They will obtain the desired information due to an additional series of experiments.
14. All branches of physics are expanding very rapidly now.
15. When I got to the meeting, the lecturer had already been speaking for half an hour.
16. The force of gravity affects everything around us.
17. I have been using this dictionary since I began to learn English.
18. About one-fifth of the air consists of oxygen.
19. Dr. Green will have written a scientific paper by the end of the week.
20. How long has he been studying this phenomenon?
21. Have you read much scientific literature lately?
22. We have been discussing this problem for three hours.
23. What have you read in English this year?
24. How long will you have been working at this laboratory by the 1st of June?
25. Computers have found wide applications in science and tech-nology.
Exercise 48. Describe the same habitual or repeated actions in the Past Simple Tense.
1. We often meet at international conferences.
2. This researcher always deals with interesting problems.
3. I generally begin my paper with a review of data.
4. Professor Smith puts forward a new interpretation of this phenomenon.
5. I seldom see him in the morning.
6. You always give a thorough analysis of his results.
7. His colleagues hold their meetings at the laboratory.
8. Dr. White writes formulas on the blackboard.
9. Motion takes place in space and time.
10. He usually keeps his word.
11. We make an attempt to interpret the results.
12. I have much troubles with my experiments.
13. Dr. Brown does some research at our laboratory.
14. This student often reads for his exams in the library.
15. He always speaks slowly.
Exercise 49. Open the brackets. Use the Past Simple or Present Perfect Tenses. Translate into Russian.
1. He (to give) his first lecture in physics in 1988. He (to become) a brilliant lecturer since.
2. We first (to observe) this effect in 1992. We (to make) good progress in studying it since.
3. I (to come) to work at this university in 1999. I (to publish) eight papers since.
4. Last time he (to visit) one of the laboratories at Princeton University. He recently (to collect) interesting data there.
Exercise 50. Confirm the following statements by reference to the exact time in the Past. Translate into Russian.
Example: You have read this article, haven’t you?
Yes, I read it last week.
1. He has recently written a scientific paper, hasn’t he?
2. You have met Dr. Green, haven’t you?
3. Some of them have been to this country, haven’t they?
4. His book on this problem has lately come out, hasn’t it?
5. You have had much practice with native English speakers, haven’t you?
Exercise 51. Use the Future Simple Tense or the expression “to be going to” of the verbs in brackets. Translate into Russian.
1. I (to start) my paper with the statement of the problem.
2. My paper (to consist) of several sections: an introduction, discussion of the materials and methods, consideration of the experimental results and conclusions.
3. In the introduction I (to outline) the present state of research in the field of chemistry.
4. Discussion of the methods (not to take) much space because most of them are standard.
5. Consideration of the new results (to require) a thorough analysis.
6. In the conclusion I (to discuss) possible applications of the obtained results.
Exercise 52. Choose the correct form of the verb given in brackets. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. (Do/does/did) you attend any scientific conference last year?
2. Semiconductors (possess/possesses) valuable properties.
3. What (is/are) your plans for the coming years?
4. Einstein’s first paper on the relativity theory (come/came) out in 1905.
5. What (was/will be) the subject of your next seminar talk?
6. We (have attempted/ attempted) recently a study of the feed-back mechanism.
7. (Did/have) you ever (visit/visited) other research laboratories?
8. He (give/gave) me some good advice.
9. The reaction (was/were) running smoothly.
Exercise 53. Choose the correct form of the adverbial modifier given in brackets. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. We made measurements (now/last week).
2. The researcher is (now/lately) facing a difficult dilemma.
3. What well-known scientists have you met (in a year/recently)?
4. (Next time/ last time) Dr. Smith described his new experimental technique.
5. Have you had any practice in English (a year ago/ lately)?
Exercise 54. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.
1. В настоящее время ЭВМ находят широкое применение в науке и производстве.
2. Некоторые химические элементы не были известны во времена Менделеева, но он предвидел их открытие.
3. Что вы собираетесь делать в недалеком будущем?
4. Недавно мы купили книгу по проблемам механики.
5. Я планирую вскоре закончить эту работу.
6. Он использует данную методику с тех пор, как начал изучать эти явления.
7. Он сказал, что человек впервые начал обрабатывать металлы много веков назад.
8. Я уже изучаю английский язык в течение пяти лет.
9. Мы окончим эксперимент к среде.
10. Я надеюсь, что они получат желаемые результаты.
Modal Verbs and their Equivalents
В отличие от других глаголов, модальные глаголы (Model Verbs) не обозначают действие или состояние, а лишь отношение говорящего к действию, выраженному инфинитивом. В сочетании с этим инфинитивом модальный глагол образует сложное глагольное модальное сказуемое.
Помимо особого значения, модальные глаголы отличаются от других глаголов еще рядом особенностей.
1. За исключением глаголов can (could) и may (might) модальные глаголы имеют только одну форму. Недостающие формы прошедшего и будущего времени восполняются эквивалентами модальных глаголов: can = to be able (to), may = to be allowed (to) / to be permitted (to), must = to have (to) / to be (to).
2. Инфинитив смыслового глагола, следующий за модальными глаголами (за исключением глагола ought), употребляется без частицы to.
3. В вопросительных и отрицательных предложениях модальные глаголы употребляются без вспомогательного глагола (кроме have to). В вопросительном предложении перед подлежащим ставится сам модальный глагол, в отрицательном предложении not присоединяется к модальному глаголу.
Can I take your book?
You should not talk at the lecture.
Модальные глаголы имеют две отрицательные формы: полную и краткую:
must not – mustn’t
may not – mayn’t
cannot* – can’t
Отрицательная частица пишется слитно.
Модальные глаголы не изменяются по лицам и числам и не имеют окончания (e)s в 3-м лице единственного числа в Present Simple Active.
У модальных глаголов нет неличных форм – инфинитива, причастия и герундия, а следовательно, нет и аналитических видовременных форм.
Ниже приведена таблица наиболее распространенных модальных глаголов: can, may, must, should, ought (to).
|
Вид |
Модаль- эквивалент |
Время |
||
|
Настоящее |
Прошедшее |
Будущее |
||
|
Возмож-ность |
can = to be may = = to be |
can am is able to are may am is allowed to are am is permitted to are |
could was able to were might was allowed to were was permitted to were |
shall be able to will shall be al lowed to shall be permit |
|
Должест-вование |
must to have (to) to be (to) должен (по плану) should =ought to должен, следует |
must have to has to am to is to are to should ought to |
had to was to were to – |
shall have to will – – |
Exercise 55. Make these sentences interrogative and negative and translate them into Russian.
1. Some substances can conduct electricity well.
2. We must subject the material to special treatment.
3. You should use another approach.
4. They have to change the plan for the experiment.
5. The researcher is able to describe the aim of his investigation.
6. We are to complete the work by next year.
7. He may take part in this discussion.
8. You ought to be more careful.
9. We are allowed to use the new device.
10. He has to stay late at the laboratory.
Exercise 56. Change the following sentences into the past and future tenses using the equivalents where necessary. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. Can you realize all the difficulty of the problem?
2. The head engineer is to make a report.
3. You may use my computer.
4. He must repeat the experiment.
5. You have to answer my question.
6. We are not able to find an error in the calculations.
7. Students are not allowed to miss the seminars.
8. The samples are to be analysed.
9. I must change my plans.
10. The method is not to be recommended.
Вторичное значение модальных глаголов
Кроме своих первичных значений все вышеперечисленные модальные глаголы можно использовать для выражения степени возможности или вероятности совершения действия.
|
Подлежащее |
Модаль-ный |
Инфинитив |
Степень |
Наречие |
|
might |
very uncertain |
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|
may |
maybe |
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|
could |
perhaps |
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|
you |
cannot |
be right/have been right |
possibly |
|
|
should |
more certain |
|||
|
оught to |
probably |
|||
|
you |
are/were right |
certain |
absolutely |
____________
Перевод: (не) может, возможно, вероятно, наверно, должно быть.
Перфектный инфинитив после модального глагола всегда переводится глаголом прошедшего времени.
1. I may have said it.
2. Я, может быть, и говорил это.
Exercise 57. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the secondary function of the modal verbs.
1. These particles may move in one direction.
2. There should be several decisions.
3. The reaction may have been accompanied by acid formation.
4. He must have finished his experiment.
5. He ought to be working in the laboratory now.
6. We might put off this work.
7. It can’t be true.
8. He could reply by the weekend.
9. This substance might be an insulator or a conductor.
10. They cannot have reached the same level of development.
Exercise 58. Translate the sentences into Russian. Express the same idea using the model verbs.
1. Some substances are capable of reacting without heat.
2. It is necessary for the laboratory assistant to check the instruments.
3. Repeat the experiment.
4. It is possible that the reaction occurs spontaneously.
5. Perhaps heating does not produce this effect.
6. Don’t forget to switch off the gauge.
7. It is unnecessary for him to stay late at the lab.
8. It is important to keep this fact in mind.
9. It is impossible that you have read this book. I haven’t published it yet.
10. That was probably a long time ago.
Exercise 59. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English.
1. Вам следует использовать современное оборудование.
2. Исследователь должен был закончить серию экспериментов к концу декабря.
3. Можно мне воспользоваться вашим компьютером?
4. Студент должен найти ошибку в своих вычислениях.
5. Лекция должно быть закончилась.
6. Не может быть, чтобы он использовал этот метод.
7. Вы не можете воспользоваться этим оборудованием.
8. Он может выполнить это исследование?
9. Вы должны ответить на мой вопрос.
10. Конференция должна начаться вовремя.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
Значение действительного и страдательного залогов в английском языке совпадает со значением соответствующих залогов в русском языке. Глагол в действительном залоге (Active Voice) показывает, что действие совершает само лицо или предмет, выраженный подлежащим.
He often asks questions.
Он часто задает вопросы.
Глагол в страдательном залоге (Passive Voice) означает, что действие направлено на лицо или предмет, выраженный подлежащим.
He is often asked questions.
Ему часто задают вопросы.
Страдательный залог образуется с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующей форме и Participle II (V3) смыслового глагола.
|
Aspect |
Tense |
|||
|
Present |
Past |
Future |
Future-in-the-past |
|
|
Simple |
Am Is V3 Are |
Was V3 Were |
Shall be V3 Will |
Should be V3 Would |
|
Continuous |
Am Is being V3 Are |
Was being V3 Were |
– |
– |
|
Perfect |
Have been V3 Has |
Had been V3 |
Shall have been V3 Will |
Should have been V3 Would |
|
Perfect |
– |
– |
– |
– |
При образовании вопросительной формы глагол ставится перед подлежащим. В отрицательной форме отрицание следует за первым вспомогательным глаголом.
|
|
A new |
has |
been |
developed. |
|
Has |
a new technique |
been |
developed? |
|
|
A new |
has not |
been |
developed. |
Любой английский глагол, принимающий после себя дополнение (прямое, косвенное беспредложное/предложное), может употребляться в страдательном залоге. Поэтому, в отличие от русского языка, не только прямое дополнение предложения в активной форме, но и косвенное (беспредложное/предложное) дополнение может стать подлежащим предложения в пассивной форме.
|
Действительный залог |
Страдательный залог |
Перевод |
|
I read the book. |
The book is read (by me). |
Книга читается. Книгу читают. |
|
He gave me a book. |
I was given a book. |
Мне дали книгу. |
|
We speak much about it. |
It is much spoken about. |
Об этом много |
Подлежащее при сказуемом в страдательном залоге переводится существительным (местоимением) не только в именительном, но и в косвенном падеже (с предлогом или без).
Способы перевода сказуемого в страдательном залоге
1. Глаголом «быть» и кратким страдательным причастием с суффиксом -н или -т, т.е. русским страдательным залогом.
2. Глаголом, оканчивающимся на «-ся», «-сь» в соответствующем времени, лице и числе.
3. Глаголом действительного залога в соответствующем времени, 3-м лице мн. числа, являющимся частью неопределенно-личного предложения.
4. Глаголом действительного залога в соответствующем времени при наличии дополнения с предлогом “by” или “with”.
The experiments were made last year (by dr. N).
1. Опыты (были) проведены в прошлом году.
2. Опыты проводились в прошлом году.
3. Опыты проводили в прошлом году.
4. Доктор N провел опыты в прошлом году.
Exercise 60. Find the predicate, define its tense form and voice and translate the sentences into Russian. Make the sentences interrogative or negative.
1. The results of the experiment are shown in Fig. 12.
2. Numerous classifications have been used.
3. A more careful approach is needed.
4. A unit or an aggregate of units is termed a whole number.
5. Information on the volume of reservoir was required.
6. The large disagreement between the various published data will be discussed.
7. English is spoken in many countries.
8. The text is being translated at the moment.
9. The conference will be held in May.
10. The experiment was being carried out from ten till twelve.
11. The growth law of population is determined by a number of parameters.
12. Great economic losses were caused by corrosion of iron.
13. Many shops are equipped with automatic machinery.
14. This method has been reported by several investigators.
15. Last year this laboratory was supplied with modern equipment.
16. Water is removed from the solution as fast as it is formed.
17. The positive particle in the nucleus of the atom was given the name of “proton”.
18. The electrodes are spaced two inches apart.
19. This apparatus is being used for recording the temperature.
20. The theoretical aspects of the phenomenon will be treated later.
Особенности перевода страдательного залога
1. Предлог, стоящий после глагола в страдательном залоге и не относящийся к следующим за ним словам, при переводе ставится перед тем словом, которое в английском предложении является подлежащим.
This phenonomenon is often spoken about.
Об этом явлении часто говорят.
Запомните значения следующих глаголов с предлогами:
Agree on/upon – договориться о
Agree to/with – соглашаться с
Arrive at - приходить к (заключению)
Call for/on – заходить за (кем-либо, чем-либо), призывать к
Deal with – иметь дело с
Depart from – отклоняться от
Do away with – покончить с, отказаться от
Fight for – сражаться за, бороться за
Hear about/of – слышать (узнать) о
Insist on/upon – настаивать на
Interfere in – вмешиваться в
Laugh at – смеяться над
Look after – ухаживать за, заботиться о
Look at – смотреть на
Refer to – ссылаться на
Rely on/upon – полагаться на
Send for – посылать за
Speak, talk about/of/on – говорить о
Speak, talk to – говорить с
Think about/of – думать о
Write about/of/on – писать о
Exercise 61. Pay attention to the translation of the verb with the preposition.
1. At last the agreement was arrived at.
2. This theory is much spoken about.
3. The experiment has been written about in the text-book.
4. This date will be insisted on.
5. The terms were agreed upon.
6. The matter was referred to.
7. Many old traditions are not easily done away with.
8. Many materials now in common use were not even thought of thirty years ago.
9. These changes will be dealt with more fully in the next chapter.
10. These data are relied upon.
11. The documents will be sent for at once.
12. The contract for energy supply was fought for.
13. Our product is heard of in many foreign countries.
14. These devices are well looked after.
15. His strange idea was laughed at.
2. Некоторым английским глаголам без предлога в русском языке соответствуют глаголы с предлогом. При переводе предлог также ставится перед словом, которое в английском предложении является подлежащим.
The question was answered.
На вопрос ответили.
Запомните значения следующих глаголов.
Address – обращаться к
Affect – влиять, воздействовать на
Answer – отвечать на
Approach – подходить, обращаться к
Attend – присутствовать на
Consult – советоваться с, обращаться к
Follow – следовать за
Influence – влиять на
Join – присоединяться к
Speak – говорить на
Succeed – следовать за
Watch – следить за
Exercise 62. Pay attention to the translation of the verb in the Passive Voice.
1. Copper is affected by moisture.
2. The rate of a reaction was influenced by many factors.
3. The symposium will be attended by many scientists.
4. The first discovery was succeeded by many others.
5. English is spoken all over the world.
6. The nature of the process will be discussed first and this will be followed by an interpretation of several facts.
7. The problem was approached by many researchers.
8. In this case the reference book is consulted.
9. The development of affairs was watched.
10. The meeting will be addressed by Mr. Green.
3. Некоторым английским глаголам с предлогом в русском языке соответствуют глаголы без предлога. При переводе английские предлоги опускаются.
Some properties of metals are commented on in this chapter.
В этой главе обсуждаются некоторые свойства металлов.
Запомните значения следующих глаголов:
Account for – объяснять, являться причиной
Bring about – вызывать, осуществлять
Carry on – продолжать(-ся)
Carry out – выполнять, осуществлять
Comment on/upon – комментировать, объяснять
Interfere with – мешать, вредить, надоедать
Listen to – слушать
Look on/upon – рассматривать, считать
Refer to as – называть(-ся)
Subject to – подвергать (действию, влиянию)
Touch on/upon – затрагивать, касаться
Exercise 63. Pay attention to the translation of the verb in the Passi??????????
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?????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????v?????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????δ-electrons, so the former are commonly referred to as mobile electrons.
8. Professor N’s lecture was listened to attentively.
9. It is good when your work is not interfered with your family duties.
4. Особенности перевода страдательного залога в устойчивых глагольных сочетаниях.
Такие сочетания представляют собой смысловое единство и при переводе на русский язык обычно передаются или соответствующим глаголом, или эквивалентным сочетанием глагола с существительным. Например: make an attempt- – пытаться, делать попытку.
Запомните значения следующих глагольных сочетаний:
Exercise influence on – оказывать влияние на
Give/Pay attention to – уделять внимание
Give consideration to – рассматривать
Make an attempt – делать попытку, пытаться
Make an effort – делать усилие, стараться
Make mention of – упоминать о
Make reference to – упоминать о, ссылаться на
Make use of – использовать
Put an end to – положить конец, закончить
Take advantage of – воспользоваться
Take care of – заботиться, учитывать
Take note/notice of – обращать внимание
Exercise 64. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the verbal phraseological units.
1. The discussion was put an end to by his sudden arrival.
2. His remarks were taken no notice of.
3. Use is made of a simple mod??????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????l?????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?
Сказуемое в страдательном залоге при формальном подлежащем “it” переводится неопределенно-личным (3 лицо, мн. число) или безличным предложением.
It was thought ... – Думали, полагали…
It is known ... – Известно…
Exercise 65. Translate the following senten???????????????????????????????????b???????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?
Предложения с сочетаниями «модальный глагол + инфинитив страдательного глагола» переводятся со словами можно, нужно, следует и др.:
The problem must be solved.
Эту проблему нужно решить.
Exercise 66. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying ????n?????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????n??????
?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s??????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????m??????????????
?
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????e) for a long time.
3. Further work on this problem (to need).
4. These data (to publish) soon.
5. This phenomenon (to describe) in literature.
6. These solutions (to treat) with water.
Exercise 69. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. На результаты данного эксперимента можно положиться.
2. Об этой проблеме много говорят.
3. Исследование было продолжено.
4. Его доклад прослушали с большим вниманием.
5. С этими выводами нельзя согласиться.
6. Нужно отказаться от этой идеи.
7. На этот вопрос можно ответить с трудом.
8. За докладом последовала жаркая дискуссия.
9. Этому явлению уделяют много внимания.
10. На заряженные частицы влияют электрические поля.
Глаголы «to be, to have, to do» в английском языке являются многофункциональными, что влияет на их перевод.
|
Глагол |
Функция |
Пример |
|
To be |
Смысловой глагол Перевод: а) быть, находиться; б) не переводится |
Our university is at a kilometre’s distance from the centre of the city. Наш университет находится на расстоянии одного километра от центра города. |
|
Глагол-связка Перевод: а) не переводится; б) состоит в том, чтобы; |
This equation is correct. Это уравнение правильно. The aim of the investigation is to acqure new data on chemistry. Цель данного исследования –(состоит в том, чтобы) найти новые данные по химии |
|
|
Вспомогательный глагол. а) be + V4 (времена группы Continuous) Перевод: не переводится б) be + V3 (страдательный залог) Перевод: не переводится |
The reaction was running smoothly. Реакция шла гладко. Oxidation was carried out in two hours. Окисление было проведено за два часа. |
|
|
Модальный глагол - be + to V1 Перевод: должен, надо (по плану, по договоренности) |
We are to find these starting substances. Нам надо получить эти исходные вещества. |
|
Глагол |
Функция |
Пример |
|
To have |
Смысловой глагол Перевод: иметь |
These compounds have several advantages. Эти соединения имеют ряд преимуществ. |
|
Вспомогательный глагол have + V3 (время группы Perfect) Перевод: не переводится |
Computers have found wide application in science and technology. Компьютеры нашли (находят) широкое применение в науке и технике. |
|
|
Модальный глагол have + to V1 Перевод: должен, обязан |
The scientist had to stop his experiment. Ученый должен был прекратить эксперимент. |
|
|
To do |
Смысловой глагол Перевод: делать (выполнять) |
I do independent research. Я выполняю самостоятельное научное исследование. |
|
Вспомогательный глагол do/does/did ... V1? do/does/did not V1. (в вопросительных и отрицательных предложениях в Present и Past Simple) Перевод: не переводится |
The pressure does not lower. Давление не понижается. |
|
|
Заместитель ранее упомянутого глагола Перевод: а) переводится этим глаголом б) опускается при переводе |
Sugar dissolves in water. Сахар растворяется в воде. Поваренная соль тоже (растворяется в воде). |
|
|
Усиление do/does/did + V1 Перевод: действительно, фактически, на самом деле, все же. |
Experiments show that the starting products do contain impurities. Опыты показывают, что |
Сводная таблица функций и значений глаголов
“to be”, “to have”, “to do”
|
Функции |
Значения глагола |
||
|
To be |
To have |
To do |
|
|
Смысловой |
Быть |
Иметь |
Делать |
|
Вспомогательный |
Не переводится |
Не переводится |
Не переводится |
|
Модальный |
Должен |
Должен |
– |
|
Глагол-связка |
Есть/не переводится |
– |
– |
|
Заместитель |
– |
– |
Этим глаголом / не переводится |
|
Усилитель |
– |
– |
Действительно / на самом деле |
Exercise 70. Define the function of the verb “to do”. Translate the sentences into Russian.
1. The pressure changed, so did the temperature.
2. The pressure did not change, not did the temperature.
3. This substance do????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????
?
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????
?
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????n?????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?
Exercise 73. Define the functions of the verbs “to be”, “to have”, “to do”. ??????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????
4. ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s??????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????a??????
?
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????r??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????e??????????l?????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????a????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????
?
Subordinate Clauses
Сложноподчиненное предложение состоит из главного предложения (The Principal Clause) и одного или нескольких придаточных (The Subordinate Clause), поясняющих главное предложение. Придаточные предложения выполняют в сложном предложении роль различных членов предложения: подлежащего, сказуемого, дополнения, определения, обстоятельства и подразделяются соответственно на придаточные подлежащие, сказуемые, дополнительные, определительные обстоятельственные. Тип придаточного определяется по его месту в предложении (точно так же, как определяются члены простого предложения).
Обстоятельство Подлежащее Сказуемое Дополнение Обстоятельство
П1 С1 П1 С1 П1 С1 П1 С1 П1 С1
Придаточное определительное
Существительное – П1 С1
Придаточное подлежащее предложение находится в начале сложноподчиненного предложения перед сказуемым главного предложения; придаточное сказуемое – после глагола-связки «to be»; придаточное дополнительное – после сказуемого главного предложения; придаточное определительное – после существительного; придаточное обстоятельственное – в начале предложения (перед подлежащим главного предложения) или в конце предложения (после подлежащего и сказуемого главного предложения).
Союзы и союзные слова являются «сигналами» союзных придаточных предложений, они многозначны и для их правильного перевода следует вначале определить тип придаточного предложения (по месту).
Союзные слова (who, what, which, when, where и т. д.) отличаются от союзов тем, что они не только соединяют придаточные предложения с главным, но и являются членами этого предложения.
Here is the book which we have spoken about. (союз)
He touched upon the problem which interests all of us. (союзное слово)
Типы придаточных предложений и союзы (союзные слова),
которыми они вводятся
|
Тип |
Союзы или союзное |
Пример |
|
Придаточное подлежащее |
that, if, whether who, what, which when, where, how, why |
Who can do it is not known. |
|
Придаточные сказуемое |
The question is if (whether) he will come. |
|
|
Придаточное дополнительное |
He said (that) he had done it. |
|
|
Придаточное определительное |
who(m), whose, which, that when, where, how, why |
Here is the book (which/that) we have spoken about. |
|
Придаточное обстоятельственное: |
when, while, before, after, till (until), as, as long as, as soon as, since |
She will do it when she returns. |
|
времени |
||
|
места |
where, wherever |
This plant grows where the others couldn’t. |
Окончание табл.
|
Тип |
Союзы или союзное |
Пример |
|
причины |
because, since, as, for |
As it was raining, we stayed at home. |
|
цели |
that, in order that, so that, lest |
She must hurry lest she (should) be late. |
|
условия |
if, unless, provided/ providing (that), suppose/ supposing (that), in case, on condition (that) |
I shall do this work if I have time. |
|
уступительные |
(al)though |
Though he was very young, he was a good researcher. |
Exercise 75. Define the subordinate clauses in the following sentences. Translate????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????a???????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????n?????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????p????????????????i??????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s?????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????c??????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i?????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????f???????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????o???????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i?????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????e??????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Sequence of Tenses
Правило согласования времен действует в придаточных дополнительных предложениях и состоит в следующем:
время глагола придаточного предложения строго зависит от времени глагола главного предложения.
1. Если глагол главного предложения стоит в одной из форм настоящего или будущего времени, то глагол придаточного предложения может стоять в любом времени, которое требуется по смыслу:
одновременное he is working
действие he works (работает)
He says ––– предшествующее he worked
действие he was working (работал)
будущее he will be working
действие he will work (будет работать)
2. Если глагол главного предложения стоит в одной из форм прошедшего времени, то глагол придаточного предложения обязательно стоит в форме прошедшего времени:
одновременное he was working
действие he worked (работает)
He said ––– предшествующее he had worked
действие he had been working (работал)
будущее he would be working
действие he would work (будет работать)
Exercise 77. Tr??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????v?????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????n?????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????ould be irreversible.
Аsyndetic subordinate clauses
Бессоюзные придаточные предложения бывают трех типов: дополнительные, определительные и обстоятельственные условные. Это значит, что союзы перед этими придаточными предложениями могут опускаться, но на русский язык данные предложения переводятся с соответствующими союзами.
1. Придаточное дополнительное (стоит после сказуемого)
П С П1 С1
I think (that) I have made a mistake.
2. Придаточное определительное (стоит после существительного).
Существительное П1 С1
The facts (that) the scientist had observed led him to important conclusions.
3. Придаточное обстоятельственное условное (стоит в начале или в конце предложения).
А) П1 С1 П С
Were the computer in order, we should use it for making calculations.
B) П С П1 С1
We should use the computer for making calculations were it in order.
Exercise 78. Translate the sentences paying attention to asyndetic su????i??????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????e???????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
|
1 |
??????????????????? |
????????????????????????s?????? |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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2 |
???????????????? |
?????????????????????????????????????????i????? |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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3 |
???????????????????????????????????????????b?????? |
??????????????????????????????? |
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4 |
???????????????????????????????????????????????? |
????????????????????????b??????????????????????????????t????? |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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5 |
???????????????????????????e?????? |
???????????????????????????????????????e??????? |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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6 |
?????????????????????????????????????????? |
???????????????????????????n????????????????? |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
7 |
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????b?????????? |
??????????????????????????????????????????i?????? |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
8 |
???????????????????????????n??????????????? |
???????????????????????????????????i???????? |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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9 |
??????????????????????????b??????????????r?????????????????????????????? |
??????????????????????? |
|
Слово |
Союз |
Предлог |
Наречие / сущест- |
|
After |
После того как |
За, после |
После, потом, |
|
As |
Когда, по мере того как, так как, поскольку, чтобы |
– |
Как (в качестве), |
|
Because (of) |
Потому что, |
Из-за, вследствие |
– |
|
Before |
До того как, перед тем как |
Перед, до, раньше |
Раньше, прежде |
|
For |
Ибо, так как, |
Для, в течение, чтобы |
– |
|
Once |
Если, как только |
– |
Однажды |
|
Since |
Так как, поскольку, с тех пор как |
С, после |
С тех пор |
|
Till/until |
(До тех пор) |
Вплоть до |
– |
|
While |
Хотя, пока, в то время как |
– |
Период времени –for a while |
Exercise 81. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the underlined words.
1. All electric charges appear because of accumulation of electrons.
2.????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????b??????
?????????????????????????????????????????o???????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????b?????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????i???????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????c??????
????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????r????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????e mixture burns, high pressure is created.
19. The automobile uses gasoline as a fuel.
20. Both layers gradually disappear, for the ammonia evaporates.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Сослагательное наклонение употребляется для выражения действий предполагаемых, возможных или желательных и имеет две группы форм: аналитические и синтетические.
|
Сослагательное наклонение |
|||
|
Аналитические формы |
Синтетические формы |
||
|
настоящее будущее |
прошедшее |
настоящее будущее |
прошедшее |
|
should would ask (V1) might could |
should would have asked (V3) might could |
ask/be (V1) asked/were (V2) |
had asked (V3) had been (V3) |
Окончание табл.
|
Употребление: сказуемое |
|
|
В простых и главных предложениях He would rather go by car. I should ask He would have asked |
В простых и условных придаточных предложениях Success attend you. if I were there. if he had been there. |
|
В трех типах придаточных предложений: 1) подлежащих (it is necessary, it is desirable, it is possible, etc): It is necessary that he (should) do it. 2) дополнительных (to order, to demand, to suggest, to recommend, etc) He demanded that we (should) do it. 3) цели (so that, lest) She must hurry lest she (should) be late. |
|
|
После глагола wish I wish he would be / were a manager. |
|
|
Перевод: глаголами прошедшего времени + бы |
Аналитические формы представляют собой сочетание вспомогательных глаголов should или would, а также модальных глаголов could и might, с инфинитивом смыслового глагола без частицы «to». Для выражения действий в настоящем и будущем времени употребляется Indefinite Infinitive, для выражения действия в прошлом – Perfect Infinitive.
Синтетические формы в Present Subjunctive всех глаголов во всех лицах единственного и множественного числа совпадают по форме с инфинитивом без частицы “to”. Синтетические формы в Past Subjunctive всех глаголов (кроме глагола «to be») совпадают по форме во всех лицах единственного и множественного числа с Past Indefinite изъявительного наклонения и только Past Subjunctive глагола “to be” имеет форму «were» для всех лиц единственного и множественного числа. Past Perfect Subjunctive всех глаголов совпадает по форме с Past Perfect изъявительного наклонения.
Все формы сослагательного наклонения переводятся на русский язык глаголами прошедшего времени с частицей «бы».
Употребление сослагательного наклонения
Как аналитические, так и синтетические формы могут употребляться в трех типах придаточных предложений, причем в них используется только глагол “should” со всеми лицами, который может опускаться, и инфинитив без частицы “to”:
а) подлежащих (после оборотов типа it is necessary – необхо-димо, it is possible – возможно, it is desirable – желательно и др.):
It is necessary that he (should) do work.
Необходимо, чтобы он сделал эту работу.
б) дополнительных (после глаголов типа to agree – соглашаться, to command, to order – приказывать, do decide – решать, to demand –требовать, to suggest, to propose – предлагать, to recommend – реко-мендовать и др.):
The chief demanded that we (should) do this work in time.
Начальник потребовал, чтобы мы сделали эту работу вовремя.
в) цели (после союзов so that (так, чтобы), lest (чтобы не)):
She must hurry lest she (should) be late.
Она должна торопиться, чтобы не опоздать.
Синтетические и аналитические (would со всеми лицами) формы используются также в придаточных дополнительных предложениях после глагола “to wish”.
I wish I were you.
Я бы хотел быть на твоем месте. (в настоящем)
I wish the hotel had been better.
Жаль, что гостиница была такой плохой. (в прошлом)
I wish you would stay with me for a while.
Я бы хотел, чтобы вы побыли немного со мной.
Exercise 82. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Subjunctive Mood.
1. It is desirable that the project should be fi????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????n???????????????o???????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????x???????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i????????????i?????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????y?????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????e?????????????????
????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
Условные предложения являются разновидностью обстоятельственных придаточных предложений. Выделяют следующие типы условных предложений:
|
Real Conditions |
Unreal Conditions |
|
Present I do this work if I have time. Я делаю эту работу, если у меня есть время. |
If I were you, I should do this work. Если бы я был на твоем месте, я бы сделал эту работу. |
Окончание табл.
|
Real Conditions |
Unreal Conditions |
|
Future I shall do this work if I have time. Я сделаю эту работу, если у меня будет время. |
|
|
Past I did this work if I had time. Я делал эту работу, если у меня было время. |
He would have done this work if he had had time. Он бы сделал эту работу, если бы у него было время. |
|
ПЕРЕВОД Изъявительным наклонением Сослагательным наклонением |
|
|
СОЮЗЫ If – если, in case – в случае, but for – если бы не, unless – если не, on condition (that) – при условии (что), provided/providing (that) – при условии (что), suppose/supposing (that) – при условии (что) |
Inversion
В бессоюзных условных предложениях, выражающих маловероятные или нереальные условия, употребляется инверсия, или, другими словами, изменение порядка слов в предложении.
Were this instrument in order, we should carry out the experiment.
Если бы этот прибор был в порядке, мы бы провели эксперимент.
Had he been given opportunity, the work would have been finished.
Если бы ему дали возможность, работа была бы закончена.
Условные предложения, содержащие реальные условия, иногда называются предложениями 1-го типа; маловероятные условия (относящиеся к настоящему или будущему времени) – предложениями 2-го типа; нереальные (относящиеся к прошедшему времени) – предложениями 3-го типа.
Наличие таких глаголов, как “should”, “would”, “could”, “might” в главном предложении соотносится с условными придаточными предложениями 2 и 3-го типов, которые переводятся сослагательным наклонением.
Exercise 83. Define the type of the сonditional сlause and translate the sentences.
1. We can deliver the equipment in January provided that we receive your order within the next ten da????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s?????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????l???????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????l??????????s??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????t?????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s??????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????b?????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i?????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s??????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i???????
?
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i?????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????o?????????????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????u???????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????e???????????n???????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i???????????????????
?
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
3. ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????i????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????n??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????l?????????????????????c?????????????
?
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????r??????
??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????y????????????????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????b???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????s???????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????m??????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????u?????????????n????????????????????????
?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????a???????????????????????????????
????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????l the examinations.
8. Had the data met these requirements, then our assumption would have been correct.
Exercise 88. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Если воду охладить до 0 С, она начнет превращаться в лед.
2. Если нам нужно будет измерить температуру тела, мы воспользуемся термометром.
3. Мы бы сделали все необходимые вычисления, если бы компьютер не вышел из строя.
4. Если Вас заинтересовало наше предложение, пожалуйста, сообщите нам.
5. Если бы я был на Вашем месте, я бы подписал контракт.
6. Работа была бы выполнена в срок при условии, что имелось бы все необходимое оборудование.
7. Теплопередача имела бы место, если бы существовала разница температур.
Глаголы «should и would» в английском языке являются многофункциональными, играя роль вспомогательных или модальных глаголов.
Ниже приведены их основные значения.
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Should |
Would |
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При согласовании времен (Future-in-the-Past) |
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I said I should translate this article. Я сказал, что переведу эту статью. |
He said he would translate this article. Он сказал, что переведет эту статью. |
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В сослагательном наклонении |
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I should do (have done) this exercise if I had (had) time. Я бы сделал это упражнение, если бы у меня было время. |
He would do (have done) this exercise if he had (had) time. Он бы сделал это упражнение, если бы у него было время |
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В качестве модальных глаголов |
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I (he) should know mathematics well. Я (он) должен хорошо знать математику. I (he) should have attended lectures. Я (он) должен был бы посещать лекции |
а) с оттенком желания или нежелания (в прошлом): She would not say where she is going. Она не хотела сказать куда идет. б) выражает повторяющееся действие He would say... Он, бывало, говорил… в) выражает возможность или вероятность действия: Expansion of the solution would account only for 0.5% change. За счет расширения раствора можно отнести только 0.5% изменения |
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В качестве глагола, выражающего вежливое обращение: Would you open the window? Откройте, пожалуйста, окно. |
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???We didn’t know whether it … be possible to insulate the body.
4. It is desirable that you … take part in the conference.
5. Every student … be able to use computers.
6. If he had used the new device, he … have obtained better results.
7. It is necessary that the substance … be pure.
8. If there were no air, the stone and the piece of paper … fall together.
Exercise 91. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Он сказал, что поможет нам.
2. На эти данные не следует полагаться.
3. Если бы у меня было время, я бы закончил эксперимент.
4. Мне хотелось бы стать ученым.
5. Необходимо, чтобы данная реакция имела место.
6. Мы разбавляем кислоту, чтобы она не была слишком концентрированной.
7. Когда я был студентом, я часами засиживался в библиотеке.
(Verbals)
Неличные формы глагола: причастие (the Participle), герундий (the Gerund), инфинитив (the Infinitive) имеют следующие особенности:
1. Совмещают в себе признаки двух частей речи (причастие – прилагательного и глагола, герундий – существительного и глагола, инфинитив – глагола и существительного).
2. Выражают действие без указания лица, числа, времени и наклонения, поэтому в предложении не могут быть сказуемым, а лишь значимой частью сказуемого.
3. Имеют формы залога (Active, Passive) и вида (Simple, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous), которые указывают лишь на то, как протекало действие по отношению к действию, выраженному сказуемым, т. е. одновременно с ним, или предшествовало ему.
4. Могут выступать в предложении в различных функциях, т. е. выполнять роль различных членов предложения.
5. Могут употребляться в сочетании с зависимыми словами, образуя обороты.
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ПРИЧАСТИЕ (THE PARTICIPAL) |
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Participle 1 V4 (-ing) asking |
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Active |
Passive |
Действие относительно сказуемого |
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Simple |
asking |
being asked |
Действие одновременное |
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Perfect |
having asked |
having been |
Действие предшествующее |
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Participle 2 |
V3 (-ed) asked |
Действие одновременное/ |
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Употребление |
Пример |
Перевод |
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Часть сказуемого |
Electrons are moving round the |
Личная форма глагола |
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Определение |
а) Freely moving molecules б) Electrons forming an atom в) The results obtained were |
Действительное Страдательное Придаточное |
Окончание табл.
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Обстоятельство |
а) (While / When) reading he б) Being heated the substance в) Having finished his г) Having been asked the д) Unless tested the device |
Деепричастием Деепричастие Придаточное |
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НЕЗАВИСИМЫЙ ПРИЧАСТНЫЙ ОБОРОТ (NAPC) |
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существительное (общий падеж) (with) + Participle 1 (V4) – местоимение (именительный падеж) |
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а) The temperature falling, the motion of molecules decreases. б) We have completed our experiment, (with) the data obtained being published. |
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Перевод |
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а) Придаточным предложением с союзами: так как, если, когда, после того как б) Самостоятельным предложением с союзами: причем, и, а, но, да. |
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ГЕРУНДИЙ |
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The Gerund V4 (-ing) asking |
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Active |
Passive |
Действие относительно |
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Simple |
asking |
being asked |
Действие одновременное |
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Perfect |
having asked |
having been |
Действие |
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Употребление |
Пример |
Перевод |
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Подлежащее |
Measuring resistance is necessary. |
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Часть сказуемого |
Our aim is mastering English. |
Существительное, |
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Дополнение |
She likes studying. |
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Определение |
Its boiling point is very low. (point of The reading hall is full of people. There are many ways of solving this |
Существительное, |
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Обстоятельство |
He left the room without saying good bye. She went there for studying physics. After having been interrupted he could not say a word. |
Деепричастие, |
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Герундиальные обороты |
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существительное (притяжа- + Gerund притяжательное местоимение (Предлог) + Gerund существительное (общий падеж) + Gerund местоимение (объектный падеж) + Gerund |
We know of Newton’s having His taking part in this work helped They objected to the books being I must insist on him paying. |
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Перевод: придаточными предложениями с союзами: что; то, что; того, чтобы и т. д. |
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ИНФИНИТИВ |
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The Infinitive (V1) |
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Active |
Passive |
Действие относительно |
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Simple |
to ask |
to be asked |
Действие одновременное |
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Continuous |
to be asking |
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Perfect |
to have asked |
to have been |
Действие предшествующее |
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Perfect |
to have been |
– |
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Употребление |
Пример |
Перевод |
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Подлежащее |
To measure resistance is necessary. |
Инфинитив |
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Часть сказуемого |
Our aim is to master English. |
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Дополнение |
She likes to study. |
Существительное |
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Определение |
The desire to find the solution was The method to be used is not new. He was the first to prove this law. |
Инфинитив, |
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Обстоятельство |
She went there (in order) to study Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form |
Инфинитив, |
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Обороты |
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Объектный |
Субъектный инфинитивный |
Оборот «for + существительное / местоимение + инфинитив» |
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глагол |
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существи- |
а) в страдатель- б) в действи- в) to be + прила- |
существительное for + inf местоимение |
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Примеры |
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He considers the |
The students (they) are |
He spoke loudly for the people |
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It enabled the |
The information (it) proved |
It is necessary for us to do it. |
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He sees the students |
This is likely to be the case. |
For two molecules to react |
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Перевод |
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Придаточным Простым |
Придаточным дополнительным предложением Простым предложением |
Придаточным Простым предложением |
The Participle
Exercise 92. Translate the following participial phrases into Russian:
а) the molecules closely bound together …
a sealed container …
freely moving molecules …
liquid being converted into vapour …
ice transformed into water …
heat being added to the substance …
molecules having different kinetic energy …
disrupting forces …
increasing speed …
the required quantity of energy …
b) giving off the energy the molecules …
removing heat we …
having converted water into ice the researcher …
using a thermometer the scientist …
having fixed this part he …
having been weighed the substance …
being invited too late he …
when heated to 100o, water …
while being used, the device …
having been given due attention, the problem …
Exercise 93. Translate the following participial phrases into English.
опубликовав свою первую статью, инженер …
положительно заряженная частица …
уменьшая температуру …
возрастающее давление …
теплота, отводимая от вещества …
герметически закрытый сосуд …
ошибка, найденная в вычислениях …
принцип, использующийся в генераторах …
нагреваясь, вещества расширяются …
Exercise 94. Translate the following sentences paying attention to functions of Participle I and Participle II.
1. Electrons forming an atom are in motion.
2. While explaining the results of the experiment the professor wrote many formulas on the blackboard.
3. The amount of calculations carried out depends on the quality of the computers used.
4. Being rubbed many substances become electrified.
5. Having absorbed the required amount of heat a liquid became a vapour.
6. Being an experienced engineer, he found the mistake at once.
7. Using the energy of the atom we produce electric energy at atomic power plants.
8. Well done, the device will function properly.
9. Knowing length and time, we can define velocity.
10. Charged participles are influenced by electric fields.
11. The engine tested required further improvement.
12. While writing my paper I consulted some reference books.
13. Having been repaired the machines worked perfectly.
14. If placed in a vessel, a gas fills it completely.
15. While looking through the paper published a month ago I found the results confirming my conclusions made up earlier.
16. Having examined the ancient book, the scientist said it belonged to the 10th century.
17. Being brought into thermal equilibrium with any body the thermometers indicate the degree of heat of this body.
18. The cooling medium must always be held at a lower temperature than the body being cooled.
19. Being subjected to radiation, various substances undergo radical changes of their properties.
20. Having become hot the stove warmed the surrounding air due to the contact with it.
21. Having been well tested, the machine was put into operation.
22. The substance being investigated is first weighed.
23. Hydrogen is the lightest element known.
Exercise 95. Translate the following sentences having the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction (NAPC).
1. All the ice having been melted, the temperature began to rise.
2. Electrons moving through a wire, electrical energy is generated.
3. The nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom consists of one proton, with one electron moving round it.
4. Power is the basis of civilization, all industry and transport being dependent upon power to some extent.
5. Many technical and scientific problems having been solved, the first space flight could be realized.
6. The latest measuring devices having been used, the results of these measurements became highly reliable.
7. These properties being common to all gases, it was not difficult to do the necessary calculations.
8. Mercury is commonly used as the liquid in thermometers, other liquids being used as well.
9. With the experiments having been carried out, we started new investigations.
10. A magnet being broken in two parts, each place becomes a magnet with its own pair of poles.
11. The temperature of the melted ice rising, the movement of its molecules is speeded up.
12. An electrical conductor moving across a magnetic field, a current is generated.
13. Silver being very expensive, we only rarely use it as conductor.
14. We continued our experiment, with some laboratory assistants helping us.
15. Other conditions being equal, the acceleration remains constant.
16. The speed of light being extremely great, it cannot be measured by ordinary methods.
17. The rates and molecular weights are affected by lowering the temperature, the former being decreased and the latter increased.
18. The p-electrons are more easily polarized than δ-electrons, the former being commonly referred to as mobile electrons.
19. An experiment indicated that 90 % of the reactions proceeded according to reactions 1 and 2, with the latter predominating.
20. The atmosphere always contains some moisture, the amount varying not only from day to day, but from hour to hour.
Exercise 96. Translate the following sentences paying attention to -ed forms: Participle II (V3) and verbs in Past Simple (V2).
1. The forth state of aggregation mentioned above is characterized as plasma.
2. The substance tested showed some new properties.
3. If properly treated, these raw materials can provide us with all necessary substances.
4. Methods employed in solving a problem are greatly influenced by the research objective set up beforehand.
5. He offered the best solution of the problem concerned.
6. Unless insulated, the wire may not be used as a conductor.
7. Once started the process is difficult to stop.
8. The damaged parts were immediately examined and repaired by a specialist.
9. The units used to measure time, space and mass are called fundamental units.
10. If desired, a solid substance can be directly converted into vaporous or gaseous state by a transformation called sublimation.
11. The results obtained differed depending on the substance used.
12. Heat resistant materials developed recently produced a revolution in a number of industries.
13. Mathematics and mechanics referred to as classical disciplines started mathematical traditions in the history of natural science.
14. The mixture obtained in the course of the experiment gradually decomposed when being allowed to stay overnight.
15. The procedure proposed provided the required mechanism of reaction.
16. The heated object became red-hot.
17. The rate of a reaction depended on the specific nature of the substances involved.
18. The method followed by our professor was simple.
19. When cooled, water turned into ice.
20. If represented by arrows, the forces can be easily computed.
Exercise 97. Choose the correct form. Translate the sentences.
1. Newton assumed that light was made up of many small particles (moving / moved) at high speeds.
2. This figure represents light particles (leaving / left) a source in many directions.
3. A group of such particles (travelling / travelled) parallel paths is called a beam of light.
4. The experiments (carrying / carried) out at our laboratory are rather interesting.
5. The metal (using / used) in that experiment was titanium.
6. The results (receiving / received) changed with the material used.
7. The problem (concerning / concerned) must be considered in detail.
8. The period (following / followed) this invention was very productive.
Exercise 98. Translate these sentences into English.
1. В сосуде находится кипящая вода.
2. Зная массу тела и определив его скорость, мы вычислили его кинетическую энергию.
3. Если молекулы нагреть, они будут быстрее двигаться.
4. Углерод был первым материалом, который использовался в качестве проводника.
5. Когда работаешь с электричеством, следует быть очень осторожным.
6. Полученные результаты различались в зависимости от используемого вещества.
7. Когда металл нагревают до высокой температуры, он плавится.
8. Водород – самое легкое вещество, известное нам.
9. Когда теплота подводится к веществу, его объем увеличивается.
10. После того как эксперимент был проведен, были получены интересные данные.
The Gerund
Exercise 99. Translate into Russian paying attention to the different functions of the Gerund.
1. He denied hearing this story before.
2. Methods of designing machines are changing.
3. The work of these geologists is looking for oil and gas in new areas.
4. Finding an adequate solution to this technological problem will require much time.
5. He felt much better after having told his friend the truth.
6. Scientists have succeeded in breaking apart the nuclei of billions of atoms and in harnessing their energy.
7. The professor thanked everybody for listening to him with attention.
8. The engineer insisted on checking the device without delay.
9. Heating makes the molecules move faster.
10. The way of avoiding these difficulties is unknown at present.
11. The mass of a nucleus is measured by placing an ion of an atom in an electric and a magnetic field.
12. Before conducting experiments he made numerous observations.
13. Taking into account individual components resulted in a radical change of the entire system.
14. He was against using this technique.
15. The work will not be completed without summing up the results.
16. Scientists are not far from solving this problem.
17. There are different ways of producing electric current.
18. Protecting the personnel against radiation holds an important place at the atomic power plant.
19. It is no use changing only the thermometer, the whole device should be repaired.
20. They continued testing until the sample was destroyed.
21. Atoms are incapable of being destroyed or created.
22. It is worth mentioning in this connection that this technique found no support two years ago.
23. On pressing the button you will get the information desired.
24. Upon being heated to a high temperature many metallic compounds are decomposed.
25. Sulphur is hardened by being mixed with copper
Exercise 100. Find out Gerundial Constructions in the following sentences and translate them.
1. Scientists’ working together and their sharing ideas with one another is of great advantage for science.
2. There was no hope of their solving this complex engineering problem.
3. The first experiment being a failure does not mean anything.
4. There are unmistakable proofs of his having been wrong.
5. I never doubted his working in this field science.
6. He was surprised at the problem not having been solved yet.
7. All of us were sure of the test having been successful.
8. Mendeleev’s having noticed a periodicity in the chemical properties of elements enabled him to lay down his famous Periodic Law.
9. We know of Newton’s having developed the principles of mechanics.
10. Mme Curie’s having discovered radium enabled her to isolate other radioactive elements.
11. Success in science often results from the scientist’s confining his attention to one problem for many years.
12. The possibility of the Sun becoming a cold dead body in the near future is slight.
13. We account for the incompleteness of this reaction by its being reversible.
14. They objected to the data being published before all the experiments were completed.
15. There is no hope of our getting high yields in the near future.
16. The possibility of ethylene being converted into aromatic hydrocarbons is slight.
17. Their having failed in developing this problem is quite understandable.
Exercise 101. Complete the sentences using:
а) the Gerund:
Example: I thanked him for …
I thanked him for helping us.
1. They liked …
2. He is very fond of …
3. Gradually I am used to …
4. She is in the habit of …
5. We think of …
6. There is no hope of …
7. I like your idea of …
8. It is useless / no use …
9. It is no good …
10. He is busy …
b) Gerundial Constructions
Example: I was sure of …
I was sure of his returning earlier.
1. We did not mind …
2. I have always been aware of …
3. Have you heard of …
4. The teacher objected to …
5. I was greatly pleased at …
6. She did not like …
7. This depends on …
8. In spite of …
9. I insisted on …
10. They are proud of …
Exercise 102. Find out all ing-forms (V4) and ed-forms (V2; V3) in the following sentences and translate them.
1. The probability of discovering several minerals is limited to certain areas.
2. There are few papers dealing with this subject.
3. Having been used for a long time, the device partly lost its efficiency.
4. Research is searching without knowing what you are going to find.
5. An electron leaving the surface, the metal becomes positively charged.
6. It is believed that there is hardly any chance of there being a mistake in these calculations.
7. The experiments of many other scientists following Rutherford’s research proved his predictions.
8. Charged bodies cannot be made neutral without connecting them to the Earth.
9. Alloys are made by melting two or more metals together.
10. Being interested in the subject which you are studying is the best motivation for learning.
11. The problem of using insulators is paid great attention to.
12. By subjecting them to X-rays molecules of a gas can be disrupted.
13. Molecules are constantly in rapid motion, the motion becoming more rapid with an increase of temperature.
14. Unless discussed, this new method must not be used.
15. They succeeded in obtaining all the instruments they needed.
16. We cannot make progress in our research without taking into account the results of other researchers.
17. The melting point of pure iron reaches about 1535 C, most steels melting at about 1300 C to 1500 C.
18. By introducing new educational means students are enabled to master the subject quicker.
19. This law takes into account forms of energy other than those discussed so far.
20. The force causing a current to flow in the circuit can be measured.
21. With contacts of research workers expanding in all fields, knowledge of foreign languages is of great use to scientists nowadays.
22. I cannot help thinking about the tasks facing us in the future.
23. Heat causes many changes in the physical properties of matter, some of them such as expansion, change in electrical resistance, etc. being well known.
24. In spite of its having been compressed the gas returns to its original volume as soon as the applied force is removed.
25. The lab must be ventilated before and after being used for carrying out the experiments again.
26. Having passed over the ice the air became cooled.
27. Measuring resistance is necessary in many experiments.
28. When calculating the weight of a body we have to multiply its specific gravity by its volume.
29. The material employed for absorbing the latent heat from the vapour is called the condensing medium.
30. On being rubbed amber obtains the ability of attracting bodies.
Exercise 103. Translate into English.
1. Стоит рассмотреть этот вопрос.
2. Бесполезно думать об этом.
3. Не стоит тратить на это время.
4. Им удалось объяснить это явление.
5. Подумайте о том, как объяснить результаты ваших опытов.
6. Вы будете возражать против участия в этой работе?
7. Я устал от выполнения такой работы.
8. Идея использовать высокое напряжение не нова.
The Infinitive
Exercise 104. Point out the forms and functions of the Infinitive. Translate the sentences.
1. It is never too late to learn.
2. To know everything is to know nothing.
3. The simplest nucleus can be found in the lightest atom – hydrogen.
4. The question to be decided was whether the gas contained any carbon either free or combined.
5. To cool a body is to remove heat from it and to keep it isolated from its surroundings.
6. There are really only two problems to solve.
7. The energy of one cosmic radiation particle is sufficient to heat one gram of water from 0 C to 40 C.
8. The gas thermometer employs a pressure indicator to show the temperature.
9. The advantages of this method are evident enough to be taken into consideration.
10. Instruments to be used for high temperature measurements must be made of metals having very high melting point temperature.
11. This surface is too dark and rough to reflect radiant heat.
12. Experiments have shown that the amount of work to be used for producing a given amount of heat is the same under all conditions.
13. When oxygen is ionized the electrons do not remain free but attach themselves to neutral atoms to form negative ion.
14. Mendeleev was the first to show that all the properties of every single element were governed by the fundamental law of nature.
15. The temperature changes are too insignificant to be taken into account.
16. It was highly desirable to get these values checked before another series of experiments.
17. Alexei Leonov was the first man to have stepped into space and to have been exposed to cosmic radiation of outer space.
Exercise 105. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the function of the Infinitive at the beginning of each sentence.
1. To introduce numerical methods in physics is the purpose of the paper.
2. To answer this question we studied a great deal of publications on the problem.
3. To provide experimental evidence for the theoretical ideas researchers make more and more complicated experiments.
4. To find the mass of the electron was then of prime importance.
5. To be changed from a liquid to a gaseous state the substance is to be heated.
6. To write with precision it is necessary to have thought logically first.
7. To explain this simple fact is not so easy.
8. To understand the phenomenon the laws of motion should be considered.
9. To record a small wave is a simple matter.
10. To overcome this difficulty various means were tried.
Exercise 106. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the word “order”.
1. In order to understand the procedure, consider the following analogy.
2. Put the numbers in reverse order.
3. This fact can be used in order to estimate the number of amino groups in a compound.
4. These are the magnitudes of the same order.
5. This machine is out of order. It has to be tuned.
6. The chairperson called to order.
7. He was ordered abroad to study natural sciences.
Exercise 107. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Infinitive in the function of an attribute.
1. We have a number of problems to solve.
2. The power station to be built here will supply this region with electric energy.
3. There is one more phenomenon to be involved into this solution.
4. The amount of computations to be done is great.
5. The data to be analyzed involve knowledge of numerical methods.
6. Alpha-radiation was the first radiation to be studied in detail.
7. The explanation will probably be considerably modified in the years to come.
8. Dalton was the first to deduce scientifically an atomic theory from experimental data.
9. The procedure to be followed depends upon the substance being tested.
10. Polonium was the first of the radioactive elements to be isolated by the chemists.
Exercise 108. Change the following sentences according to the model.
Model: This is the novelty which must be paid attention to.
This is the novelty to be paid attention to.
1. This is the amount which must be calculated.
2. This is the concept which will be involved in our studies.
3. Physics is the science which must be concerned with in all our natural sciences.
4. The motion which will be calculated can be explained in terms of acceleration.
Exercise 109. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Infinitive as part of predicate.
1. One way of obtaining hydrogen is to pass electric current through water.
2. It is to be noted that this element can be found free in nature.
3. Some more heating is to produce the effect required.
4. The difficulty was to obtain the substance in question.
5. New sources of cheap energy are to be found.
6. Care is to be taken not to overheat the substance.
7. These methods are to be described in the next chapter.
8. Our purpose is to determine the effect of X-rays on the material under test.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction
(Complex Subject)
|
Существительное |
Сказуемое |
Инфинитив |
|
The value/it |
is said proves is likely |
to change |
Между существительным (местоимением) и инфинитивом стоит сказуемое предложения, выражающее мнение, суждение или предположение.
This value is said to change. Известно, что это значение меняется.
Это значение, как известно, меняется.
Мнение, суждение, предположение в таком предложении могут быть выражены следующими глаголами:
1. В страдательном залоге:
|
This value |
is said is believed is supposed is expected is assumed is reported is considered is proved / proven is found is stated is thought etc. |
to change (to be changing) (to have changed) |
Известно, … Говорят, … Полагают, … Предполагают, … Ожидают, … Допускают, … Сообщают, … Считают, … Доказано, … Найдено, … Установлено, … Думают, … и т. д. |
2. В действительном залоге:
|
This value |
seems appears turns out proves happes chances is likely is unlikely is sure is certain |
to change (to be (to have changed) to change (to be changing) (to have changed) |
Кажется, … По-видимому, … Оказывается, … –––––//–––––– –––––//–––––– –––––//–––––– Вероятно, … Мало вероятно, … Безусловно, … Непременно, … |
Exercise 110. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the Subjective Infinitive Construction.
а) Существительное + сказуемое (P.V.) + инфинитив
(местоимение):
1. This reaction was expected to start at lower temperatures.
2. Objects are said to be warm, hot, cool or cold compared with the temperature of the human body.
3. The nuclei of all atoms are known to be made up of protons and neutrons.
4. This hypothesis has been found to disagree with experimental evidence.
5. The steam turbine is supposed to have been used many centuries ago.
6. Atoms are considered to be “ions” when they gain or lose electrons.
7. Light is proved to travel in straight lines.
8. The product was assumed to contain two components.
9. Density is believed to change with temperature.
10. Natural uranium has been stated to consist mainly of two isotopes.
б) Существительное + сказуемое (A.V.) + инфинитив
(местоимение):
1. They seem to have applied strong ionization.
2. Deformation appeared to have no measurable effect on conductivity.
3. An alternative point of view turned out to be more useful.
4. Light intensity proves to be measurable.
5. An indicator happens to change colour when it loses a proton.
в) Существительное is likely
(местоимение) is unlikely + инфинитив
is sure
is certain
1. They are likely to be familiar with this phenomenon.
2. The experiment is unlikely to be successful.
3. This reaction was sure to take place.
4. This property is certain to have been mentioned frequently in the past.
The Objective Infinitive Construction
(Complex Object)
Сказуемое (A.V.) + существительное (общий падеж) +
+ инфинитив местоимение (объектный падеж)
Сказуемое при объектном инфинитивном обороте выражает:
а) мнение, суждение, предположение
assume – допускают
believe – полагают
consider – считают
Scientists (they) expect – ожидают the data to be reliable.
doubt – сомневаются
know – знают
suppose – предполагают
think – думают
Ученые считают, что эти данные заслуживают доверия.
Exercise 111A. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the Objective Infinitive Construction.
1. They expected us to have found the answer to the question.
2. I don’t think this approximation to be of value in this case.
3. We consider these results to be accurate enough.
4. The first investigator of heat found different substances to be heated to different degrees by the same amount of heat.
5. We know nineteenth century physics to be great achievement of the human mind.
6. Aristotle assumed hot and cold to be connected with wet and dry.
7. Do you know Galileo to have constructed the first air-expansion thermometer?
8. One may expect this prediction to be quite reliable.
9. They found radon to be three times as heavy as hydrogen.
10. Scientists believe the molecules to be in continuous vibration.
б) желание и волеизъявление:
wish
desire
I want you to come to the laboratory at 9 a.m.
require
mean
intend
Я хочу, чтобы вы пришли в лабораторию в 9 часов утра.
Exercise 111B. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the Objective Infinitive Construction.
1. He did not mean you to carry out this experiment.
2. My chief wants this work to be done in time.
3. I intended him to go on a business trip.
4. They required us to take a examination.
в) приказания:
makes
Gravity causes bodies (to) fall to the Earth.
forces
gets
Гравитация заставляет тела падать на землю.
Exercise 111C. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the Objective Infinitive Construction.
1. They made this reaction run at reduced pressure.
2. This causes the components to be separated.
3. An excess of gas made the researcher stop his test.
4. This forces one to regard two problems.
5. We could not get this product to polymerize.
6. You must make them check the results carefully.
г) возможность, разрешение:
allowed
This apparatus enabled accurate measurement (to) be carried out with ease
let
permitted
Этот прибор позволил без труда выполнить точные измерения.
Exercise 111D. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the Objective Infinitive Construction.
1. Recent studies enable an important decision to be made.
2. This allows the reaction described here to occur at higher temperatures.
3. The new procedure permitted us to overcome the above difficulties.
4. The gravitational forces do not let the planets leave the solar system.
д) физическое восприятие и ощущение: to see, to observe, to hear, to feel и др.
We see the direction constantly to change.
Мы видим, что направление постоянно меняется.
Exercise 111E. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the Objective Infinitive Construction.
1. During the experiment we observed the temperature fall rapidly.
2. I heard somebody speak in the next room.
3. He is a wonderful teacher and I have never seen him lose his temper or get angry about anything.
The For-to-Infinitive Construction
существительное
For + (общий падеж) + инфинитив
местоимение
(объектный падеж)
Перевод:
(в том), что / чтобы подлежащее сказуемое
It is possible for the reaction to occur.
Возможно, что реакция произойдет.
Exercise 112. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the For-to-Infinitive Construction.
1. In many cases the presence of friction is essential for the motion to take place.
2. It is quite possible for a solid to pass directly into the gaseous state without the intermediate liquid state.
3. The temperature was too low for the substance to decompose.
4. It is impossible for this substance to be compressed.
5. The tendency was for the gas to become ionized.
6. Here is one more important point for the speaker to explain.
7. The motion took place long enough for the bodies to become heated.
8. For this method to be valuable, it must be improved.
9. This mechanism is provided with special devices for the whole system to function automatically.
10. For any process to take place it is necessary for the system to pass through what is known as an activated state.
Exercise 113. Find infinitive constructions in the given sentences (Complex Subject, Complex Object and For-to-Infinitive Construction) and translate them into Russian.
1. We know solar energy to be a source of all life on the Earth.
2. The alpha particles appear not to pass through the aluminium.
3. Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen prove to be the most essential elements of the Earth atmosphere.
4. Whenever the velocity of a body changes, the body is said to the have acceleration.
5. It is impossible for a single force to produce the same effect as couple.
6. Modern discoveries allow science and engineering to be developed rapidly.
7. This phenomenon does not appear to have been studied.
8. We know gravity to act on every particle of a body so that its weight is actually distributed throughout the body.
9. These chemical changes prove to have been caused by heat.
10. This approach to the problem discussed turns out to be the most satisfactory.
11. We assume man to have appeared on the Earth more than a million years ago, but we still do not know exactly where.
12. I want the translation to be finished tomorrow.
13. An atom was considered to be the smallest particle of an element.
14. They are unlikely to change their plans.
15. We didn’t notice the professor leave the auditorium.
16. There is an apparent tendency for science to become more and more mathematical.
17. These physicists happen to work at the same problem.
18. His idea was fruitful enough for others to take it up and develop it further.
19. Some time ago these phenomena were found to be intimately related to solar activity.
20. In ancient time the Earth was thought to be motionless.
Exercise 114. Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the meanings of the following words “appear”, “prove”, “make”, “cause”, “force”, “get”.
1. Experiments have proved the pressure of a gas at fixed temperature to depend on its concentration.
2. Your advice proved to be helpful.
3. All the waves in a lazer beam were proved to have the same wave length.
4. The technique of the investigation proved to be a success.
5. Heating to 90 C can cause this substance to decompose.
6. Remove the cause of the trouble.
7. They made the fluid flow through a bed of finely divided solid.
8. In 1919 Rutherford made the crucial discovery that it was possible to break up a nucleus of nitrogen.
9. It is rather difficult to get nitrogen to combine with other elements.
10. We have got one more problem to solve today.
11. These correlations appear to hold for many hydrocarbons.
12. If there appeared any change in supply, the device would register it.
13. Newton’s law of gravitational force follows directly from Kepler’s law of motion.
14. Electrons can be forced to travel at very high speeds.
15. Several requirements have to be satisfied to force such a device to operate efficiently.
Exercise 115. Translate into English.
1. Решение этой проблемы, как известно, зависит от многих факторов.
2. Ожидается, что работа будет закончена в этом году.
3. Термометр – это прибор, который используется для измерения температуры.
4. Охладить вещество – значит отвести от него теплоту.
5. Мы знаем, что твердые тела передают теплоту главным образом путем проводимости.
6. Теплота, несомненно, заставляет вещества увеличиваться в объеме.
7. Чтобы воздух был хорошим изолятором, он должен находиться в совершенно неподвижном состоянии.
8. Чтобы сделать термопары более чувствительными, нужно использовать набор элементов.
9. Он первым ответил на все трудные вопросы.
10. Мало вероятно, что эта проблема будет решена в ближайшем будущем.
1. Гузеева К.А., Трошко Т.Г. Английский язык. Справочные материалы. – М.: Просвещение, 1992.
2. Качалова К.Н., Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка с упражнениями и ключами. – М.: ЮНВЕС, 1998.
3. Каушанская В.Л., Ковнер Р.Л. и др. Грамматика английского языка (на английском языке). – Л.: Просвещение, 1973.
4. Курашвили Е.И. Английский язык для студентов-физиков. – М.: Астрель, АСТ, 2001.
5. Нестерова Н.Б., Дмитренко Н.А., Трунская О.Ю. Грамматические основы перевода с английского языка на русский. – СПб.: СПбТИХП, 1992.
6. Пумпянский А.Л. Упражнения по переводу английской научной и технической литературы с английского языка на русский и с русского языка на английский. – Минск: Попурри, 1997.
7. Смирнова Л.Н. Курс английского языка для научных работников. – Л.: Наука, 1990.
8. Успенская Н.В., Михельсон Т.Н. Практический курс грамматики английского языка. – СПб.: Спец. лит-ра», 1995.
9. Шанаева Н.В. Краткая грамматика английского языка в таблицах и схемах. – Л.: Лисc, 1991.
10. Alexander L.G. Longman English Grammar. London and New York, Longman, 1992.
11. Alexander L.G. Longman English Grammar Practice. London and New York, Longman, 1992.
12. Hewings M. Advanced Grammar in Use. A reference and practice book for advanced learners of English. Cambridge, University Press, 1999
Числительные
Numerals
|
1 |
one |
11 |
eleven |
21 |
twenty-one |
|
2 |
two |
12 |
twelve |
22 |
twenty-two |
|
3 |
three |
13 |
thirteen |
23 |
thirty |
|
4 |
four |
1 |
fourteen |
24 |
forty |
|
5 |
five |
15 |
fifteen |
25 |
fifty |
|
6 |
six |
16 |
sixteen |
26 |
sixty |
|
7 |
seven |
17 |
seventeen |
27 |
seventy |
|
8 |
eight |
18 |
eighteen |
28 |
eighty |
|
9 |
nine |
19 |
nineteen |
29 |
ninety |
|
10 |
ten |
20 |
twenty |
30 |
a hundred |
Чтение математических выражений и символов
(+) – plus, add, sum up,
(–) – minus, subtract
(x) – multiply, times
(:) – divide
(=) – equals, is equal to, makes, is
Простые дроби
½ – a (one) half
2/3 – two-thirds
Десятичные дроби
0.2 – o [ou] point two zero point two/nought point two
1.15 – one point fifteen/one five
Степени
32 – three squared
107 – ten to the seventh power
10–5 – ten to the minus fifth power
Система метр-килограмм-секунда
Metre-Kilogram-Second Units
|
Length |
1 metre (m) |
1 centimetre (cm) |
1 kilometre (km) |
|
Area |
1 square metre (m2) |
1 square centimeter (cm2) |
1 square kilometre (km2) |
|
Volume |
I cubic metre (m3) |
1 cubic centimeter (cm3) |
– |
|
Velocity |
I metre per second (m/sec) |
– |
I kilometre per hour |
|
Mass |
I kilogram (kg) |
I gram (gr) |
I ton(ne) |
|
Density |
I kilogram per cubic |
1 gram per cubic centimeter (gr/cm3) |
– |
Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и приставки
Суффиксы существительных
|
-er, -or |
-seller (продавец), constructor (конструктор) |
|
-tion (-ation) |
-connection (соединение), organization (организация) |
|
-ing |
-building (здание), planning (планирование) |
|
-ment |
-development (развитие), government (правительство) |
|
-(t)ure |
-future (будущее), nature (природа) |
|
-ance (-ence) |
-importance (важность), dependence (зависимость) |
|
-ness |
-effectiveness (эффективность), accurateness (точность) |
|
-ity |
-activity (деятельность), possibility (возможность) |
|
-th |
-strength (сила), growth (рост) |
|
-ship |
-friendship (дружба), relationship (взаимосвязь) |
|
-ism |
-mechanism (механизм), capitalism (капитализм) |
|
-ics |
-economics (экономика), physics (физика) |
|
-ist |
-economist (экономист), physicist (физик) |
Суффиксы прилагательных
|
-al |
-national (национальный), industrial (промышленный) |
|
-able (-ible) |
-changeable (изменчивый), convertible (обратимый) |
|
-ant (-ent) |
-resistant (устойчивый), different (различный) |
|
-ive |
-active (деятельный), competitive (конкурирующий) |
|
-ful |
-peaceful (мирный), useful (полезный) |
|
-ic |
-basic (основной), historic (исторический) |
|
-ous |
-famous (знаменитый), dangerous (опасный) |
|
-less |
-useless (бесполезный), careless (небрежный) |
Суффиксы глаголов
|
-en |
-to weaken (ослаблять), to shorten (укорачивать (ся)) |
|
-fy |
-to intensify (усиливать), to simplify (упрощать) |
|
-ize |
-to realize (осуществлять), to stabilize (стабилизировать) |
Суффиксы наречий
|
-ly |
-practically (практически), entirely (полностью) |
|
-ward(s) |
-forward(s) (вперёд), backward(s) (назад) |
Приставки с отрицательным значением
|
dis- |
disability (неспособность), to disapprove (не одобрять) |
|
in- |
incapable (неспособный), incomplete (неполный) |
|
il- (перед l) |
illegal (незаконный), illiterate (неграмотный) |
|
ir- (перед r) |
irrational (нерациональный), irregular (нестандартный) |
|
im- (перед m, p, b) |
impossible (невозможный), immobile (неподвижный) |
|
mis- |
to miscalculate (ошибиться в расчете), to misinform (дезинформировать) |
|
non- |
non-essential (несущественный), noneffective (неэффективный) |
|
un- |
unlimited (неограниченный), unknown (неизвестный) |
Приставки с разными значениями
|
over- |
-to overestimate (переоценить), to overcome (преодолевать) |
|
post- |
-postwar (послевоенный), postgraduate (аспирант) |
|
pre- (до) |
-prewar (довоенный), prehistoric (доисторический) |
|
re- (вновь) |
- to rewrite (переписывать), to restore (восстанавливать) |
|
under- (не, ниже, под) |
-to underestimate (недооценить), underdeveloped (слаборазвитый) |
Таблица неправильных глаголов
IRREGULAR VERBS
|
1 форма |
2 форма |
3 форма |
4 форма |
Перевод |
|
to be |
was / were |
been |
being |
быть, находиться |
|
to bear |
bore |
borne / born |
bearing |
нести, носить, родить |
|
to beat |
beat |
beaten |
beating |
бить |
|
to become |
became |
become |
becoming |
становиться |
|
to begin |
began |
begun |
beginning |
начинать(ся) |
|
to bend |
bent |
bent |
bending |
гнуть |
|
to bind |
bound |
bound |
binding |
переплетать |
|
to bite |
bit |
bitten / bit |
biting |
кусать |
|
to blow |
blew |
blown |
blowing |
дуть |
|
to break |
broke |
broken |
breaking |
ломать |
|
to bring |
brought |
brought |
bringing |
приносить |
|
to build |
built |
built |
building |
строить |
|
to burst |
burst |
burst |
bursting |
гореть, жечь |
|
to buy |
bought |
bought |
buying |
покупать |
|
to catch |
caught |
caught |
catching |
ловить |
|
to choose |
chose |
chosen |
choosing |
выбирать |
|
to come |
came |
come |
coming |
подходить, приходить |
|
to cut |
cut |
cut |
cutting |
резать, рубить |
|
to do |
did |
done |
doing |
делать |
|
to draw |
drew |
drawn |
drawing |
рисовать, тащить |
|
to drink |
drank |
drunk |
drinking |
пить |
|
to drive |
drove |
driven |
driving |
вести |
|
to eat |
ate |
eaten |
eating |
есть, кушать |
|
to fall |
fell |
fallen |
falling |
падать |
|
to feel |
fell |
felt |
feeling |
чувствовать |
|
to feed |
fed |
fed |
feeding |
кормить |
|
to fight |
fought |
fought |
fighting |
бороться, драться |
|
to find |
found |
found |
finding |
находить |
|
to fly |
flew |
flown |
flying |
летать |
|
to forbid |
forbade |
forbidden |
forbidding |
запрещать |
|
to forget |
forgot |
forgotten |
forgiving |
забывать |
|
to forgive |
forgave |
forgiven |
forgiving |
прощать |
|
to freeze |
froze |
frozen |
freezing |
замораживать |
|
to get |
got |
got |
getting |
получать, становиться |
|
to give |
gave |
given |
giving |
давать |
Продолжение табл.
|
1 форма |
2 форма |
3 форма |
4 форма |
Перевод |
|
to go |
went |
gone |
going |
идти, ехать |
|
to grow |
grew |
grown |
growing |
расти, выращивать |
|
to hang |
hung/hanged |
hung/hanged |
hanging |
висеть, вешать |
|
to have |
had |
had |
having |
иметь |
|
to hear |
heard |
heard |
hearing |
слышать |
|
to hide |
hid |
hidden |
hiding |
прятать |
|
to hit |
hit |
hit |
hitting |
ударять |
|
to hold |
held |
held |
holding |
держать |
|
to hurt |
hurt |
hurt |
hurting |
повредить |
|
to keep |
kept |
kept |
keeping |
держать |
|
to know |
knew |
known |
knowing |
знать |
|
to lay |
laid |
laid |
laying |
класть, положить |
|
to lead |
led |
led |
leading |
вести |
|
to leap |
leapt/leaped |
leapt/ eaped |
leaping |
прыгать, скакать |
|
to learn |
learnt/learned |
learnt/learned |
learning |
учить |
|
to leave |
left |
left |
leaving |
покидать, оставлять |
|
to lend |
lent |
lent |
lending |
давать взаймы |
|
to let |
let |
let |
letting |
позволять |
|
to lie |
lay |
lain |
lying |
лежать |
|
to light |
lit |
lit |
lighting |
зажигать |
|
to lose |
lost |
lost |
losing |
терять |
|
to make |
made |
made |
making |
делать |
|
to mean |
meant |
meant |
meaning |
значить |
|
to meet |
met |
met |
meeting |
встречать(ся) |
|
to pay |
paid |
paid |
paying |
платить |
|
to put |
put |
put |
putting |
класть, ставить |
|
to read |
read |
read |
reading |
читать |
|
to ride |
rode |
ridden |
riding |
ехать (верхом) |
|
to ring |
rang |
rung |
ringing |
звонить, звенеть |
|
to rise |
rose |
risen |
rising |
поднимать |
|
to run |
ran |
run |
running |
бежать |
|
to say |
said |
said |
saying |
говорить, сказать |
|
to see |
saw |
seen |
seeing |
видеть |
|
to seek |
sought |
sought |
seeking |
искать |
|
to sell |
sold |
sold |
selling |
продавать |
|
to send |
sent |
sent |
sending |
посылать, отправлять |
|
to set |
set |
set |
setting |
устанавливать |
|
to shake |
shook |
shaken |
shaking |
трясти |
Окончание табл.
|
1 форма |
2 форма |
3 форма |
4 форма |
Перевод |
|
to shine |
shone |
shone |
shining |
светить, сиять |
|
to shoot |
shot |
shot |
shooting |
стрелять, снимать |
|
to show |
showed |
shown |
showing |
показывать |
|
to shut |
shut |
shut |
shutting |
закрывать |
|
to sing |
sang |
sung |
singing |
петь |
|
to sink |
sank |
sunk |
sinking |
тонуть |
|
to sit |
sat |
sat |
sitting |
сидеть |
|
to sleep |
slept |
slept |
sleeping |
спать |
|
to smell |
smelt |
smelt |
smelling |
нюхать, пахнуть |
|
to speak |
spoke |
spoken |
speaking |
говорить, разговаривать |
|
to spring |
sprang |
sprung |
springing |
прыгать |
|
to spend |
spent |
spent |
spending |
тратить, проводить время |
|
to spread |
spread |
spread |
spreading |
распространять(ся) |
|
to stand |
stood |
stood |
standing |
стоять |
|
to steal |
stole |
stolen |
stealing |
воровать, украсть |
|
to stick |
stuck |
stuck |
sticking |
прилипать |
|
to strike |
struck |
struck |
striking |
бить, ударять |
|
to swear |
swore |
sworn |
swearing |
клясться |
|
to sweep |
swept |
swept |
sweeping |
мести, подметать |
|
to swim |
swam |
swum |
swimming |
плавать |
|
to take |
took |
taken |
taking |
взять, брать |
|
to teach |
taught |
taught |
teaching |
учить, обучать |
|
to tear |
tore |
torn |
tearing |
рвать |
|
to tell |
told |
told |
telling |
сказать, сообщать |
|
to think |
thought |
thought |
thinking |
думать |
|
to throw |
threw |
thrown |
throwing |
бросать, кидать |
|
to understand |
understood |
understood |
understanding |
понимать |
|
to wake |
woke |
woken |
waking |
будить, просыпаться |
|
to wear |
wore |
worn |
wearing |
носить |
|
to weep |
wept |
wept |
weeping |
плакать |
|
to win |
won |
won |
winning |
побеждать, выигрывать |
|
to wind |
wound |
wound |
winding |
виться, наматывать(ся) |
|
to write |
wrote |
written |
writing |
писать |
Три формы неправильных глаголов,
сгруппированные по звучанию и написанию
THE THREE FORMS OF IRREGULAR VERBS GROUPED
INTO CLUSTERS
|
1 форма |
2 форма |
3 форма |
|
Bear Swear Tear Wear |
Bore Swore Tore Wore |
Born Sworn Torn Worn |
|
Become Come |
Became Came |
Become Come |
|
Begin Drink Ring Run Sing Sink Spring Swim |
Began Drank Rang Ran Sang Sank Sprang Swam |
Begun Drunk Rung Run Sung Sunk Sprung Swum |
|
Bind Find |
Bound Found |
Bound Found |
|
Bring Buy Catch Fight Seek Teach Think |
Brought Bought Caught Fought Sought Taught Thought |
Brought Bought Caught Fought Sought Taught Thought |
|
Bend Build Lend Send Spend |
Bent Built Lent Sent Spent |
Bent Built Lent Sent Spent |
|
Deal Dream Feel Keep Leap |
Dealt Dreamt Felt Kept Leapt |
Dealt Dreamt Felt Kept Leapt |
Продолжение табл.
|
1 форма |
2 форма |
3 форма |
|
Mean Sleep Smell Sweep Weep |
Meant Slept Smelt Swept Wept |
Meant Slept Smelt Swept Wept |
|
Hang Stick Strike Win |
Hung Stuck Struck Won |
Hung Stuck Struck Won |
|
Blow Grow Throw Fly |
Blew Grew Threw Flew |
Blown Grown Thrown Flown |
|
Know Draw |
Knew Drew |
Known Drawn |
|
Drive Ride Rise Write |
Drove Rode Rose Wrote |
Driven Ridden Risen Written |
|
Feed Hold Lead Meet Read |
Fed Held Led Met Read |
Fed Held Led Met Read |
|
Forbid Forgive Give |
Forbade Forgave Gave |
Forbidden Forgiven Given |
|
Break Choose Freeze Speak Steal Wake |
Broke Chose Froze Spoke Stole Woke |
Broken Chosen Frozen Spoken Stolen Woken |
|
Lay Pay |
Laid Paid |
Laid Paid |
|
Sell Tell |
Sold Told |
Sold Told |
|
Shake Take |
Shook Took |
Shaken Taken |
Окончание табл.
|
1 форма |
2 форма |
3 форма |
|
Stand Understand |
Stood Understood |
Stood Understood |
|
Burst Cost Cut Hit Hurt Let Put Set Shut Spread |
Burst Cost Cut Hit Hurt Let Put Set Shut Spread |
Burst Cost Cut Hit Hurt Let Put Set Shut Spread |
|
Burn Learn |
Burnt Learnt |
Burnt Learnt |
|
Bite Hide |
Bit Hid |
Bitten Hidden |
|
Shoot |
Shot |
Shot |
|
Shine |
Shone |
Shone |
|
Beat |
Beat |
Beaten |
|
Eat |
Ate |
Eaten |
|
Fall |
Fell |
Fallen |
|
Forget |
Forgot |
Forgotten |
|
See |
Saw |
Seen |
|
Lose |
Lost |
Lost |
|
Light |
Lit |
Lit |
|
Sit |
Sat |
Sat |
|
Lie |
Lay |
Lain |
|
Hear |
Heard |
Heard |
|
Leave |
Left |
Left |
|
Say |
Said |
Said |
|
Make |
Made |
Made |
|
Have |
Had |
Had |
|
Do |
Did |
Done |
|
Show |
Showed |
Shown |
Список заимствованных слов, выражений и сокращений
ab initio – с начала
A.D. (Anno Domini) – нашей эры
a.m. (ante meridiem) – до полудня
a posteriori – на основании опыта
a priori – заранее, независимо от опыта
cf. (confer) – сравните
ceteris paribus – при прочих равных условиях
c. (circa) – приблизительно, около
e.g. (exempli gratia) = for example – например
et.al. – и другие
etc. (et cetera) – и так далее
ib., ibid. (ibidem) – там же, в том же месте
i.e. (id est) = that is – то есть
in situ – на своем месте
in vitro – в лабораторном сосуде, вне организма
in vivo – в естественных условиях, на живом организме
med. (medium) – середина, средний
N.B. (nota bene) – примечание, отметка
per capita – на душу населения
per se – сам по себе, по существу
p.m. (post meridiem) – после полудня
pro et con (pro et contra) – за и против
pro forma – формально, для вида
versus (vers, vs.) – против, в сравнении с, в зависимости от
vice versa (v.v.) – наоборот
vide infra – см. ниже
vide supra – см. выше
viz (videlicet) – а именно
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
|
[1] Введение [2] 1. Структура грамматики английского языка [3] 2. Сказуемые [4] 3. Артикли [5] 4. Предлоги [6] 5. Местоимения
[7] [8] 7. Спряжение глагола “to be” [9] 8. Существительное в функции определения [10] 9. Формальные подлежащие [11] 11. Многозначность слова “it” [12] 12. Многозначность слов “that”/ “those” [13] 13. Функции слова «one»
[14] 14. Степени сравнения прилагательных [15] 15. Сравнительные конструкции [16] 16. Четыре основные формы глагола
[17] 17. Образование видовременных форм глагола [18] 18. Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты
[19]
[20] [21] 21. Придаточные предложения [22] 22. Согласование времен [23] 23. Бессоюзные придаточные предложения
[24] 24. Грамматическая многозначность [25] 25. Сослагательное наклонение [26] 26. Условные предложения [27] 27. Инверсия
[28] 28. Употребление глаголов
[29]
[30]
[31] [32] 32. Инфинитив [33] 33. Субъектный инфинитивный оборот [34] 34. Объектный инфинитивный оборот [35] 35. Предложный инфинитивный оборот
[36] [37] APPENDIX 1 [38] APPENDIX 2 [39] APPENDIX 3 |
Сводная таблица употребления времен (Изъявительное наклонение) часть 1
|
Active Voice to ask |
|||||
|
Simple |
Continuous |
||||
|
to ask (V1) / asked (V2) |
to be asking (V4) |
||||
|
Present |
Past |
Future |
Present |
Past |
Future |
|
ask(s) do/does |
asked did |
shall ask will |
am is asking are |
was asking were |
shall be asking will |
|
Употребление |
|||||
|
действие как факт (обычное, постоянное, повторяющееся) |
действие как процесс (незаконченное, длящееся) |
||||
|
usually every day often seldom sometimes |
yesterday last week 5 days ago |
tomorrow next week |
now |
at 4 o’clock, from 6 o’clock till 7 o’clock другое действие |
|
|
Перевод |
|||||
|
гл. несоверш./соверш. вида что делаю, что делал, что сделал, что буду делать, что сделаю? |
гл. несовершенного вида что делаю, делал, буду делать? |
||||
|
Passive Voice to be asked (V3) |
|||||
|
to be asked (V3) |
to be being asked (V3) |
||||
|
am is asked are |
was asked were |
shall be asked will |
am is being asked are |
was being asked were |
_____ |
Сводная таблица употребления времен (Изъявительное наклонение) часть 2
|
Active Voice to ask |
|||||
|
Perfect |
Perfect Continuous |
||||
|
To have asked (V3) |
to have been asking (V4) |
||||
|
Present |
Past |
Future |
Present |
Past |
Future |
|
have asked has |
had asked |
shall have asked will |
have been asking has |
had been asking |
shall have been asking will |
|
Употребление |
|||||
|
действие, предшествующее какому-то моменту, связанное с ним |
действие, начавшееся в прошлом и продолжающееся вплоть до какого-нибудь момента |
||||
|
today this week already ever, never just, not yet |
by 4 o’clock другое действие |
for – в течение since – с (ever) since – с тех пор как |
|||
|
Перевод |
|||||
|
гл. совершенного вида |
гл. несовершенного вида что делаю, что делал, что буду делать? |
||||
|
прошедшего времени что сделал? |
что сделаю? |
||||
|
Passive Voice to be asked (V3) |
|||||
|
to have been asked (V3) |
–––––––––––––– |
||||
|
have been asked has |
had been asked |
shall have been asked will |
_____________ |
Дмитренко Нина Андреевна
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ПРАКТИЧЕСКАЯ
ГРАММАТИКА
Учебное пособие
Редактор
Т.В. Белянкина
Корректор
Н.И. Михайлова
Компьютерная верстка
Н.В. Гуральник
_____________________________________________________________________
Подписано в печать 27.08.2007. Формат 6084 1/16
Печать офсетная. Усл. печ. л. 3,26. Печ. л. 3,5. Уч.-изд. л. 3,25
Тираж 150 экз. Заказ № C 23
_____________________________________________________________________
СПбГУНиПТ. 191002, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Ломоносова, 9
ИКЦ СПбГУНиПТ. 191002, Санкт-Петербург, ул. Ломоносова, 9
PAGE 123
СЛОВА
ЧАСТИ РЕЧИ
числительные
местоимения
существительные
глаголы
наречия
прилагательные
предлоги
междометия
союзы
ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
ЧЛЕНЫ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ
определения
подлежащее
дополнения
сказуемое
обстоятельства
повествовательные
общие
простые нераспространенные
предложения
вопросительные
специальные
простые распространенные
восклицательные
разделительные
повелительные
альтернативные
обороты
сложносочиненные
сложноподчиненные
простое
простое
придаточное
главное
независимый причастный
1) подлежащие
герундиальный
2) сказуемые
субъектный инфинитивный
3) дополнительные
предложный инфинитивный
объектный инфинитивный
4) определительные
5) обстоятельственные
in
through (out)
during
for