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МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ

Донецький національний університет економіки і торгівлі

імені Михайла Туган-Барановського

Кафедра іноземних мов

Моісєєва Ф.А., Бурдакова О.Л., Гавриліна О.І.

Economics Nowadays

Навчальний посібник

для студентів економічних спеціальностей

заочної форми навчання

Затверджено на засіданні кафедри

іноземних мов

Протокол № ___ від ________ 2009 р.

Схвалено навчально-методичною

радою ДонНУЕТ

Протокол № ___ від _________ 2009 р.

Донецьк 2009


ББК
 65 я 73

М 74

УДК [33:811.111] (075.8)

Рецензенти:

канд. філол. наук, доцент В.О.Дроздов

ст.викладач Г.М.Долецька

Моісєєва, Ф. А.

М 74 Economics Nowadays [Текст] : навч. посіб. для студ. екон. спец. заоч. форма навчання / М-во освіти і науки України, Донец. нац. ун-т економіки і торгівлі ім. М. Туган-Барановського, Каф. інозем. мов. ; Ф. А. Моісєєва, О. Л. Бурдакова, О. І. Гавриліна. – Донецьк : [ДонНУЕТ], 2009. – 296 с.

Пропонований посібник призначено для студентів економічних спеціальностей заочного відділення.

Посібник містить 4 частини та має гнучку структуру, що дозволяє викладачеві користуватися матеріалом навчальних блоків за власним доглядом. Мовленнєві теми, тексти для читання, анотування та реферування, комплекс лексико-граматичних вправ забезпечують формування різноманітного тематичного словника та навичок спілкування у межах зазначеної тематики.

Наповненість навчального посібника відповідає сучасним методичним вимогам до навчальної літератури.

ББК 65 я 73

© Колектив авторів, 2009

© Донецький національний університет економіки і торгівлі

імені Михайла Туган-Барановського, 2009


contents

ПЕРЕДМОВА Introduction..………………………………………………………….…....7

МОВЛЕНЄВИЙ ПРАКТИКУМ

Communication …………………………………………………………….....9

  1.  THE ECONOMY OF UKRAINE…………………………………………….9
  2.  THE ECONOMY OF THE USA………………………………………..……..11
  3.  THE ECONOMY OF GREAT BRITAIN………………………………...…...13
  4.  MY UNIVERSITY………………………………………………………….....15
  5.  MY SPECIALITY. ECONOMIST………………………………………...…..17
  6.  MY SPECIALITY. MANAGER…………………………………………....19
  7.  MARKET…………………………………………………………………....21
  8.  COMPANY STRUCTURE………………………………………………....22
  9.  FORMS OF BUSINESS…………………………………………………..…...25
  10.  Business strategy…………………………………………………....27
  11.  FRANCHISING…………………………………………………………..…....30
  12.  GOODS MANAGER……………………………………………………..……32
  13.  MY SPECIALITY. MARKETING MANAGER……………………….……..34
  14.  MY SPECIALITY. CUSTOMS INSPECTOR…………………………..….....36
  15.  MARKETING AND PROMOTION…………………………………….….....38
  16.  TYPES OF GOODS………………………………………………………...40
  17.  ADVERTISING……………………………………………………………......42
  18.  EXHIBITIONS AND FAIRS……………………………………………….....44
  19.  MY SPECIALITY. ACCOUNTING AND AUDIT…………………………...47
  20.  MY SPECIALITY. FINANCE AND CREDIT……………………………......48
  21.  MY SPECIALTY. BANKING……………………………………………...50
  22.  IMF AND THE WORLD BANK……………………………………………...53
  23.  THE BANKING INDUSTRY………………………………………………....56
  24.  MONEY……………………………………………………………………......58
  25.  TAXATION…………………………………………………………………....60
  26.  STOCK EXCHANGE……………………………………………………….....62

ТЕКСТИ ТА ВПРАВИ

Texts and exercises…………………………………………………….......65

  1.  Introducing economics………………………………………………………....65
  2.  The Government and Market Systems………………………………………....68
  3.  How Markets Work……………………………………………………….....71
  4.  Demand and Supply………………………………………………………....74
  5.  Inflation and Deflation…………………………………………………....76
  6.  Market Leaders, Challengers and Followers………………………………...79
  7.  Company Finance, Ownership and Management……………………………...81
  8.  Bonds…………………………………………………………………..……....84
  9.  Futures, Options and Swaps……………………………………………..……..87
  10.  Buyouts………………………………………………………………….……..91
  11.  Principles of Taxation…………………………………………………...……..93
  12.  Types of Taxes………………………………………………………..………..96
  13.  Foreign Direct Investment……………………………………………..……..100
  14.  Accounting and Bookkeeping………………………………………………...102
  15.  Accounting and Financial Nationalments…………………………………….105
  16.  Types of Financial Nationalments……………………………………...…….108
  17.  Current Account and Capital Account……………………………………..110
  18.  Auditing……………………………………………………………….……...113
  19.  Marketing……………………………………………………………….…….116
  20.  The Centrality of Marketing…..……………………………………………...118
  21.  Advertising……………………………………………………………….…..121
  22.  The Business Cycle………………………………………………………...…125
  23.  The Business Cycle and Government Intervention………………………...…128
  24.  Macroeconomics…………………………………………………………...131
  25.  Money………………………………………………………………….……..135
  26.  Money and Banks………………………………………………………..……138
  27.  Banking and Financial Services in Great Britain……………………………..141
  28.  Management…………………………………………………………….…….145
  29.  International Business……………………………………………………...…148
  30.  International Trade………………………………………………………...….150
  31.  International Trade. Specialization among Nations…………………………..153
  32.  Protectionism and Free Trade………………………………………………...157
  33.  International Organizations and Free Trade………………………………......160
  34.  Free Trade and Developing Countries………………………………………..163
  35.  Economics and Ecology……………………………………………………....165

КЛІШЕ ДЛЯ РЕФЕРУВАННЯ ТА АНОТУВАННЯ

CLICHÉS FOR ANNOTATIONS AND abstracts………………………..168

ГРАМАТИЧНИЙ ДОВІДНИК…………………………….…...........................170

§ 1. АРТИКЛЬ (THE ARTICLE)………………………………….........................170

§ 2. ІМЕННИК (THE NOUN)……………………………………………………..171

§ 3. ПРИКМЕТНИК (THE ADJECTIVE)………………………………………...173

§ 4. СПОЛУЧНИКИ “AS...AS, NOT SO...AS, THAN” ПРИ УТВОРЕННІ СТУПЕНІВ ПОРІВНЯННЯ ПРИКМЕТНИКІВ………………………..…...175

§ 5. ЧИСЛІВНИК (THE NUMERAL)………………………………………….....175

§ 6. ЗАЙМЕННИК (the PRONOUN)…………………………………………...176

§ 7. ДІЄСЛОВО (THE VERB)………………………………………………….…180

НЕОЗНАЧЕНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(the INDEFINITE TENSE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE)………………...190

ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(the CONTINUOUS TENSE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE)……………...196

ПЕРФЕКТНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(the PERFECT TENSE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE)………………........202

ПЕРФЕКТНО-ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС

(the PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE)…………………………………..........209

§ 8. ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК

(THE PARTICIPLE)……………………………………………………..........211

§ 9. ІНФІНІТИВ

(THE INFINITIVE)………………………………………………………..…..218

§ 10. МОДАЛЬНІ ДІЄСЛОВА

(MODAL VERBS)…………………………………………………………..223

§ 11. ПОРЯДОК СЛІВ В АНГЛІЙСЬКОМУ РЕЧЕННІ. РОЗПОВІДНІ РЕЧЕННЯ (word order. AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES)………........231

§ 12. ПИТАЛЬНІ РЕЧЕННЯ (INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES)……………...231

§ 13. УЗГОДЖЕННЯ ЧАСІВ У ДОДАТКОВОМУ підрядному РЕЧЕННІ

(sequences of tenses)…………………………………………….....233

§ 14. БЕЗСПОЛУЧНИКОВІ підрядні РЕЧЕННЯ

(asyndetic affirmative sentences) ………………………..….234

§ 15. УМОВНІ РЕЧЕННЯ (CONDITIONAL SENTENCES) ………………...…235

ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Grammar exercises……………………………………………………….239

  1.  Вживання часів Active Voice……………………………………239
  2.  Вживання часів Passive Voice…………………………………..251
  3.  Модальні дієслова..............................................................................254
  4.  ІНФІНІТИВ....................................................................................................263
  5.  ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК.......................................................................................272
  6.  Ступені порівняння............................................................................283
  7.  СЛОВА-ЗАМІННИКИ…..............................................................................285
  8.  Безсполучникові речення...............................................................285
  9.  умовні речення......................................................................................286

Список використаної літератури

references……………………………………………………………………294


ПЕРЕДМОВА

Introduction

Метою пропонованого посібника є формування та розвиток у майбутніх фахівців навичок читання, розуміння та перекладу оригінальної літератури з питань економіки; формування навичок усного та письмового спілкування з закордонними партнерами. Посібник призначено для студентів заочної форми навчання факультетів економічного профілю.

Посібник складається з 4-х частин:

  •  блок усних мовленнєвих тем;
  •  тексти економічного напрямку з додатками кліше для анотування та реферування;
  •  граматичний довідник;
  •  граматичний практикум.

Метою першої частини пропонованого посібника є формування навичок усного спілкування у межах тематики економічного напрямку, що висвітлюють аспекти фінансової діяльності підприємств, питання маркетингу, менеджменту та міжнародної торгівлі. Кожна тема супроводжується аудіоматеріалом, коментарями та низкою питань, що значно полегшує розуміння вивчаємого матеріалу та сприяє породженню висловлювань та виразів точки зору за темою.

Частина, що містить тексти для читання, призначена для розвитку та удосконалення навичок читання літератури за фахом. Для активізації навичок непідготовленого висловлювання наприкінці кожного тексту розташовані проблемні питання типу “What do you think?”. Тексти, що подані у блоці для читання, на погляд авторів, можливо використовувати автономно.

Матеріал для частково адаптованих текстів було взято з оригінальних першоджерел, періодичних видань, англомовних підручників.

Вправи до текстів можна розподілити на передтекстові та післятекстові.

Передтекстова робота націлена на активізацію знань за пропонованою темою. У більшості випадків цьому сприяють вирази та питання, що випереджують читання текстів та наладжують студентів на розуміння матеріалу, виконання післятекстових завдань та отримання необхідної інформації.

Питання та завдання наприкінці текстів сприяють глибокому розумінню прочитаного матеріалу, розвитку навичок анотування та реферування, виявленню основних ідей тексту.

Більша кількість завдань подано трьома типами вправ, що включають роботу на розуміння, узагальнення та висловлювання своєї точки зору для просунутих („advanced”) студентів. Завдання на узагальнення матеріалу чергуються з завданнями на організацію текстового матеріалу та завданнями truefalse”.

Враховуючи різний ступінь підготовки студентів та неоднакову кількість годин за спеціальностями, автори пропонують диференційний підхід до виконання завдань та підтримують вивчення матеріалу за творчим власним доглядом викладача.

Через те, що кінцевим результатом є іспит, що містить питання з анотування та реферування тексту, автори вирішили подати список мовленнєвих кліше.

Граматичний практикум містить теоретичний довідник з основних питань граматики англійської мови, а також комплекс лексико-граматичних вправ для самостійної роботи студентів.

Структура посібника призвана забезпечити формування різноманітного тематичного словника, засвоєння фахової лексики, розвиток навичок спілкування у межах тематики, що передбачена робочою навчальною програмою.

Окремо слід відзначити, що матеріал текстів за фахом узгоджений з профільними кафедрами Донецького національного університету економіки і торгівлі імені Михайла Туган-Барановського.


МОВЛЕНЄВИЙ ПРАКТИКУМ

Communication

1. THE ECONOMY OF UKRAINE

Lead-in:

1. ferrous metallurgy – чорна металургія

2. domestic market –  внутрішній ринок

3. manganese ore – марганцева руда

4. mercury – ртуть

5. mineral deposits –  мінеральні поклади

6. black soil – чорнозем

7. precipitation – осадки

Ukraine is a country that is developed in both industry and agriculture. It may be said to be an industrial-agricultural country.

Speaking about the industry of Ukraine, two branches should be mentioned as primary in importance. The ferrous metallurgy industry, centered in the Pridniprovye Region, produces enough iron and steel to satisfy the needs of the whole country, with more left over to export. The Ukrainian machine-engineering industry manufactures diesel locomotives, railway cars, automobiles, tractors, missiles, sea and river vessels, as well as equipment for metallurgy, mining, textile industries, electric motors and industrial robots. The country also supplies its domestic market with many household appliances, including refrigerators, washing machines and TV-sets.

Some other branches of industry that are well-developed in Ukraine are the cellulose paper industry, non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical industry, and oil processing.

Mining occupies an important place in the economy of Ukraine. Speaking about Ukrainian mining, one thinks first of the coal mines of Donbas. But coal is probably not the most important mineral mined in the country. Iron, manganese, titanium and uranium ores, as well as salt, graphite, mercury, gypsum, and mineral paints are among the mineral deposits that Ukraine possesses in quantities large enough to fully satisfy its needs.

Ukraine has always been associated with grain production. That and sugar production are the main branches of Ukrainian agriculture. This is natural because of the characteristics of the country’s relief and climate. The territory of Ukraine is composed mostly of steppes and plains (over 95% of the land), and the country possesses 25% of all the black soil in the world. These features provide a great potential for agriculture, especially grain production. Another agricultural asset is the moderately continental climate with 300-600 millimeters of precipitation a year.

It may be said that Ukraine has everything to become one of the most economically developed countries in the world. Whether or not that happens will depend on the success of economic reforms, how well a transition to a market economy is achieved, and free market mechanisms are introduced. Of great importance are foreign investments that could be a great stimulus to Ukraine’s economic development.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  Is Ukraine developed in industry and agriculture?
  2.  What industries are primary in importance?
  3.  What are other well-developed industries?
  4.  What place does mining occupy?
  5.  Is agriculture important?
  6.  Why is Ukraine an agricultural country?

2. THE ECONOMY OF THE USA

Lead-in:

1. free enterprise system – система вільного підприємництва

2. consumers – споживачи

3. have risen enormously – значно зросла

4. purchasing power – купівельна спроможнісь

5. gross national product  валовий національний продукт

6. per capita – на душу населення

7. retail businesses – роздрібна торгівля

The American economy is a free enterprise system that has emerged from the labors of millions of American workers; from the wants that American consumers have expressed in the marketplace; from the efforts of thousands of private business people; and from the activities of government officials at all levels.

The nation’s income and productivity have risen enormously over the past 80 years. In this period, the money for personal consumption tripled in real purchasing power. The gross national product per capita has grown four times, reflecting the growth in labour productivity.

Together all sectors of the American economy produce almost $4.000 million dollars worth of goods and services annually. Their consumption is spread widely. Most Americans consider themselves members of the middle economic class, and relatively few are extremely wealthy or poor.

Despite the fact that the United Nationals government supports many segments of the nation's economy, economists estimate that the public sector accounts for only one-fifth of American economic activity, with the other part in private hands. In agriculture, for example, farmers benefit from public education, roads, rural electrification, but their land is private property to work pretty much as they desire. More than 87% of farms are owned by the people who operate them; the rest are owned by business corporations. With increasingly improved farm machinery, seed and fertilizers, more food is produced each year, although the number of farmers decrease annually.

The bulk of America's wealth is produced by private industries and businesses — ranging from giants like General Motors, which sells $96,371 million worth of cars and trucks each year — to thousands of small, independent enterprises. America has traditionally supported free trade. Some 75% of American products currently face foreign competition within markets in the USA.

American industries have become increasingly more service-oriented. Of 12.6 million new jobs created since 1982, almost 85% have been in service industries. They include retail businesses, hotels and restaurants, communication and education, entertainment and recreation, federal and local government, office administration, banking and finance, and many other types of work. Careers in technical, business and health related fields have particularly experienced employee growth in recent years.

Although the American economy is not perfect, it does do what is expected of marketplace competition — gives Americans the opportunity to compare quality and prices and to decide what they really want to buy. As a result of the creativity, initiative and hard work which free enterprise has encouraged, the USA have become one of the most prosperous nations in the world.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  How can you characterise the American economy?
  2.  How much has the national product per capita grown?
  3.  How much do all American sectors produce annually?
  4.  What role does the public sector play?
  5.  Who is the bulk of American wealth produced by?
  6.  What changes have taken place in American industries?
  7.  Why do you think the USA have become one of the most prosperous nations in the world?

3. THE ECONOMY OF GREAT BRITAIN

Lead-in:

1. output – продукція

2. employment – зайнятість

3. recession – занепад

4. rate of inflation – інфляція

5. income  tax rate – податкова ставка

6. turnover – обіг (оборот)

7. inward investment – внутрішні інвестиції

8. merger – злиття

Britain's economy is based primarily on private enterprise, which accounts for 75% of output and nearly 70% of employment. Just over 2% of the British workforce is engaged in agriculture, a lower proportion than in any other leading industrial country. Services contribute a growing proportion of production — 65%, while manufacturing accounts for 21%. By successfully exploiting oil and natural gas from the North Sea, Britain has become self-sufficient in energy and expects to remain so for some years. Exports, mainly to other EC countries, are equivalent to over half of domestic oil production.

International trade plays a vital role in Britain's economy. Exports of goods and services make up around 25% of national output. From 1981 to 1989 the economy experienced eight years of growth, but in 1990 with the recession in Britain and other major industrialised nations, growth slowed to about 1%. The rate of inflation went down in the early 1980s, went up in 1988, and dropped  again in 1992. The unemployment rate in the country is about 10% of the workforce. Growth of manufacturing productivity in Britain is generally faster than in all other leading industrialised countries.

The Government economic strategy is centred on keeping the rate of inflation down, within a range of 1 to 4%. As part of this strategy, public spending and borrowing is tightly controlled. At the same time government policy tries to improve the working of markets and promote enterprise and efficiency. A substantial amount of activity has been transferred from the public to the private sector through privatisation and contracting out. Since 1979, forty six major businesses have been privatized, including British Gas, British Telecom and British Steel.

The Government tries to take measures to reduce personal and corporate income tax rates. Industrial relations have been put on a more secure legal footing, and training opportunities have been expanded. Small businesses employ more than a third of private sector workforce and are responsible for one-sixth of total turnover.

The Government provides assistance and guidance to help with problems affecting small companies. Britain is considered to have an attractive location for inward investment because of its membership of the EC. Though markets in Britain operate as freely as possible, Government regulates monopolies, mergers and anti-competitive practices.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is Britain’s economy based on?
  2.  Is international trade important for Great Britain?
  3.  Was the  rate of unemployment high in Great Britain?
  4.  What is the Government economic strategy centered on?
  5.  How does the Government try to reduce income tax rates?

4. MY UNIVERSITY

Lead-in:

1. extra-mural (part-time department) – заочне відділення

2. to be run by – управляти

3. staff – персонал

4. to provide an access to – забезпечувати доступ 

5. to be  at sb’s disposal – бути в розпорядженні когось  

I am a student of Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade named after M.Tugan-Baranovsky. It is a leading university in our country and one of the oldest ones, it was founded in 1920. Studying at our university has always been prestigious and it is even more prestigious nowadays because our country has stepped onto the road of the transition to the market-based economy and needs qualified professionals in this field. Graduates from our university must be ready to work in National, regional and municipal bodies of the national economy and they have to meet all the requirements to specialists of present time.

The University comprises 4 institutes and 3 faculties in its structure:

  •  the institute of finance and accounting;
  •  the institute of economics and management;
  •  the institute of processing and refrigerating equipment;
  •  the institute of post-graduate education;
  •  the international faculty of training foreign specialists;
  •  the faculty of marketing, trade and customs activity;
  •  the faculty of hotel-and-restaurant business.

The University trains specialists for various fields of our economic life.

More than 11.000 students from Ukraine and from foreign countries study here. Students are trained in 12 specialities and you can get two or more professions at the same time. For those who combine work and study there is an extra-mural (or part – time) department, and I am a student of the part-time department.

The University is run by Rector and four Pro-Rectors. These is the director at the head of each institure and the dean at the head of each Faculty A qualified teachers’ staff work here: a lot of well-known scientists and experts in economics, finance, management, trade and public catering deliver lecture and run practical classes.

Those who complete the course successfully are qualified for a wide range of jobs and further courses according to the educational scheme of the University.

There are 7 academic buildings where you can find a lot of lecture-rooms, computer classes, laboratories. Our University provides an access to special literature in Ukrainian, Russian and English, because our library has a large collection of books, journals and other papers in economics, engineering and technology of foodstuffs.

Our University is provided with its own computer classes and students have an access to a wide range of statistical database and software, to the Internet. Students and teachers of our university are involved in a very wide range of research projects, international projects with our foreign partners. There is no need to say that we can’t do without foreign languages, and first of all, English, because it is the language of international cooperation.

No doubt we must get a fundamental  basis of knowledge, that is why we study both theoretical and applied subjects.

Our students are provided with sports and recreation facilities, three gymnasiums with the modern equipment are at our students’ disposal and they also have an access to free medical assistance.

I’m proud to be a student of this educational establishment and invite all my younger friends to enter my University.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What University do you study at?
  2.  Who is it run by?
  3.  How many faculties are there in its structure?
  4.  What is your faculty / institute?
  5.  Can students combine work and study?
  6.  What facilities are students provided with?

5. MY SPECIALITY. ECONOMIST

Lead-in:

  1.  enterprise підприємство
  2.  utility – корисність, економічна вигідність
  3.  assume брати на себе, приймати
  4.  responsibility – відповідальність, зобов’язання, обов’язок
  5.  entrepreneur – підприємець
  6.  acquire – набувати, здобувати, досягати
  7.  facilities – засоби, вигоди, сприятливі, умови, пільги
  8.  income – прибуток, дохід, надходження
  9.  employment – зайнятість, наймання, робота, служба
  10.  abundance – велика кількість, безліч

I am a student of the economics and management institute.

My speciality is economy of an enterprise and I am going to be an economist. An economist is someone who studies the way in which money and goods are produced and used in the systems of business and trade.

Generally economists focus on the way by which individuals, groups, businesses, enterprises and governments seek to achieve efficiently any economic objective they select. As economists say, they maximize utility.

For their parts, economists seek as much profit as they can extract from their operations. As an entrepreneur I will have to assume the responsibility and the risk for a business operation with the expectation of making a profit.

The entrepreneur generally decides on the product to select, acquires the facilities needed; and brings together labour, capital and production materials.

The job of the research economist is to increase our understanding of economic matters. The tools of statistics and mathematics help the researcher carry out this task. Government agencies and private business firms generate a vast array of economic statistics on such matters as income, employment, prices, and expenditure patterns.

Economics is a social science. The fields of political science, sociology, psychology, and economics often overlap. Because of the abundance of economic data and the ample opportunity for scientific research in the real world, economics is sometimes called the "queen of the social sciences". Once you have developed the economic way of thinking, economics will be relatively easy.

If the business succeeds, the economist gets the reward of profit. If it fails, he or she takes the loss.

Nowadays in Ukraine there is a great need in skilled economists to run small business as well as privatized National enterprises and large corporations. Market economy has not been formed in Ukraine yet. So it is important for economists in our country to be educated and well-trained.

 

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is the job of an economist?
  2.  What is the job of the research economist?
  3.  Do statistics and mathematics help the research economist?
  4.  Is economics a social science?
  5.  Why is economics called the ‘queen of the social sciences’?

6. MY SPECIALITY. MANAGER

Lead-in:

  1.  make decision – приймати рішення
  2.  assignment – призначення
  3.  choice – вибір
  4.  trust – довiр’я, віра
  5.  relationship – зв’язок, відношення
  6.  sales – продаж, збут
  7.  law – закон, право, юриспруденція

I am a student of the economics and management institute.

Management is the process of making decisions and issuing commands. The management function of decision-making is aimed at defining the work and behavior of the organisation that is necessary to realise a given mission. Based on these decisions, managers exercise the command function to initiate action on various work assignments.

Managers are people who, collectively or individually, are responsible for running a business or organization.

What makes a good manager? First of all, the ability to communicate, to get your ideas across and to listen to other people. Secondly, a good sense of organization so that working practices are efficient and problems can be anticipated and avoided. Thirdly, managers work long hours and therefore a great deal of stamina is required to avoid stress. A good manager must also be confident in his/her own ability to deal with difficult situations and show qualities of leadership so that others will want to follow. Managers have to take the initiative and bring fresh creative ideas to old problems. But sound judgement is necessary when a choice of possible courses of action is difficult or risky.

Once decisions are taken, a manager has to make sure they are implemented and obeyed. For this, he or she must demonstrate integrity: this includes a sense of honesty, trust and loyalty to the organization and the personnel under his or her control. Managers should also be accountable to their own boss and be able to explain the reasons for making any decision.

New technology, new ideas, new values and new problems make up the decision agenda of today’s managers.

Management is usually broken down into specific parts, e.g. works management, personnel management, marketing management, etc.

Personnel management is concerned with people at work and with their relationships within an enterprise.

Marketing management includes all aspects of making a product available to the public: product development, pricing, advertising, sales, marketing research, transportation, consumer relations.

A given member of management must undergo a substantial education process in order to become aware of his (her) responsibilities and to become able to perform them adequately. He must receive training on the basis of practically every important area of marketing and business management, finance, production, sales, law plus much, much more.

A good manager is the one who can direct and control people effectively.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is management?
  2.  What are the management functions? What are they aimed at?
  3.  What makes a good manager?
  4.  What types of management do you know?
  5.  What is personnel management concerned with?
  6.  What aspects does marketing management include?

7. MARKET

Lead-in:

  1.  demand for goods – попит на товар
  2.  domestic marketвнутрішній ринок
  3.  stock marketфондова біржа
  4.  market shareчастка на ринку
  5.  consumptionспоживання
  6.  meet the demandзадовольняти попит

An area where there is a demand for certain goods is called a market.

A company which sells goods locally caters for the local market. Goods sold in the same country as they are produced are sold on the home (or domestic) market. 

A company which sells goods abroad is an exporter. An exporter sells goods on the international (or overseas) market. An importer buys goods abroad and imports them into his own country.

There are a lot of markets: stock market, money market, labour market, etc.

Some markets, shops and stalls physically bring together the buyer and the seller. Other markets, Stock Exchanges for example, operate chiefly through intermediaries (stockbrokers) who transact business on behalf of clients. Both of them determine prices that ensure that quantity people wish to buy equals the quantity people wish to sell. Price and quantity cannot be considered separately.

All trade depends on supply (having goods or services to sell) and demand (consumers, people who whant to buy). If you increase production but demand remains stable, the price will fall. Therefore many large suppliers do not produce to their maximum capacity. They put a ceiling on their output to keep the price high. A group of companies or countries producing the same sort of goods are called a cartel and when they completely control the market in those goods they are said to have a monopoly. In the USA there are antitrust laws against this sort of practice which kills competition.

The percentage of the total of one kind of goods sold by one company or country is called its market share. However, suppliers usually keep stocks of theirs product so that if consumption suddenly increases, they can meet the demand.

Certain goods always keep a percentage difference between their prices so if the price of one rises or falls, the others do the same. This is called maintaning the differentials. When several products are linked in this way, the price of one of them is usually taken as the reference price for all the others. If goods cannot be sold in the market, they will cease to be produced.

The market reflects any change in the economy. It is sensitive to interest rates, inflation, employment and political events in any country.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What do we call an area where there is a demand for certain goods?
  2.  What is the home (or domestic) market?
  3.  Where does an importer (exporter) buy and sell goods?
  4.  Does all trade depend on supply and demand?
  5.  What is a monopoly?
  6.  Does the market reflect any change in the economy?
  7.  What are the factors the market is sensitive to?

8. COMPANY STRUCTURE

Lead-in:

  1.  body – орган, установа
  2.  Executive Board – виконавча рада
  3.  stock holder – акціонер
  4.  Chief Executive Officer (CEO)головний виконавчий керівник;
  5.  power – повноваження
  6.  research and development наукове дослідження,

розвиток (розширення роботи)

  1.  department – відділ
  2.  market research – дослідження
  3.  advertising and promotion sector – сектор реклами

та рекламного заохочення

до купівлі товару

  1.  public relations – публічний зв’язок
  2.  affiliates – філіали
  3.  parent company – основна компанія
  4.  chain of commandланцюг (порядок) влади

The highest executive body in a company is the Executive Board (or the Board of Directors). It is accountable to stockholders, and the Board reports to them at the annual stockholders’ meetings. The President is the nominal head of the company, and is elected at the annual stockholders’ meeting. But the President does not supervise the day-to-day running of the company. That is the duty of the Senior Vice-President, or Chief Executive Officer (called a Managing Director in Britain). He or she has the real executive power. The other members of this board are also vice-presidents.

Every Vice-President is responsible for the operation of one or more departments. Executive departments may vary, depending on the company and its activity, but some that are found most frequently are Production, Marketing, Finance, Personnel (Human Resources), and Research and Development (R&D). The Personnel Department is usually under the supervision of the Vice-President for Finance and Administration, while the R&D Department is under the Vice-President for Production. Department heads are called directors or managers. They are supervised by vice-presidents. Departments, in their turn, may be subdivided into sections or sectors. For instance, the Marketing Department may have a Market Research Sector, a Sales Sector, and an Advertising and Promotion Sector.

There are some peculiar positions in a company’s hierarchy. One of them is a Public Relations Manager who either belongs to the Marketing Department or heads a special sector. His or her responsibilities are to create and maintain the best possible image for the company in the eyes of the public.

Many companies, especially multinational corporations, are also divided geographically. There are special departments, managers, directors, or even vice-presidents responsible for operations in certain geographical territories.

Corporations often have subsidiaries (affiliates) that are more or less autonomous. An affiliate is another company owned by a parent company. An affiliate or subsidiary appears when a parent company becomes the owner (proprietor) of more than 50% of its capital.

Thus the structure of a company is quite complicated. This structure and hierarchy is called “the chain of command” and ensures the company’s efficient functioning.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is the highest executive body in a company?
  2.  Is the Board of Directors accountable to stockholders?
  3.  Who is the nominal head of the company? Is he elected?
  4.  Who supervises the day-to-day running of the company?
  5.  What are the departments of the company that are found most frequently?
  6.  What are the responsibilities of a Public Relations Manager?
  7.  What is an affiliate?
  8.  When does an affiliate appear?

9. FORMS OF BUSINESS

Lead-in:

  1.  sole proprietorship – власність одної особі
  2.  assets – майно, активи
  3.  loan – позика
  4.  customer – покупець, замовник, споживач, клієнт
  5.  liability – відповідальність, забов’язання, заборгованість;
  6.  partnership – товариство
  7.  property – власність, майно
  8.  pool – об’єднувати
  9.  rіghts and dutiesправа і обовязки
  10.  debt – борг
  11.  stock – акції, акціонерний капітал

The simpliest and the cheapest method of starting a business is a sole proprietorship because a sole proprietor invests his or her own capital and personal assets (anything that belongs to the person), or gets a loan from a bank. He or she alone decides what to do to achieve the objective of any business – profit.

The advantages of a sole proprietorship are:

  •  It is easy to start.
  •  It is inexpensive to start.
  •  It is flexible, because the sole proprietor holds all the authority.
  •  It is best adapted to a small business because it can provide individualized products and services to their customers.

The disadvantages are:

  •  It is unlimited in legal liability because the sole proprietor is personally responsible for all the debts and everything that is done in his or her business.
  •  It lacks stability and continuity because the sole proprietor’s disease is a threat to the business and his or her death usually stops it.
  •  It has a high risk of failure because the competition is usually high.

The second simple form of business organization is a partnership. In a partnership, no less than two and no more than twenty people (according to the British law) pool their property, capital (including intellectual capital), efforts, and managerial talents to do business and gain profits.

The co-owners make a written agreement regarding how to invest capital and share dividends, called an Agreement on Capital and Dividends Share. They also write a Statute of their partnership where all the rights and duties of co-owners are regulated.

The Statute is a legal document and its contents are regulated by law. At least one of the partners has unlimited liability, but quite often every co-owner is liable for all the debts of the partnership.

The advantages of a partnership are:

  •  It is easy to organize.
  •  It has potential additional sources for raising investment capital because new partners can be added.
  •  Every partner may act on behalf of the entire partnership.

The disadvantages are:

  •  The business suffers if partners have serious and constant disagreements over decisions-making.
  •  Senior partners have unlimited personal liability.
  •  In case of bankruptcy, the co-owners who invested more capital lose more than the junior partners who invested less.

A corporation (or company) is the most expensive way to organize a business. Corporations issue stock in shares, which are certificates of owing part of the corporation’s capital.

Shares certify that a definite sum of money has been invested by a shareholder, who may own one or many shares and has the right to definite annual dividends.

Stockholders (shareholders) also have the right to attend the stockholders’ meetings, which are nominally the supreme governing body of a corporation.

Corporations have great advantages that make them the strongest and most powerful form of business ensuring the greatest profits.

But there are also great disadvantages:

  •  It is difficult and expensive to start.
  •  It is difficult to control.
  •  It has much less freedom of operation than a sole proprietorship or partnership does.
  •  It has to pay corporate tax.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is the simpliest and the cheapest method of starting a business?
  2.  What are the advantages of a sole proprietorship?
  3.  What are the disadvantages of a sole proprietorship?
  4.  What is the second simple form of business organization?
  5.  What are the advantages (disadvantages) of a partnership?
  6.  What is the most expensive way to organize a business?
  7.  What is the strongest and most powerful form of business?
  8.  What are the advantages (disadvantages) of a corporation?

10. Business strategy

Lead-in:

1. overall method – загальна метода, загальний спосіб

2.to  achieve an objective – досягати мети  

3. flexible – гнучкий

4. long-term – довгостроковий, довготерміновий

5. short-term – короткотерміновий, короткостроковий

6. profit прибуток, дохід

7. share of the market частина, частка, пай, акція

8. to reduce – зменшувати, скорочувати

9. margin  1) грань, край, запас, маргінес

2) точка монетарного прибутку, нижче якої продукція є неприбуткова

10. to increase profits – збільшувати прибуток

11. to manufacture – виробляти

12. loss – втрата, збиток

14. secure – безпечний, міцний, гарантований

15. advantages and disadvantagesпереваги і недоліки

 

Every company or firm develops its strategy, i.e., its overall method of achieving its objectives. The strategy must be very flexible, because only a flexible strategy permits taking into account market conditions, which are constantly changing.

Strategy depends on long-term and short-term objectives and prospects. The long-term objective is always profits. But a company may be ready to cut its profits for some time to have a greater share of the market to sell its products. Greater market share means greater profits in the future. So, a company may put gaining market share as its short-term objective. To achieve this, the company has to reduce its prices. But then, the margins will be lower. Margins are the differences between what it costs to manufacture a product and the price at which it is sold. Lowering the margins means cutting the profits.

In this case, in order to increase profits over the long term, the company needs to increase production. Gaining market share allows it to increase production, and that increase cuts of the unit cost (i.e., the cost to manufacture one unit of what the company produces).

On the other hand, increasing production may cut profits as well, because the increased production requires new investments into machinery and technology.

The strategy, then, has to be oriented in two directions – the market and the manufacturing process. If we focus on the market, then the strategy is to gain market share. If we focus on manufacture as a source of profitability, then the quality of products should be improved. In that case, prices may be raised as well, in their turn raising the profits.

But this strategy does not work well if the market is competitive. Price increases, whatever the quality, may result in a drop in sales. A firm that does not increase prices, or the one that even reduces them, adapts to the market more easily.

To reduce costs without increasing (or even reducing) prices, companies often have to sub-contract some of their production. That means job losses in the company itself, though the remaining jobs become more stable and secure.

It may be said that developing a sound and flexible strategy is very difficult, because every strategy has its advantages and disadvantages. Many factors have to be taken into account.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is a business strategy?
  2.  What are the objectives that every strategy depends on?
  3.  Name two directions a Nationalgy can be oriented in.
  4.  Why do companies have sometimes to sub-contract their production?
  5.  What factors, in your opinion, have to be taken into account in order to develop a sound strategy?

11. FRANCHISING

Lead-in:

  1.  franchisingпривілей, ексклюзівні права і привілеї

на переведення торгівлі чи бізнесу

  1.  agreementзгода, договір, угода
  2.  accounting – бухгалтерія, облік, розрахунок
  3.  bookkeepingбухгалтерія
  4.  penaltyпокарання, кара, штраф
  5.  trademarkфабрична марка, торгівельна марка
  6.  marketing strategyстратегія торгівлі (маркетингу)
  7.  operating manual – підручник, посібник
  8.  quality control – контроль якості
  9.   renewal – відновлення

One of the fastest-growing and most important segments of business is franchising.

There are many different franchise agreements. Franchising is a marketing system based on a legal arrangement that permits one party – the franchisee – to conduct business as an individual owner while abiding by the terms and conditions set by the second party – the franchiser. The franchise is the contract granting the right to do business and specifying the terms and conditions under which the business will be conducted.

The franchisee is usually an independent local business person who agrees with the franchise owner to operate the business. The franchiser is the company that owns the franchise’s name and distinctive elements (such as signs, symbols and patents) and that provides operating systems, such as accounting, advertising, bookkeeping, marketing and other services. While the franchisee is given the right to produce and market the franchiser’s designated goods or services, that production and marketing must be done according to the terms of the licensing agreement. The contract specifies what the franchisee can and cannot do and prescribes certain penalties for non-compliance.

There are two types of franchising systems: product and trademark franchising and business format franchising.

Product franchising is an independent sales relationship between the franchiser and the franchisee in which the latter is given the right to use some of the franchiser’s identity.

Business format franchising is characterized by an on going business relationship between franchiser and franchisee that includes not only the product service and trademark (or trade name) but also the other components of the operating system: marketing strategy and plan, operating manuals and standards, training programs for operating the system, quality control, and communication between franchiser and franchisee.

Franchisees get training from the company that helps them to manage their business and advertising. This continuous support is one of great advantages of franchising. Not less important is using the brand name of a company that is known and advertised nationally, or even worldwide. It is easier for a franchisee to raise money from banks than it is for a sole proprietor because a franchisee has a large company’s support.

But there are disadvantages as well:

  •  A franchisee has less independence than other sole proprietors;
  •  He or she has to pay part of his or her profits to the company (royalty payments).
  •  A franchisee cannot sell his or her business if he or she does not have a franchiser’s agreement of doing so;
  •  Renewal of the franchise is not automatic, so a franchisee can lose his or her franchise.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is franchising (the franchise)?
  2.  What is the franchisee?
  3.  What is the franchiser?
  4.  How many types of franchising systems do you know?
  5.  Is it easier for a franchisee to raise money from banks than it is for a sole proprietor? Why?
  6.  What are advantages and disadvantages of franchising?

 

12. GOODS MANAGER

Lead-in:

1. spice – приправа

2. starch – крохмаль

3.confectionery – кондитерські вироби

4. crockery – фарфор

5. knitwear – трикотажні вироби

6. haberdashery – галантерея

7. stationery – канцелярські товари

8. hosiery – панчішні вироби

9. durability – довговічність

10. demand for the goodsпопит на товари

I am a student of the faculty of Marketing, Trade and Customs Activity at Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade named after M.Tugan-Baranovsky. There are 3 departments here: the department of  Marketing, Goods Management and Customs Activity.

My speciality is Goods Manager. It seems to me that our speciality is the most interesting and necessary for people engaged in trade. Our faculty prepares 2 types of goods managers: Goods Managers of Food products and Non-Food Stuffs. Food is the source of energy for the maintenance of life. That's why there are many kinds of foodstuffs in the world. We get food from animals and birds, plants and fish. Goods Managers of food products study 9 different groups of food products: 1) milk products, 2) meat products, 3) fish products, 4) grain products, 5) vegetables and fruit, 6) oils and fats, 7) drinks, beverages and spice, 8) starch and sugar containing substances and confectionery, 9) egg products.

The work of Goods Managers of food products is very important and many-sided. We study useful properties of goods; determine the most rational ways of food-products usage. Goods managers must know the regime of food-products storage for preserving their quality. The ability to know some new wants and demands of customers, to recognise new trends and developments is very important. So Goods Managers of Food Products study physical, chemical and biological properties of goods and change of these properties while moving from producers to customers.

Goods Manager of Non-Food Stuffs also study different groups of products: plastic goods, consumer service chemicals, crockery and glassware, ceramics, building materials, furniture, electrical appliances, textile goods, ready-made garments, knitted garments, footwear, fur, haberdashery, stationery, hosiery, perfumery and cosmetic, gold and silverware and so on.

Clothing traditionally may be divided into ready-made clothes, hosiery, knitwear, hats, linen. According to the sex and age of a person clothing may be divided into: men's wear, women's wear and children's wear. But nowadays women's wear is gradually becoming identical in many cases with men's wear. The names of many articles of clothes are the same in men's and women's wear; for example, heavy-weight coats, lightweight coats, raincoats, anoraks, cloaks, cardigans, pullovers, sweaters, shirts, etc. The name "trousers" may include slacks, pants, jeans, cords.

The dressing of children moves now towards the miniaturization of adult fashion, including cords, velour skirts, jeans, dresses and suits.

Most people try to have in their wardrobes clothes in natural colours and made of natural materials, the prices on such clothes are rather high, but it would be probably explained by the fact that consumers are looking for durability, value and quality and are prepared to make a purchase which will cost them more but which is expected to last longer.

To be a qualified goods manager means to know if there is any demand for the goods, what the market potential is, to know local conditions and preferences, local trading customs and habits, what seasonal factors should be taken into account and the like.

In order to be specialists our students study foreign languages, mathematics, chemistry, psychology. Besides, great attention is paid to the special subjects.

I like my future speciality and I think that we, young specialists, must do all we can to meet the requirements of Ukraine in full.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is the name of your faculty?
  2.  What are the names of your faculty’s departments?
  3.  What is the name of your speciality?
  4.  What is the work of Goods Manager connected with?
  5.  What types of Goods Managers do you know?

6. What kinds of foodstuffs are there in the world?

7. What groups of non-food goods do you know?

8. What subjects do you study?

13. MY SPECIALITY. MARKETING MANAGER

Lead-in:

1. business dealing  угода

2. demand – попит

3. target market цільовий ринок 

4. marketing mix – комплекс маркетингу

5. joint-venture – спільне підприємство

I am a student of the faculty of Marketing, Trade an Customs Activity at Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade named after M.Tugan-Baranovsky. There are 3 departments here: the department of Marketing, Goods Management and Customs Activity.

My speciality is Marketing Manager. It seems to me that our speciality is the most interesting and necessary for people engaged in trade. I am going to specialize in marketing.

Marketing is an activity that includes different kinds of business dealings with the movement of goods and services from producer to consumer. It surrounds our everyday life.

The students who graduate from our department deal with market research. The ability to know some new wants and demands of customers, to recognise new trends and developments is very important in marketing. Those who produce must know what goods and services, where, at what prices, why, for what purpose their customers would like to buy. Marketing research in this respect helps producers very much.

But it is a poor strategy to try to produce something for everybody or to serve all customers. You cannot satisfy everyone. That is why, to be successful, businesses usually select certain customer groups on which to concentrate their attention, i.e., groups of population that have something in common and with whom a certain product or service is most likely to succeed. Examples of such groups may be: middle-aged housewives, or university students, or retired people, etc. Every such customer group is called a target market. Obviously, different marketing approaches (for instance, different advertising) may be needed to attract people from different target markets to the same product or service.

To be a good Marketing Manager means to know the ABC of marketing (so-called Marketing Mix). It includes the Four P's: product, price, place and promotion. So in order to be specialists the future marketing managers study special subjects. We must know if there is any demand for the goods, what the market potential is, what sort of competition we’ll meet, i.e. how the price of our goods compares with other competitive products, local conditions and preferences, local trading customs and habits, what seasonal factors should be taken into account and the like.

Besides, great attention is paid to foreign languages, mathematics, history, philosophy and so on. After graduating from our faculty we are sent to work at the shops, at the joint-ventures, at the advertising companies, at the marketing departments of different enterprises, companies and firms. I like my future speciality, and I think that we, young specialists, must do all we can to meet the requirements of the population in full.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is the name of your faculty?
  2.  What are the names of your faculty’s departments?
  3.  What is the name of your speciality?
  4.  What is the work of Marketing Manager connected with?
  5.  What customer groups do you know?
  6.  What does it mean to be a good Marketing Manager?
  7.  What subjects do you study?

14. MY SPECIALITY. CUSTOMS INSPECTOR

Lead-in:

1. Goods Management – товарознавство

2. Customs Activity – митна справа

3. cargo – вантаж

4. to prevent smuggling – запобігти контрабанди

5. various duties – різноманітні збори

6. drug law enforcement – виконання закону про наркотики

I am a student of the faculty of Marketing, Trade an Customs Activity at Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade named after M.Tugan-Baranovsky. There are 3 departments here: the department of  Marketing, Goods Management and Customs Activity.

My speciality is Customs inspector. Until recently Ukraine had no institution to train Customs specialists. But now some higher educational establishments, and Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade among them, train such specialists.

The work of Customs inspectors is very important and many-sided. They deal with passengers, cargoes, transport. The passengers going through customs have to declare certain items they are bringing into the country. Customs inspectors are trained to recognize the passengers who are carrying things into a country illegally to prevent smuggling.

As with merchandise processing, modern computer technology and communications are being used extensively to  facilitate the processing of the ever – increasing numbers of travellers entering different countries.

Besides, working with passengers, checking imports and exports there are many other types of work done by Customs inspector. They control payments of various duties, see that appropriate licences are held, inspect the books and accounts and see that the right amount of tax is paid.

According to Customs regulations, one of the duties of a Customs inspector is to prevent drug smuggling. Drug smuggling is a very serious problem nowadays. Drug traffickers use any and every means of transport to smuggle drugs from source area to their market destination.

There are many effective ways of detecting cases of drug smuggling but the best tool for drug law enforcement is a well-trained and experienced Customs experts. The majority of the drugs seized resulted from the work of such officers.

In order to be specialists our students study foreign languages, mathematics, chemistry, psychology. Cooperation between Customs services in different countries is an important element in this work, that is why foreign languages are very important for Customs inspectors. Besides, great attention is paid to special subjects.

I like my future speciality and I think that we, young specialists, must do all we can to meet the requirements of Ukraine in full.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is the name of your faculty?
  2.  What are the names of your faculty’s departments?
  3.  What is the name of your speciality?
  4.  What is the work of Customs inspectors connected with?
  5.  What is the most important duty of Customs inspectors?
  6.  What subjects do you study?

15. MARKETING AND PROMOTION

Lead-in:

  1.  storage – зберігання, склад
  2.  customer purchasing power – купівельна спроможність покупця 
  3.  marketing research – маркетингове дослідження
  4.  promotion – просування товару
  5.  to persuade – переконувати
  6.  marketing mixструктура маркетингу

Marketing is an activity that includes different kinds of business dealings with the movement of goods and services from producer to consumer. It is a very complex process. It includes such activities as product planning, storage, buying, pricing, promotion, selling, traffic, distribution of ideas and research. The aim of marketing is to find out what the other person wants, then manufacture it for him.

So marketing is the management function which organizes and directs all business activities involved in assessing and converting customer purchasing power into effective demand for a specific product or service so as to achieve the profit, target or other objectives set by a company. Those who produce must know what goods and services, where, for what prices, why, for what purpose their customers would like to buy.

Marketing research in this respect helps producers very much. A marketer must determine what customer needs are. It’s done by way of market segmentation. Every market can be divided into segments or, in other words, into separate groups of consumers. First, there are demographic factors like age, income, educational background, occupation, size of family, type of home and neighbourhood, etc. Then there are psychographic factors – the customer’s opinions and interests, hobbies, vacation spots, favourite spots, etc.

The ABC of marketing is the so-called Marketing Mix. It consists of 4 elements: product, price, place and promotion.

Place means the location of certain goods and services and their distribution.

Promotion includes all kinds of communications in marketing, say, advertising, sales, direct mail, free additions and fairs. The primary objectives of promotion are to inform consumers (potential customers) of the existence of certain goods, and services, to demonstrate their advantages and to persuade the consumer to buy them.

The third element of Marketing Mix is Product. It is often connected with research and development of a new product or service, testing it, searching the potential markets and introduction to the market.

Product is the most controllable of the 4 elements of Marketing Mix.

The most changeable element of all the 4 is Price. As prices rise, we can buy fewer things or only things of lesser quality; on the contrary, as prices fall, customers can buy more things or things of better quality.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is marketing?
  2.  What is the aim of marketing?
  3.  What segments can every market be divided into?
  4.  What is the ABC of marketing?
  5.  What does Marketing Mix consist of?
  6.  What is promotion?
  7.  What is the most changeable element of Marketing Mix?

16. TYPES OF GOODS

Lead-in:

  1.  consumer products – споживчі товари
  2.  convenience goods – товари повсякденного попиту 
  3.  shopping goods – товари попереднього вибору
  4.  specialty goods – товари особливого попиту
  5.  advertisements рекламування 
  6.  durable goodsтовари тривалого користування
  7.  luxury goodsпредмети розкоші
  8.  necessities – предмети першої необхідності

Nowadays most marketing specialists divide the consumer products, into three groups: convenience goods, shopping goods and specialty goods.

Convenience goods are the products that consumers buy quickly and often and that are readily available, low priced and heavily advertised. Usually they are inexpensive items like toothpaste, soda, razor blades. People use them every day and don't even think about their prices or brands. A very important role in buying this or that item plays a habit to a particular sort of food, brand of cigarettes or whisky, to some familiar shops or supermarkets. But there exist some other goods the purchase of which requires more thought.

These are fairly important things that a person doesn't buy every day, like a new stereo, a washing machine, a good suit etc. These are shopping goods, products for which a consumer spends a lot of time in order to compare prices, quality and style. Various sources of information are consulted – advertisements, salespeople, friends and relatives.

People use a different approach when they shop for specialty goods, items that have been mentally chosen in advance  and for which there is no acceptable substitute. These are things like Chanel perfume, M.Voronin suits, etc – goods the buyer especially wants and will seek out, regardless of location or price.

The English marketing specialists divide goods into almost the same subgroups, but name them normal, durable and luxury goods. Also they define the inferior goods which tend to be low-quality goods – for poor people. For low-quality goods there exist high-quality but more expensive substitutes.

It is also useful to distinguish necessities. All inferior goods are necessities; necessities, hovewer, also include normal goods. Poor people satisfy their needs for food and clothing by buying low-quality goods. As their income rises, they switch to nicer food and clothing.

Luxury goods tend to be  high-quality goods for which there exist lower-quality, but quite adequate substitutes. As income rise the quantity of food demanded will rise but only a little. So food cannot be a luxury, but it is not an interior good either.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What groups do marketing specialists divide the consumer products into?
  2.  What are convenience goods?
  3.  What plays a very important role in buying goods?
  4.  What are shopping goods?
  5.  What are specialty goods?
  6.  What examples of specialty goods can you name?
  7.  What groups do English marketing specialty divide goods into?

17. ADVERTISING

Lead-in:

1. advertising – рекламування

2. mass media – засоби масової інформації

3. setting the objectives – настанова завдань

4. drawing up a budget розробка бюджету

5. appeal звернення, заклик 

6. total  expenditures сукупні витрати

7. steady demandпостійний попит

Advertising is the act of making a product, a job vacancy, an event publicly known. It is a non-personal form of communication through paid means of information distribution with a clearly Nationald source of financing.

In business billions are spent on advertising. Products and services are advertised through mass media (including radio broadcast, television, newspapers and magazines), billboards, handbills, booklets and so on. In big business the whole army of specialists is employed in the field of advertising. They work out advertising programmes, provide means for advertising purposes, discuss and solve many advertising problems with the owner or manager of a company.

Making advertisement is a complicated five-stage process which includes such stages as setting the objectives, drawing up a budget, the appeal, the choice of means of information distribution and assessment of the results.

The objectives should be clearly Nationald, no matter whether it’s informing, persuading or reminding. Informing prevails on the stage of introducing a new product on the market. Persuading forms a special demand for a certain brand of products. Some persuading adverts tend to be comparative, i.e. they tend to show advantages of one brand over the other one of the same trade class. Comparative adverts are used to promote such categories of goods as deodorants, tooth paste, tires and cars. Reminding is important to make the consumer remember the product but not to persuade or inform.

The budget can be drawn up according to such principles as “on the level of competitors”, “out of certain objectives and goals”, etc. Any advertiser should keep in mind the four AIDA points – attention, interest, desire, action – consequent stages of the consumer’s response before buying.

The choice of means of information distribution depends on setting the following questions: stating the range of frequency and the impact of the advert, choosing a specific advertising means and the right schedule.

The economics of advertising continue to be subject to much discussion. It is true that the total expenditure on advertising is high. Most of it is spent on promoting “branded goods”. This is almost inevitable: if advertised goods were not branded, the buyer would have no guide to enable him to recognise in the shops the goods he has seen mentioned in an advertisements.

Unless goods were branded, no mass market could be created under modern condition and there would be no steady demand.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What is advertising?
  2.  Is advertising expensive?
  3.  How can products and services be advertised?
  4.  How many stages are there in making advertisement?
  5.  What is intorming advertisement?
  6.  What is persuading advertisement?
  7.  What is reminding advertisement?
  8.  What four AIDa points should any advertiser keep in mind?

18. EXHIBITIONS AND FAIRS

Lead-in:

1. fair – ярмарок

2. exhibition – виставка

3. scope – розмах

4. transaction – угода

5. order – замовлення

6. potential customer – потенційний клієнт

7. to pave the way – прокладати шлях

8. consolidation – укріплення

9. on the spot на місці, відразу

10. participation fee – внесок за участь

Every year a lot of international, national and specialized fairs and exhibitions are held all over the world. The number of countries and companies who take part in them is growing from year to year and the scope of fairs and exhibitions is becoming larger. Firms and companies are always eager to participate in them because they attract thousands of visitors, including many potential buyers. You will find no better chance for advertising your goods and making contracts and agreements with future customers. Exhibitions and fairs are a unique chance for establishing new markets because nothing else can cause your products or services to be known outside your region or country as well. There are many advantages of fairs and exhibitions – making transactions, getting new orders, making contracts and agreements, advertising your products, contacting potential customers expanding your market and opening up new ones. International fairs and exhibitions pave the way for the consolidation of friendship among countries and nations.

But there is a difference between an exhibition and a fair. At a fair you do not only exhibit your goods but also may sell it on the spot. At an exhibition you usually only exhibit, without selling directly – though every exhibition has a commercial center where one can make contracts and agreements for future supplies.

It is usually quite expensive to participate in a fair or an exhibition. The participation fee is often quite high. Next, you pay for the exhibition space – the greater the space is the more you pay. Then, you should prepare that space to exhibit your goods or services. That means installing a stand or a booth, which may cost quite a lot. Another expense is the booklets or brochures placed in your booth and on bulletin boards, advertising or giving information about your company and its products. Firms and companies try to make their own presentations during fairs and exhibitions, and often organize receptions.

These presentations and receptions provide opportunities of contacting potential customers, advertising the products, and greatly stimulating contract-signing. But they are expensive. So international or country – wide exhibitions and fairs provide much greater opportunities.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  Are exhibitions and fairs becoming popular from year to year?
  2.  Who participates in exhibitions and fairs?
  3.  Why are exhibitions and fairs a unique chance for new markets?
  4.  What is the difference between them?
  5.  How much does participation in exhibitions and fairs cost?
  6.  Have you (or your firm) ever participated in exhibitions or fairs?

19. MY SPECIALITY. ACCOUNTING AND AUDIT

Lead-in:

1. stockholders акціонери, власники акцій 

2. consumers and suppliers – споживачи і постачальники

3. performance of the company – стан, робота компанії

4. earnings and expenditures – дохід і витрати

5. payroll recordплатіжна відомість

6. ledger – головна книга, гросбух

7. to overseeстежити

8. instigator of malpracticeпідбурювач службового злочину

9. internal and external audit – внутрішній та зовнішній аудит

I am a student of the Faculty of Accounting and Finance at Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade and I am majoring in accounting. No doubt my specialty is in great demand nowadays, because accounting is needed in any society and is not confined to “capitalist” or “mixed” economies.

Our faculty trains specialists in the following specialities and specializations: “Accounting and Audit”, “Finance and Credit”, “Banking”. We study the following disciplines: the theory of book-keeping, book-keeping of foreign economic activities, accounting, analysis and audit in the sphere of national economy.

So, what specifically is accounting? Accounting contains elements both of science and art. The important thing is that it is not merely a collection of arithmetical techniques but a set of complex processes depending on and prepared for people, because most accounting reports depend on people’s opinions. Accounting reports are prepared in order to help people make decisions. It is difficult to find an all-inclusive definition but we can say that accounting is concerned with the provision of information in financial terms. Provision of information includes recording, classifying, summarizing, and interpreting of financial events and transactions.

Accounting information can be divided into two categories: financial accounting or public information and managerial accounting or private information. Financial accounting provides information to external decision-makers: stockholders, creditors, customers, suppliers. As for managerial accounting it provides information for internal decision-makers (managers), who need this information to know what the performance of the company was like in the past and what can be done about making current and future decisions. Book-keeping is part of accounting and it involves the recording of economic activities of the company. At the end of each period the information of Journals is introduced into the Ledger, that shows all the earnings and the expenditures of the company and on the basis of all the totals book-keepers prepare a Trial Balance.

Accounting documents include the following: sales documents (cash receipts, invoices), purchasing documents, payroll records, bank documents etc. We must say that an auditor’s role is very often confused with that of an accountant. There are three main roles of auditors: they are responsible for overseeing a company’s finances, responsible for informing authorities of malpractice and they must track down the instigators of malpractice.

There are internal auditors (accountants of the same company who evaluate the company’s financial records) and external, or independent auditors, who perform outside audit. Upon completion of the audit they submit a document called Auditor’s Report or Auditor’s Opinion. In conclusion we can say that there are many challenges to representatives of the accounting and auditing profession, but the role of accountants and auditors in controlling a complex process of financial activities is really significant.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

1. What is accounting concerned with?

2. How many categories can accounting information be divided into?

3. Is there any difference between managerial accounting and financial accounting?

4. What does book-keeping involve?

5. Can you give examples of the main documents that book-keepers have to prepare?

6. What are the three main roles of auditors?

7. Do you think the role of Auditor’s Report is important for the performance of any company?

20. MY SPECIALITY. FINANCE AND CREDIT

Lead-in:

1. municipal bodiesмуніципальні заклади

2. Stock Exchange – Фондова Біржа

3. money circulation – грошовий обіг

4. cash flow – рух готівки, ліквідності

5. post-graduate courses – аспірантура 

6. debt and equity – борг і власний капітал

7. financial losses – фінансові збитки, витрати

I am a student of Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade, and I major in Finance and Credit at the Faculty of Accounting and Audit.

My speciality is very popular nowadays because our country has stepped onto the road of the transition to the market-based economy.

Our faculty is one of the largest in our university and it trains specialists in the following specialities: “Accounting and Audit”, “Finance and Credit”, “Banking”. The majority of students of our speciality will be experts in the sphere of finance and credit.Graduates from our department must be ready to work in National, regional and municipal bodies, in the sphere of banking, stock exchange operations, financial and insurance companies and investment funds.

No doubt specialists in finance and credit must get a fundamental economic basis of knowledge, that is why we study economic theory, macro-and microeconomics, theories of money circulation, financial and credit system, investment activity, taxes and taxation. We can’t do without deep insight into studies of the following processes: financial market operations, budgeting, planning, accounting and audit at different levels, cash flow management, financial institutions and financial markets operations, management of working capital.

Specialists in the sphere of finance and credit can apply to post-graduate courses or, if they want to find a challenging job in banks, stock-exchanges, big financial and investment companies, they have to meet all the requirements for financial specialists of present time.

Nowadays it is necessary to combine economics with studying of foreign languages, and first of all, English, because it is the language of international cooperation. In our University we have an access to special literature in English, because our library provides a large collection of books, journals and other periodicals in Economics, Finance and Credit, Taxation.

Our Faculty is provided with its own computer classes and students have access to a wide range of statistical databases and software.

Students of our faculty are involved in a very wide range of research projects, international projects with our foreign partners. Those who complete the course successfully are qualified for a wide range of jobs and further courses. A substantial number of students apply to post-graduate courses, others are employed by financial institutions, both private and National ones. Generally speaking, the world of finance is challenging. To ensure a company’s long-term survival and prosperity, finance managers need to make decisions about obtaining, managing funds and controlling them. That is why most organizations have financial managers, and financial departments responsible for financial operations.

The financial Manager should decide on the suitable balance of debt and equity – what mixture of debt and equity is best for the firm. Managing the working capital is necessary to ensure the performance of the company. Decisions on any basic questions of finance involve risks. That is why no firm can avoid some financial losses; efficient financial management can bring those losses to a minimum, thus maximizing the profits.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

1. What are the disciplines that students of your speciality study?

2. What financial processes must you get an insight into?

3. Are there any prospects for students who are interested in academic research?

4. What do finance managers have to make decisions about?

5. Can you name the functions that financial departments perform?

6. What are the main questions concerning finance any company has to answer?

7. When is financial management in any company efficient?

21. MY SPECIALTY. BANKING

Lead-in:

1. money circulation – грошовий обіг

2. taxes and taxationподатки і  оподаткування

3. banking facilities – банківські засоби обслуговування, можливості

4. lending institutions – кредитні заклади

5. real eNational – нерухоме майно, нерухомість

6. insurance services –  послуги страхування

7. to transfer accounts – перевести рахунки

8. stocks and shares – акції та облігації

9. foreign currency transactions валютні операції

10. travel insurance – страхування туристів

11. to lend money – позичати гроші

Everybody is interested is money, and bankers deal with it more than anyone.Banking is as old as money. The primary function of bankers was to match up those who had more money or capital than they needed to those who needed money or capital to realize their plans.This made money for bankers and helped expand the overall economy more rapidly.

Now banking is considered to be one of the most prestigious professions and that is why I decided to become a student of the Faculty of Accounting and Finance at Donetsk National University of Economics and Trade and to major in Banking.

Our faculty is one of the largest in our university and it trains specialists in the following specialities: “Accounting and Audit”, “Finance and Credit”, “Banking”. The majority of students of our speciality will be experts in the sphere of banking and finance and will work in National, regional and municipal banking and financial institutions.

No doubt specialists in banking must get fundamental knowledge, that is why we study economic theory, macro-and microeconomics, theories of money circulation, financial and credit system, investment activity, taxes and taxation, bank organization, banking facilities and services, types of banks, operations of financial and lending institutions.

We can’t do without deep insight into studies of the following processes: personal and commercial services in banking, trust services, cash management services, investment and real eNational services, insurance services, credit facilities, new types of services in banks, pension schemes, customers’ needs surveys, etc.

Specialists in the sphere of banking can apply to post-graduate courses or, if they want to find a challenging job in banks and banking institutions, they have to meet all the requirements for financial specialists of present time.

Nowadays it is necessary to combine economics with studying of foreign languages because at present banks provide services connected with foreign currency transactions.

We have an access to special literature in English, because our library provides a large collection of books, journals and periodicals on all the subjects of the University’s profile.

Our Faculty is provided with its own computer classes and students have an access to the Internet facilities.

Members of our faculty are involved in a very wide range of research projects, international projects with our foreign partners.

Students who complete the course successfully are extremely well qualified for a wide range of jobs and further courses.

A substantial number of students can go to post-graduate courses, others are employed by financial institutions. If you are interested in further academic study, there are Master’s degree courses, post-graduate courses, where you can submit a dissertation.

Needless to say that the banking industry has changed greatly in recent years: banks have more customers than ever before, people have realized that having a bank account is a greater help in organizing their financial affairs.

Banks can offer their customers various services: from things like cashing cheques and looking after their savings to insurance, taxation and investment.

Banks are one of the most efficient financial organizations in the world and the higher your grade in the bank is the more responsibilities you have.You can start by preparing customers Nationalments and learning to use accounting machines.Then you will get more personal contact with customers opening new accounts and transferring existing accounts throughout the country. Being a foreign clerk means that you will be dealing with foreign currencies, traveller’s cheques and travel insurance.

If you help customers to manage their financial affairs, you can act on their behalf to buy or sell stocks and shares.And finally, you can be involved in one of the bank’s major activities – lending money.

Because of bank’s importance in the functioning of the economy, there is a set of rules developed by the Government to guide bankers and protect society.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

1. What was the primary function of bankers?

2. Why is the speciality of a banker popular nowadays?

3. What disciplines do future bankers study at the university?

4. What banking procedures and operations do you have to get an insight into?

5. Why do you think banks have more customers than before?

6. What kind of services do banks provide for their clients?

22. IMF AND THE WORLD BANK

Lead-in:

1. the IMF – МВФ (Міжнародний Валютний Фонд)

2. statutory purpose – установлений законом намір

3. global prosperity – глобальний добробут

4. stability of exchange rates – стабільність валютного курсу

5. labour market – ринок праці

6. sustainable economic growth – сталий економічний ріст

7. poverty reduction – зниження бідності

8. budget transparency – прозорість бюджету

9. to bolster the social sector – підтримувати суспільний сектор

The International Monetary Fund is a specialized agency of the United Nations set up in 1945 to help promote the health of the World economy. The IMF was conceived in 1944 at a United Nations Conference at Bretton Woods, when representatives of 45 governments agreed on a framework for economic cooperation. This cooperation was designed to avoid a repetition of the disastrous economic policies of the Great Depression.

The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1944, but they have become more important because of the expansion of its membership. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 45 Nationals involved in its establishment and now the Fund has 184 members.

The IMF works for global prosperity by promoting the balanced expansion of world trade, stability of exchange rates, monitoring economic and financial developments, giving advice to its members. The IMF also lends to member countries to support reform policies, provides the governments and central banks of its member countries with technical assistance and training. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, for example, the IMF helped the Baltic Nationals, Russia, Ukraine and other former Soviet countries in the transition from planned to market-based economic systems.

The IMF’s main business is a macroeconomic and financial sector policies.

The IMF focuses mainly on a country’s macroeconomic policies – that is, policies relating to the government’s budget, the management of money and credit, and the exchange rate. It also concentrates on financial sector policies, including the regulation and supervision of banks and other financial institutions. In addition, the IMF pays due attention to structural policies that effect macroeconomic performance – including labour market policies.

The IMF advises each member on how its policies in these areas may be improved to achieve such goals as high employment, low inflation and sustainable economic growth. Strengthening the international financial system, promoting sound economic policies among its member countries, the IMF is helping to make globalization work for the benefit of all.

At the same time as IMF was created, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), more commonly known as the World Bank, was set up to promote long-term economic development. The IMF and the World Bank Group – which includes the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the International Development Association (IDA) – complement each other.

The World Bank is concerned mainly with longer-term development and poverty reduction issues.The activities include lending to developing countries and countries in transition to finance infrastructure projects, the reforms of particular sectors of the economy, and broader structural reforms.

Each institution must focus on its areas of expertise, but in areas where they both have expertise – such as fiscal management, budget execution, budget transparency, tax and customs administration – they coordinate closely.

And now a few words about partnership of the World Bank and Ukraine.

The agreement was signed in September 1992 at the ceremony at the US National Department and Ukraine became the 167th member of the Bank. Since 1992 partnership between Ukraine and the World Bank resulted in a number of joint projects.These projects were designed to improve the public and private sectors, to raise agriculture and energy, to protect the environment, to bolster the social sector.

The World Bank has launched the preparation of the new 2004 to 2006 Country Assistance Strategy for Ukraine and this project will involve cooperation with a wide range of stakeholders.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  When was the IMF set up?
  2.  What was the purpose of the fund?
  3.  What does the IMF mainly focus on?
  4.  Are there any more questions that the IMF pays due attention to?
  5.  What institutions does the World Bank Group include?
  6.  Can you characterize the spheres that each institution of the World Bank Group must focus on?
  7.  Name the sectors of the economy where Ukraine and the World Bank cooperate.

23. THE BANKING INDUSTRY

Lead-in:

  1.  to earn profitзаробляти прибуток
  2.  to pay and to charge interest ratesсплачувати i стягувати (нараховувати) відсотки
  3.  lenders and borrowers – кредитори і позичники
  4.  takeovers and mergers – злиття та поглинання підприємств
  5.  Government bonds – урядові облігації, державні цінні папери
  6.  Annual General Meeting – щорічні загальні збори  
  7.  mortgage loanзаставна позика
  8.  fluctuateколиватися, хитатися
  9.  insurance servicesстрахове обслуговування

Banks are one of the most important financial institutions. The first and most important function of a central bank is to accept responsibility for advising the government on the country’s financial policy.

There are two types of banks: commercial banks and investment banks – or merchant banks as they are called in Great Britain. The aim of commercial banks is to earn profit; they make a profit from the difference between the interest rates they pay to lenders and those they charge to borrowers. Commercial banks deal mainly with individual customers, e.g. private citizens, small businesses. They receive and hold deposits, pay money according to customer’s instructions, lend money, exchange foreign currencies, give credit, and so on. Investment banks – or merchant banks – raise funds for industry on the various financial markets, finance international trade, deal with takeovers and mergers, issue government bonds. Investment banks make profits from fees and commissions they charge for their services. Banks are usually organized to follow their functions and supply the services as efficiently as possible.

The English commercial banks have branches in all the major towns and have a similar structure. Their owners are shareholders, they provide the necessary capital.  They are all organized on the joint stock principle and are registered public companies. The Chairman and Board of Directors are elected by the ordinary shareholders at the Annual General Meeting and responsible for the efficient management of the bank. The Board will appoint a Managing Director and senior executives who will be responsible for the running of the bank. At the end of each business year the Directors recommend and the Annual General Meeting decides how much of the profit should be distributed by the shareholders as a dividend, and how much should be retained in the business. Preparing for the Annual General Meeting, a bank publishes its Report and Accounts. These must be sent to every shareholder and are available for anyone with an interest in the affairs of the bank.

In recent times the difference between commercial and investment banks has been slowly disappearing as the so-called “financial supermarkets” replace them. These are a combination of a commercial bank, an investment bank, and an insurance company, offering the full range of financial services.

Whether depositing or borrowing money, a customer is most interested in the bank’s interest rate. The minimum interest rate is usually determined by the central bank, and the interest rates offered by other banks sometimes fluctuate.

There has been an explosion of new service options in banking recently. Trust services are one of the most important and rapidly growing bank service areas today.Apart from that banks introduce such services as cash management services, mortgage loans, investment services, insurance services, etc.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

1. What is the most important function of a central bank?

2. Name two types of banks.

3. What do commercial banks deal with?

4. What functions do investment banks perform?

5. How is the Board of Directors elected in English commercial banks?

6. What questions are discussed at the Annual General Meeting?

7. What is a ‘financial supermarket’ and what services does it provide?

8. Can you name new service options in the sphere of banking?

24. MONEY

Lead-in:

  1.  medium of exchangeзасіб обміну
  2.  unit of account – одиниця розрахунку
  3.  store of valueзасіб збереження
  4.  notes and coinsбанкноти і монети
  5.  purchasing powerкупівельна спроможність
  6.  standard of deferred payment стандарт відкладеного платежу
  7.  Legal Tender законний платіжний засіб
  8.  bank liabilitiesбанківські зобов’язання

The main function of money is a medium of exchange, but it performs other functions: a unit of account and a store of value.

The use of money as a medium of exchange is as fundamental to the development of economic systems as the invention of the wheel for transport. In all advanced economies the greater part of the supply of money consists of deposits in bank accounts, rather than notes and coins.

To act as an efficient medium of exchange, money must also function as a store of value. With money, the act of purchase can be separated from the act of sale, money then acts as a temporary means of holding purchasing power.When the overall price level is stable, or even falling, money can be more than a temporary store of value.

Even in periods of rapid inflation people continue to hold money in order to carry out transactions, because of the great convenience it allows.There may be better stores of value, but they lack the liquidity (i.e. the ability to be used directly to make purchases) which is the characteristic of money. Other assets may be better stores of value, but they can not be converted into purchasing power without some cost.

Money also acts as a measuring unit to assess the relative values of different commodities. Money performs this measurement function when it becomes a standard of deferred payment: if I wish to borrow a given sum now an interest charge will be added to it so that I know how much I will have to repay in the future. Inflation erodes the usefulness of money in this role.

One of the requirements for money is that the item should be limited in supply. The supply of the monetary unit should also be relatively stable. From the convenience point of view it is desirable that money should be portable and durable, and also homogeneous. Money should also be divisible into small units for minor transactions.

In Britain, the most obvious form of money is the currency in circulation, known as Legal Tender. Since the greater part of money supply now consists of bank deposits, it is necessary to mention the banking system. The banking system of Great Britain consists of a number of institutions, with the Bank of England playing a crucial role. The Bank of England regulates the supply of money, influences interest rates and oversees the operations of commercial banks; it also manages the National Debt. Banks are distinguished from other intermediaries by the fact that their liabilities (bank deposits) can be spent directly as money, which makes them the focus of monetary policy.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

1. What are the main functions of money?

2. Why do people continue to hold money even in periods of rapid inflation?

3. What is liquidity?

4. Explain the term ‘standard of deferred payment’.

5. Why is it necessary that money should be portable, durable and homogeneous?

6. What are the functions of the Bank of England?

7. What is the main difference between banks and other intermediaries?

25. TAXATION

Lead-in:

1. to raise revenue – підвищувати дохід, прибуток

2. excise duties – акцизний збір

3. tax on profit – податок на прибуток

4. income tax – прибутковий податок

5. to levy taxes – стягувати податки

6. the Board of Inland Revenue – Податкова Управа (Англія)

7. PAYEPay Аs You Earn – виплачування податків відрахуванням з заробітної плати

8. income tax liability – загальна сума податку, що підлягає виплаті

9. health insurance – страхування здоров’я  

10. tax haven – фіскальний оазис, “податкове сховище”

11. money laundering – відмивання грошей

The primary function of taxation is to raise revenue to finance government expenditures, but taxes can have other purposes. Indirect excise duties, for example, can be designed to dissuade people from smoking and drinking.

Governments can also permit various measures reducing companies’ tax bills.

There is always a lot of debate as to the fairness of tax systems. Business profits, for example, are generally taxed twice: companies pay tax on their profit (corporation tax in Britain, income tax in the USA), and shareholders pay income tax on dividends. The most important taxes are personal and corporate income tax. Income tax in most countries is progressive; it is one of the ways by which governments can redistribute wealth. For tax purposes, corporate income is defined as revenue minus expenses. UK personal taxation is both simple and relatively low. There are two rates: 25 per cent on taxable income up to £ 23.700, and 40 per cent on income above this figure.

How is personal tax levied? In Great Britain the Board of Inland Revenue obliges employers to operate a PAYE (Pay As You Earn) scheme, which means the tax is deductible at source, from empoloyees’ wages or salaries; in other words, by the employers before making out the monthly salary cheque or bank transfer to the employee. The tax is then collected directly from the employer.

At the same time we should mention that the employer is obliged to deduct National Insurance from the employee’s salary – the employee’s contribution being roughly 9 per cent of income, the employee’s ranging from 5 to 10 per cent. The higher the tax rates, the more people are tempted to cheat. Lots of people have undeclared, part-time evening jobs with small and medium-sized family firms, on which no one pays any tax or national insurance.

To reduce income tax liability, some employers give highly-paid employers lots of “perks” instead of taxable money, such as company cars, free health insurance. Life insurance policies, pension plans by which individuals can postpone the payment of tax, are known as tax shelters. Donations to charities that can be subtracted from the income on which tax is calculated are described as tax deductible.

Companies have a variety of ways of avoiding tax on profits. They can make a tax loss, multinational companies often set up their head offices in such countries as Monaco, the Bahamas, where taxes are low; such countries are known as tax havens.

Criminal organizations practise “money laundering” – they pass money through a series of companies in order to disguise its origin from tax inspectors.

Different tax systems in different countries create problems, so the question of the tax harmonisation within the European Community is being discussed. Changes in tax-planning techniques will create a number of tax opportunities: companies in low-tax countries will have a competitive advantage over those in high-tax ones.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

1. What is the main function of taxation?

2. Why do you think there is a lot of debate about the fairness of tax systems?

3. What are the most important taxes?

4. What do some employers do to reduce income tax liability?

5. How do companies avoid tax on profits?

6. What is money ‘laundering’?

7. Do you think the question of tax harmonisation is likely to be solved?

26. STOCK EXCHANGE

Lead-in:

1. currency market – валютна біржа

2. commodity exchange – товарна біржа

3. labour exchange – біржа праці

4. stock market – фондова біржа

5. gilt-edged securities – першокласні цінні папери

6. bid price – курс покупця

7. offer price – курс продавця

8. bull – “бик”, спекулянт, що грає на підвищення ціни

9. bearведмідь, той, що грає на пониженні ціни

10. stag – “олень, той, що купує нові акції, щоб їх одразу продати

11. put option – опціон продавця

12. call option – опціон покупця

13. over-the-counter market – ринок позабіржової торговлі

There are different kinds of exchanges: currency markets, commodity exchanges, labour exchanges.We shall try to consider stock markets and stock exchanges, which are the most important financial institutions in the sphere of international economic relations.

Stock markets play a significant role in the economy of any country.

Stock markets are control centres where businesses and governments come to raise money and expand their operations. There are actually two different markets for stocks: the new issues market or the primary market, where stocks are offered for sale for the first time, and the secondary market, where stocks can be bought and sold by individuals and institutions. The phrase “the stock market” means many things: it is a place where stocks are traded, and it also refers to the biggest and most important stock exchanges in the world: the New York Stock Exchange, the London Stock Exchange, the Nasdaq Stock Market, based in Washington, DC, and the Over-the Counter Market (OTC).

A stock exchange is a market for dealings in stock and shares, handling gilt-edged and all kinds of commercial and industrial shares. The London Stock Exchange provides a market for British government stocks and the stocks and bonds of a large number of foreign governments and corporations. Only members are admitted to the stock exchange and business is transacted according to a prescribed set of rules. Before the “Big Bang” on 27 October 1986 there were about 4,100 Stock Exchange members (jobbers, middlemen who bought and sold shares from other traders on the Stock Exchange, and brokers).

There are no jobbers in the Stock Exchange now, they are market makers. A market maker buys and sells securities making money by charging a commission on each transaction. Anyone who wants to buy or sell shares on the Stock Exchange does it through the broker who acts as a middleman between a seller and a buyer for a commission. Companies apply to the Stock Exchange to have their shares listed. Only “quoted” shares can be bought or sold on the Stock Exchange. A Stock Exchange quotation is the price of a share which usually gives the bid price and an offer price. The bid price (or the selling price) differs from the offer price and the difference between them is called the “spread”. The Stock Exchange quotations appear daily in the financial press and the financial section of newspapers.

The greater part of the business transacted on stock exchanges is investment business, but a small part consists of speculative operations. There are three kinds of speculators: bulls, bears and stags. Speculation is also possible in the form of options: call options, put options and put and call options.

The price of the stock in the market reflects investor demand. The tendencies of the market are indicated by indexes. Some of the most important indexes are: FT Actuaries Share Indices, FT Stock Exchange 100 Share Index (FT SE 100 or Footsie), based on the prices of 100 leading companies (this is the main London index, DOW JONES, FAS, NIKKEI, etc.).

The biggest and the most important stock market in the world is the New York Stock Exchange. NYSE is also known as the Big Board and the Exchange, it was founded in 1792 and is located at 11 Wall Street in New York City.Brokers buy and sell stock in about 2,570 different companies at the NYSE. AMEX stands for American Stock Exchange; it has the second biggest volume of trading in the US, here brokers buy and sell Stocks in over 840 companies. There is one more market place: it is trading of common stock “over-the-counter” or “OTC”.

Most securities other than common stock are traded over-the-counter, through vast telephone and other electronic networks that link traders.

Questions for comprehension check-up and discussion:

  1.  What types of exchanges do you know?
  2.  How many markets are there for stocks?
  3.  What is a stock exchange?
  4.  What is the role of a market maker?
  5.  What is a Stock Exchange quotation?
  6.  Give the names of the most important stock exchange indexes.
  7.  What do the letters “OTC” stand for?


Тексти та вправи

Texts and exercises

  1.  INTRODUCING ECONOMICS

Lead-in:

What do you think economics is concerned with?

Key words and phrases:

1. scarce resources – недостатнi ресурси

2. distribution of wealth  розподiл багатства

3. raising revenue  пiдвищування прибутку

4. Gross Domestic Product  валовий внутришний продукт

5. fiscal policy  фiскальна  полiтика

6. to allocate resources  розподiляти, розмiщати ресурси

7. output per head – продукція на душу населення

Economics is the study of the arrangements that societies make for the use and development of their scarce resources. Economics is concerned with the study of human organisations and communities, the problems of measurement and forecasting.

Nearly all governments are committed to programmes designed to promote the growth of living standards and a more even distribution of wealth both nationally and globally. Can we achieve these objectives without serious conflict between and within the nations?

The ‘economist’ in ancient Greece – a title derived from the words Oikos (house) and Nemo (manage) – was really a ‘steward or eNational manager’. ‘Economica’ (300 b.c.), which might be regarded as an early economics textbook, dealt with raising revenue through various forms of taxation.

There are two ways for the economist to study economics and the economy: macro approach and micro approach. Macroeconomics studies the economy as a whole, it deals with the questions of Gross Domestic Product, aggregate supply and demand, inflation, monetary and fiscal policy, employment and unemployment.

Microeconomics is concerned with the study of individual decision-making units, i.e. an industry, a company, a consumer, the study of how markets work, how prices are determined, how resources are allocated and income is distributed.

All communities are confronted with three fundamental questions concerning the use of their resources:

  •  What to produce?
  •  How to produce?
  •  For whom to produce?

These questions arise because resources are scarce in relation to needs. Although these questions are common to all societies, the methods used for dealing with them will naturally vary enormously – ranging from the primitive subsistence economy to an industrialised one. The way a society answers these fundamental questions is known as its economic system. Economic systems can be classified as traditional (in tribal cultures, for example), command (the former Soviet Union or North Korea), and market systems (the United Nationals, Japan), but no real existing economy is a pure form of above-mentioned ones. Every economy uses a ‘mix’ of allocating mechanisms to answer the basic economic questions. Models shown in Fig.1 attempt to classify these economic systems.

COMMAND ECONOMY

COMMAND ECONOMY WITH SOME HOUSEHOLD CHOICE

Producers

Households

MARKET ECONOMY

Producers

Households

Fig.1. Simple models of economic system.

When comparing the performance of different systems, the economist can use a number of measurements: the distribution of income, growth in output, technological advance, stability, output per head and so on. However, such a comparison is unlikely to produce a conclusive or acceptable answer about the superiority of any system.

Comprehension:

1. What does economics study?

2. What is macroeconomics?

3. What is microeconomics concerned with?

4. Name three fundamental questions all communities are confronted with.

5. Give the classification of economic systems.

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Economics is the study of…
  2.  In ancient Greece the word ‘economist’ meant…
  3.  There are two approaches in economics:...
  4.  Macroeconomic studies…
  5.  Microeconomics is concerned with…
  6.  The fundamental questions the society has to answer are:...
  7.  Theoretically all economic systems can be classified as…

  •  Viewpoint:

Is it possible, in your opinion, to create an ‘ideal’ economic system?

  1.  THE GOVERNMENT AND MARKET SYSTEMS

Lead-in:

Do you think Governments play an important role in the economy of their countries?

Key words and phrases

1. to deliver goods – доставляти товари

2. supply of goodsпоставка, запас, пропозиція товарiв

3. merit goodsтовари, що уряд заохочує споживати

4. merit badsтовари, що обмежено або заборонено споживати

5. consumption of goods – споживання товарiв

6. total demand – сукупний попит

7. to foster competition – сприяти конкуренцiї

Governments play an important role, even in market economies, for two reasons:

1. Because of the inability of the market mechanism to deliver certain types of goods.

2. Because of weakness in the market system.

The first reason concerns what are known as public goods and services. Once they are provided, their benefits extend to all members of the community. The maintenance of law and order through the police force and the judiciary and national defence through the armed services are good examples.

If the supply of these goods was left to the market mechanism – the result would be an inadequate organisation of these services.

The other reason why governments may intervene is much more complex and raises many controversial issues. Since the market system operates through prices, the government may intervene to subsidise, or even provide free, essentials such as food, housing, medical care and education. Assisting people with low incomes is not the only motive for a government to reduce market prices in this way. It may also wish to actively encourage the consumption of what are known as merit goods (education, for example).

The opposite of merit goods are merit bads – commodities such as drugs and pornography. The consumption of these products should be discouraged by the government. Finally, a competitive market economy, if left unregulated, may be subject to slumps and booms because of the periodic lack of balance between total supply of goods and services and total demand. It may require some form of government action to help correct the situation. However, the extent of government action and its method of intervention are a matter of fierce dispute, not only among politicians and social reformers but also among economists. In his book, “The Wealth of Nations”, A. Smith argued strongly in favour of the competitive market mechanism, whose ‘invisible hand’ coordinated the activities of producers and consumers.

Classical economists believed in maximum individual economic freedom and the minimum government regulation. Although they did acknowledge that where it is not possible to achieve efficiently operating markets then the government should intervene. The object of National intervention was to support and strengthen the market mechanism, not replace it completely.

The opposing view was presented by Karl Marx in a series of books published between 1848 and 1882.Marx stressed the conflicts and crises of the system. All capitalist institutions would finally be replaced by a one-party dictatorship of the proletariat, based on the National ownership of all means of production, distribution and exchange. These concepts inspired the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution and formed, until recently, the basis of Russian political thinking and action. However, Marx has been subjected to many different interpretations. China, Yugoslavia and Cuba have all built systems very different from that of the former USSR - many of which are now being reformed.

On the whole, the functions of the government in economic life can be classified into the following categories:

  •  to preserve and foster competition
  •  to regulate monopolies
  •  to provide information and services to enable the market work better
  •  to provide certain goods and services
  •  to assure a sound monetary system
  •  to promote overall economic stability and growth

Comprehension:

1. Why do governments play an important role in the economy?

2. What is known as merit goods and merit bads?

3. What did classical economists believe in?

4. Who was the opposing view presented by?

5. Name the main functions of the government in economic life.

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  Governments play an important role only in command economies.

  1.  If the supply of public goods and services was left to the market mechanism – the result would be an inadequate organisation of these services.

  1.  The consumption of merit bads should be discouraged by the government.

  1.  Classical economists believed in maximum individual economic freedom and the minimum government regulation.

  1.  The object of National intervention, according to classical economists, was to replace the market mechanism completely.

  1.  One of the functions of the Government in the economic life is to promote overall economic stability and growth.

  •  Viewpoint:

At the present stage of our economy should the Government actively intervene in it?

  1.  HOW MARKETS WORK

Lead-in:

What types of markets do you know and how do they work?

Key words and phrases

1. Stock exchange – фондова бiржа

2. commodity market – товарна бiржа

3. tangible/intangibleматериальний, реальний / нематериальний, нереальний

4. demanders and suppliers – споживачи та постачальники

5. allocation of commodities – розподiл, розмiщення товарiв

6. fluctuations in demand – коливання попиту

7. volatile prices – непостiйнi цiни

8. market equilibrium – ринкова рiвновага

Markets are commonly thought of as specific places where buyers and sellers meet: shops, street markets or specialised markets, like Stock Exchanges for shares, or Commodity Markets for goods such as grain, coffee and metals. However, a market is not confined to a particular place. On the Commodity and Stock Markets, for example, the buyers are not usually buying for themselves, but are middlemen acting on behalf of clients scattered throughout the world, with who they are in close contact by telephone and telex. A market may be defined as any area over which buyers and sellers are in contact, directly or through dealers, and where prices obtainable in one part of the area can influence prices in another part.

There are markets for thousands of things. Some of these things are tangible, while others are intangible. These things are referred to as products. So, product markets can be divided into two classes: goods and services.

A good is something tangible that is produced and consumed and purchased in a market. A service is something intangible that is produced and consumed and purchased in a market. Some people come to the market to buy (demanders), others come because they want to sell (suppliers). The interaction of demanders and suppliers determines a market price and market allocation of commodities.

Each of markets has its own special features, called market structure by economists – the characteristics of the buying and selling side and the type of product – which will determine the behaviour of prices. For example, where goods are perishable, such as cut flowers and fruit, prices are more variable than for storable goods. In the latter case, temporary fluctuations in demand can be met by allowing a rise or fall in stock. In a free market the relative price for a commodity increases if there is excess supply, and increases if there is excess demand. The prices of shares and foreign exchange rates may also be volatile for quite different reasons, reflecting frequently revised expectations about future events.  A market is in equilibrium when the quantity supplied at a specific price is equal to the quantity demanded at the same market price.

 Comprehension:

  1.  What is a market?
  2.  What is a good and what is a service?
  3.  What determines a market price?
  4.  When do prices increase and decrease in a free market?
  5.  What is market equilibrium?

  •  Text organization.

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order  

  1.  

A good is something tangible, a service is something intangible.

  1.  

Some of these things are tangible, while others are intangible.

  1.  

However, a market is not confined to a particular place.

  1.  

The interaction of demanders and suppliers determines a market price.

  1.  

There are markets for thousands of things.

  1.  

Markets are commonly thought of as specific places where buyers and sellers meet.

1

  1.  

A market is in equilibrium when the quantity supplied is equal to the quantity demanded.

  •  Viewpoint:

Do you think the National of market equilibrium stimulates the growth of the market?

  1.  DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Lead-in:

What factors influence supply and demand?

Key words and phrases

1. demand and supply – попит і пропозиція

2. labour market – ринок працi

3. to offer for sale – пропонувати на продаж

4. homogeneous  product – однорiдний, гомогенний товар

5. price elasticity of demand – цінова еластичність попиту

6. quantity demanded – величина попиту

7. elastic demand – еластичний попит 

8. necessities and luxuries – предмети першої необхідності та предмети розкоші

9. equilibrium price цiна рiвноваги

The function of the market is to provide transactions between buyers and sellers, or between the demand side and the supply side. The supply side is made up of firms and the demand side of households or of other firms. In the labour market, it is households which make up the supply side – offering their labour for sale – while production units make up the demand side.

The amount of the goods households will want to buy depends on a broad range of factors. However, one factor, which is likely to influence demand strongly, is the product price. Demand is a consumer’s willingness and ability to buy a product or service. The law of demand Nationals that all else being equal, more items will be sold at a lower price than at a higher price.

Supply varies directly with price. At a higher price more goods and services will be offered for sale than at a lower one, and vice versa.

The laws of supply and demand work most effectively in markets with large numbers of sellers and buyers, who are selling or buying a relatively homogeneous product. In markets that do not possess these features, the forces of supply and demand are determined by the structures prevailing in these markets.

How much the quantity demanded changes in response to price changes is called the price elasticity of demand. The good or service has an elastic demand if the quantity demanded changes considerably, if it is very responsive to changes in price. If the quantity demanded changes little, the good or service has an inelastic demand. Inelastic demand means the quantity demanded responds relatively little to changes in price. Several factors determine if a product has an elastic or inelastic demand schedule. Necessities tend to have an inelastic demand; people find it hard to give up a necessity. Luxuries tend to have an elastic demand, because people can get along without them if the price is too high. The price that equalizes the amount producers want to sell and consumers want to buy is called the market clearing price, or the equilibrium price.

Comprehension:

1. What is the main function of the market?

2. What is the supply side and the demand side?

3. When does supply vary?

4. What is called price elasticity of demand?

5. What goods tend to have elastic demand?

6. What is the market clearing price?

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. The market provides … .

2. Households make up the … side of the market.

3. One of the factors that influence demand is … .

4. The laws of supply and demand work most effectively … .

5. The quantity demanded changes in response to … .

6. The market is in equilibrium when … .

  •  Viewpoint:

Give an example when prices for goods were inelastic.

  1.  INFLATION AND DEFLATION

Lead-in:

What are the main reasons for inflation and deflation?

Key words and phrases

  1.  average price level – середній рівень цін 
  2.  purchasing power – купівельна спроможність  
  3.  unit of account – одиніця розрахунку
  4.  medium of exchange засіб обміну
  5.  fixed money income – фіксований, постійний грошовий дохід
  6.  inflation premium – інфляційна премія (індексація відсоткової ставки с урахованням інфляції)
  7.  lenders and recipients  – кредитори та одержувачи
  8.  demand-pull inflation – інфляція попиту
  9.  cost-push inflation – інфляція витрат
  10.  aggregate demand – сукупний попит
  11.  productive capacity – виробнича потужність, можливості
  12.  price expectations – очікування цін
  13.  to reduce unemployment – знижувати безробіття

Inflation is an increase in the average price level of the entire economy; deflation is a decrease in the average price level of the entire economy. Prices in some markets can fall even in times of inflation, and prices in some markets (e.g., medical care) can rise even in times of deflation. But it is not the change in individual prices, it is the upward or downward movement in the average prices of all goods and services combined that determines the extent of inflation or deflation.

As the price level rises during inflation, a dollar buys fewer goods and services than before. Hence, inflation reduces the dollar's real purchasing power. As the price level falls during deflation, a dollar buys more goods and services than before. Hence, deflation increases the dollar's real purchasing power. Because money is used as a unit of account and as a medium of exchange in most economies, changes in the purchasing power of money generally have several adverse consequences.

Inflation can produce misleading information in business accounting. Since business is conducted in money terms, figures using changing prices can give deceptive signals.

Inflation hurts people living on fixed money incomes and people who have saved fixed amounts of money for specific purposes such as financing their children's education or their own retirement.

In general, the adverse effects of inflation depend on the extent to which inflation is correctly anticipated and the extent to which it is unanticipated. If inflation is correctly anticipated, contracts can be negotiated to include “inflation premiums”. Such premiums are designed to protect lenders and other recipients of future money payments from declines in the purchasing power of the money to be repaid to them.

Inflation can occur for several reasons, and economists sometimes distinguish between demand-pull inflation and cost-push inflation.

Demand-pull inflation occurs when aggregate demand in the economy increases faster than the economy's productive capacity at full employment. Demand-pull inflation is often described as “too much money chasing too few goods”. Cost-push inflation occurs when higher prices for the factors of production increase costs.

Price expectations and changes in them can also influence the rate of inflation. If consumers think that prices are going to increase, for example, they may rush out to buy before the prices go up.

We have to learn about the process of inflation and about its relation to other macroeconomic problems such as economic growth and unemployment. When conflicts occur, dilemmas in economic policy arise. Should policy, for example, be aimed at achieving long-run price stability or high employment? Focus on avoiding inflation may mean higher employment. Focus on reducing unemployment may generate increasing inflation. Such dilemmas are especially hard to deal with because of their political implications: high rates of unemployment or inflation are likely to affect the party in power.

 Comprehension:

  1.  What is inflation and what is deflation?
  2.  What determines the extent of inflation or deflation?
  3.  What are adverse consequences of inflation?
  4.  What do adverse effects of inflation depend on?
  5.  When does demand-pull inflation occur?
  6.  What happens in case of cost-push inflation?
  7.  Can price expectations influence the rate of inflation?

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  Inflation is an increase in the average price level of the entire economy.

  1.  In some markets prices can fall even in times of inflation.

  1.  Deflation doesn’t increase the dollar’s real purchasing power.

  1.  Inflation hurts people living on fixed money incomes.

  1.  Economists sometimes distinguish between demand-pull inflation and cost-push inflation.

  1.  Price expectations and changes in them can’t influence the rate of inflation.

  •  Viewpoint:

What social groups are particularly hurt by inflation?

6. MARKET LEADERS, CHALLENGERS AND FOLLOWERS

Lead- in:

Think of some goods and brands that you consume. Were they produced by well-known companies?

Key words and phrases

1. market share – ринкова частка

2. level of promotion рiвень збуту

3. to expand markets розширювати ринки

4. market challenger – той, кто бросає виклик

5. market follower – послідовник 

6. profitable niche – прибуткова ніша  

7. to give an advantage – давати перевагу

8. unique selling proposition – унікальна торговельна пропозицiя

9. fluctuations in turnover and profit – коливання товарообiгу та прибутку 

10. recession – спад, зниження

“Big companies are small companies that succeeded”

R.Townsend, 1970

Market Leaders

In most markets there is a definite market leader: the firm with the largest market share. This is often the first company to have entered the field, or at least to have succeeded in it. The market leader is able to lead other firms in the introduction of new products, in price changes, in the level of promotion, and so on.

Market leaders usually want to increase their market share further. One way to do this is to try to find ways to increase the size of the entire market. Contrary to a common belief, dominating a market is seldom an advantage: competitors expand markets too. A market can be expanded by stimulating more usage: for example, many households no longer have only one cassette player, but perhaps one in each room, one in a car plus a Walkman or two.

Market Challengers

In many markets, there is often a distinct market challenger, with the second largest market share. Market challengers can either attempt to attack the leader, or to increase their market share by attacking various market followers.

Market Followers

The majority of companies in industry are merely market followers, which present no threat to the leader. Many market followers concentrate on market segmentation: finding a profitable niche in the market that is not satisfied by other goods or services, and that gives the company a differential advantage. A market follower, which does not establish its own niche, is in a vulnerable position: if a product doesn’t have a “unique selling proposition” there is no reason to buy it. In fact, in most established industries, there is only room for two or three major companies: think of soft drinks, soap and washing powders, jeans, and so on. Although small companies are generally flexible, and quickly respond to market conditions, their narrow range of customers causes problematic fluctuations in turnover and profit. They are also vulnerable in the period of a recession when distributors, retailers and customers prefer to buy from big suppliers.

Comprehension:

1. How do market leaders increase their market share?

2. What are the two ways for market challengers?

3. What do market followers concentrate on?

4. When are market followers in a vulnerable position?

5. What is the reason for fluctuations in turnover and profit in small companies?

 

  •  Text organization.

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order  

  1.  

In most established industries there is only room for two or three major companies.

  1.  

In most markets there is a definite market leader: the firm with the largest market share.

1

  1.  

The majority of companies in industry are merely market followers.

  1.  

In many markets, there is often a distinct market challenger, with the second largest market share.

  1.  

Many market followers concentrate on market segmentation.

  •  Viewpoint:

Can you name companies that are leaders, challengers, and market followers in the market?

7. COMPANY FINANCE, OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Lead- in:

How do companies raise money for their operations?

Key words and phrases

1. to raise money – дiставати гроші

2. ordinary shares (equity) – простi акцiї

3. advertising – реклама, рекламна справа

4. to run a businessкерувати, управляти пiдприємством, вести дiло

5. savings and profits – заощадження та прибуток

6. stocks of raw materials – запас сировини

7. fixed capital – основний капітал

8. bank overdraft – банкiвськiй овердрафт

9. managerial skills – талант, здiбностi управлiння

10. sole trader – одноосiбний торговець

12. limitless liabilities – необмежена юридична вiдповiдальнiсьть

13. small-scale enterprise – малий бiзнес (пiдприємство)

 

Companies raise the money they need for their operations from internal and external sources. Profits are the major source of internal finance; they may also be an important condition for raising external finance from borrowing of various kinds. External funds consist mainly of bank borrowings and raising loans from other sources, in both the short and long term. Another source of external funds is from the issue of ordinary shares, often called equity (known as common stock in the United Nationals). The way in which a company finances itself, sometimes known as capital structure, has a profound effect upon the ownership and style of management of the company. Picture a small-scale manufacturer of toys, mainly hand-made and using the minimum amount of equipment. The toys would probably only be sold locally through market stalls or small shops. There would be little or no advertising. Such a business may well be run by only one man – a sole trader – who finances the business entirely from his own savings and profits. If the toys are particularly good and the business prospers, he may require extra finance. This may be needed for working capital – additional stocks of raw materials and components or additional labour to meet rising demand. Alternatively additional funds may be needed for fixed capital – extra equipment or an extension to the workshop.

At this point the extra finance may be beyond the internal resources of our one-man firm. Short-term funds such as a bank advance or overdraft may be sought. These are short-term because they may be repaid at notice from the bank or over a short period. A further source of short-term finance might be trade credit. Practically every firm both gives and receives a certain amount of finance in the form of trade debts. This form of finance may be rather expensive. Although short-term finance is fairly flexible and not too difficult to arrange, it has clear disadvantages.

In addition to the problem of finding a more stable source of finance than short-term loans, the owner may find that he has other difficulties such as, for example, additional managerial skills to cope with the increased workloads. Extra managerial skills might be needed on the buying or selling side of the business, which becomes more important as trade grows. One way of solving both these problems is to form a partnership. The legal form of Sole Trader and Partnerships varies between countries but they frequently have unlimited liability. The owners are liable for any debts of the business, even if it means selling their homes and family possessions to meet these obligations. If one or more of the partners cannot pay their part of the debt then the others will be liable.

This arrangement is both a source of strength and of weakness. It ensures that the owners pay the closest attention to the running of the business. On the other hand, because the mistakes of one partner may involve the others in limitless liabilities, there may be a great reluctance to enter such a business. So long as each of the partners knows his colleague well and understands what is going on in all parts of the firm this need not be a problem, which explains why partnerships are usually restricted to small-scale enterprise. Some countries set a legal limit on the number of partners. In the UK the maximum, with certain exceptions, is twenty.

Comprehension:

1. What are the sources companies raise money from?

2. What do we call short-term funds?

3. What is a characteristic feature of a partnership?

4. Could you name strengths and weaknesses of a partnership?

5. What is the maximum number of partners in the UK in Ukraine?

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. Companies raise money for their operations from…

2. The major source of internal finance is…

3. External finance consists of…

4. People form partnerships when…

5. Partnerships have both advantages and…

6. The advantages of a partnership are…

7. The legal limit on the number of partners is usually…

  •  Viewpoint:

Is partnership an attractive form of business in terms of management?

  1.  BONDS

Lead-in:

What institutions can issue bonds and what for?

Key words and phrases

1. cash flow – приплив готiвки

2. to issue bonds – випускати облiгації

3. financial performance – фінансовий стан

4. bearer certificates – свідоцтво на предявника

5. secondary bond market – вторинний облігаційний ринок

6. to matureнаставати (про строк сплачування)

7. liquidityліквідність  

8. interest rateвідсоткова ставка

9. below or above parнижче або вище номінальної вартості

10. bonds yieldприбуток з облігації

11. tax-deductibleтой, що підлягає оподаткуванню

12. to issue equities – випускати звичайні акції

13. income tax – прибутковий податок

14. VAT (value added tax ) – податок на додану вартість

15. gilt-edged securities – першокласні цінні папери

16. to withdraw cash – вилучати готівку

Companies finance most of their activities by way of internally generated cash flows. If they need more money they can either sell shares or borrow, usually by issuing bonds. More and more companies now issue their own bonds, because this is often cheaper.

Bond-issuing companies are rated by private ratings companies such as Moody’s and Standard & Poors, and given an ‘investment grade’ according to their financial situation and performance. Obviously, the higher the rating, the lower the interest rate at which a company can borrow.

Most bonds are bearer certificates, so after being issued they can be traded on the secondary bond market until they mature. Bonds are therefore liquid, although their price on the secondary market fluctuates according to changes in interest rates. Consequently, the majority of bonds on the secondary market are traded below or above par. A bond’s yield at any particular time is thus its coupon (the amount of interest it pays) expressed as a percentage of its price on the secondary market.

Bond interest is tax-deductible, i e. a company deducts its interest payments from its profits before paying tax, whereas dividends are paid out of already-taxed profits. One should remember that increasing debt increases financial risk: bond interest has to be paid, even in a year without any profits from which to deduct it.

Governments, of course, unlike companies, do not have the option of issuing equities. Consequently they issue bonds when pubic spending exceeds receipts from income tax, VAT, and so on. Long-term government bonds are known as gilt-edged securities, or simply gilts, in Britain, and Treasury bonds in the US. The British and American central banks also sell and buy short-term Treasury Bills as a way of regulating the money supply. To reduce the money supply, they sell these bills to commercial banks, and withdraw the cash received from the calculation; to increase the money supply they put them back.

Comprehension:

1. How do companies finance most of their activities?

2. When do they sell shares or borrow?

3. Is issuing their own bonds cheaper for companies?

4. What is Moody’s and Standard & Poors?

5. How are bonds traded on the secondary market?

6. Is bond interest tax-deductible?

7. What kind of bonds do governments issue?

8. Is there any difference between guilt-edged securities and Treasury Bills?

9. How do the British and American central banks regulate the money supply?

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Most of their activities companies finance by … .
  2.  If they need more money they … .
  3.  Bond-issuing companies are rated by private companies such as … .
  4.  Bonds are traded on the secondary market and their price fluctuates according to … .
  5.  A company deducts bond interest payments … paying tax, whereas dividends are paid … .
  6.  Governments issue bonds when public spending … .
  7.  As a way of regulating money supply the British and American central banks … .

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  Companies finance most of their activities by way of internally generated cash flows.

  1.  Companies do not issue their own bonds, because it is expensive.

  1.  Bond-issuing companies are rated according to their financial situation and performance.

  1.  The majority of bonds on the secondary market are traded below or above par.

  1.  Governments also have the option   of issuing equities.

  1.  Long-term government bonds are known as gilt-edged securities.

  •  Viewpoint:

Why do governments issue bonds?

  1.  FUTURES, OPTIONS AND SWAPS

Lead-in:

Have you heard of any derivative instruments?

Key words and phrases

1. current price – поточна ціна

2. spot market – ринок реального товару 

3. futures market – фючерсний ринок 

4. financial assets – фінансовий капітал

5. over-the-counter deals – позабіржові операції

6. forward contract – форвардний контракт 

7. financial derivatives – фінансові похідни

8. to hedge,  hedging – хеджирування 

9. exchange rate and interest rate – валютний курс та процентна ставка  

10. currency futures market – валютний фючерсний ринок 

11. stock and share market – фондова біржа, ринок акцій  

12. a call option – опціонкол’( право купити акції за фіксованою ціною)

13. a put option – опціонпут’ (право продати акції за фіксованою ціною)

14. equity investments – інвестування в акції

15. currency swap – валютний своп  

16. interest rate savings – заощадження норми відсотка

Every weekday, enormous amounts of commodities, currencies and financial securities are traded for immediate delivery at their current price on spot markets. There are also futures markets on which contracts can be made to buy and sell commodities, currencies, and various financial assets, at a future date (three, six, or nine months ahead), but with the price fixed at the time of the deal. Standardized deals for fixed quantities and time period (e .g. 25 tons of copper to be delivered next June 30) are called futures; individual, non-standard, “over-the-counter” deals between two parties (e.g. 1.7 billion yen to be exchanged for dollars on September 15, at a rate set today) are called forward contracts.

Futures, options and other derivatives exist in order that companies and individuals may attempt to diminish the effects of future changes in commodity and asset prices, exchange rates, interest rates, and so on. For example the prices of foodstuffs such as wheat, cocoa, coffee, tea and orange juice are frequently effected by drought, floods and other extreme weather conditions.

Consequently many producers and buyers of raw materials want to hedge, in order to guarantee next seasons prices. When commodity prices are expected to rise, future prices are obviously higher than spot prices; when they are expected to fall, they are at a discount on spot prices.

In recent years, exchange rates and interest rates have fluctuated wildly. Many businesses, therefore, want to buy or sell currencies at a guaranteed future price. Speculators, anticipating currency appreciations or depreciations, or interest rate movements, are also active in currency futures markets, such as the London International Financial Futures Exchange (LIFFE, pronounced ‘life’)

As well as currencies and commodities, there is now a huge futures market in stocks and shares. One can buy options giving the right – but not the obligation – to buy and sell securities at a fixed price in the future. A call option gives the right to buy securities (or a currency, or a commodity) at a certain price during a certain period of time. A put option gives the right to sell an asset at a certain price during a certain period of time. These options allow organizations to hedge their equity investments.

For example, if you think a share worth 100 will rise, you can buy a call option giving the right to buy at 100, hoping to sell this option, or to buy and resell the share at a profit.

On the contrary, if you expect the value of a share that you own to fall below its current price of 100, you can buy a put option at 100 or higher: if the price falls, you can still sell shares at this price.

Options are merely one type of derivative instrument. Many companies nowadays also arrange currency swaps and interest rate swaps with other companies or financial institutions. Such currency swaps, designed to achieve interest rate savings, are of course open to the risk of exchange rate fluctuations. Whether they save or lose money will depend on the movement of interest rates.

Comprehension:

1. What is traded on spot markets?

2. On what markets can contracts be made?

3. What is a forward contract?

4. What is the purpose of futures, options and other derivatives?

5. What is the difference between a call option and a put option?

6. Are there any more derivative instruments?

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Spot markets trade in commodities, currencies and … .
  2.  Future markets make contracts to buy commodities, currencies at a … date.
  3.  With the help of futures, contracts and other derivatives companies and individuals may diminish … .
  4.  Although exchange rates and interest rates fluctuate, many businesses want to buy or sell currencies at a … .
  5.  Options, which are bought at the market of stocks and shares, allow organizations to hedge … .
  6.  Besides options many companies nowadays arrange … .

  •  Text organization.

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

Every weekday, enormous amounts of commodities, currencies and financial securities are traded on spot markets.

1

  1.  

Options are merely one type of derivative instrument.

  1.  

As well as currencies and commodities, there is now a huge futures market in stocks and shares.

  1.  

Many producers and buyers of raw materials want to hedge, in order to guarantee next seasons prices.

  1.  

Futures, options and other derivatives exist in order to diminish the effects of future changes in prices, exchange rates, interest rates, and so on.

  1.  

Many companies nowadays also arrange currency swaps and interest rate swaps with other companies or financial institutions.

  •  Viewpoint:

How popular are the above-mentioned derivative instruments in our country?

  1.   BUYOUTS

Lead-in:

Discuss when, in your opinion, buyouts take place.

Key words and phrases

1. takeover – злиття, поглинання підприємства

2. synergy (synergism) – синергізм (явище, коли результат перевершує суму  окремих ефектів)

3. stockholder value – (економічна)  вартість акціонера

4. raider (бірж.) – скупник акцій 

5. to make a loss – зазнати витрат (збитків)

6. buyout – викуп активів, акцій  діючого підприємства

7. cash reserves  – резерв грошової готівкі

8. leverage buyouts – викуп контрольного пакету акцій за рахунок кредиту

9. challenge – складна задача, виклик 

10. hostile takeovers and buyouts – поглинання підприємств без згоди  керівництва

11. to lay-off workers – звільняти працівників

“You can’t buy a company merely by buying its shares”

 (Sir James Goldsmith (1933-1997), Anglo-French financier

In the 1960s, a big wave of takeovers in the US created conglomerates – collections of unrelated businesses combined into a single structure. Many of these conglomerates consisted of too many companies and not enough synergy. After the recession of the 1980s, there were many large companies on the US stock market with good earnings but low stock prices.

Such conglomerates were not maximizing stockholder value. The individual companies might have been more efficient if liberated from central management.

Conventional financial theories argue that stock markets are efficient. Raiders in the 1980s discovered that it was untrue. Although the market could understand data concerning companies’ earnings, it was highly inefficient in valuing assets, including land, buildings and pension funds.

Theoretically, there was little risk of making a loss with a buyout. The ideal targets for buyouts were companies with huge cash reserves that enabled the buyer to pay the interest on the debt, or companies with successful subsidiaries, or companies that are not sensitive to a recession, such as food and tobacco.

Takeovers using borrowed money are called ‘leverage buyouts’ or ‘LBOs’. Leverage means having a large proportion of debt compared to equity capital. If a company is bought by its existing managers, we talk of a management buyout or MBO.

Raiders and their supporters argue that the permanent threat of takeovers is a challenge to company managers and directors to do their job better and that well-run businesses are at little risk. The threat of raids forces companies to put their capital to productive use. Fat or lazy companies that fail to do this will be taken over by raiders who will use assets more efficiently.

LBOs, however, seem to be largely an American phenomenon. German and Japanese managers and financiers, for example, seem to consider companies as places where people work, rather than assets to be bought and sold. Hostile takeovers and buyouts are almost unknown in these two countries, where business tends to concentrate on long-term goals rather than seek instant stock market profits. Workers in these companies are considered to be as important as shareholders. The idea of a Japanese manager restructuring a company, laying off a large number of workers (as frequently happens in the US and Britain), is unthinkable. Lay-offs in Japan are instead a cause for shame for which managers are expected to apologize.

 

Comprehension:  

1. What is a conglomerate?

2. What are stock markets inefficient in?

3. Are companies with huge cash reserves the ideal targets for buyouts?

4. Is there any difference between ‘LBO’ and ‘MBO’?

5. The permanent threat of takeovers is a challenge to a company, isn’t it?

6. Why do you think LBO is a typically American phenomenon?

7. What is the status of workers in German and Japanese companies?

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Takeovers in the USA created  .
  2.  After the recession of the 1980s many companies had good earnings but low … .
  3.  In the 1980s raiders discovered that stock markets were … .
  4.  Theoretically, with a buyout there is little risk of … .
  5.  If takeovers use borrowed money, they are called … .
  6.  We talk of a management buyout when a company is bought by … .
  7.  Hostile takeovers and buyouts seem to be typically… phenomenon.

  •  Viewpoint:

Are hostile takeovers and buyouts known in Ukraine?

  1.   PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION

Lead-in:

What is the main purpose of taxation?

Key words and phrases

1. taxation – оподаткування 

2. tax revenues – податкові надходження

3. to provide medical care – забезпечувати медичною допомогою

4. to charge feesвимагати, призначати плату

5. gross domestic product – внутрішній валовий продукт

6. to raise money – діставати гроші 

7. the ability-to-pay principle – принцип платоспроможності

8. the benefits principle – принцип пільг

9. income and wealth – дохід і багатство

10. horizontal  (vertical)  equityгоризонтальна ( вертикальна ) справедливість

11. taxable incomeоподаткований дохід

12. tax bracketsступінь податкової шкали 

13. tax ratesподаткова ставка

Taxation is a system of raising money to finance government expenditure, but taxes can also have other purposes. Indirect excise duties, for example, can be designed to dissuade people from smoking, drinking alcohol, and so on.

Governments use tax revenues to pay soldiers and police, to operate schools and hospitals, to provide food to the poor and medical care to the elderly, and for hundreds of other purposes. Without taxes government could not exist.

Taxation is the most important source of revenues for modern governments, typically accounting for 90 per cent or more of their income. The remainder of government revenue comes from borrowing and from charging fees for services. Countries differ considerably in the amount of taxes they collect. In the United Nationals, about 28 per cent of the gross domestic product, a measure of economic output, goes for tax payments. In Canada about 36 per cent of the country's gross domestic product goes for taxes. In France the figure is 44 per cent, and in Sweden it is 51 per cent.

In addition to using taxation to raise money, governments may raise or lower taxes to achieve social and economic objectives, or to achieve political popularity with certain groups. Also, some economists consider taxation an important tool for maintaining the stability of a country's economy.

Most economists believe that a tax system should follow two main principles: fairness and efficiency. Economists consider two principles of fairness: the ability-to-pay principle and the benefits principle.

The ability-to-pay principle holds that people's taxes should be based upon their ability to pay, usually as measured by income or wealth. One implication of this principle is horizontal equity, which Nationals that people in equal positions should pay the same amount of tax.

A second requirement of the ability-to-pay principle is vertical equity, the idea that a tax system should distribute the burden fairly across people with different abilities to pay. This idea implies that a person with higher income should pay more in taxes than one with less income. But how much more?

Taxes may be proportional, progressive, or regressive. A proportional tax takes the same percentage of income from all people. A progressive tax takes a higher percentage of income as income rises. A regressive tax takes a smaller percentage of income: as income rises, poor people pay a larger fraction of their incomes in taxes than rich people. Which is fairest: a proportional, progressive, or regressive system?

A progressive, proportional, or even slightly regressive system all can achieve vertical equity's requirement that a richer person should pay more in taxes than a poorer person. Most industrialized nations have progressive income tax systems, which impose a heavier tax burden as one's income increases. In the United Nationals, the individual income tax system divides taxable income into different tax brackets – ranges of income with different tax rates.

In addition to being fair, a good tax system should be efficient.

Three measures of efficiency are administration costs, compliance costs, and excess burden.

Each society must find the best trade off between fairness and efficiency.

 Comprehension:

1. What is taxation?

2. In what way do governments use tax revenues?

3. Is taxation the most important source of revenues for modern governments?

4. Countries differ considerably in the amount of taxes they collect, don’t they?

5. How many principles should a tax system follow?

6. What are the requirements of the ability-to-pay principle of taxation?

7. What tax systems do most industrialized nations have?

8. Name three measures of tax efficiency.

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  Taxation is the most important source of revenues for governments.

  1.  Taxation is an important tool for maintaining the stability of a country's economy.

  1.  Most industrialized nations have regressive income tax systems.

  1.  No tax system is perfectly efficient.

  1.  Each society must find the best trade off between fairness and efficiency.

  •  Viewpoint:

Is it possible to make the system of taxation perfect?

  1.   TYPES OF TAXES

Lead-in:

What types of taxes do you know?

Key words and phrases

1. to impose taxes – оподатковувати

2. income taxприбутковий податок

3. payroll taxподаток на заробітну плату

4. consumption taxподаток на споживання

5. property taxподаток на прибуток від нерухомого майна

6. eNational taxподаток на спадщину

7. revenue systemструктура державного доходу

8. medicareбезплатна медична допомога

9. to earn an interestприносити процент

10. savings accountsощадні рахунки 

11. royaltyавторский  гонорар

12. capital gains – доходи від приросту капіталу

13.  income tax returnдекларація про прибутковий податок 

14.  tax liabilityзаборгованість з податкових рахунків

15. to withhold taxesвідраховувати податки

16. general sales taxподаток на всі види продажу

17. excise taxакциз, акцизний збір

18. value-added tax  (VAT) – податок на додану вартість

19. licence taxліцензійний збір 

20. customs dutiesмитний збір

21. inheritance taxподаток на спадщину

22. gift taxподаток на дарчу, даровизну

23. charitable  organizationsблагодійні організації

24. tax-exemptзвільнений від сплати податків

 

Governments impose many types of taxes. In most developed countries, individuals pay income taxes, payroll taxes, consumption taxes, property taxes, and in some cases National taxes. Taxes on people’s incomes play critical roles in the revenue system of all developed countries. Payroll taxes, which are used to finance social programmes such as security and medicare, account for more than a third of federal revenues. An individual income tax, also called a personal income tax, is a tax on a person's income. Income includes wages, salaries, and other earnings, interest earned by savings accounts; rents, royalties. Income also includes capital gains, which are profits from the sale of stock, real eNational, or other investments. The national governments of the United Nationals, Canada, and many other countries require citizens to file an individual income tax return each year. Each taxpayer must compute his or her tax liability – the amount of money he or she owes the government.

All corporations in the United Nationals and Canada must pay tax on their net income (profits) to the federal government and also to most National or provincial governments. A payroll tax applies only to wages and salaries. Employers automatically withhold payroll taxes from employees' wages and forward them to the government. Payroll taxes are the main sources of funding for various social insurance programmes, such as those that provide benefits to the poor, elderly, unemployed, and disabled.

A consumption tax is a tax levied on sales of goods or services. The most important kinds of consumption taxes are general sales taxes, excise taxes, value-added taxes (VAT), and tariffs. In the United Nationals, consumption taxes account for only 17 per cent of all tax revenues. This is lower than in most other countries.

In Canada, the figure is 27 per cent, and in the United Kingdom it is 35 per cent.

Another type of excise tax is the license tax. Most Nationals require people to buy licences to engage in certain activities, such as hunting and fishing, operating a motor vehicle, owning a business, and selling alcoholic beverages.

In Canada and Europe the favoured form of consumption taxation is a value-added tax. The seller pays the government a percentage of the value added to goods or services at each stage of production. Tariffs, also called duties or customs duties, are taxes on imported or exported goods. A property tax is a tax on an individual's wealth – the value of all of the person's assets, both financial (such as stocks and bonds) and real (such as houses, cars, and artwork). In the United Nationals, National and local governments generally levy property taxes on buildings such as homes, office buildings, and factories and on land.

When a person dies, the property that he or she leaves for others may be subject to tax. An eNational tax is a tax on the deceased person's eNational, which includes everything the person owned at the time of death money, real eNational, stock, bonds, proceeds from insurance policies, and material possessions. An inheritance tax also taxes the value of the deceased person's eNational, but after the eNational passes to heirs. The inheritors pay the tax. ENational and inheritance taxes are sometimes collectively called death taxes.

A gift tax is a federal tax on transfers of property by gift. Gifts to charitable organizations, schools, churches, government bodies, are exempt. A gift of any amount used to pay medical expenses or tuition at an educational institution is also exempt from taxation.

 Comprehension:

  1.  What types of taxes do governments impose? 
  2.  What taxes are the main sources of funding for various social insurance programmes?
  3.  What is an individual income tax?
  4.  What does a person’s income include?
  5.  Does a payroll tax apply to a person’s income or only to wages and salaries?
  6.  What is a consumption tax levied on?
  7.  What gifts are tax-exempt? 

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

 

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

An individual income tax is a tax on a person’s income.

  1.  

A consumption tax is levied on sales of goods and services.

  1.  

Payroll taxes are the main sources of funding for social programmes.

  1.  

Governments impose many types of taxes.

1

  1.  

Tariffs are taxes on imported or exported goods.

  1.  

Gifts to charitable organizations, schools, churches, government bodies, are tax- exempt.

  •  Viewpoint:

Do you think it is fair to impose a tax on gifts?

  1.   FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT

Lead-in:  

Discuss in pairs if foreign investments are favourable for our country.

Key words and phrases

1. portfolio investments – портфельні  iнвестицiї

2. stocks and bonds – акцiї та облігації

3. direct investment – пряме інвестування

4. to transfer capital – перевести капітал

5. to gain equityздобувати власний капітал

6. return on investments – прибуток з інвестицій 

7. interest rateпроцентна ставка

8. assetsактив, засоби

Foreign direct investment may be divided into two components: portfolio investment, which is the purchase of stocks and bonds, and direct investment, by which the investors participate in the management of the firm in addition to receiving a return on their money.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a complex form of international business. It involves ownership and control of a company in a foreign country by an organization based in another country.

Contrary to portfolio investments, foreign direct investments mean a long-term commitment where capital funds will be tied up for a long time.

Although a direct investment usually is required by transferring capital from one country to another, capital is not the only contribution made by the investor or the only means of gaining equity. The investment firm may supply technology, personnel and markets in exchange for an investment for an interest in a firm located abroad.

Companies engage in direct investment abroad for the same reasons they pursue international trade: 1. To expand markets by selling abroad. 2. To acquire foreign resources (e.g. raw materials, production efficiency and knowledge).

Financial considerations are also the most important and sometimes decisive factors. What is the expected return on an investment? What are interest rates? What are the sources of working capital?

When governments are involved in direct investment, an additional motive may be to attain some political advantage. One more explanation for a direct investment is that investors perceive a monopoly advantage over similar companies in the countries to which they go. The advantage is due to the ownership of some resource that is unavailable at the same price or terms to the local firm. The resource may be in the form of assets to markets, patents, management skills, or the like.

In many countries there is resistance to foreign direct investment.

Some strategic industries (such as food, computers, nuclear reactors and energy) will find it increasingly difficult to expand abroad. But direct investment is likely to continue its course in many areas. The economic integration of the US, Europe and Japan will stimulate its development. Because of the greater costs of transferring resources abroad and the greater risk of operating in a different environment, the firm will not move unless it expects a higher return than at home.

Comprehension:

  1.  Name two components of foreign direct investment.
  2.  What is the main difference between portfolio investments and direct investment?
  3.  Say if the following Nationalment is true or false according to the text: “Financial considerations are one of the most important reasons for investors”.
  4.  Do investors perceive a monopoly advantage over similar companies in the countries they go to?
  5.  Why is there resistance to foreign investment in some countries?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  There are two components in foreign … .
  2.  Foreign direct investment involves … .
  3.  In case of … investment stocks and bonds are purchased.
  4.  The main reasons for investment abroad are … .
  5.  Economic integration of the leading countries of the world … foreign investment.

  •  Viewpoint:

Are there any examples of foreign direct investments in the economy of our region?

  1.   ACCOUNTING AND BOOKKEEPING

Lead-in:

Why is accounting so important in any business?

Key words and phrases

1. accounting – бухгалтерська справа, облік 

2. resource allocation – розподіл ресурсів

3. to lend money – позичати гроші

4. to pay tax – сплачувати податки

5. buy or sell shares – купувати або продавати акції

6. ‘mixed’ economy – змішана економіка 

7. profit or loss – прибуток або збиток

8. claims – вимоги, претензії

9. balance sheet – балансовий звіт

10. assets – майно, активи

11. equity – звичайна акція, частка акціонера в капіталі підприємства 

12. liabilities – пасиви, зобовязання

13. taxes and cash flow – податки та приплив капіталу

14. sales and purchases – продаж, збут та купівля

15. receipts and disbursements – грошові надходження та витрати

16. Ledger – головна книга, гросбух 

17. expenditures and earnings – витрати та дохід, надходження 

18. Trial Balance – пробний баланс

Accounting contains elements of science and art. It is very difficult to find the right definition but we can say that accounting is concerned with the provision of information in financial terms concerning resource allocation, and the preparation of reports in financial terms describing the effects of the past resource allocation decisions.

Examples of resource allocation decisions are: should a bank manager lend money to a firm? How much tax should a company pay? Should an investor buy or sell shares? As you can see, accounting is needed in any society requiring resource allocation and its usefulness is not confined to ‘capitalist’ or ‘mixed’ economies.

An accountant is concerned with the provision and interpretation of financial information. He does not, as an accountant, make decisions. When accountants are directly involved in decision-making, they perform a different function. Accounting is also concerned with reporting on the effects of the past decisions. Knowledge of the past is relevant only if it can be used to help in making current and future decisions. Although accounting is at least the second oldest profession in the world, it took tax collectors and merchants thousands of years to find a satisfactory general method of keeping a record of their affairs. Any business may be pictured as a box. As the business buys and sells goods or services, the value of the contents of the box can decrease or increase, depending on whether the business makes a profit or loss. These changes in the value of contents must be equalled by changes in the value of claims on contents.

Such a list of contents (on the left) balanced by a list of claims (on the right) constitutes a simple balance sheet. Restating the original theory, with the picture of the business as a box, we can write in accounting terms: ASSETS = EQUITY + LIABILITIES where assets are simply what is held in business, equity is the claim of owners, and liabilities are the claims of third parties. Bookkeepers usually deal with taxes and cash flow, which reflects business transactions of a company, such as sales and purchases, receipts and disbursements.

Bookkeepers first record figures in the books or Journals, which are nowadays computer files. At the end of each period bookkeepers put the totals of each book into the Ledger, which shows all the expenditures and the earnings of the company. On the basis of all the totals of each account in the Ledger, bookkeepers prepare a Trial Balance, which is drawn up every quarter. Is there any difference between bookkeepers and accountants? As we have already said, bookkeepers are specialists who record business transactions and see if both sides of an account book match and accountants are specialists that keep, audit, and inspect the financial records of individuals or businesses and prepare financial and tax reports.

Comprehension:

  1.  What is accounting concerned with?
  2.  Give some examples of resource allocation decisions.
  3.  Do accountants make decisions or do they only provide and interpret financial information?
  4.  What do bookkeepers usually deal with?
  5.  What is the main difference between bookkeepers and accountants?

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

Accounting is concerned with the provision of information in financial terms.

  1.  

Bookkeepers usually deal with taxes and cash flow.

  1.  

Accounting is needed in any society requiring resource allocation.

  1.  

Accounting contains elements of science and art.

1

  •  True-false questions:

1. Accounting contains elements of science and art.

2. Accounting is needed in any society requiring resource allocation.

3. Any accountant is involved in the process of decision-making.

4. Bookkeepers usually deal with taxes and cash flow.

5. There is no difference between bookkeepers and accountants.

  •  Viewpoint:

Do you agree that accountancy is equally important for all types of economic systems?

  1.  ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL NATIONALMENTS

Lead-in: 

Are companies in our country required to publish their financial results?

Key words and phrases

1. bookkeeping and accounting – бухгалтерський облік 

2. costs and expenses – вартість та витрати 

3. tax return – податкова декларація

4. crucial – вирішальний 

5. market valueринкова вартість

6. fixed assets – основні фонди, нерухомість

7. accumulated depreciation charges – нагромаджувальні амортизаційні відрахування  

8. stock акція, облігація, основний капітал 

9. inventoryматеріально-виробничі запаси, оборотні фонди

10. profit and loss account – рахунок прибутку та втрат

11. balance sheet – баланс, балансовий звіт

12. Nationalment – фінансовий звіт

Bookkeeping and accounting – the recording of transactions, the elaboration of budgets, the calculating of costs and expenses, the preparation of financial Nationalments and tax returns, and so on – is central to all commercial activity, from the smallest sole-trader or self-proprietorship (one-person business) to the largest international company. Financial control is equally crucial for all non-commercial organizations and institutions.

In accounting, it is always assumed that a business is a ‘going concern’ i.e. that it will continue indefinitely to the future, which means that the current market value of its fixed assets is irrelevant, as they are not for sale. The most common accounting system is historical cost accounting, which records assets at their original purchase price, minus accumulated depreciation charges. In times of inflation, this underNationals the value of appreciating assets such as land, but overNationals profits, as it does not record the replacement cost of plant or stock or inventory.

The value of a business’s assets under historical cost accounting – purchase price minus depreciation – is known as its net book value. Countries with persistently high inflation often prefer to use current cost or replacement cost accounting, which values assets (and related expenses like depreciation) at the price that would have to be paid to replace them (or to buy a more modern equipment) today.

Company law specifies that shareholders or stockholders must be given certain financial information. Companies generally include three financial Nationalments in their annual reports: the profit and loss account (GB) or income Nationalment (US), the balance sheet, and the third one, which has various names, including the source and application of funds Nationalment, and the Nationalment of changes in financial position.

 

Comprehension:

1. What is included in the concept of ‘financial control’?

2. What is the most common accounting system?

3. Why do countries with high inflation prefer to use replacement cost accounting?

4. What must shareholders and stockholders be informed of?

5. What financial Nationalments should be included in financial reports?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. Bookkeeping and accounting is central to … .

2. Financial control is equally crucial to … .

3. In accounting it is assumed that … .

4. The value of a business’s assets is known as … .

5. Current cost accounting is preferred in the countries with … .

6. In their annual reports companies generally include … .

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

In accounting, it is always assumed that a business will continue indefinitely to the future.

  1.  

The value of a business’s assets is known as its net book value.

  1.  

Companies generally include three financial Nationalments in their annual reports.

  1.  

Bookkeeping and accounting is central to all commercial activity.  

1

  •  Viewpoint:

Is accountancy equally important to all types of economic systems?

  1.   TYPES OF FINANCIAL SATATEMENTS

Lead-in:

What information is, in your opinion, included in companies’ annual reports?

Key words and phrases

1. annual report – щорічний звіт

2. profit and loss account рахунок прибутку та витрат

3. income Nationalmentзвіт про прибутки та витрати

4. income and expenditure – прибуток та витрати

5. turnover – оборот

6. costs витрати

7. overheads – накладні витрати

8. government taxation – державне оподаткування 

9. balance sheet – балансовий звіт

8. assets and liabilities – активи і пасиви

10. accounts receivable – рахунки дебіторів, дебіторська заборгованість

11. accounts payable – рахунки кредиторів, кредиторська заборгованість  

12. double-entry bookkeeping – система подвійного запису 

13. share premium (paid-in-surplus) – премія на акцію 

(активний платіжний баланс)

14. retained profit  нерозподілений прибуток

15. cash flow приплив готiвки

16. depreciation  зниження вартості, амортизація

 

In their annual reports companies usually include three financial Nationalments.

The profit and loss account or income Nationalment shows the revenue or earnings or income and expenditure. It usually gives figures for total sales or turnover, and costs and overheads. The first figure should obviously be higher than the second, i.e. there should be a profit. Part of the profit goes to the Government in taxation, part is usually distributed to shareholders (stockholders) as a dividend, and part is retained by the company.

The balance sheet shows a company’s financial situation on a particular date, generally the last days of the financial year. It lists the company’s assets, its liabilities, and shareholders’ funds. Assets include debtors or accounts receivable, liabilities include creditors or accounts payable. Negative items on financial Nationalments, such as taxation, creditors, and dividends paid, are usually enclosed in brackets.

In accordance with the principle of double-entry bookkeeping, the basic accounting equation is Assets = Liabilities + Owners’ (or Shareholders) Equity. This can be rewritten as Assets – Liabilities = Owners’ Equity or Net Assets. This includes share capital, share premium (GB) or paid-in-surplus (US) (selling shares at above their nominal value), and the company’s reserves, including the year’s retained profits.

The third financial Nationalment, source and application of funds Nationalment, or the Nationalment of changes in financial position, shows the flow of cash in and out of the business between balance sheet dates. Sources of funds include trading profits, depreciation provisions, and sales of assets, borrowing and the issuing of shares. Applications of these funds include purchases of fixed or financial assets, payment of dividends, repayment of loans, and – in a bad year – trading losses.

Comprehension:

1. What does a profit and loss account show?

2. Where does part of the profit go?

3. What is listed in the company’s balance sheet?

4. How do you read the basic accounting equation?

5. What items are included in the Nationalment of changes in financial position?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. As a rule, annual reports consist of … .

2. The profit and loss account gives figures for … .

3. The first figure in the profit and loss account should be … .

4. The balance sheet lists the company’s assets … .

5. Negative items on financial Nationalments are enclosed … .

6. The basic accounting equation is read in the following way … .

7. Source and application of funds Nationalment shows … .

  •  Viewpoint:

Do you think there must be more financial Nationalments in annual reports?

  1.   CURRENT ACCOUNT AND CAPITAL ACCOUNT

Lead-in: 

What is, in your opinion, the main difference between these types of accounts?

Key words and phrases:

1. balance account – балансовий рахунок

2. capital account – рахунок капiтальних операцiй

3. merchandise trade account – рахунок торгiвлi товарами

4. income receipt – грошовi надходження вiд прибутку

5. unilateral transfers account – однобiчний жирорахунок

6. trade surplus – активне сальдо зовнiшньоторгового балансу

7. fees and royaltiesплатня та  авторський гонорар

8. reserve assetsрезервний фонд

9. treasury billказначейський вексель

Two main categories in the balance of payments are the balance account and the capital account. The balance account summarizes a country’s real transactions involving currently produced goods and services. These transactions are grouped in the following categories:

  •  Merchandise trade account;
  •  Services account;
  •  Income receipts and payments on asset accounts;
  •  Unilateral transfers account.

The merchandise trade account measures the trade deficit or surplus. Its balance is derived by subtracting merchandise imports from merchandise exports. A negative result indicates a balance of trade deficit; a positive result – a balance of trade surplus.

The services account measures the following transactions: travel and transportation, tourism, fees and royalties. Income receipts and payments on asset accounts measure foreign investment in the country and foreign investment abroad.

Unilateral transfers are payments made to a country for which no goods or services are received. An example is a foreign aid to a country deva Nationald by an earthquake or flood. On the whole, the current account of balance is the sum of the exports and the imports of goods, income and net unilateral transfers.  

The capital account measures transactions that involve existing rather than currently produced assets. There are two major categories in the capital account: the country’s assets and foreign official reserved assets and the country’s other assets and other foreign assets. Official reserve assets are transactions involving central banks, that is, the official government institutions that establish monetary policy. The country’s other assets and foreign assets refer to direct investments as well as investments in government treasury bills and stocks of private companies.

Comprehension:

1. What does a balance account show?

2. What categories are the country’s transactions grouped in?

3. In what account is the trade deficit or surplus shown?

4. What does the services account measure?

5. What is an example of unilateral transfers?

6. Give the difference between the capital account and the balance account.

7. How many categories are there in the capital account?

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. The two main categories in the balance of payments are … .

2. The transactions of produced goods and services are grouped in the following way ….

3. The merchandise trade account shows … .

4. Travel and transportation, tourism, fees and royalties are grouped in … .

5. Unilateral transfers are made … .

6. The capital account measures transactions … .

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  Two main categories in the balance of payments are the balance account and the capital account.

  1.  The balance account summarizes a country’s real transactions involving currently produced goods and services.  

  1.  The services account measures foreign investment in the country and foreign investment abroad.  

  1.  The current account of balance is the sum of the exports and the imports of goods, income and net unilateral transfers.  

  1.  AUDITING

Lead-in:

What is the main purpose of auditing?

Key words and phrases

1. auditing  ревізія, аудит

2. company’s accounts – рахунки компанії 

3. instigators of malpractice – підбурювачи службового злочину 

4. internal audit – внутрішній  аудит

5. independent audit  незалежний аудит

6. reliable and exact data – надійні та точні дані 

7. current transactions – поточні операції

8. accounting system – облікова система

9. personnel – персонал, штат

10. fiscal affairs – фінансова діяльність, справи

11. to find fraud – виявляти обман, шахрайство

12. share capital – акціонерний капітал

Auditing is an official inspection of a company’s accounts by a qualified accountant as required by law to ensure that the company balance sheet reflects the true National of its affairs. There are three main roles of auditors: they are responsible for overseeing a company’s finances, responsible for informing authorities of malpractice and they must track down the instigators of malpractice.

There are two types of audit, an internal audit and an independent audit.

An internal audit is usually carried out by a company’s own accountants. Some large companies maintain a continuous internal audit by their own accounting departments. They check for complete, reliable and exact data, that current transactions of the company are recorded promptly and completely.

An independent audit is a review of financial Nationalments and records by an independent auditor, i.e. an accountant not belonging to the company. The major steps of the independent auditing process are as follows:

  •  to become acquainted with the firm’s accounting, personnel, production, marketing and other systems;
  •  to evaluate the management and the accounting control system in operation;
  •  to analyse and review the accounting data of the company;
  •  to formulate a judgment on the basis of the inspection.

Not so many years ago the presence of an auditor suggested that a company was having financial difficulties or that irregularities had been discovered in the records. Nowadays independent audits are a normal and a regular part of business practice.

At the final stage of the inspection auditors write reports to the management on the current National of the company’s fiscal affairs in the form of Auditor’s Report or Auditor’s Opinion, where they may underline some weak points and recommend how to improve operating procedures. If the auditor finds any fraud he must take further investigations. Who appoints auditors? Senior executives and advisors of the company do it. Then the candidates are to be approved by the owners of the share capital at the company’s meeting. As we have already said, nowadays it is generally accepted that every business should be audited.

Comprehension:

1. What is auditing?

2. Name three main roles of auditors.

3. Who is an internal audit carried out by?

4. What are the major steps of an independent auditing process?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. Auditing is an official inspection of … .

2. There are three main roles of auditors: … .

3. There are two types of audit, an internal audit and … .

4. An independent audit is a review of … .

5. Not so many years ago the presence of an auditor suggested that … .

6. At the final stage of the inspection auditors write … .

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment  

Order

  1.  

At the final stage of the inspection auditors write reports to the management.

  1.  

Auditing is an official inspection of a company’s accounts by a qualified accountant.

1

  1.  

An internal audit is usually carried out by a company’s own accountants.

  1.  

Not so many years ago the presence of an auditor suggested that a company was having financial difficulties.

  1.  

There are two types of audit, an internal audit and an independent audit.

  1.  

An in independent audit is a review of financial Nationalments and records by an accountant not belonging to the company.

  •  Viewpoint:

How do you think the work of auditors could be made more effective? Should the government pay auditors or the companies they audit?

  1.   MARKETING

Lead-in:

Can you give your definition of marketing?

Key words and phrases

1. to promote goods and services – просувати товари та послуги 

2. marketing mixмаркетингова структура, (cклад, асортимент)

3. product life cycle – життєвий цикл товару

4. costs and expenses – витрати та видатки

5. manufacture and distribution – виробництво та розподіл

6. demand and supply – попит і пропозиція

7. below or above the average price – нижче або вище середньої ціни

8. current price – поточна ціна

9. competitors’ price – ціна конкурентів 

10. distribution channel – канал розподілу

11. competing product – конкурентний товар

12. manufacture – виробник

13. wholesaler – оптовий продавець

14. retailer – роздрібний продавець

15.  consumer – споживач

  

Marketing is a total system of business activities designed to plan price, promote and distribute goods and services to satisfy individual and organizational objectives.

The key to successful marketing is having the right product at the right price in the right place with the right promotion. Marketing can be divided into 4 main elements that are popularly known as “the four P’s: product, price, promotion, and place.”

Each of the 4 Ps focuses on the customer and each is related to the other because a decision about one usually affects the others. The most effective combination of the 4 Ps is the right marketing mix for each particular product or service.

Product is the first and most important element of the marketing mix. Product strategy means making coordination decision on the product mix, product lines, individual product items, brands, packages and services.

As a product is developed and introduced and as it progresses through its life cycle, decision must be made about the pricing of the product. Among the important factors considered when setting a price are:

  •  the costs and business expenses involved in the manufacture or distribution of the product,
  •  its fashion and seasonal appeal,
  •  the competition,
  •  government price regulations,
  •  supply and demand.

Marketers may choose the price above or below the average or current market price. If the price is above competitors’ price, the marketer must offer some unique advantages that are easily seen by the customers. If marketers’ price is below the market price, they may attract more customers and increase sales. If the price is the same as others then the service must be better to attract the customer.

When a product comes off the production line, the manufacture must select the best distribution channel to get that product to the consumer. No mater how good a product is, it can be a total sales failure if it arrives in the market place too late, if distribution costs are too high, or if it is not distributed as widely as a competing product.

Producers of consumer goods have 5 channels to choose from on marketing their goods. The channels range from the simplest (manufacture to consumer) to the most complex (manufacture – to agent – to wholesaler – to retailer – to consumer).

Comprehension:

1. What is marketing?

2. What is the key to successful marketing?

3. Name four elements of marketing.

4. What is the most effective combination of the 4 Ps?

5. Product is the most important element of the marketing mix, isn’t it?

6. What factors are considered when setting a price?

7. What must the marketer do if the price is above competitors’ price?

8. When can a product be a total sales failure?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. Marketing is a system of business activities designed to … .

2. Successful marketing is … .

3. Product, price, promotion and place are … .

4. Product strategy means … .

5. When you set a price, you must consider the costs and business expenses of the product … .

6. Marketers may choose a price above or … .

7. It is necessary to select the best distribution channel to get the product … .

  •  Viewpoint:

Is marketing art or science?

  1.   THE CENTRALITY OF MARKETING

    

Lead-in:

Can you name the four factors that are called “marketing mix”?

Key words and phrases

1. market segmentation – ринкова сегментація

2. competitor  конкурент

3. to launch a product – запускати товар у  виробництво

4. market research – ринкове дослідження

5. sales representative – торговий представник

6. brand name – марка товару

7. distribution channels – канал розповсюдження, збуту

8. inventory sizeвеличина поточного  запасу

9. advertisingреклама, рекламна справа

10. publicityпопулярність, реклама

11. sales promotionпросування товару

12. discountдисконт, скидка 

13. credit termsкредитні умови

14. industrial marketing and consumer marketing – промисловий маркетинг та споживчий маркетинг

 

“The last stage of fitting the product to the market

is fitting the market to the product.”

(Clive James, Australian writer and broadcaster)

Most management and marketing writers now distinguish between selling and marketing. The ‘selling concept’ assumes that resisting consumers have to be persuaded to buy non-essential goods or services. The ‘marketing concept’, on the contrary, assumes that the producer’s task is to find wants and to fill them. As well as satisfying existing needs, marketers can also create new ones.

Marketers are always looking for market opportunities – profitable possibilities of filling unsatisfied needs or creating new ones in areas the company is likely to enjoy a differential advantage. Market opportunities are generally isolated by market segmentation. A company has to decide what goods or service to offer. This means that much of the work of marketing has been done before the final product comes into existence. The company must also take into account the existence of competitors.

Rather than risk launching a product or service on the basis of intuition, most companies undertake market research (GB) or marketing research (US). They collect and analyze the information about the potential market, about consumer reaction to particular product or service and so on. Sales representatives are another important source of information.

Once a product concept has been established, the company has to think about the marketing mix, i.e. the various elements of marketing program. The best-known classification of these elements is the ‘4 Ps’: product, place, promotion and price. Aspects in marketing products include quality, features, style, brand name, size, packaging, services and guarantee. Place in marketing includes distribution channels, points of sale, transport, inventory size, etc. Promotion groups together advertising, publicity, sales promotion, personal selling, while price includes the basic list price, discount, payment period, credit terms, and so on. The producer market is larger than the consumer market since it contains all the raw materials, manufactured parts and components, plus capital equipment such as buildings, machines, energy, and services ranging from cleaning to management consulting. Consequently, there is more industrial than consumer marketing. It must be remembered that apart from consumer markets there exists an enormous producer or industrial or business market.

Comprehension:

  1.  Characterize the ‘selling concept’ and the ‘marketing concept’.
    1.  Why do companies undertake market research?
    2.  What is marketing mix?
    3.  Characterize each component of marketing mix.
    4.  What does a producer market consist of?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. There are two concepts in modern marketing, the ‘selling concept and ... .

2. The ‘selling concept’ assumes that ... .

3. The ‘marketing concept’ assumes that ... .

4. The various elements of marketing program are called ... .

5. Apart from consumer markets there are ... .

     

  •  True-false questions:

1. Most management and marketing writers now distinguish between selling and marketing.

2. ‘Marketing’ and ‘selling’ concepts do not differ very much.

3. Marketers are always looking for market opportunities in areas the company is likely to enjoy a differential advantage.

4. The only source of information for companies is market research.

5. ‘Marketing mix’ means the various elements of marketing program.

6. Apart from consumer markets there exists an enormous producer or industrial or business market.

  •  Viewpoint:

Can marketing and selling be opposed or are they part and parcel of each other?

  1.  ADVERTIZING

  

Lead-in:

Do you agree with the Nationalment “Advertising is the life of trade”?

Key words and phrases

1. promotion –  просування, впровадження товару

2. institutional advertising – інституціональна реклама 

3. goodwill – репутація, престиж

4. advocacy advertising – пропагандистська реклама  

5. to persuade and remind – переконувати та нагадувати

6. product life cycle  життєвий цикл товару

7. growth and maturity stages – зростання та зрілість 

8. decline stage – період зниження, спаду

9. to allocate the budget – розподіляти, розміщати бюджет  

10. life span – тривалість життя

11. advertising media – засоби інформації, що використовуються для розміщення реклами 

12. outdoor advertising – зовнішня реклама

Advertising is a paid, non-personal sales communication directed at a large number of potential buyers. For many firms, it is the most effective type of non-personal promotion.

The two basic types of advertising are product and institutional. Product advertising involves selling a good or service. Institutional advertising involves promoting a concept, idea, or philosophy, or the goodwill of an industry, company, organization, of government entity; a form of institutional advertising that is growing in importance, advocacy advertising, supports a specific viewpoint on a public issue. Its purpose is to influence public opinion and the legislative process. Both nonprofit organization and businesses use advocacy advertising.

Both product and institutional advertising can be subdivided into three categories according to the purpose: to inform, persuade, or remind. Informative advertising, intended to build initial demand for a product, is used in the introductory phase of the product life cycle. Persuasive advertising attempts to improve the competitive status of a product, institution or concept. It is used in the growth and maturity stages of the product life cycle. Reminder-oriented advertising, often used in the late maturity or decline stages of the product life cycle, tries to remind people of the importance and usefulness of a product, concept, or institution.

All marketers face the question of how to best allocate their advertising budget. 

Newspapers are the largest of the advertising media. Because newspaper advertising can be tailored for individual communities, local advertising is common. Other advantages are that readers can refer back to them. A disadvantage is the relatively short life span. Television advertising can be classified as a network, national, local, and cable. TV has the advantage of a significant impact on potential customers. Mass coverage, repetition, flexibility, and prestige are other advantages. The disadvantages of television as an advertising medium include high cost, the temporary nature of the message, some public distrust.

Direct mail is another form of advertising media. Its advantages include selectivity, intense coverage, speed, flexibility, complete information. On the negative side, direct mail is very expensive. Radio is another important broadcast advertising medium. It can be classified as network, spot and local advertising. Advantages of radio are its immediacy, low cost, targeted audience selection, flexibility and mobility. Disadvantages include the short life span of a message and a highly fragmented audience. Magazines are also used in advertising. Advantages of magazines include selectivity, quality reproduction, long life and prestige. But they lack the flexibility of newspapers and broadcast media.

Outdoor advertising, such as billboards, is one more advertising medium. It communicates simple ideas quickly. Other advantages are repetition and the ability to promote goods and services available for sale nearby. There are disadvantages, however. The medium requires that messages should be brief, and there isn’t much time to make a point. There are lots of other options that companies can use to advertise products: public transportation, movie theatres, special advertising conferences may be held for advertising purposes.

Comprehension:

1. What is the purpose of advertising?

2. How can goods be advertised?

3. Characterize each type of advertising.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of advertising? 

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Advertising is ... .
  2.  The two basic types of advertising are ... .
  3.  Product advertising involves ... .
  4.  Institutional advertising involves ... .
  5.  According to the purpose, advertising can be subdivided into ... .
  6.  Informative advertising is used ... .
  7.  Persuasive advertising attempts to ... .
  8.  Reminder advertising tries to ... .

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

Informative advertising is used in the introductory phase of the product life cycle.

  1.  

Reminder-oriented advertising tries to remind people of the importance and usefulness of a product, concept, or institution.

  1.  

Both product and institutional advertising can be subdivided into three categories according to the purpose: to inform, persuade, or remind.

  1.  

Institutional advertising involves promoting a concept, idea, or philosophy, or the goodwill of an industry, company, organization, of government entity.

  1.  

Advertising is a paid, non – personal sales communication directed at a large number of potential buyers.   

1

  1.  

The two basic types of advertising are product and institutional.

  1.  

Product advertising involves selling a good or service.

  1.  

Persuasive advertising attempts to improve the competitive status of a product, institution or concept.

  •  Viewpoint:

Which of the following Nationalments do you agree with?

* Advertising is essential for business, especially for launching new products.

* Advertising often makes people buy things they don’t need.

  1.  THE BUSINESS CYCLE

      

Lead-in:

What causes the business cycle?

Key words and phrases

1. trade cycle – торговий цикл

2. gross domestic product (GDP)  валовий внутришний продукт

3. boom and recession – бум та спад 

4. demand for goods and services – попит на товари та послуги

5. output – продукція, випуск продукції

6. peak and trough – вершина та найглибша точка падіння

7. downturn (upturn) – економічний спад (економiчний ріст )

8.  contraction and expansion – зниження та зростання, розвиток 

9. to pay mortgage or rent – виплачувати заставну чи ренту, оренду

10. borrow or save – позичати або економити, заощаджувати

11. internal and external theories – внутрішні та зовнішні теорії 

12. austerity programme – програма суворої економії

13. tax cuts – зниження податку 

 

The business cycle or trade cycle is the fluctuation in the general level of economic activity, measured by the rate of unemployment and changes in GDP; it is a permanent feature of market economies: gross domestic product fluctuates as booms and recessions succeed each other. During a boom an economy expands to the point where it is working at full capacity, so that production, employment, prices, profits, investment and interest rates all tend to rise.

During a recession, the demand for goods and services declines and the economy begins to work at below its potential. Investment, output, employment, profits, commodity and share prices, and interest rates generally fall.

A serious, long-lasting recession is called a depression or a slump.

The highest point of the business cycle is called a peak, which is followed by a downturn or downswing or a period of contraction. The lowest point of the business cycle is called a trough, which is followed by a recovery or an upturn or upswing or a period of expansion. 

Economists sometimes describe contraction as ‘negative growth’.

There are various theories as to the cause of the business cycle. Internal theories consider it to be self-generating, regular and repeating. A peak is reached when people begin to consume less. In the mid-nineteenth century, it was suggested that the business cycle results from people infecting one another with optimistic or pessimistic expectations. When economic times are good or when people feel good about the future, they spend, and run-up debts. If interest rates rise too high, a lot of people find themselves paying more than they anticipated on their mortgage or rent, and so have to consume less. If people are worried about the possibility of losing their job in the near future they tend to save more. A country’s output, investment, unemployment, balance of payments depend on millions of decisions by consumers and industrialists on whether to spend, borrow or save. 

Investment is closely linked to consumption, and takes place when demand and output are growing. As soon as the demand stops growing at the same rate, investment will drop, leading to a downturn.

Another theory is that sooner or later during every period of economic growth – when the demand is strong, profits are increasing – employees will begin to demand higher wages or salaries. As a result, employers will either reduce investment, or start to lay-off workers, and downsizing will begin.

External theories, on the contrary, look for causes outside economic activity: scientific advances, natural disasters, elections or political shocks, demographic changes, and so on. There is a theory that, where there is no independent central bank, the business cycle is caused by governments beginning their periods of office with a couple of years of austerity programmes followed by tax cuts and monetary expansion in the two years before the next election.

Comprehension:

1. Give the definition of the business cycle.

2. What is the economy like during a boom?

3. How does the economy work during a recession?

4. What is a peak and what is a trough?

5. What do internal theories of the business cycle consider?

6. What are, according to external theories, the reasons for fluctuations in the economic activity?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. The business cycle is … .

2. During a boom an economy … .

3. In the period of recessions the demand for goods and services … .

4. There are … theories as to the cause of the business cycle.

5. Internal theories suppose that … .

6. External theories, on the contrary, consider that … .

7. There is also a theory that … .

  •  Viewpoint:

Which of the theories mentioned in the text do you find the most convincing?

  1.  THE BUSINESS CYCLE AND GOVERNMENT

INTERVENTION

Lead-in:

Do you know the difference between these theories?

Key words and phrases

1. full employment – повна зайнятість

2. excess savings – підвищені заощадження

3. interest rates процентна ставка, норма відсотку

4. to increase taxation – збільшувати оподаткування

5. boom and recession бум та спад, зниження

6. to increase expenditure – збільшувати витрати

7. money supply – грошова маса

8. output and consumption – випуск продукції та споживання,

витрачання

9. multiplier effect – ефект мультиплікатора

10. fiscal policy – фіскальна політика

11. long-run effect довгочасний ефект

12. flexible wages – гнучка заробітна плата

13. excess supply (demand) – надмірна пропозиція (попит) 

14. expansionary policy – політика розширення 

15. deflationary policy – політика дефляції

 

The great depression of the 1930s demonstrated that the market system does not automatically lead to full employment. In The General Theory of Employment Interest and Money (1936), John Maynard Keynes argued that market forces could produce the equilibrium with high unemployment of indefinite duration. Classical economic theories Nationald that in the long run, excess savings would cause interest rates to fall and investment to increase again. Keynes disagreed, arguing that market economies are unstable.

Keynes recommended governmental intervention in the economy. During an inflationary boom, governments could decrease their spending or increase taxation. During a recession, on the contrary, they could increase their expenditure, or decrease taxation or increase money supply and reduce interest rates, so as to stimulate the economy, and increase output, investment, consumption and employment. Keynes also argued that even a small amount of additional government spending or an increase in private investment causes output to expand because of the multiplier effect.     

In the 1950s and 1960s Milton Friedman began to argue that Keynesian fiscal policy had negative long-run effects. Unlike Keynesians, monetarists insisted that money is neutral, meaning changes in the money supply will only change the price level and have no effect on output and employment. They argued that governments should abandon any attempt to manage the level of demand in the economy through fiscal policy. On the contrary, they should try to make sure that there is constant and non-inflationary growth in the money supply.

Monetarists argue that recessions are not caused by long-run market failures but by short-run errors by firms and workers who do not reduce their price and wages quickly enough when demand falls. When economic agents recognize that prices and wages have to fall, the economy will come back to normal. Since the government will not be able to recognize a coming recession it will only be able to act at the same time as everyone else is recognizing the need to cut prices and wages. Consequently, its fiscal measures will take effect when the economy is already recovering.

Whereas classical and neo-classical economic theory assumes prices and wages to be flexible enough to eliminate excess supply or demand, Keynesians (today often called neo-Keynesians) argue that wages are inflexible because of labour union contracts, government regulation and so on. Furthermore, businesses can’t change their prices too frequently, because they do not have perfect information, and because there are many costs involved. Neo-Keynesians still maintain that because individuals and firms are unable to find the right prices that would lead the economy to rising output and high or full employment, economies can get locked into disequilibriums for long periods. Thus unlike the monetarists, w`ho insist that free markets and competition are efficient and should be allowed to operate with a minimum of governmental intervention, Keynesians believe there is still a role for either expansionary or deflationary policies.

Comprehension:

1. What did classical economic theories National?

2. What did Keynes recommend?

3. What did monetarists insist on?

4. Do classical and neo-classical theories assume prices to be flexible?

5. Do Keynesians hold the same opinion?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  In his book John Keynes argued that … .
  2.  Classical economic theories Nationald that … .
  3.  Keynes recommended … in the economy.
  4.  Milton Friedman argued that Keynesian fiscal policy had … .
  5.  Monetarists insist that free markets are efficient and should be allowed to … .
  6.  Keynesians believe there is still a role … .

  •  True-false questions:

1. The great depression of the 1930s demonstrated that the market system does not automatically lead to full employment.

2. Classical economic theories Nationald that excess savings would cause interest rates to fall and investment to increase again.

3. Keynes did not recommend governmental intervention in the economy.

4. In the 1950s and 1960s Milton Friedman said that Keynesian fiscal policy had negative long-run effects.

5. Monetarists insist that free markets and competition are efficient and should be allowed to operate with a minimum of governmental intervention.

6. Keynesians believe there is still a role for either expansionary or deflationary policies.

  •  Viewpoint:

In your opinion, should the government intervene to create jobs in case of high unemployment?

  1.  MACROECONOMICS

Lead-in:

What is the difference between macroeconomics and microeconomics?

Key words and phrases

1. performance of the economy – стан економіки

2. to allocate scarce resources – розміщувати  недостатні ресурси

3. household – домашнє господарство

4. labour and capital – праця та капітал

5. aggregate output – сукупний обсяг виробництва

6. consumption and investment – споживання та інвестування

7. total expenditure – сукупні витрати

8. National intervention – державна інтервенція 

9. rate of inflation – інфляційний темп, рівень інфляції

10. labour market – ринок праці

11. balance-of-payments equilibrium  рівновага платіжного балансу

Each microeconomic unit functions within the context of an entire economy and is closely affected by the performance of that economy.

The distinction between macro – (from the Greek word ‘makros’ meaning ‘large) and microeconomics is a somewhat arbitrary one but it serves to emphasize the differing preoccupations and approaches of the two branches. In microeconomics we approach the problem of allocating scarce resources with a theory of price determination based upon the interaction of supply and demand. In macroeconomics we employ the theory of the circular flow of income in order to analyze the overall behaviour of the economy.

The circular flow of income pictures an economy as a closed system with income flowing between the two basic spending units – households and firms. Households pay money to firms in return for goods and services produced by the firms, and firms close the circuit by paying money to households in return for the use of factors of production – land, labour and capital – owned by the households. This is obviously a gross oversimplification of what actually occurs.

In macroeconomics we are concerned with aggregate levels of output, income, employment and prices, and with their fluctuations. We shall consider how these aggregates are influenced by foreign trade, and how they are influenced by the way the resources of an economy are distributed between consumption and investment. We shall also have to consider the role of government in determining the flow of income because governments command a large proportion of total expenditure and investment in modern economies. And the inclusion of government in our model illustrates another distinction between micro- and macroeconomics. In microeconomics the emphasis is on the working or market forces mediated by the government. On the other hand, macroeconomics is predominantly policy-oriented. It is about government intervention.

National intervention is now an accepted fact in broad areas of economic life. It is a relatively recent phenomenon, which owes its development to the inter-war depression (1921-39). During that period of industrial slump, when the UK unemployment rate averaged 14%, considerable doubts arose about the ability of an unregulated economy to achieve full employment.

The 1960s saw the development of what has become known as monetarism, associated primarily with Professor Milton Friedman at the University of Chicago. Monetarism has its roots in the economic theory attacked by Keynes and suggests that altering the level of demand in the economy affects only the rate of inflation and not output and employment. Monetarism became increasingly influential in economic policy during the 1970s and 1980s.

Governments now intervene in all economic sectors – in agriculture, in industry, in the labour market, in trade. They control monopolies in order to ensure free competition; they are responsible for defence and law and order; they supply the economic infrastructure of transport systems, energy, posts and telecommunications; and they provide a wide range of social services and facilities. The dissatisfaction with the role of government at the macroeconomic level was matched in many countries in the 1980s with a greater emphasis on the operation of markets free of unnecessary government intervention.

Governments have four basic economic objectives: full employment, price stability, balance-of-payments equilibrium, and economic growth. These objectives are just as applicable to governments of developing countries as to those of developed countries, though the latter have minuscule problems to solve in comparison to the problems facing developing countries.

 Comprehension:

1. What is the difference between macroeconomics and microeconomics?

2. Where is the emphasis in microeconomics?

3. Why is National intervention an accepted fact now?

4. When did monetarism come into being?

5. In what economic sectors do governments now intervene?

6. How many basic economic objectives do governments pursue?

7. Are these objectives applicable only in developed countries?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  In microeconomics we study the problem of…
  2.  In macroeconomics we analyze the overall…
  3.  National intervention in economic sectors began…
  4.  Governments have now four basic economic objectives:…

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

Governments have four basic economic objectives: full employment, price stability, balance-of-payments equilibrium, and economic growth

  1.  

In macroeconomics we employ the theory of the circular flow of income in order to analyze the overall behaviour of the economy.

  1.  

In microeconomics we approach the problem of allocating scarce resources with a theory of price determination based upon the interaction of supply and demand.

  1.  

Each microeconomic unit functions within the context of an entire economy.

1

  1.  

National intervention owes its development to the inter-war depression (1921-39).

  1.  

Governments now intervene in all economic sectors.

  •  Viewpoint:

In your opinion, why is it important to study macroeconomics?

  1.  MONEY

 

Lead-in:

How many functions of money can you mention?

Key words and phrases

1. advanced economy – передова, прогресивна економіка

2. supply of money – грошова маса

3. bank account – банківський рахунок 

4. notes and coins – банкноти та монети

5. disruptive effect – руйнівний ефект

6. medium of exchange – засіб обміну

7. unit of account – розрахункова грошова одиниця

8. store of value – засіб збереження

9. purchasing power – купівельна спроможність

10. real assets – нерухоме майно, нерухомість

11. building societies – житлово-будівельні товариства

12. property – власність, майно

13. to carry out transactions – здійснювати операції, справи

14. deferred payment – майбутні сплачування

 

Can anybody remember when the times

were not difficult  and money not scarce?

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Anything can act as money if it is generally accepted by people as money. In Britain, and all advanced economies, the greater part of the supply of money consists of deposits in bank accounts, rather than notes and coins. The size of this quantity of bank money is influenced by the reserves that the banks hold, and an increase or decrease in reserves will tend to result in an increase or decrease in the total quantity of money.

Banking institutions in this country have evolved over centuries, and the organisation of the banking system plays an important part in determining the extent of the Bank of England’s control over the monetary system.

It is important for economists to examine the role of money. Money is basically the communications medium of the economic system, the means by which transactors indicate their wants, and their preparedness to offer supplies of economic goods. Any major imbalance in the monetary system can have a disruptive effect on the ‘real’ world of production.

Over the years the role of money has been formalised as providing three distinct functions, the provision of a medium of exchange, of a unit of account and of a store of value.

A medium of exchange

The use of money as a medium of exchange is as fundamental to the development of economic systems as the invention of the wheel was for transport. Unless there is some commodity (money) that people are prepared to accept both for the sale of their own output, and to purchase that of others, transactions are limited to barter, the direct exchange of goods for goods. Barter is an extremely clumsy and inefficient way of doing business. Not only must I find a seller who is offering the goods that I want, but that particular seller who will accept whatever it is I can produce in exchange. This is referred to as a double coincidence of wants.

Store of value

To act as an efficient medium of exchange, money must also function as a store of value. Barter requires that goods must be exchanged for each other at the same time. With money, the act of purchase can be separated from the act of sale. Money then acts as a temporary means of holding purchasing power.

When the overall price level is stable, or even falling, money can be more than a temporary store of value. The opportunity cost of holding money is low and even negative when prices drop, so people may decide to hold a proportion of their wealth in the form of money, the medium of exchange, rather than as other financial or real assets, such as building society shares, or property. However, even in periods of quite rapid inflation people continue to hold money in order to carry out transactions, because of the great convenience it allows.

Unit of account, standard for deferred payment.

Money also acts as a measuring unit to assess the relative values of different commodities. This is distinct from its function of a medium of exchange, because a unit of account could in principle be used merely to assign prices rather than act as a means of payment. For example the guinea is used as a unit of account in many of London’s prestigious auction rooms, yet there is no such thing as guinea note or coin for actual use in transactions.

Money also performs this measurement function over time when it becomes a standard of deferred payment. If I wish to borrow a given sum now, an interest will be added to it so that I know how much I will have to repay in the future. Contracts can also be made for delivery of goods in the future. Inflation   erodes the usefulness of money in this role.

Comprehension:

  1.  What are three basic functions of money?
  2.  Why is barter a clumsy way of doing business?
  3.  In what case can money be more than a temporary store of value?
  4.  Why do people continue to hold money even in the period of rapid inflation?
  5.  What is ‘deferred payment’?

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  Anything can act as money if it is generally accepted by people as money.

  1.  In all advanced economies the greater part of money supply consists of notes and coins.

  1.  Barter is an efficient way of doing business.

  1.  When the price level is stable, money can be more than a temporary store of value.

  1.  Inflation erodes the usefulness of money.

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Anything can act as money if it is generally accepted …
  2.  In all advanced economies, the greater part of the supply of money consists of…
  3.  There are three distinct functions of money: a medium of exchange,…
  4.  Money also performs the measurement function over time, when it becomes…

  •  Viewpoint:

Is it still popular in our country to keep some part of wealth in the form of money or do people tend to shift to other financial assets?

  1.   MONEY AND BANKS

Lead-in:

What types of banks do you know?

Key word s and phrases

1. variety of commodities разноманітність товарів

2. precious metalsкоштовні металі

3. paper currencyпаперові гроші, валюта

4. medium of exchangeзасіб обміну

5. gold receiptsзолоті грошові надходження.

6. bank depositбанківский депозіт 

7. durabilityдовговічність

8. transaction account depositsтрансакційні депозіти

9. automated teller machines (cash dispensers ) – банківські автомати

10. interest rates – процентна ставка, норма відсотка

11. savings bank ощадний банк

12. ‘secondary bank’вторинний банк

13. financial intermediariesфінансові посередники, кредитно-фінансові установи

14. accumulate savingsнагромаджувати, накопичувати заощадження

15. long-term credit instruments –  довгострокові кредитні інвестування

16. issue securitiesвипускати цінні папери

17. takeovers and mergesпоглинання одних фірм іншими, злиття фірм

18. trustees for propertyопікунство, виконання довірчих функцій на майно

19. liabilities зобовязання, пасиви

“Adventure is the life of commerce, but caution,

I had almost said timidity, is the life of banking”

(Walter Bagohot, 1826-1877)

Money is whatever generally acceptable in order to perform functions of paying for goods and services. In the past it took the form of a variety of commodities, though precious metals tended to be favoured because of a number of convenient physical characteristics, above all the fact that they are limited in supply. With the development of banks, paper currency has come to succeed precious metals as the medium of exchange, initially in the form of gold receipts, and then as central bank notes, backed by the authority of government. Nowadays bank deposits are generally accepted as money, and form the greater part of the money supply. Although anything can serve as money, the material of it should possess some important qualities: portability, durability, uniformity, divisibility (to make a change), recognizability.

Today money consists of coins, paper currency, and transaction account deposits. Now we are beginning to make electronic transfers of money through electronic funds transfer systems (EFT). EFT systems range from Automated Teller machines (ATM) or cash dispensers and to ‘virtual money’ (WEB money ) on the Internet.

The banking system of Great Britain consists of a number of institutions, with the Bank of England playing a crucial role in regulating the supply of money and influencing interest rates, overseeing the operations of commercial banks. The Bank of England also manages the National Debt. According to the functions they perform banks may be divided into the following groups: commercial banks, savings banks, investment banks, trust companies. Commercial banks fall into two groups, ‘clearing’ and ‘secondary’ banks. In common with other commercial institutions, they operate by acting as financial intermediaries, borrowing money in order to re-lend it, which they are able to do profitably because of their specialised knowledge of financial markets.

Savings banks accumulate savings in small accounts, give credit for businesses and, as a rule, invest their funds in long-term credit instruments.

Investment banks raise funds for industry on the various financial markets, finance international trade, issue securities, and deal with takeovers and merges.

Trust companies administer funds or property for the benefit of others; they serve as trustees for property. Banks are distinguished from other intermediaries by the fact that their liabilities (bank deposits) can be spent directly as money, which makes them the focus of monetary policy.

Comprehension:

  1.  Give the definition of money.
  2.  What are the main functions of money?
  3.  What is the role of the Bank of England in the economy of the country?
  4.  Describe the operations of commercial banks.

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Money is whatever acceptable to perform functions of … .
  2.  Today money consists of coins, … .
  3.  According to their functions banks can be divided into … .
  4.  Commercial banks fall into two groups: … .
  5.  Savings banks accumulate … .
  6.  Bank deposits (liabilities) can be spent … .

  •  True-false questions:

1. Money is whatever generally acceptable in order to perform functions of paying for goods and services.

2. With the development of banks, paper currency has come to succeed precious metals as the medium of exchange.

3. The Bank of England plays a crucial role in regulating the supply of money and influencing interest rates, overseeing the operations of commercial banks.

4. The Bank of England doesn’t manage the National Debt.

5. Commercial banks operate by acting as financial intermediaries, borrowing money in order to re-lend it.

6. Bank liabilities (bank deposits) can’t be spent directly as money.

  •  Viewpoint:

Is the role of the National Bank of Ukraine similar to the one of the Bank of England in Great Britain?

  1.  BANKING AND FINANCIAL SERVICES

IN GREAT BRITAIN

  

Lead-in:

Why do you think the UK has been one of the main centres of financial activity?

Key words and phrases

  1.  insurance – страхування
  2.  building societies – житлово-будівельні товариства
  3.  Stock Exchange – фондова біржа
  4.  commodity market – товарний ринок
  5.  capital flow – приплив капіталу
  6.  securities trading – торгівля ціними паперами
  7.  International Stock Exchange – Міжнародна Фондова Біржа
  8.  brokers and jobbers – брокери та джобери 
  9.  annual national income – річний національний дохід
  10.  retail banks – банки, що обслуговують дрібну клієнтуру 
  11.  merchant banks – торгові банки   
  12.  discount houses – вексельні контори, облікові доми
  13.  Minimum Lending Rateставка мінімального позичкового відсотка
  14.  savings banks – ощадні банки
  15.  financial derivative markets – фінансові похідні (вторинні) ринки  
  16.  factoring companies – факторингові компанії
  17.  Unlisted Securities Market – позабіржовий ринок цінних паперів 

(паперів, не допущених до обігу на фондовій біржі)

 

The United Kingdom has traditionally been a focus of financial activity worldwide and the 1980s saw considerable changes in the structure, composition, and regulation of financial institutions. These embrace banking, insurance, building societies, the Stock Exchange, and commodity markets.

London has continued to grow in size as a centre of financial operations. Capital flows and foreign exchange and securities trading have increased. Due to increased competition and developments in technology the International Stock Exchange was reorganized. As a result, new companies have been created to link British and foreign banks with former brokers and jobbers. The Financial services Act of 1986, the Building Societies Act of 1987, the Banking Act of 1987 regulate these new financial organizations.

Banking and financial services have always played in important role in the country’s economy. London is the world’s leading centre of insurance and handles 20 per cent of the world’s insurance business. It is also the world’s largest centre for foreign exchange. In the 1990s financial institutions and insurance accounted for 7 per cent of Britain’s annual national income.

The Bank of England is the only bank that issues banknotes in England and Wales. Several banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland issue currencies in limited amounts. There are more than a dozen commercial banks in Britain, including Lloyds, Barclays, National Westminster, and Midland.

All commercial banks are supervised by the Bank of England. The Bank of England licenses retail banks, merchant banks, discount houses, and other British or foreign banks. The Bank of England also controls the Minimum Lending Rate, which influences the general structure of interest rates. Savings banks, building societies also provide some banking services. Historically, the financial services industry has been based in the City of London. One of the world’s largest financial derivative markets is in the City as well. Saving by individuals is channeled into investments through insurance companies, pension funds, investment and unit trusts. Institutions that specialize in particular types of financing are finance houses, factoring companies, finance corporations. The UK has a number of organized financial markets. The securities markets consist of the International Stock exchange, which deals with officially listed stocks and shares, the Unlisted Securities Market, for smaller companies, and the Third Market, for unlisted companies. The London Stock Exchange is one of the biggest in the world. In 1986 an event known as the ‘Big Bang’ changed it significantly. This led to the rapid expansion of products, markets, and number of employees.

Comprehension:

  1.  What changes took place in the financial life of Great Britain in the 1980s?
  2.  What is the percentage of the world’s insurance business that London handles?
  3.  Name the functions that the Bank of England performs.
  4.  What do securities markets consist of?

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  The 1990s saw considerable changes in the structure of financial institutions.

  1.  After the 1990s the International Stock Exchange was reorganized.

  1.  In the 1990s financial institutions and insurance accounted for 10 per cent of Britain’s annual national income.

  1.  There are many banks that issue banknotes and coins in England and Wales.

  1.  The Bank of England licenses retail banks, merchant banks, discount houses, and other British or foreign banks.

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

The UK has a number of organized financial markets.

  1.  

Historically, the financial services industry has been based in the City of London.

  1.  

The United Kingdom has traditionally been a focus of financial activity worldwide.

1

  1.  

The 1980s saw considerable changes in the structure of financial institutions.

  1.  

There are more than a dozen commercial banks in Britain, including Lloyds, Barclays, National Westminster, and Midland.

  1.  

All commercial banks are supervised by the Bank of England.

  1.  

In 1986 an event known as the ‘Big Bang’ changed the London Stock Exchange significantly.

  •  Viewpoint:

Were there any changes in the financial life of Ukraine after the collapse of the Soviet Union?

  1.  MANAGEMENT

 

Lead-in:

Why do you think management is so important in a company’s performance?

Key words and phrases

1. top managementвище (виконавче) керівництво

2. long – range plansперспективні плани

3. to make decisionsприймати рішення

4. middle managementкерівники середньої ланки

5. responsible forвідповідальний  

6. to put plans into actionприводити плани у дію

7. managerial skillsуправлінські здібності, талант

8. human relationsлюдські відносини

9. to acquire informationнабувати інформацію

10. to set and accomplish goalsставити та виконувати цілі 

11. to evaluate performanceоцінювати стан, роботу

“Management is tasks. Management is discipline.

But management is also people.”

(Peter Drucker, Austrian-American management guru)

Management is the achievement of organizational objectives through people and other resources. The manager’s job is to combine human and technical resources in the best way possible to achieve these objectives.

There are three levels of management in most organizations. Top management, the highest level of the management pyramid includes the president, executive vice-president, and other key company executives. These people devote their time to developing long-range plans for the company. They make broad decisions such as whether to manufacture new products, to purchase other companies or to begin international operations.

Middle management, the second level of the management pyramid, includes plant managers and division heads. They are responsible for developing detailed plans and procedures to put into action the general plans of top management.

Supervisory management, or first-line management, includes supervisors, foremen, department heads, section leaders who are directly responsible for daily and even hourly performance.

Every manager must possess basic managerial skills: technical skills, human relation skills and conceptual skills.

Technical skills refer to the manager’s ability to understand and use techniques, knowledge and tools of a specific discipline.

Human relations skills involve the manager’s ability to work effectively with and through people. The ability to create a work environment in which employees will contribute their best efforts to achieve objectives is a crucial managerial skill at every level.

Conceptual skills refer to the ability of the manager to see the organization as a whole and to understand how all parts fit together. These skills involve a manager’s ability to “see the big picture” by acquiring, analyzing, and interpreting information.

Managers at every level perform four basic functions: planning, organizing, directing and controlling.

Planning is the process of setting goals for the organization and developing strategies to accomplish them. It includes decisions about the production, marketing, financial strategies and the resources needed to accomplish them.

Organizing involves coordinating the efforts of employees in such a way that the goals of the organization can be accomplished.

Directing is the process of supervising and guiding employees so that plans are completed and the goals accomplished. It involves motivating people to do their best, explaining procedures, issuing orders.

Controlling is the function of evaluating the organization’s performance to determine whether it is accomplishing its objectives. It is closely linked to planning: the basic purpose of controlling is the determination of how successful the planning function has been.

Comprehension:

  1.  What is management?
  2.  What does the manager’s job involve?
  3.  How many levels of management do you know?
  4.  What functions are performed by top management?
  5.  What are middle managers responsible for?
  6.  Name the functions of supervisory management.
  7.  Characterise four basic functions of management.

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  Management is the achievement of … .
  2.  There are… levels of management in most organizations.
  3.  Top managers make broad decisions as … .
  4.  Middle management is responsible for … .
  5.  Supervisory management includes … .
  6.  Basic managerial skills are … .

  •  Viewpoint:

Which, in your opinion, is the most important managerial skill?

  1.  INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS

Lead-in:

Is there any difference between international business and international trade?

Key words and phrases:

1. business transactions – ділові операції

2. balance of trade – торговий баланс

3. balance of payments – платіжний баланс

4. inward and outward cash flow – потік готівки

5. merchandise and services – товари (торгівля) та послуги

6. tangible goods – матеріальні, реальні товари

7. assets – майно, актив

8. joint venture – спільне підприємство

9. debt – борг, зобовязання

10. equityзвичайна акція, частка акціонера в капіталі підприємства

International business is characterized by all business transactions that involve two or more countries and may be of governmental or private character.

The concept of international business includes the balance of trade (the relationship between exporters) and balance of payments (the difference between inward and outward cash flow). A company can engage in international business through various means, including exporting and / or importing merchandise and services, direct and portfolio investment, and strategic alliances with other companies.

Merchandise exports are tangible goods sent out of the country; merchandise imports are tangible goods brought in. Since these goods visibly leave and enter they are sometimes referred to as visible exports and imports.

Service exports and imports are international earnings other than those derived from goods sent to another country. Receipt of these earnings is considered a service export, whereas payment is considered a service import. Services are also referred to as invisibles.

International business comprises a lot of services: travel, tourism and transportation; performance of activities abroad; use of assets from abroad.

Foreign investment is the ownership of property abroad. Direct investment is a subset of foreign investment that takes place when control follows the investment. When two or more ownership share a direct investment, the operation is known as a joint venture.

Portfolio investment can be either debt or equity. The factor that distinguishes portfolio investment from direct investment is that control does not follow this kind of investment.

Countervailing forces influence the conditions in which companies operate their options for operating internationally. The main factors causing changes in the world trade and investment patterns are economic conditions, technology, wars and political relationships.

Comprehension:

  1.  What is international business characterized by?
  2.  What does the concept of international business include?
  3.  What is the difference between merchandise exports and merchandise imports?
  4.  Describe services that comprise international business.
  5.  Give the definition of a joint venture.
  6.  Is there any difference between portfolio investment and direct investment?
  7.  What are the main factors that cause changes in the world trade?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  International business is characterized by … .
  2.  Companies can engage in international business through … .
  3.  Exports and imports are … .
  4.  Travel, tourism and transportation, … comprise international business.
  5.  Foreign investment is … .
  6.  There are many factors that cause changes in the world trade: economic conditions, … .

 

  •  True-false questions:
  1.  International business is characterized by all business transactions that involve two or more countries and may be of governmental or private character.

  1.  A company can engage in international business through various means: exporting and/or importing merchandise and services, direct and portfolio investment, and strategic alliances with other companies.

  1.  Merchandise imports are tangible goods sent out of the country.

  1.  International business doesn’t comprise performance of activities abroad.

  1.  Portfolio investment doesn’t differ from direct investment.

  1.  Economic conditions, technology, wars and political relationships are the main factors causing changes in the world trade and investment patterns.

  •  Viewpoint:

As part of international business, does tourism play an important role in the economy of our country?

  1.   INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Lead-in:

Why do most countries exchange goods and services?

Key words and phrases

  1.  to merit special attention – заслуговувати особливої уваги
  2.  to impose restrictions – накладати обмеження
  3.  currency – валюта, гроші
  4.  comparative costs – порівняльні витрати
  5.  demand and supply – попит та пропозиція 
  6.  terms of trade – умови торгівлі
  7.  average price середня ціна
  8.  foreign demand – зовнішній попит 
  9.  domestic inflation – внутрішня інфляція
  10.  deterioration of trade погіршення торгівлі

International trade merits special attention because it differs in several crucial respects from the exchanges of goods and services that take place within a country. First, there are more obvious “barriers to trade between countries than to trade within countries. These can be simply the result of differences in economic structure, tradition, language or natural resources, or they can be restrictions imposed by governments on the movement of imports, exports, labour and capital. Secondly, different countries use different currencies, and trade is only possible where the currency of one country can be exchanged for the currency of another one. This fact alone is of little consequence where the relationship between currencies is fixed, but in practice the relative values of currencies often change, presenting us with a whole series of additional economic problems. Finally, economic conditions and government policies normally vary more significantly between countries than between regions of a country. Thus buoyant demand in the UK might cause the purchase of more goods and services from abroad than foreigners buy from the UK, resulting in balance of payments problems in the UK.

Terms of trade

We have seen that gains from trade are possible when comparative costs differ, and that the size of the overall gain and how it is distributed between countries will depend on the prices at which trade takes place. These prices (the terms of trade) will depend on the demand and supply for products of international trade. The country with the most highly desired goods on offer will receive the most advantageous terms of trade.

We define a country’s terms of trade as the quantity of that country’s exports that have to be sold per unit of imports. The terms are expressed as an index, and they are estimated by comparing the average price of exports with the average price of imports. Thus: T = px x 100 pm, where T = terms of trade, px = an index of the average price of exports and pm = an index of the average price of imports.

An ‘improvement’ in the terms of trade means that the country is able to obtain more imports for a given quantity of exports than before. This appears to be a good thing, but a country’s export prices can be driven up either by strong foreign demand or by domestic inflation. The former reason is wholly beneficial and can be regarded as a genuine improvement in that country’s external position. However, if prices are running ahead of other countries’ export prices, the benefits to be gained from the ‘improving’ terms of trade will be short-lived.

Conversely, a ‘deterioration’ in the terms of trade means that a country is able to buy less imports per unit of exports. A deterioration can be organised deliberately by a policy of currency depreciation which lowers the price of exports and raises the price of imports. Exports are therefore encouraged and imports discouraged sufficiently.

Comprehension:

  1.  Why does international trade merit special attention?
  2.  What do the terms of trade depend on?
  3.  What does “deterioration” in the terms of trade mean?
  4.  How can we characterize improvement in terms of trade?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  In some respects international trade differs from … .
  2.  There are more obvious barriers to trade between countries than … .
  3.  The country’s terms of trade is the quantity of exports … .
  4.  Improvement in trade means … .
  5.  Deterioration in terms of trade means … .

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

International trade differs in several crucial respects from the exchanges of goods and services that take place within a country.

1

  1.  

Conversely, a ‘deterioration’ in the terms of trade means that a country is able to buy less imports per unit of exports.

  1.  

An ‘improvement’ in the terms of trade means that the country is able to obtain more imports for a given quantity of exports than before.

  1.  

We define a country’s terms of trade as the quantity of that country’s exports that have to be sold per unit of imports.

  •  Viewpoint:

How can you characterize the situation with the international trade in Ukraine:

excellent;     good;     average;     poor;

31. INTERNATIONAL TRADE.

SPECIALIZATION AMONG NATIONS

Lead-in:

What are your country’s major exports? Are they, in your opinion, better than products made in other countries?

Key words and phrases

  1.  essential – обовязковий, необхідний 
  2.  maintenance and growth of prosperity – підтримання та зростання добробуту
  3.  division of labour поділ праці
  4.  standard of living – рівень життя
  5.  absolute advantage and comparative advantage – абсолютна і порівняльна переваги
  6.  sole supplier – єдиний, винятковий постачальник
  7.  manufactured items – предмети виробництва
  8.  cost of labour – вартість робочої сили
  9.  to be self-sufficient – незалежний, самозабезпечений
  10.  national welfare – національний добробут

 

“The wealth of all nations arises from the

labour and industry of all people”

(Charles D’ Arenant, 1656-1714)

International trade is essential for the maintenance and growth of prosperity in all countries. One of the major reasons why international trade takes place is that of economic advantage. International trade creates value. It increases the efficiency of resource allocation worldwide, reduces production costs and through the international division of labour lower prices paid by consumers and increases product variety and availability.

Nations are usually better off if they specialize in certain products or commercial activities. By doing what they do best they are able to exchange products not needed domestically for foreign-made goods that are needed. This allows a higher standard of living than would be possible if the country tried to produce everything itself.

The concepts of absolute advantage and comparative advantage play a critical role in international trade.

A country has an absolute advantage in a marketing of a product if it has a monopolistic position or if it produces the item at the lower cost. Examples of absolute advantage are rare, because few countries are sole suppliers and because economic conditions rapidly alter production costs.

A practical approach to economic specialization is that of comparative advantage. A country has a comparative advantage in an item if it can supply that item more efficiently and at a lower costs and it can supply other products. Nations usually produce and export those goods in which they have the greatest comparative advantage and the least comparative disadvantage. Countries tend to import those items in which they have the least comparative advantage or the greatest comparative disadvantage.

For example, American exports tend to be those in which the US has a comparative advantage over its trading partners. Being a highly industrialized nation with good natural and agricultural resources, the US tends to export manufactured items (aircraft parts), food products (grain, wheat), and some natural resources (coal). By contrast, countries with low cost of labour often specialize in products that require a significant amount of labour, such as shoes and clothing.

Some countries refuse to specialize their productive efforts because they want to be self-sufficient. Other countries subscribe to self-sufficiency viewpoint only for commodities they regard to be strategic to their long-run development.

In most cases those who seek to be self-sufficient do so for reasons of military preparedness, fear of economic reprisal from other countries and nationalism. They see non-economic advantages as being more important to the national welfare than the economic advantages of specialization. Israel and South Africa are examples of countries that seek to be self-sufficient.

Comprehension:

  1.  Why is international trade essential?
  2.  When are nations usually better off?
  3.  When does a country have an absolute advantage in marketing of a product?
  4.  What does comparative advantage mean?
  5.  Why do some countries refuse to specialize their productive forces?
  6.  Will you give some examples of countries that have a comparative advantage over their partners?
  7.  Name some countries that seek to be self-sufficient.

  •  Text organization.

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment  

Order  

  1.  

The concepts of absolute advantage and comparative advantage play a critical role in international trade.

  1.  

A practical approach to economic specialization is that of comparative advantage in international trade.

  1.  

Nations are usually better off if they specialize in certain products or commercial activities.

  1.  

Some countries refuse to specialize their productive efforts because they want to be self-sufficient.

  1.  

International trade is essential for the maintenance and growth of prosperity in all countries. 

1

  1.  

A country has an absolute advantage in a marketing of a product if it has a monopolistic position or if it produces the item at the lower cost.

  1.  

Other countries subscribe to self-sufficiency viewpoint only for commodities they regard to be strategic to their long-run development.

  1.  

In most cases those who seek to be self-sufficient do so for reasons of military preparedness, fear of economic reprisal from other countries and nationalism.

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

  1.  International trade is essential for the maintenance … .
  2.  Nations are usually better off if they specialize in … .
  3.  The concepts of absolute advantage and comparative advantage play … .
  4.  A country has an absolute advantage in a marketing of a product if it has … .
  5.  A country has a comparative advantage in an item if it can … .
  6.  Some countries refuse to specialize their productive efforts because … .
  7.  In most cases those who seek to be self-sufficient do so for reasons of … .

  •  Viewpoint:

Can you name the spheres where the economy of our country has the greatest comparative advantage?

32. PROTECTIONISM AND FREE TRADE

Lead-in:

Why do you think it is necessary to impose tariffs or quotas on foreign goods and services?

Key words and phrases

  1.  comparative cost principle – принцип порівнювальних витрат
  2.  to raise living standards – підвищувати рівень життя
  3.  absolute advantageабсолютна перевага 
  4.  4.division of labour – розподіл праці
  5.  economies of scale – економія витрат, ефект масштабу 
  6.  software – програмне забезпечення  
  7.  to impose tariffs and quotas – обкладати тарифами та квотами 
  8.  home-produced substitutes – вітчизняні замінники
  9.  dumping – демпінг
  10.  cost price – собівартість
  11.  to destroy or weaken competitors – знищувати або ослабляти конкурентів 
  12.  elastic prices – еластичні ціни 
  13.  creation of customs difficulties and delays – створювання митних перешкод та  затримок

The majority of economists believe in the comparative cost principle, which proposes that all nations will raise their living standards and real income if they specialize in the production of those goods and services in which they have the highest productivity. Nations may have an absolute advantage in producing goods or services because of factors of production (raw materials), climate, division of labour, economies of scale.

This theory explains why there is international trade between North and South, e.g. coffee is going from Brazil to the USA, and semiconductors – in the opposite direction. But it does not explain the fact that 75% of the export of the advanced industrial countries goes to other similar advanced countries, with similar resources, levels of technology, education and capital. It is more a historical accident than a result of natural resources that the US leads in building aircraft, semiconductors, computers and software, while Germany makes luxury automobiles, machine tools and cameras.

However the economists who recommend free trade do not face elections every four or five years. Democratic governments do, and that encourages them to impose tariffs and quotas in order to protect their strategic industries. Other reasons for imposing tariffs include the following:

  •  to make imports more expensive than home-produced substitutes;
  •  as a protection against dumping (selling goods abroad at below cost price in order to destroy or weaken competitors);
  •  to retaliate against restrictions imposed by other countries;
  •  to protect ‘infant industries’ until they are strong enough to compete internationally.

With tariffs, it is impossible to know the quantity to be imported, because prices may be elastic. With quotas, governments can set a limit to imports. Other non-tariff barriers that some industries use include so-called safety norms and creation of customs difficulties and delays.

Comprehension:

  1.  What is the comparative cost principle?
  2.  When may nations have an absolute advantage in producing goods or services?
  3.  Is it a result of natural resources or a historical accident that Germany, for example, makes luxury automobiles, machine tools and cameras?
  4.  Why do governments impose tariffs and quotas?
  5.  Are there any other non-tariff barriers that countries use?

 

  •  Summarizing.

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

The majority of economists believe in … .

Nations may have an absolute advantage in producing goods or services because of … .

This theory explains why … , but it does not explain the fact that … .

Economists who recommend free trade do not face … .

Tariffs and quotas are imposed in order to … .

Other non-tariff barriers include … .

True-false questions:

  1.  The comparative cost principle proposes that all nations will raise their living standards and real income if they specialize in the production of those goods and services in which they have the highest productivity.

  1.  Nations may have an absolute advantage in producing goods or services because of factors of production (raw materials), climate, division of labour, economies of scale.

  1.  It is a result of natural resources that the US leads in building aircraft, semiconductors, computers and software.

  1.  The only reason for imposing tariffs and quotas is to protect the country’s strategic industries.

  •  Viewpoint:

Why do you think many developing countries try to reduce protectionism and increase their international trade?

33. INTERNATIONAL ORANIZATIONS AND FREE TRADE

    

Lead-in:

What international organisations that promote free trade do you know?

Key words and phrases

  1.  GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) – Генеральна угода з тарифів і торгівлі 
  2.  to set upустановлювати, засновувати 
  3.  to encourage free tradeпідтримувати, заохочувати вільну торгівлю
  4.  to reduce tariffs – знижувати тарифи
  5.  clause of an agreement – умова в договорі
  6.  to grant equally favourable conditions – надавати однаково сприятливі умови
  7.  to sign an agreement – підписувати угоду
  8.  to supersede – заміняти 
  9.  to oppose free trade – чинити опір вільної торгівлі 
  10.  to impose barriers – навязувати барєри 
  11.  infant industries – нові галузі  промисловості 
  12.  to pay the interest on loans – сплачувати позиковий відсоток
  13.  to repay the principal – виплачувати основну суму, капітал
  14.  to postpone repayments – відкладати, відстрочувати повернення боргів
  15.  International Monetary Fund (IMF) – Міжнародний Валютний Фонд 

 

 

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), an international organization set up in 1947, had the objectives of encouraging free trade, of making tariffs the only form of protectionism, and of reducing these as much as possible. One of the clauses of the GATT agreement specified that countries could not have favoured trading partners, but had to grant equally favourable conditions to all trading partners. The final GATT agreement was signed in Marrakech in 1994, and the organization was superseded by the World Trade Organization.

It took nearly 50 years to arrive at the final GATT agreement, because until the 1980s, most developing countries opposed free trade. They practised import substitution (producing and protecting goods that cost more than those made abroad), and imposed high tariff barriers to protect their infant industries.

Nowadays, however, many developing countries have huge debts with Western commercial banks on which they are unable to pay the interest, let alone repay the principal. Thus they need to renew the loans, to reschedule or postpone repayments, or to borrow further money from the International Monetary Fund, often just to pay the interest on existing loans. Under these circumstances, the IMF imposes sever conditions, usually including the obligation to export as much as possible.

Quite apart from IMF pressure, Third World governments are aware of the export successes of the East Asian ‘Tiger’ economies (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan), and of the collapse of the Soviet economic model. They were afraid of being excluded from the world trading system by the development of trading blocks such as the European Union, and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), both signed in the early 1990s. So they tended to liberalize their economies, lowering trade barriers and opening up to international trade.

  

Comprehension:

  1.  What is GATT?
  2.  When was the final GATT agreement signed?
  3.  What was the organization superseded by?
  4.  Why did it take nearly 50 years to arrive at the final GATT agreement?
  5.  What is import substitution?
  6.  Why did most developing countries impose high tariff barriers?
  7.  Why does the IMF impose severe conditions on many developing countries nowadays?
  8.  What countries belong to the East Asian ‘Tiger’ economies?

  •  Text organization:

The Nationalments below express the main ideas of the text. Number them so that they are in the same order as the ideas in the text. The first one is given for you:

Nationalment

Order

  1.  

Nowadays many developing countries have huge debts with Western commercial banks.

  1.  

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was set up in 1947.

1

  1.  

The GATT had the objective of encouraging free trade and reducing tariffs.

  1.  

Developing countries practised import substitution and imposed high tariff barriers to protect their infant industries.

  1.  

It took nearly 50 years to arrive at the final GATT agreement.

  1.  

In the early 1990s the developing countries tended to liberize their economies and open up to international trade.

  1.  

Until the 1980s, most developing countries opposed free trade.

  •  Viewpoint:

Are there any ‘infant’ industries in our country that the Government has to protect?

  1.  FREE TRADE AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

      

Lead-in:

What kinds of problems do companies face when they go international?

Key words and phrases

  1.  free trade вільна торгівля 
  2.  primary commodities – первинні, основні види сировини 
  3.  to deteriorate – погіршувати
  4.  supply and demand – пропозиція і попит  
  5.  volatile – непостійний, мінливий
  6.  average tariff rates – середня тарифна ставка
  7.  trade barriers – торгові барєри
  8.  protectionist policy – протекційна політика
  9.  outward-oriented policy – зовнішне-орієнтована торговельна політика 
  10.  liberal trade policy – політика лібералізації торгівлі
  11.  national income – національний дохід
  12.  formidable barriers – непереборні барєри
  13.  labour intensive products – трудомісткі товари

“The wealth of all nations arises from the

labour and industry of the people”

(Charles D’Arenant, 1656-1714)

The developing countries have long been skeptical of the argument for free trade, which they believe ignores the question of how the gains from free trade are distributed between rich and poor countries. Free trade has often been unpopular and various arguments have often been advanced against it. The one is that free trade –particularly between developed and less developed countries – will cause unemployment in less developed countries. In fact, it is not true that free trade causes unemployment. It may, however, have an effect on wages.

Many developing countries are highly dependent on one or two products for their exports. These products are often primary commodities  for example, copper in Zambia and cocoa in Ghana. The terms of trade for many primary commodities have deteriorated over the last twenty years reflecting both increased supply and reduced demand as artificial substitutes have been developed. Moreover, the price of many primary commodities is highly volatile. As a consequence, many developing countries have sought to diversify away from primary commodities by establishing their own manufacturing industries.

Feeling that competition from the industrialised countries would prevent them from developing their own manufacturing industries, many developing countries adopted highly protectionist economic strategies in the 1950s and 1960s. Average tariff rates of 100% on imported manufactures were common, and extensive use of quotas and other trade barriers was also made. High levels of protection were often justified by the ‘infant industry’ argument.

The results of these protectionist policies were in many cases disappointing. Infant industries have often been slow to grow up and have continued to produce at high cost, high domestic costs have made it difficult to export, and have discouraged foreign investment, protected firms have become monopolists in domestic markets.

In recent years, many less developed countries in particular, the so-called newly industrialised countries have moved towards more export-orientated policies, often with spectacular results. A recent study by the World Bank of the trade policies of 41 less developed countries found that there was a strong relationship between what the Bank termed ‘outward-orientated’ trade policies and growth. The countries with the highest rates of growth Singapore, South Korea had the most liberal trade policies. Conversely, countries with import substituting trade policies such as Ghana, Peru and Zambia had some of the lowest rates of growth, often experiencing absolute falls in national income.

Despite the apparent advantages of following export-orientated trade policies, developing countries face formidable barriers in increasing their exports of manufactured goods. Their comparative advantage generally lies in labour intensive products, and yet it is precisely those products that attract the highest rates of protection in the developed countries.

Comprehension:

1. Why did developing countries adopt highly protectionist economic strategies?

2. What were the results of these policies?

3. Why was it difficult to export goods?

4. What policies have newly-industrialised countries moved towards?

5. Are there any disadvantages of export-oriented trade policies?

  •  Summarizing:

Complete the following sentences to summarize the text above:

1. Developing countries believe that free trade causes … .

2. Many developing countries adopted … in the 1950s and 1960s.

3. The results of these protectionist policies were … .

4.  In recent years, many less developed countries have moved towards … .

5. Despite the advantages of export-orientated trade policies, developing countries face … .

  •  Viewpoint:

Are you also of the opinion that free trade leads to unemployment in developing countries?

  1.  ECONOMICS AND ECOLOGY

     

Lead-in:

Are you concerned about pollution and environment?

Key words and phrases

1. natural environment – навколишнє середовище

2. consumptionспоживання, витрачання

3. non-renewable resourcesресурси, що не підлягають відновлюванню

4. environmentally-consciousтой, що захищає навколишнє середовище

5. to preventзапобігати, перешкоджати

6. to abolish environmental restrictionsзнищувати природоохоронні обмеження

7. to strengthen restrictionsзміцнювати обмеження 

8. to recycleпереробляти, використовувати  повторно

9. taxes on sources of energy – податкі на джерела енергії

 

In recent years ecologists have been very much concerned about the protection of the natural environment, about the consumption of non-renewable resources, the creation of waste, and the pollution of land, sea and air. After reading the following text discuss how ‘green’ or environmentally conscious you are. Answer the following questions with Yes (because…), No (because…), or It depends on… . 

  1.  Do you believe that governments should do more to prevent manufacturers polluting or damaging the environment?
  2.  Are you prepared to pay a higher price for products that you know are not dangerous for the environment?
  3.  Have you ever stopped using a product because you know that it is damaging for the environment?
  4.  Do you think environmental restrictions on industry should be abolished or relaxed because it leads to the creation of jobs?
  5.  Do you think environmental restrictions should be strengthened even if it leads to unemployment?  
  6.  Do you make an effort to recycle these?

* paper

* aluminium drink cans

* batteries

* vegetable waste

* glass bottles

* plastic bottles

* anything else

7. Do you use public transport (or a bicycle) wherever possible?

8. Do you make an effort to use as little water and energy (electricity, heating, etc.) as possible?

9. Do you believe that there should be higher taxes on sources of energy?


Кліше для реферування та анотування

Clichés and useful phrases

for annotations:

1. It is described in short … .

2. It is shown that … .

3. … is analysed.

4. …is examined.

5. Attention is drawn to … .

6. Data are given about … .

7. Attempts are made to analyse … .

8. Attempts are made to formulate … .

9. Conclusions are drawn … .

10. Recommendations are given … .

for abstracts:

1. The article (text) is head-lined … .

2. The author of the article (text) is … .

3. The main idea of the article (text) is … .

The article is about … .

The article deals with … .

The article touches upon … .

The article presents some results which illustrate ... .

4. The purpose of the article is to give the reader some information on …; to compare … ; to determine … .

The aim of the article is to provide the reader with … .

5. The author starts by telling the readers about (that) … .

6. The author writes (Nationals, stresses, thinks, points out) that … .

The article describes … .

According to the article (text) … .

The article goes on to say that … .

7. The article can be divided into 3 (4-5) parts.

The first part deals with … .

The second part is about … .

The third part touches upon … .

8. In conclusion the article reads … .

The author comes to the conclusion that … .

9. I found the article (text) interesting (important, up-to-date, informative).


ГРАМАТИЧНИЙ ДОВІДНИК

Grammar reference

§ 1. АРТИКЛЬ (THE ARTICLE)

1. Артикль  службове слово, що стоїть перед іменником і визначає його рід, число, відмінок, означеність і неозначеність. У зв'язку з останнім в англійській мові є два артиклі – неозначений a, an і означений the.

2. Неозначений артикль походить від числівника один (one) і вживається тільки зі злічуваними іменниками в однині. Неозначений артикль має значення один з, який-небудь: 

There will be a university here.  

Тут буде університет.

Неозначений артикль не вживається з іменниками у множині і з незлічуваними іменниками: 

Then there was silence.  

Потім настала тиша.

Неозначений артикль у реченні не наголошується. Перед іменником, що починається з голосного, неозначений артикль має форму an [an]:

It is an apple.

Це яблуко.

3. Означений артикль the походить від вказівного займенника (this, that). Він вживається з іменниками в однині і множині, коли і тому, хто говорить, і тому, хто слухає, зрозуміло, про який предмет іде мова. Означений артикль виділяє певний предмет або особу з класу йому подібних. Наприклад:

This is the shop where we bought the tape – recorder.

Це магазин, в якому ми купили магнітофон.

У реченні означений артикль ніколи не стоїть під наголосом.

4. Артиклі не вживаються перед:

а) власними назвами (прізвища, імена людей; назви міст, країн, континентів): John, Moscow, France, Asia;

б) іменниками, що визначаються вказівними або присвійними займенниками: this table – цей стіл, my book – моя книга;

в) незлічуваними іменниками, що означають речовину:

You can buy oil in the (food) store.

Ти можеш купити олію в магазині.

г) назвами наук, хвороб і коли перед власними назвами стоїть іменник, що означає звання: Professor Petrenko.

5. У деяких випадках перед власними назвами вживається означений артикль (перед назвами рік, морів, океанів, частин світу, гірських ланцюгів): the Thames, the Black Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, the South, the Urals, the Dneeper.

§ 2. ІМЕННИК (THE NOUN)

МНОЖИНА ІМЕННИКІВ

Іменники утворюють множину додаванням до основи закінчення -(e)s: a cupcups.

Якщо основа закінчується на -s, -ss, -z, -x, -sh, -ch, то додається закінчення -es, яке читається [iz]: a glassglasses, a busbuses, a watchwatches, a wishwishes, a boxboxes.

Якщо іменник закінчується на -у з попереднім приголосним, додається закінчення -es (читається [iz]), причому -у замінюється на : a countrycountries.

Якщо іменник закінчується на -f або -fe, то -f змінюється на -v і додається закінчення -es: shelf [∫elf] полиця – shelves [∫elvz] полиці.

Але деякі іменники утворюють множину зміною кореневого голосного і не за правилом: a man чоловік – men чоловіки, a woman жінка – women жінки, a child дитина – children діти, a tooth зуб – teeth зуби.

ВІДМІНОК (THE CASE)

В англійській мові існує два основні відмінки — загальний (the Common Case) і присвійний (the Possessive Case).

Розрізняють також так званий об'єктний, або непрямий відмінок, який за своїм значенням відповідає давальному і знахідному відмінку в українській мові.

Загальний відмінок не має закінчень. Він відповідає українському називному відмінку, а присвійний відмінок має закінчення 's і відповідає родовому відмінку в українській мові. У зв'язку з тим що у множині іменники англійської мови закінчуються на -s, то у множині присвійного відмінка ставиться тільки апостроф:

- bookspages

- сторінки книжок

Щоб виразити всю різноманітність граматичних, зокрема відмінкових, відношень в англійській мові, у якій порівняно мало відмінків, велику смислорозподільну граматичну роль відіграють порядок слів і прийменники.

Таблиця 1. Способи передачі відмінкових відношень в англійській мові

Відмінки

Способи передачі відмінкових відношень в англійській мові

Приклади

Переклад українською мовою

Називний Родовий

Давальний

без прийменника

оf 

to 

або без прийменника

The cake is tasty. 

The plate of my sister is on the table.

My sister's plate is on the table.

Give this book to my friend.

Give my friend this book.

Тістечко смачне.

Тарілка моєї сестри знаходиться на столі.

Дайте цю книжку моєму другу.

Знахідний

Орудний

без прийменника

bу 

with 

He drinks coffee.

The letter was written by my brother.

The letter was

Він п'є каву.

Листа було написано моїм братом.

Листа було

Місцевий

about, at, under та ін.

written with a ball-pen.

This book is about children.

She is at the Institute.

написано кульковою ручкою.

Ця книга про дітей.

Вона в інституті.

§ 3. ПРИКМЕТНИК (THE ADJECTIVE)

Англійські прикметники не змінюються ні за родами, ні за числами, ні за відмінками:

a round table

круглий стіл

round tables

круглі столи

a young man

молодий чоловік

a young woman

молода жінка

an old worker

старий робітник

an old worker’s son

син старого робітника

У реченні прикметник виступає у функції означення або іменної частини складеного присудка:

I'd like a cup of strong tea. (означення)

Я бажав би чашку міцного чаю.

The tea is too strong. (іменна частина присудка)

Чай дуже міцний.

Таблиця 2. Утворення ступенів порівняння прикметників.

Ступені порівняння

Односкладові

Двоскладові

Багатоскладові

Звичайний ступень

Вищий ступінь

Найвищий ступінь

warm теплий

large

big      великий

warmer тепліший larger

bigger     більший warmest найтепліший 

largest

biggest   найбільший

еasy легкий

easier легший

easiest найлегший

important важливий

more important 

важливіший

most important найважливіший

1. Якщо прикметник у звичайному ступені закінчується на приголосний, перед яким стоїть короткий приголосний, то кінцевий приголосний подвоюється: thin  thinner  thinnest.

2. Якщо прикметник закінчується на -у з попереднім приголосним, то перед -er, -est у змінюється на .

Деякі прикметники і прислівники утворюють ступені порівняння від інших коренів:

Таблиця 3. Змішані форми утворення ступенів порівняння

Звичайний ступінь

Вищий ступінь

Найвищий ступінь

good хороший

bad поганий

many багато

much багато

little малий

better кращий

    краще

worse гірший

          гірше

more більше

less менший

менше

best найкращий

       найкраще

worst найгірший

         найгірше

most найбільше

least найменший,  

       найменше

Примітка: Прислівники утворюють ступені порівняння так само, як і прикметники.

§ 4. СПОЛУЧНИКИ AS...AS, NOT SO...AS, THAN ПРИ УТВОРЕННІ СТУПЕНІВ ПОРІВНЯННЯ ПРИКМЕТНИКІВ

1. При порівнянні двох предметів однакової якості прикметник у звичайному ступені ставиться між as...as:

Не is as young as my brother.    Він такий же молодий як мій брат.

2. У заперечних реченнях вживаються слова not so...as:

Не is not so young as my brother.   Він не такий молодий як мій брат.

Примітка. При порівнянні носіїв різної якості вживається сполучник than  чим: Не is younger than Helen.  Він молодший за Олену.

§ 5. ЧИСЛІВНИК (THE NUMERAL)

Таблиця 4. Кількісні числівники

1- 12

13—19

20—90

100 і далі

1 one

2 two

3 three

4 four

5 five

6 six

7 seven

8 eight

9 nine

10 ten

13 thirteen

14 fourteen

15 fifteen

16 sixteen

17 seventeen

18 eighteen

19 nineteen

20 twenty

21 twenty-one

30 thirty

40 forty

50 fifty

60 sixty

70 seventy

80 eighty

90 ninety

100 a (one) hundred

101 a (one) hundred

and one

121 a (one) hundred and twenty-one

200 two hundred

300 three hundred

400 four hundred

500 five hundred

600 six hundred

700 seven hundred

800 eight hundred

900 nine hundred

1,000 a (one)thousand

11 eleven

12 twelve

1,001 a (one) thousand and one

100,000 a (one) hundred thousand

Примітка. З порядковими числівниками, як правило, вживається означений артикль the.

Таблиця 5. Дробові числівники

Прості дроби

1/2 a (one) half (second)

1/3 a (one) third

2/3 two thirds

3/5 three fifths

1/7 one seventh

2/7 two sevenths

3½ three and a half

61/3 six and one third

Десяткові дроби

0,1 nought [no:t] point one (point one)

0,01 nought point nought one (point nought one)

8,27 eight point two seven

72,903 seven two point nine nought three або seventy two point nine nought three

КАЛЕНДАРНІ ДАТИ

1800 – eighteen hundred; 1812 eighteen twelve; 1917 – nineteen seventeen.

29th June, 1962; June 29th, 1962; June 29, 1962 – the twenty ninth of June nineteen sixty-two або June the twenty ninth, nineteen sixty-two.

§ 6. ЗАЙМЕННИК (the PRONOUN)

Займенники – це слова, що вказують на предмети чи їх ознаки, вони вживаються замість іменників, прикметників або числівників.

Особові займенники в називному відмінку (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) виконують функцію підмета і відповідають на питання хто? що?

Особові займенники в об'єктному відмінку (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) відповідають на питання непрямих (давального, знахідного, місцевого) відмінків, у реченнях виконують функцію додатка:

Tell me everything about them.   Розкажіть мені все про них.

Вжита без прийменника, ця відмінкова форма займенника відповідає в українській мові давальному і знахідному відмінкам.

Займенники в непрямому відмінку з прийменниками відповідають всім іншим відмінкам залежно від прийменника:

This letter is for you. 

This article was translated by him. 

І have received a letter from her. 

І quite agree with him. 

I read about it yesterday. 

Не showed the book to her.

Це лист для вас.

Ця стаття була перекладена ним. 

Я отримав від неї листа.

Я повністю згоден з ним.

Я читав про це вчора.

Він показав їй книжку.

Присвійні займенники виражають належність і відповідають на питання чий? У реченні вони, як правило, є означенням.

Таблиця 7. Особові і присвійні займенники

Особові займенники

Присвійні

Називний (прямий)

Відмінок

Об'єктний (непрямий)

відмінок

хто who?

що? what?

кого? кому? whom?

що? чому? what?

чий? чия? чиє? чиї?

whose?

1

2

3

I  я

you ти

he він

she вона

it воно

we ми

you ви

they вони

me мене, мені

you тебе, тобі

him його, йому

her її, їй

it його, її

us нас, нам

you вас, вам

them їх, їм

мій, моя, моє, мої

your твій, твоя, твоє, твої

his його

her її

its його, її

our наш, наша, наше, наші

your ваш, ваша, ваше, ваші

their їх

Таблиця 8. Вказівні займенники

Однина

Множина

this цей, ця, це

that той, та, те

these ці

those ті

Вказівні займенники в реченні можуть бути означенням, якщо стоять перед іменником, або підметом, якщо стоять перед дієсловом.

НЕОЗНАЧЕНІ ЗАЙМЕННИКИ

SOME кілька, деяк, деяка кількість вживається у стверджувальних реченнях:

І have some pencils.

У мене є кілька олівців.

ANY скільки-небудь, які-небудь вживається у питальних і заперечних реченнях:

Have you got any pencils?

У вас є які-небудь олівці?

І have not got any pencils.

У мене немає ніяких олівців.

NO ніякий вживається для утворення заперечення, але в цьому випадку дієслово стоїть у стверджувальній формі:

І have no pencils.

У мене немає (ніяких) олівців.

Примітка. У стверджувальному реченні займенник any перекладається який-небудь, будь-який.

You can buy stamps at any post-office.

Марки можна купити в будь-якому поштовому відділенні.

Таблиця 9. Займенники some, any, no, every і похідні від них

Речення

Про речі

Про людей

Про місце

thing

body, one

where

Стверджу-вальні

some 

something

що-небудь

somebody

someone

хтось

хто-небудь

somewhere

десь

де-небудь

any

anything

все, що завгодно

anybody

anyone

всякий

будь-який

anywhere

де завгодно

куди завгодно

Питальні

any

anything

що-небудь

anybody 

anyone

хто-небудь

будь-хто

anywhere

де-небудь

куди-небудь

Заперечні

not...

any

no

not...

anything

нічого

nothing

нічого

not...

anybody

not...

anyone

ніхто

nobody, no one

none

ніхто

not...

anywhere

ніде

нікуди

nowhere

ніде

нікуди

Усіх видів

every

everything

все

everybody 

everyone

всякий

кожний

все

everywhere

скрізь

всюди

Таблиця 10. Зворотні займенники

Особа

Однина

Множина

1-а

2-а

3-я

myself 

yourself 

herself 

himself 

itself

сам (а)

себе

ourselves yourselves

themselves

самі

себе

Таблиця 11. One (ones) у ролі замінників іменників

Займенники

Приклади

Переклад

one 

ones

Take my pen.  

Thank you, I have got one.

Some products are more nutritious than the other ones.

Візьміть мою ручку –

Дякую, у мене є (ручка). 

Деякі продукти поживніші за інші (продукти).

Щоб запобігти повторенню іменника, замість нього можуть вживатися займенники one (ones), that of (those of). Для заміни іменників в однині вживаються займенники one і that of, а у множині  ones, those of.

§7. дієслово

(the verb)

Дієслово це повнозначна, самостійна частина мови, яка означає:

  •  дію: to cut – різати; to put – класти;
  •  стан: to sleep – спати;
  •  відчуття: to feel – почувати; smell – відчувати запах, нюхати, пахнути;
  •  процеси сприйняття (сприймання): to hear – чути, слухати; to see – бачити, дивитися;
  •  процеси мислення: to think – думати, обмірковувати; to consider – розглядати;
  •  уявлення: to imagine – уявляти (собі);
  •  процеси мовлення: to speakговорити, розмовляти; to say – говорити, сказати, мовити; to tell – розповідати, говорити, сказати;

Дієслово в англійській мові має найбільшу кількість форм. Основні граматичні ознаки дієслова – час, особа, число, стан. Спосіб дії – за ним дієслово в реченні відрізняється від інших слів.

Дієслова мають особові (Finite Forms) і не особові (Non-Finite Forms) форми.

Особові – це ті форми, які виражають особу, число, час, стан, спосіб дії і виступають у реченні лише у функції присудка:

He lives in London.  Він мешкає у Лондоні.

Не особові – це ті форми, які не мають звичайних форм особи, числа, способу і не бувають у реченні присудками, хоч і можуть входити до його складу. До них належать інфінітив (the Infinitive), герундій (the Gerund) і дієприкметник (the Participle).

Таблиця 12.

The Infinitive (інфінітив)

To know everything is to know nothing.

Знати все – значить нічого не знати.

The Gerund (герундій)

I am fond of reading books.

Я захоплююсь читанням книжок.

The Participle (дієприслівник)

Money spent on the brain is never spent in vain.

Гроші, витрачені на освіту, завжди окуповуються.

часи дієслова

(tenses)

В англійській мові розрізняються чотири групи часових форм дієслова: Indefinite (Simple) Tenses (неозначені часи), Continuous Tenses (тривалі часи), Perfect Tenses (перфектні або доконані часи) та Perfect Continuous Tenses (перфектно-тривалі часи). Всього в англійській мові вживається 12 часових форм.

В усіх групах часів існує також особлива форма відносного часу: The Future-in-the-Past – майбутнє відносно минулого часу.

Примітка. Детальніше про часи дієслова йдеться у відповідних розділах.

спосіб дієслова

(the mood)

Спосіб дієслова показує як мовець розглядає дію відносно дійсності. В англійській мові є три способи:

  1.  Дійсний спосіб (the Indicative Mood) показує, що дія розглядається як реальний факт у теперішньому, минулому і майбутньому:

Таблиця 13.

She speaks English fluently.

Вона вільно розмовляє англійською мовою.

He spoke English fluently.

Він вільно розмовляв англійською мовою.

They will speak English fluently.

Вони будуть вільно розмовляти англійською мовою.

  1.  Наказовий спосіб (the Imperative Mood) висловлює спонукання до дії, тобто наказ, прохання, пораду та інше. Наказовий спосіб має форму другої особи:

Таблиця 14.

Tell me all about it.

Розкажи мені все про це.

Choose an author as you choose a friend.

Вибирай письменника, як вибираєш друга.

Don’t be late.

Не запізнюйся.

Don’t waste time, it flies.

Не гайте часу, він летить.

  1.  Умовний спосіб (the Subjunctive Mood) показує, що мовець розглядає дію не як реальний факт, а як таку, що могла відбутися за певних умов, а також як щось допустиме, бажане, необхідне або нереальне, нездійснене.

If I saw her tomorrow, I would tell her about it.

Якби я бачив її завтра, я б сказав їй про це.

(Не виключена можливість побачити її завтра. Припущення стосується майбутнього).

Якщо припущення відноситься до минулого часу, воно не може бути виконано і є цілком нереальним:

If I had seen her yesterday, I would have told her about it.

Якби я (по)бачив її учора, я б сказав їй про це.

(Але я її не міг (по)бачити. Минулого повернути не можна).

Найпростішим для опанування є наказовий спосіб – як за обсягом, так і за утворенням.

Дійсний спосіб має дуже розгалужену систему часових форм.

Щодо умовного способу, то він хоч і не великий за обсягом, проте має складну систему утворення.

Примітка. Детальніше про способи дієслова йдеться у відповідному розділі.

стан дієслова

(the voice)

Особа або предмет, що виконує дію, називається суб’єктом дії. Особа або предмет, на які спрямовано дію, називається об’єктом дії. Так у реченні

A lot of people speak English all over the world.

Багато людей розмовляють англійською в усьому світі.

підмет речення “people” – означає суб’єкт дії, а ‘English” – її об’єкт. У реченні

English is spoken all over the world.

Англійською розмовляють у всьому світі.

підмет речення “English” є об’єктом дії. Суб’єкт дії у цьому реченні не зазначено.

Отже, підмет речення може бути як суб’єктом, так і об’єктом дії, вираженої присудком.

В англійській мові дієслова вживаються в активному стані (the Active Voice) і пасивному (the Passive Voice).

Якщо підметом речення є суб’єкт дії, то дієслово-присудок вживається в активному стані.

We often see him in the library.

Ми часто бачимо його в бібліотеці.

Підмет речення “we” є суб’єктом дії, “see” – дієслово-присудок в активному стані.

Якщо підметом речення є об’єкт дії, то дієслово-присудок вживається в пасивному стані.

He is often seen in the library.

Його часто бачать (можна бачити) в бібліотеці.

Підмет речення “He” є об’єкт дії, “isseen” – дієслово-присудок в пасивному стані. Суб’єкт дії – не зазначено.

Пасивний стан вживається тоді, коли в центрі уваги співрозмовників є особа або предмет, на які спрямована дія (об’єкт дії), суб’єкт дії при цьому здебільшого не вказується:

Rome was founded in 753 B.C.

Рим було засновано в 753р. до нашої ери.

У цьому реченні “Rome” (Рим) є об’єктом дії, вираженої присудком “was founded” (було засновано); саме про об’єкт дії — “Rome” (Рим), а не про діючу особу йде мова.

При потребі суб’єкт дії може бути виражений за допомогою додатка з прийменниками by або with:

The potato was brought to Europe by Spanish.

Картопля була завезена до Європи іспанцями.

Her eyes were filled with tears.

Її очі наповнились сльозами.

Зіставляючи речення з присудком в активному стані

Dr. Pemberton invented Coca-Cola in 1886.

Д-р Пембертон винайшов Кока-Колу у 1886 році.

і речення з присудком в пасивному стані,

Coca-Cola was invented by Dr. Pemberton in 1886.

Кока-Кола була винайдена д-ром Пембертоном у 1886 році.

можна відзначити, що підмету речення в активному стані (Dr. Pemberton) відповідає додаток з прийменником by речення в пасивному стані (by Dr. Pemberton), а додаток до дієслова-присудка речення в активному стані (Coca-Cola) є предметом речення в пасивному стані.

Ви мабуть звернули увагу на те, що в англійських реченнях присудок в пасивному стані складається з двох частин. Це дійсно так.

Пасивний стан дієслів в англійській мові утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова (to) be (бути) у відповідному часі, числі, відповідній особі та дієприкметника минулого часу (the Past Participle) основного дієслова.

пасивний стан

(the passive voice)

Допоміжне слово

(to) be

у відповідному часі, числі та відповідній особі

+

Дієприкметник минулого часу

Past Participle 

(або Participle II)

основного дієслова

Запам’ятайте:

У пасивному стані лише допоміжне дієслово (to) be змінюється за часом, особою і числом. Друга частина – дієприкметник минулого часу (Past Participle) – лишається незмінною.

Усі часові форми пасивного стану, його питання і заперечна форми, а також правила утворення дієприкметника минулого часу (Past Participle) будуть розглянуті у відповідних розділах, де йдеться про часи дієслова та дієприкметники.

Особливості вживання речень у пасивному стані

в англійській мові

В англійській мові речення у пасивному стані вживаються значно частіше, ніж в українській, оскільки в англійській мові в пасивному стані вживаються не лише перехідні, а й багато неперехідних дієслів.

Перехідними (transitive) називаються дієслова, які виражають дію, спрямовану на якусь особу або предмет, і можуть приймати прямий додаток, непрямий і безприйменниковий:

Таблиця 15.

to give (a book)

давати (книгу)

to cut (cheese)

різати (сир)

to listen (to music)

слухати (музику)

to wait (for somebody)

чекати (на кого-що)

Дієслова, які не приймають додатка і виражають дію, що характеризує підмет, але не спрямована на якийсь об’єкт, називається неперехідними (intransitive): to live – жити; to sleep – спати.

Підметом речення пасивного стану в англійській мові може бути прямий, непрямий, а також прийменниковий додаток речення активного стану.

переклад речень з дієсловом

у пасивному стані

На українську мову дієслова в пасивному стані перекладаються:

а) дієсловом з часткою -ся (-сь):


His voice
was heard at the door.

Біля дверей почувся його голос.

The plan has been discussed for two hours.

План обговорюється вже протягом двох годин.

б) сполученням дієслова “бути” з дієслівними формами на “-но”, “-то” в безособових реченнях:

That house was built last year.

Той будинок було збудовано у тому році.

в) сполученням дієслова “бути” з дієприкметником пасивного стану минулого часу:

These copies were found in your room.

Ці примірники були знайдені у вашій кімнаті.

г) дієсловом в активному стані в неозначено-особових реченнях:

This event is very much spoken about.

Про цю подію багато говорять.

д) якщо в реченні з дієсловом у пасивному стані вказано суб’єкт дії, його можна перекласти українською мовою особовим реченням з дієсловом в активному стані:

I was invited by our partners.

Мене запросили наші партнери.

Таблиця 16.

Значення і вживання дієслова (to) be

1. Самостійне дієслово (Notional or Independent Verb) із значенням бути, існувати, знаходитися

The administrative building of our company is in the center of the city.

Адміністративний будинок нашої компанії знаходиться в центрі міста.

2. Допоміжне дієслово (Auxiliary Verb) для утворення форм тривалих часів (Continuous Tenses) і пасивного стану (Passive Voice)

Now she is working at home.

Зараз вона працює вдома.

The work will be done within a week.

Роботу буде виконано через тиждень.

3. Дієслово – зв’язка у складному іменному присудку (Compound Nominal Predicate)

He will be a good manager.

Він буде хорошим менеджером.

4. Модальне дієслово (Modal Verb) із значенням зобов’язання, що впливає з попередньої домовленості, плану, розкладу, графіка та ін.

He is to come at nine.

Він має прийти о 9 годині.

We were to work six hours every day.

Ми мали працювати шість годин щодня.

We are to meet at the hotel.

Ми повинні зустрітися у готелі.

Таблиця 17.

значення і вживання дієслова (to) have

1. Самостійне дієслово (Notional or Independent Verb) із значенням мати, володіти

Every country has its customs.

Кожна країна має свої звичаї.

2. Допоміжне дієслово (Auxiliary Verb) для утворення перфектних часів (Perfect Tenses)

I have never been to China.

Я ніколи не був у Китаї.

3. Частина фразеологічного словосполучення

I have lunch at work.

Я обідаю на роботі.

4. Модальне дієслово (Modal Verb) із значенням зобов’язання, повинності, що впливає із зовнішніх обставин

I have to get up the next morning at seven.

Завтра вранці я маю встати о сьомій годині.

Таблиця 18.

конструкція

there + be

am/is/are; have (has) been; was, were, had been; will be

Вставне слово; не перекладається

Дієслово-присудок у відповідному часі, числі та відповідній особі

В реченнях, які починаються вставним there +be, стверджується або заперечується наявність у певному місці або в певний час якогось предмета, явища або особи

There were many people in the conference hall.

У конференц-залі було багато людей.

Якщо в такому реченні є обставина місця, то в українському перекладі вона звичайно ставиться на початку речення.

питальна форма

Are there any more questions?

Ще є запитання?

У питальній формі дієслово-присудок (to) be або допоміжне чи модальне дієслово, якщо вони є в складі присудка, ставляться перед there.

заперечна форма

There are no more questions.

Запитань більше не має.

У заперечній формі речень, що починаються з there, вживається заперечний займенник no або notany

There won’t (will not) be any meeting to-night.

Сьогодні увечері зборів не буде.

Якщо перед підметом стоять слова many, much (багато)”  або кількісний числівник, заперечна форма утворюється за допомогою частки not.

There is not much money on their current account.

На їх поточному рахунку грошей не багато.

НЕОЗНАЧЕНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(The INDEFINITE (Simple) TENSE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE)

ТЕПЕРІШНІЙ НЕОЗНАЧЕНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ

І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE PRESENT INDEFINITE (Simple) TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Стверджувальна форма дієслова в Present Indefinite в усіх особах однини і множини, крім третьої особи однини, збігається з інфінітивом (неозначеною формою дієслова) без частки to:

Таблиця 19.

І study.        

Я навчаюся.

We study.

Ми навчаємося. 

You study.     

Ви навчаєтеся. 

They study.     

Вони навчаються. 

У третій особі однини до інфінітива без частки to додається закінчення -s або -es:

to invite — he invites

to teach — she teaches

Питальна форма Present Indefinite утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова do або does, яке ставиться перед підметом:

Таблиця 20.

Do I study?

Я навчаюся?

Do we study?

Ми навчаємося?

Does he read?

Він навчається?

Does she write?

Вона навчається?

Примітка. Якщо питальне слово виконує роль підмета або означення до підмета, допоміжне дієслово do або does у цьому випадку не вживається:

Who lives there?    Хто живе там?

Whose father lives there?   Чий батько живе там?

Заперечна форма Present Indefinite утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова do або does, заперечної частки not та інфінітива основного дієслова:

Таблиця 21.

І do not study.

Я не навчаюсь.

Не does not study.

Він не навчається.

У розмовній мові замість do not і does not вживаються скорочені форми don't і doesn't:

І don't see you.  Я тебе не бачу.

He doesn't see me.   Він мене не бачить.

Дієслово to be в Present Indefinite має форми:

Таблиця 22.

I am a student.      

We are students.

You are a student.   

You are students.

He is a student.     

They are students.

She is a student.

It is a student.

Питальна та заперечна форми дієслова to be утворюються без допоміжного дієслова to do:

Are you a student?  Ти студент?

I am not a student.  Я не студент.

ВЖИВАННЯ

Present Indefinite вживається для вираження:

1) звичайної, повторюваної дії в теперішньому часі:

Не goes to see her every day. Він приходить побачити її кожного дня.

2) дії, яка характеризує підмет постійно:

Не speaks both French and English fluently.

Він вільно розмовляє як французькою, так і англійською мовою.

3) загальновідомих істин:

Copper conducts electricity better than other metals.

Мідь проводить електрику краще ніж інші метали.

4) запланованої майбутньої дії в підрядних реченнях часу та умови:

Іll be there till he comes.  Я буду тут, поки він прийде.

5) запланованої майбутньої дії з дієсловами, що означають рух:

І leave London tomorrow.  Завтра я виїжджаю з Лондону.

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН

Пасивний стан Present Indefinite утворюється за допомогою дієслова to be та дієприкметника минулого часу (Past Participle) основного дієслова:

Не is interrogated.   Його допитують.

І am asked about it.   В мене це запитують.

МИНУЛИЙ НЕОЗНАЧЕНИЙ ЧАС

В АКТИВНОМУ І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE PAST INDEFINITE TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Стверджувальна форма дієслова в Past Indefinite в усіх особах однини та множини збігається з другою формою дієслова:

Таблиця 23.

І worked.      

Я працював.

We worked.    

Ми працювали. 

You worked.    

Ви працювали. 

They worked.   

Вони працювали. 

В англійській мові дієслова поділяються на правильні та неправильні. Past Indefinite правильних дієслів утворюється додаванням до інфінітива без частки to закінчення – ed.

Past Indefinite неправильних дієслів утворюється по-різному.(Дивиться таблицю неправильних дієслів).

Питальна форма Past Indefinite правильних і неправильних дієслів утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова did та інфінітива основного дієслова без частки to. Допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

Did you go to the Institute yesterday?

Ви ходили вчора до інституту?

What did he say?

Що він сказав?

Заперечна форма Past Indefinite утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова did, заперечної частки not та інфінітива основного дієслова без частки to. Допоміжне дієслово ставиться між підметом і присудком:

І did not know this.

Я не знав цього.

They did not work at this factory.

Вони не працювали на цій фабриці.

У розмовній мові замість did not вживається скорочена форма didn’t:

І didn’t understand you.  

Я не розумів тебе.

Дієслово to be в Past Indefinite має форми:

Таблиця 24.

I was a student.        

We were students.

You were a student.

You were students.

He was a student.     

They were students.

She was a student.     

It was a student.

Питальна та заперечна форми дієслова to be утворюються без допоміжного дієслова did:

Were you at home yesterday?

Ви були вчора вдома?

У розмовній мові замість was not, were not вживаються форми wasn't, weren't:

They weren't afraid of him.

Вони не боялися його.

вживання

Past Indefinite вживається для вираження:

1) одноразової або повторюваної дії в минулому часі. Час минулої дії часто уточнюється обставинами yesterday, last week, the other day, ago, тощо:

I saw you in the street

yesterday.

Я бачив вас на вулиці вчора.

They lived in London before the war.

До війни вони жили в Лондоні.

2) ряду послідовних дій у минулому:

І dressed, went downstairs, had some coffee in the kitchen and went out to the garage.

Я одягнувся, зійшов униз, випив у кухні кави і пішов у гараж.

3) повторюваної дії в минулому:

І saw her every day.

Я бачив її щодня.

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН

Пасивний стан Past Indefinite утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Past Indefinite і Past Participle основного дієслова:

Таблиця 25.

І was examined.         

We were examined. 

You were examined.      

You were examined. 

He was examined.       

They were examined. 

She was examined. 

It was examined.

МАЙБУТНІЙ НЕОЗНАЧЕНИЙ ЧАС

В АКТИВНОМУ I ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE FUTURE INDEFINITE  (Simple) TENSE ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Future Indefinite утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова will та інфінітива основного дієслова без частки to.

У розмовній мові замість will звичайно вживається скорочена форма 'll, яка на письмі приєднується до підмета:

I'll tell it to you after dinner.  

Я розкажу Вам про це після обіду.

He'll be back in an hour.     

Він повернеться за годину.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

When will he be at home?   

Коли він буде вдома?

У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова вживається заперечна частка not:

Не will not stay here.   

Він не залишиться тут.

У розмовній мові замість will not вживаються скорочені форми won't:

She won't go to the theatre.   

Вона не піде до театру.

вживання

Future Indefinite вживається для вираження одноразової, постійної або повторюваної дії в майбутньому:

I'll go there with you.         

Я поїду туди з тобою.

I'll always come back.        

Я завжди повертатимусь.

He'll work at the factory next year.

Наступного року він працюватиме на фабриці.

В англійській мові Future Indefinite не вживається в підрядних реченнях часу та умови. Для вираження майбутньої дії в таких реченнях вживається Present Indefinite:

I'll be here till you come.    

Я буду тут, поки ти прийдеш.

I'll give it to him when he comes back.

Я дам це йому, коли він noвернеться.

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН

Пасивний стан Future Indefinite утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be у Future Indefinite і Past Participle основного дієслова:

The text will be translated into English.

Текст буде перекладено на англійську мову.

ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ

І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(the CONTINUOUS TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

ТЕПЕРІШНІЙ ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ

І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Present Continuous утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Present Indefinite і дієприкметника теперішнього часу (Present Participle) основного дієслова.

Present Participle утворюється додаванням закінчення -ing до інфінітива основного дієслова без частки to:

read + ing reading

speak + ingspeaking

Стверджувальна форма Present Continuous:

Таблиця 26.

I am speaking now. (I'm speaking).

We are speaking now.(We're speaking).

You are speaking. (You're speaking).

You are speaking. (You're speaking).

He is speaking. (He's speaking).

They are speaking. (They're speaking).

She is speaking. (She's speaking).

It is speaking. (It's speaking).

У дужках подано скорочені форми, що вживаються в розмовній мові.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

Are the boys playing chess now?

Хлопці грають у шахи зараз?

Is she working in the garden now?

Вона зараз працює в саду?

What are you doing?

Що ви робите?

У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова вживається заперечна частка not:

The girls are not singing now.

Дівчата зараз не співають.

У розмовній мові замість is not i are not вживаються скорочені форми isn't і aren't:

She isn't listening.

Вона (зараз) не слухає.

Why aren't you working?

Чому ви (зараз) не працюєте?

ВЖИВАННЯ

Present Continuous вживається для вираження:

1) дії, що відбувається в момент мовлення:

You are not listening to me.

Ти не слухаєш мене.

2) тривалої дії, що відбувається в певний період теперішнього часу, хоч і не обов'язково в момент мовлення:

What are you doing here in London?

Що ви робите тут, у Лондоні?

I'm studying at the University.

Я навчаюсь в університеті.

3) тривалої дії, що відбувається одночасно з іншою дією, яка відноситься до теперішнього часу:

І am only happy when I am working.

Я щасливий лише тоді, коли працюю.

4) запланованої майбутньої дії, особливо з дієсловами, що означають рух. У цьому разі обов'язково вживаються обставини часу:

We are flying to Paris in the morning.

Ми відлітаємо до Парижу уранці.

When are you coming back?

Коли ви повернетесь?

Is he coming tonight?

Він прийде сьогодні ввечері?

Дієслово to go у Present Continuous з інфінітивом іншого дієслова означає намір виконати дію в найближчому майбутньому або надає їй відтінку обов'язковості, неминучості виконання дії, позначеної інфінітивом:

І am going to speak.

Я буду говорити.

It's going to rain.

Складається на дощ.

He is going to be an economist.

Він збирається бути економістом.

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН

Пасивний стан Present Continuous утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Present Continuous і Past Participle основного дієслова:

Таблиця 27.

+

?

-

І am being examined now.

Am I being examined now?

I am not being examined now.

Не (she, it) is being examined now.

Is he (she, it) being examined now?

He (she, it) is not being examined now.

We (you, they) are being examined now.

Are we (you, they) being examined now?

We (you, they) are not being examined now.

МИНУЛИЙ ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ

І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Стверджувальна форма дієслова в Past Continuous утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Past Indefinite і дієприкметника теперішнього часу основного дієслова:

Таблиця 28.

I was making coffee at 3 o’clock. 

We were making coffee at 3 o’clock. 

You were making coffee at 3 o’clock. 

You were making coffee at 3 o’clock. 

He was making coffee at 3 o’clock. 

They were making coffee at 3 o’clock.

She was making coffee at 3 o’clock. 

It was making coffee at 3 o’clock.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

What were you telling him about?  

Про що ви йому розповідали?

У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова вживається заперечна частка not:

І was not watching TV in the evening.

Я не дивився телевізор увечері.

У розмовній мові в заперечній і питально-заперечній формах замість was not і were not вживаються переважно скорочені форми wasn't і weren't:

Таблиця 29.

Не wasn't coming.

Wasn't he coming?

They weren't coming.

Weren't they coming?

ВЖИВАННЯ

Past Continuous вживається для вираження:

1) дії, що відбулася, тривала в певний момент у минулому. На час дії звичайно вказують обставинні слова типу at two o'clock, at midnight, at that moment або підрядні речення з дієсловом-присудком у Past Indefinite:

Не was working at his English at that time.

Він працював над англійською мовою в той час.

She was sitting by the window when he came in.

Вона сиділа біля вікна коли він увійшов.

2) дії, що тривала протягом якогось часу в минулому:

In spring he was visiting his old school-fellow.

На весні він гостював у свого старого шкільного товарища.

пасивний стан

Пасивний стан Past Continuous утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Past Continuous і Past Participle основного дієслова:

Таблиця 30.

+

?

-

І (he, she, it) was being taught at that moment.

Was he being taught at that moment?       

He was not being taught at that moment.

We (you, they) were being taught at that moment.

Were they being taught at that moment?     

They were not being taught at that moment.

МАЙБУТНІЙ ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС

(THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Стверджувальна форма Future Continuous утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be у Future Indefinite та дієприкметника теперішнього часу основного дієслова:

Таблиця 31.

I will be translating the text at 2 o’clock. 

We will be translating the text at 2 o’clock. 

You will be translating the text at 2 o’clock. 

You will be translating the text at 2 o’clock.

He will be translating the text at 2 o’clock. 

They will be translating the text at 2 o’clock.

She will be translating the text at 2 o’clock.

It will be translating the text at 2 o’clock.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово will ставиться перед підметом:

Will they be studying?

Вони будуть навчатися?

У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова will вживається заперечна частка not:

They will not be leaving for Kiev.

Вони не поїдуть до Києва.

У розмовній мові замість will вживається скорочення 'll, а замість will not won't.

ВЖИВАННЯ

Future Continuous вживається для вираження тривалої дії, що відбуватиметься в якийсь момент або період часу в майбутньому:

I'll be looking out for you.

Я чекатиму на тебе.

We'll be playing all morning.

Ми будемо гратися весь ранок.

У сучасній англійській мові Future Continuous часто вживається в тому самому значенні, що й Future Indefinite, тобто виражає майбутню дію:

He'll be going to school soon.

Він скоро пійде до школи.

You won't be coming back here any more.

Ви більше сюди не повернетесь.

Примітка. Пасивний стан у Future Continuous не використується.

ПЕРФЕКТНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(The PERFECT TENSE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE)

ТЕПЕРІШНІЙ ПЕРФЕКТНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ

І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Present Perfect утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to have у Present Indefinite і дієприкметника минулого часу (Past Participle) основного дієслова.

Past Participle правильних дієслів утворюється додаванням до інфінітива закінчення -ed, тобто за формою Past Participle правильних дієслів не відрізняється від Past Indefinite:

Таблиця 32.

І have just discussed it.       

We have just discussed it. 

You have just discussed it.    

You have just discussed it. 

He has just discussed it.      

They have just discussed it. 

She has just discussed it. 

It has just discussed it.

У розмовній мові вживаються переважно скорочені форми:

Таблиця 33.

I've already worked.

We’ve already worked.

He's already worked.

You’ve already worked.

She’s already worked.

They’ve already worked.

It’s already worked.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

Have you ever lived in a village?

Ви коли-небудь жили в селі?

Has she congratulated him?

Вона його поздоровила?

У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова вживається заперечна частка not:

My friend has not come yet.

Мій друг ще не прийшов.

We have not discussed it yet.

Ми ще це не обговорювали.

У розмовній мові замість have not i has not вживаються скорочені форми haven't, hasn't:

You haven't changed much.

Ви не дуже змінилися.

У питально-заперечних реченнях вживаються скорочені форми haven't і hasn't, які ставляться перед підметом:

Hasn't he been to Paris?

Невже він не був у Парижі?

Why haven't you put on your coat?

Чому ти не одягнув пальто?

ВЖИВАННЯ

Present Perfect вживається для вираження дії, яка відбулася до моменту мовлення, і результат цієї минулої дії пов'язаний з цим моментом:

І have locked the door.

Я замкнув двері.

Have you turned off the gas?

Ви вимкнули газ?

Час дії, вираженої дієсловом у Present Perfect, здебільшого не зазначається, тому що в центрі уваги результат дії, а не час її перебігу:

What have they done?

Що вони зробили?

You have read more than me.

Ви читали більше, ніж я.

Present Perfect вживається також у реченнях з такими обставинами часу:

а) що означають період часу, який почався в минулому і тривав до моменту мовлення: up to now, up to the present – до цього часу; lately – нещодавно, останнім часом; recently – останнім часом; so far – до цього часу; since – відтоді; not yet – ще не; for  на протязі:

Up to now we have done three exercises.

До цього часу ми зробили три вправи.

Have you seen them recently?

Ви бачили їх останнім часом?

Have you heard from your sister lately?

Останнім часом ви мали звістку від вашої сестри?

б) що означають період часу, який ще не закінчився: today – сьогодні; this week – цього тижня; this month – цього місяця; this year – цього року; this morning – сьогодні вранці:

Have you seen her today?

Ви бачили її сьогодні?

Has he visited a dentist this month?

Він був у зубного лікаря цього місяця?

З цими обставинами часу вживається також Past Indefinite:

A letter came from them today.

Сьогодні від них надійшов лист.

в) з прислівниками неозначеного часу і частотності: ever  коли-небудь; never ніколи; often  часто; seldom  рідко; already  вже; just  щойно:

Have you ever thought about it?

Ви коли-небудь думали про це?

I've often heard him told the tale.

Я часто чув, як він розповідав цю історію.

We've just arrived.

Ми щойно приїхали.

З цими прислівниками вживається також Past Indefinite:

І told you already.

Я вже казав вам.

I never saw him in all my life.

Я жодного разу не бачив його в своєму житті.

Present Perfect не вживається з обставинними словами та словосполученнями, які уточнюють час минулої дії: yesterday – вчора; last week – минулого тижня, тощо:

She went away yesterday.

Вона поїхала вчора.

When did you see him?

Коли ви бачили його?

Present Perfect вживається для вираження дії або стану, що триває з якогось моменту в минулому до моменту мовлення. В цьому значенні Present Perfect вживається переважно з дієсловами, що не мають форми Continuous:

І have known her for years.

Я знав її багато років.

I have not seen you for a whole month.

Я не бачив вас цілий місяць.

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН

Пасивний стан Present Perfect утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Present Perfect та основного дієслова в Past Participle:

Таблиця 34.

І have already been examined.     

We have already been examined. 

You have already been examined.  

You have already been examined. 

He has already been examined.    

They have already been examined. 

She has already been examined. 

It has already been examined.

МИНУЛИЙ ПЕРФЕКТНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ

І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE PAST PERFECT TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Past Perfect утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to have в Past Indefinite і дієприкметника минулого часу (Past Participle) основного дієслова. Дієслова в Past Perfect не змінюються за особами й числами:

І (she, he, it, we, you, they) had done it by 5 o’clock yesterday.

У розмовній мові замість had вживається скорочена форма 'd, яка на письмі приєднується до підмета:

I'd (he'd, she'd, we'd, you'd, they'd) done it by 5 o’clock yesterday.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

Had you done you homework when he сame?

Ти виконав

своє домашнє завдання

коли він прийшов?

У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова вживається заперечна частка not:

І had not read the book by Tuesday.

До вівторка я ще не прочитав книжку.

ВЖИВАННЯ

Past Perfect вживається для вираження:

1) дії, яка відбулася раніше іншої минулої дії, позначеної дієсловом у Past Indefinite:

І told you I had met her.

Я сказав тобі, що зустрічав її.

2) минулої дії, що вже закінчилася до певного моменту в минулому. Цей момент позначається такими словосполученнями: by two o'clock до другої години, by that time до того часу, тощо:

І had done my homework by eight o'clock.

До восьмої години я вже виконав своє

домашнє завдання.

Заперечна форма Past Perfect вказує на те, що до певного моменту в минулому дія ще не закінчилася:

We had not received the telegram by that time.

До того часу ми ще не одержали телеграми.

3) дії, що почалася до певного моменту в минулому і тривала до цього моменту. В цьому значенні Past Perfect вживається переважно з дієсловами, які не мають форми Continuous:

When he came I had been there for an hour.

Коли він прийшов, я був там уже годину.

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН

Пасивний стан Past Perfect утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Past Perfect та основного дієслова в Past Participle:

І (he, she, it, we, you, they) had been examined by 3 o’clock yesterday.

У питальній формі допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

Had he been examined when you came?

Його вже проекзамінували коли ти прийшов?

У заперечній формі після допоміжного дієслова had ставиться заперечна частка not:

The copy had not been given to her father.

Копію не дали її батькові.

МАЙБУТНІЙ ПЕРФЕКТНИЙ ЧАС В АКТИВНОМУ

І ПАСИВНОМУ СТАНІ

(THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE, ACTIVE

AND PASSIVE VOICE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Стверджувальна форма дієслова у Future Perfect утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to have у Future Indefinite і дієприкметника минулого часу (Past Participle) основного дієслова:

I (she, he, it, we, you, they) will have done it by 3 o’clock tomorrow.

У питальній формі перше допоміжне дієслово will вживається перед підметом:

Will he have read the story by the time you come back?

Він прочитає оповідання поки ти повернешся?

У заперечній формі після першого допоміжного дієслова will вживається заперечна частка not:

He will not have done it.   Він не зробить цього.

У розмовній мові вживаються такі самі скорочення, як і у Future Indefinite:

I’ll have done it.

Я це зроблю.

He won't have done it.

Він цього не зробить.

ВЖИВАННЯ

Future Perfect вживається для вираження майбутньої дії, що закінчиться до певного моменту або до початку іншої дії в майбутньому:

You'll have forgotten me by then.

До того часу ви мене забудете.

ПАСИВНИЙ СТАН

Пасивний стан Future Perfect утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be у Future Perfect і Past Participle основного дієслова:

I (he, she, it, we, you, they) will have been examined.

ПЕРФЕКТНО-ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС

(The PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE)

ТЕПЕРІШНІЙ ПЕРФЕКТНО-ТРИВАЛИЙ ЧАС

(THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Present Perfect Continuous утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Present Perfect і дієприкметника теперішнього часу основного дієслова:

Таблиця 35.

I have been writing for 2 hours.

We have been writing for 2 hours. 

You have been writing for 2 hours. 

You have been writing for 2 hours. 

He has been writing for 2 hours. 

They have been writing for 2 hours.

She has been writing for 2 hours. 

It has been writing for 2 hours.

У питальній формі перше допоміжне дієслово ставиться перед підметом:

Have you been working for 2 hours?

Ти працював 2 години?

У заперечній формі після першого допоміжного дієслова вживається заперечна частка not:

Не has not been working for 2 hours.

Він не працював 2 години.

Питально-заперечна форма:

Haven't you been listening to me?  

Ти не слухав мене?

ВЖИВАННЯ

Present Perfect Continuous вживається для вираження дії, що почалася в минулому і тривала протягом певного періоду, або все ще продовжується в цей момент, або щойно закінчилася:



His father has been working at this plant for twenty years
.

Його батько працює на цьому заводі двадцять років

(почав працювати 20 років тому і працює досі).

I've been waiting here for half an hour.

Я чекала тут півгодини

(дія почалася півгодини тому, тривала до моменту мовлення і щойно закінчилася).

Present Perfect Continuous може вживатися без вказівки на тривалість дії:

What have you been reading?

Що ви читали?

I've been waiting for you.

Я чекав на вас.

Здебільшого на період тривалості дії вказують обставини часу, часто з прийменником for:

Не has been sleeping for an hour.

Він спав годину.

Слово since вказує на початок періоду, протягом якого тривала дія:

І have been teaching English since 1976.

Я викладаю англійську мову з 1976 року.

What have you been doing since you left us?

Що ви робили з того часу як залишили нас?

Present Perfect Continuous вживається в питальних реченнях з питальними словами since when – з якого часу, відколи і how long – як довго, скільки часу, якщо мова йде про період, що безпосередньо передує моменту мовлення:

How long have you been learning French?

Скільки часу ви вивчаєте французьку мову?

Since when have you been working here?

З якого часу ви працюєте тут?

§ 8. ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК

(The participle)

ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК ТЕПЕРІШНЬОГО ЧАСУ

(THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Present Participle утворюється за допомогою закінчення -ing, яке додається до інфінітива дієслова без частки to:

to read reading

Якщо інфінітив закінчується на німе -е, то перед закінченням -ing воно опускається:

to write writing

Якщо інфінітив закінчується однією приголосною буквою, якій передує короткий наголошений голосний звук, то перед закінченням кінцева приголосна подвоюється:

to sit sitting

to begin beginning

Примітка. Кінцева буква -k після -оо не подвоюється: look looking.

Кінцева буква -r подвоюється, якщо останній склад наголошений і не містить дифтонга:

to prefer preferring

Кінцева буква -l подвоюється, якщо їй передує короткий голосний звук (наголошений чи ненаголошений):

to compel compelling

to travel travelling

У дієсловах to lie, to tie, to die буквосполучення -іе перед закінченням -ing змінюється на -у:

to lie lying

to tie tying

to die – dying

Примітка. Кінцева буква -у перед закінченням -ing не змінюється: to try – trying.

Present Participle має форму пасивного стану, яка утворюється за допомогою допоміжного дієслова to be в Present Participle та основного дієслова в Past Participle:

to ask – being asked

ЗНАЧЕННЯ ТА ВЖИВАННЯ

Present Participle не має певного часового значення і виражає різні часові відношення залежно від контексту і значення дієслова, від якого його утворено.

Present Participle вживається для позначення дії, одночасної з дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком речення. Залежно від часу дієслова-присудка Present Participle може відноситися до теперішнього, минулого або майбутнього часу:

Reading English books I write

out new words.

Читаючи англійські

книжки,

я виписую нові слова.

Reading English books I wrote

out new words.

Читаючи англійські книжки,

я виписував нові слова.

Reading English books I'll write

out new words.

Читаючи англійські книжки,

я виписуватиму нові слова.

Present Participle може виражати дію, що відноситься до теперішнього часу, незалежно від часу дії, вираженої дієсловом-присудком речення:

The boys sitting at our table

came from England.

Хлопчики, що сидять за нашим столом, приїхали з Англії.

Present Participle може вживатися безвідносно до якогось часу:

The bisector is a straight line dividing an angle into two equal parts.

Бісектриса це пряма лінія, що поділяє кут на дві рівні частини.

Present Participle може виражати дію, що передує дії, вираженій присудком, якщо обидві дії відбуваються безпосередньо одна за одною. В такому значенні часто вживається Present Participle дієслів to enter, to open, to close, to arrive, to see, to hear тощо:

Entering his room, he went quickly to the other door.    

Увійшовши до своєї кімнати, він швидко пішов до інших дверей.

ФУНКЦІЇ

Present Participle Active вживається у функції:

  1.  означення:

The rising sun was hidden by the clouds.

Сонце, що сходило, закрили хмари.

  1.  обставин (часу, причини, способу дії):

Entering the room, she saw her sister there.             

Увійшовши до кімнати, вона побачила там свою сестру.

Present Participle Passive вживається у функції обставин, іноді у функції означення:

Being written in pencil, the letter was difficult to read.

Оскільки лист був написаний олівцем, його було важко читати.

The plant being built in our town will produce motorcars.

Завод, що будується в нашому місті, випускатиме легкові автомобілі.

ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК МИНУЛОГО ЧАСУ

(THE PAST PARTICIPLE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

В англійській мові існують так звані правильні та неправильні дієслова. Past Participle правильних дієслів утворюється так само, як і Past Indefinite.

Past Participle неправильних дієслів утворюється по-різному (див. таблицю неправильних дієслів).

ВЖИВАННЯ

Past Participle має лише одну форму і є пасивним дієприкметником. Він уживається тоді, коли іменник чи займенник, до якого він відноситься, позначає об'єкт вираженої ним дії:

a written letter

the machines made in France

написаний лист

машини, виготовлені у Франції

Здебільшого Past Participle виражає дію, що передує дії, вираженій присудком речення:

We were looking at the

destroyed bridge.              

Ми дивилися на зруйнований міст.

Але Past Participle може виражати дію, одночасну з дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком, а також дію, безвідносну до будь-якого часу:

Не is a doctor loved and

respected by everybody.     

Він лікар, якого всі люблять і поважають.

ФУНКЦІЇ

Past Participle у реченні найчастіше буває означенням. У цій функції Past Participle ставиться звичайно перед означуваним іменником. Past Participle із залежними від нього словами (participle phrase) в англійській мові завжди ставиться після означуваного іменника. Проте Past Participle у сполученні з прислівником способу дії звичайно ставиться перед означуваним іменником:

Не is a well - known writer.

Він відомий письменник.

The children danced round the beautifully decorated fir-tree.

Діти танцювали навколо

чудово прикрашеної ялинки.

Past Participle також уживається в ролі обставин (часу, причини, мети, способу дії і порівняння) із сполучниками when, if, as if, as though, though:

Frightened by the dog, the child began to cry.

Злякавшись собаки, дитина почала плакати.

When praised, he was ill at ease.

Коли його хвалили, він почував себе ніяково.

Past Participle вживається в реченні у функції предикатива:

When I came into the room, the window was broken.

Коли я зайшов до кімнати,

вікно було розбите.

ПЕРФЕКТНИЙ ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК

(THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE)

УТВОРЕННЯ

Perfect Participle має дві форми активного та пасивного стану. Форма активного стану утворюється за допомогою Present Participle допоміжного дієслова to have і Past Participle основного дієслова: having asked.

Форма пасивного стану Perfect Participle утворюється за допомогою having been і Past Participle основного дієслова: having been asked.

ЗНАЧЕННЯ ТА ВЖИВАННЯ

Perfect Participle виражає дію, яка передує дії, вираженій дієсловом-присудком. Perfect Participle відповідає українському прислівнику доконаного виду:

Having said this, they stopped speaking.

Сказавши це, вони припинили розмову.

Perfect Participle Active вживається тоді, коли іменник чи займенник, до якого він відноситься, означає суб'єкт вираженої ним дії:

Having taken the book І left

the room.             

Взявши книгу, я вийшов з кімнати.

Perfect Participle Passive вживається тоді, коли іменник чи займенник, до якого він відноситься, означає об'єкт вираженої ним дії:

Having been invited to а party, she could not stay at home.   

Оскільки її запросили на вечірку, вона не змогла залишитися вдома.

САМОСТІЙНИЙ ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИКОВИЙ ЗВОРОТ

(the absolute participial construction)

Якщо до складу дієприкметникового звороту в англійському реченні входить іменник або займенник у називному відмінку (і стоїть він перед дієприкметником), то такий зворот називається самостійним дієприкметниковим зворотом. При цьому іменник (займенник) відіграє роль підмета, а дієприкметник – присудка. Самостійний дієприкметниковий зворот відокремлюється від іншої частини речення комою.

Залежно від контексту самостійний дієприкметниковий зворот перекладається українською мовою:

а) обставинним підрядним реченням із сполучниками бо; тому що; після того як; оскільки; коли; якби та ін.:

The weather being fine, 

they went for a walk.

Оскільки погода була хороша, вони пішли гуляти.

б) самостійним реченням із сполучниками а, і, причому, при цьому:

30 per cent of solar energy reaches the land surface

each year, the share

being higher in the

South and less

in the North.

30 відсотків сонячної енергії досягає поверхні Землі, причому кількість енергії

буває більшою на півдні і меншою на півночі.

Дієприкметник буває простим, перфектним або пасивним. Від цього залежить переклад звороту українською мовою:

My brother having lost the key, we couldn't enter the

room.

Оскільки мій брат загубив 

ключ, ми не могли ввійти

до кімнати.

The key having been lost, 

we couldn't enter the room.

Оскільки ключ був

загублений, ми не могли

ввійти до кімнати.

Якщо самостійний дієприкметниковий зворот містить дієприкметник від дієслова to be, цей дієприкметник може випускатися:

The professor being ill, the lecture was put off. 

The professor ill, the

lecture was put off.

Оскільки професор був хворий, лекцію було відкладено.

Примітка. З самостійним дієприкметниковим зворотом також можуть вживатися there, one, it як підмет:

It being Sunday, the shop was closed.

Оскільки була неділя,

магазин був закритий.

§ 9. ІНФІНІТИВ

(THE INFINITIVE)

ЗАГАЛЬНІ ВІДОМОСТІ

Інфінітив – це неособова форма дієслова, яка тільки називає дію і відповідає на питання що робити? що зробити?:

to writeписати, to answerвідповідати.

В англійській мові інфінітив має одну просту і п'ять складних форм. Інфінітив перехідних дієслів має форми часу й стану, а неперехідні тільки часу.

Форми інфінітива

Active

Passive

Indefinite

to write

to come

to be written

Continuous

to be writing

to be coming

Perfect

to have written

to have come

to have been written

Perfect Continuous

to have been writing

to have been coming

Ознакою інфінітива в англійській мові є частка to, але в багатьох випадках інфінітив вживається без неї. Частка not перед інфінітивом указує на заперечну форму.

ВЖИВАННЯ ФОРМ ІНФІНІТИВА

Інфінітив у формі Indefinite вживається:

а) якщо дія, яку він виражає, одночасна з дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком речення:

І am sorry to hear it.       

Мені прикро чути це.

Не was glad to see them.

Він був радий бачити їх.

It will be interesting

to know about it.

Буде цікаво дізнатися про це.

б) з дієсловами, що виражають намір, надію, бажання тощо, Indefinite Infinitive означає дію, майбутню по відношенню до дії, вираженої дієсловом-присудком:

І hope to see you on Tuesday.

Я сподіваюся побачитися з вами у вівторок.

Не wants to make a report.

Він хоче зробити доповідь.

Continuous Indefinite виражає тривалу дію, що відбувається одночасно з дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком:

Не seemed to be listening.   

Здавалося, що він слухає.

Perfect Indefinite виражає дію, що передує дії, вираженій дієсловом-присудком:

І was pleased to have done something.                 

Я була задоволена, що я дещо зробила.

Perfect Continuous Infinitive виражає тривалу дію, що відбувається протягом певного часу перед дією, вираженою дієсловом-присудком:

І am happy to have been working at the university

for 20 years.

Я щасливий, що 20 років працюю в цьому університеті.

Інфінітив вживається в активному стані, якщо іменник чи займенник, до якого він відноситься, означає суб'єкт дії, вираженої інфінітивом:

І don't want to do it.      

Я не хочу цього робити.

Інфінітив вживається в пасивному стані, якщо іменник чи займенник, до якого він відноситься, означає об'єкт дії, вираженої інфінітивом:

She didn't want to be found.

Вона не хотіла, щоб її знайшли.

ФУНКЦІЇ В РЕЧЕННІ

Інфінітив чи інфінітивна група може вживатися в реченні в ролі:

а) підмета:

То follow him is dangerous.

Супроводжувати його небезпечно.

б) предикатива (іменної частини складеного присудка) :

The point is to achieve the aim.  Головне досягти мети.

в) частини дієслівного складеного присудка:

We must stay at home.      Ми маємо залишитися вдома.

г) додатка:

Не asked me to wait.       Він попросив мене почекати.

д) означення:

The work to be done was difficult.  Робота, яку треба було зробити,  була важкою.

є) обставини мети:

І have come here to meet her.  Я прийшов сюди, щоб зустрітися з нею.

ОБ'ЄКТНИЙ ІНФІНІТИВНИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

(THE OBJECTIVE INFINITIVE COMPLEX)

У реченні І like Mary to sing this song (Мені подобається, як Марія співає цю пісню) інфінітив to sing виражає дію, яку виконує особа, позначена іменником, що стоїть перед інфінітивом – Магу, тобто інфінітив відноситься до іменника, як присудок до підмета: Отже, Магу to sing являє собою єдине ціле, або синтаксичний комплекс. У реченні цей комплекс виконує роль складного додатка, оскільки на запитання What do you like? відповідь має бути не Mary, a Mary to sing – як Марія співає.

Саме тому, що цей комплекс має в своєму складі інфінітив і вживається у функції додатка (object), він називається складним додатком (complex object) або об'єктним інфінітивним комплексом (objective infinitive complex).

Першою частиною цього комплексу може бути не тільки іменник, а й особовий займенник в об'єктному відмінку:

І like her to sing.              Мені подобається, як вона співає.

Складний додаток вживається після дієслів, що виражають:

а) сприймання за допомогою органів чуттів: to see – бачити; to hear – чути; to feel – почувати; to watch, to observe – спостерігати; to notice – помічати. Після цих дієслів інфінітив у складному додатку вживається без частки to:

Не saw Helen cry.        Він бачив, що Олена плаче.

б) бажання, намір, почуття: to want – хотіти; to wish, to desire – бажати; to like – любити, подобатися; to dislike – не любити, не подобатися; to hate –ненавидіти; to intend – мати намір тощо:

She wanted them to read

this book.               

Вона хотіла, щоб вони прочитали  цю книжку.

в) думку (погляд), припущення, сподівання: to consider, to believe — вважати; to think – думати; to find – знаходити; to know – знати; to expect – сподіватися; to suppose – припускати та ін. Після дієслів цієї групи, крім to expect, найчастіше вживається інфінітив дієслова to be:

We consider him to be the

best student of our institute.

Ми вважаємо його найкращим студентом нашого інституту.

г) наказ, прохання, дозвіл, пораду, примус: to order – наказувати; to ask, to request – просити; to allow, to permit – дозволяти; to advise – радити; to cause, to force, to make – примушувати; to let – веліти, дозволяти. Після дієслів to make i to let інфінітив вживається без частки to:

We made him work.        

Ми примусили його працювати.

Не allowed us to come in.

Він дозволив нам увійти.

СУБ'ЄКТНИЙ ІНФІНІТИВНИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

(THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE COMPLEX)

Якщо речення We saw him run to the train (Ми бачили, як він біг до поїзда); до складу якого входить об'єктний інфінітивний комплекс, перетворити на пасивне Не was seen to run to the train (Бачили, як він біг до поїзда), то інфінітив to run виражатиме дію, яку виконує особа, позначена займенником he. Отже, he і to run утворюють синтаксичний комплекс. Цей комплекс має функцію складного підмета, тому що присудок речення was seen відноситься не лише до займенника he, а до всього комплексу he ... to run (як він біг).

Суб'єктний інфінітивний комплекс складається з двох частин: перша – іменник у загальному відмінку, друга — інфінітив, що виражає дію, яку виконує чи якої зазнає особа чи предмет, позначений іменником чи займенником. Наприклад:

The boy was seen to run there.  Бачили, як хлопчик біг туди.

Особливістю суб'єктного інфінітивного комплексу є те, що обидві його частини відокремлені одна від одної присудком речення (в наведеному прикладі was seen).

Суб'єктний інфінітивний комплекс вживається з дієсловами: to say –говорити, казати; to report – повідомляти, доповідати; to think – думати; to know – знати; to consider, to believe – вважати; to suppose – припускати; to expect – сподіватись; to see – бачити; to hear – чути; to feel – відчувати; to notice – помічати; to observe, to watch – спостерігати, примічати; to order – наказувати; to ask – запитувати, просити; to request – просити; to allow, to permit – дозволяти, to make, to cause – примушувати в пасивному стані:

Birds were heard to sing

in the garden.   

Було чути, як співають пташки в садку.

Суб'єктний інфінітивний комплекс вживається з дієсловами: to seem –казатися; to appear – з'являтися; to happen, to chance – траплятися; to turn out – звільнити; to prove – доводити:

He seemed to be thinking

about something.   

Здавалося, що він про щось думає.

ПРИЙМЕННИКОВИЙ ІНФІНІТИВНИЙ КОМПЛЕКС

(THE PREPOSITIONAL INFINITIVE COMPLEX)

Інфінітивний комплекс може мати прийменник for. Такий комплекс називається прийменниковим інфінітивним комплексом, який складається з іменника в загальному відмінку чи особового займенника в об'єктному відмінку та інфінітива. Перша частина комплексу (іменник чи займенник) позначає особу чи предмет, що є суб'єктом чи об'єктом дії, вираженої інфінітивом:

It's time for us to go.    Нам пора йти.

For me to see you is not easy. Бачити тебе нелегко.

§ 10. МОДАЛЬНІ ДІЄСЛОВА

(MODAL VERBS)

ЗАГАЛЬНІ ВІДОМОСТІ

В англійській мові є група дієслів (can, may, must, should, ought тощо), які називаються модальними. Ці дієслова не мають усіх основних форм, властивих іншим дієсловам, і тому вони називаються недостатніми (Defective Verbs).

Модальні дієслова вживаються не самостійно, а лише в сполученні з інфінітивом іншого дієслова:

І can help you.                Я можу допомогти вам.

Не must go there.            Він мусить йти туди.

Без інфінітива іншого дієслова модальні дієслова вживаються лише тоді, коли інфінітив зрозумілий з контексту:

Can you do it? Yes, I can.

Ви можете зробити це? Так.

І wanted to open the

window but I couldn't.

Я хотіла відчинити вікно, але не змогла.

Модальні дієслова не виражають дії чи стану, а лише можливість, необхідність, бажання, ймовірність, сумнів, дозвіл, заборону, здатність виконання дії, позначеної інфінітивом.

У модальному значенні вживаються також дієслова to be і to have.

Модальні дієслова мають ряд особливостей:

а) вони не мають форм інфінітива, дієприкметника і герундія, а тому не мають складних часових форм майбутнього, тривалого і перфектного часів;

б) після модальних дієслів інфінітив вживається без частки to. Виняток становлять дієслова to be і to have у модальному значенні та дієслово ought, після яких інфінітив вживається з часткою to, а також дієслова need, dare, після яких інфінітив може вживатися з часткою to і без неї:

We are to meet at half past six.   

Ми маємо зустрітися о пів на сьому.

As the manager was out they had to wait.

Оскільки управляючого не було на місці, вони мали почекати.

You ought to help your friends.

Вам слід допомогти своїм друзям.

І needn't tell you how important that is.

Мені не треба говорити вам як це важливо.

Не daren't do it.            

У нього не вистачить духу зробити це.

в) у третій особі однини теперішнього часу модальні дієслова не мають закінчення -(e)s:

Не may come tomorrow.          Можливо, він прийде завтра.

Питальна та заперечна форми теперішнього та минулого часів модальних дієслів утворюються без допоміжного дієслова to do.

У питальній формі модальні дієслова ставляться перед підметом:

May I come in?                Можна ввійти?

У заперечній формі після модальних дієслів вживається заперечна частка not:

You should not do it.                Вам не слід цього робити.

Модальне дієслово can у Present Indefinite пишеться разом з часткою not:

Не cannot dance.                  Він не вміє танцювати.

У розмовній мові в заперечних реченнях вживаються переважно скорочені форми модальних дієслів:

cannot — can't          

must not — mustn't

could not  couldn't     

should not  shouldn't

may not — mayn't       

ought not — oughtn't

might not — mightn't

МОДАЛЬНЕ ДІЄСЛОВО CAN

Дієслово can має дві форми: теперішнього часу can і минулого часу could:

І can swim.                

Я вмію плавати.

Не could read when he was five.

Він умів читати, коли йому було п'ять років.

Дієслово can виражає фізичну чи розумову здатність, уміння чи можливість виконати дію в теперішньому або минулому часі:

Не can lift this weight.      

Він може підняти цю вагу.

Can you see anything?       

Ви що-небудь бачите?

І couldn't solve the problem.                       

Я не зміг розв'язати задачу.

Після форми could у цих значеннях може вживатися перфектний інфінітив, який вказує на те, що дія, яка мала відбутися, не відбулася:

Не could have guessed it.    

Він міг здогадатися про це (але не здогадався).

Дієслово can не має майбутнього часу. В майбутньому часі замість can вживається сполучення to be able – бути спроможним. Інфінітив після нього вживається з часткою to. Вираз to be able іноді вживається також у теперішньому і минулому часах:

Не is able to help you.      

Він може допомогти вам.

She was not able to answer.

Вона не могла відповідати.

Дієслово may

Дієслово may має дві форми: теперішній час may і минулий час might.

Але в значенні минулого часу дійсного способу форма might вживається дуже рідко, головним чином у підрядних реченнях за правилом послідовності часів:

Не asked the doctor if he might use his telephone.

Він запитав лікаря, чи можна йому скористуватися його телефоном.

Дієслово may найчастіше виражає припущення з відтінком сумніву, невпевненості. У цьому значенні may вживається у стверджувальних і заперечних реченнях з усіма формами інфінітива.

Indefinite Infinitive з дієсловом may звичайно виражає дію, що відноситься до майбутнього часу:

She may come back.        Може, вона повернеться.

Сполучення may з Continuous Infinitive виражає припущення, що дія відбувається в момент мовлення:

Не may be waiting for you.      Можливо, він чекає на вас.

Якщо дієслово не вживається в формі Continuous, то дія, що відноситься до теперішнього часу, позначається формою Indefinite Infinitive:

She may know about it.        Можливо, вона знає про це.

They may be at school now.       Можливо, вони зараз у школі.

Perfect Infinitive вказує на те, що припущення відноситься до минулого часу:

І may have put it on the table.        Може, я поклав його на стіл.

Дієслово may, як і саn, вживається для вираження можливості, що залежить від певних обставин. У цьому значенні may вживається лише у стверджувальних реченнях з неозначеним інфінітивом:

You may go there by train.      Ви можете поїхати туди поїздом.

Форма might у цьому значенні вживається як Subjunctive II.

You might find him in between eleven and twelve.

Ви могли б застати його між одинадцятою і дванадцятою годиною.

Перфектний інфінітив після might вказує на те, що дія, яка могла б відбутися, не відбулася:

І might have stayed at home.      Я міг би залишитися удома.

Дієслово may з неозначеним інфінітивом вживається для вираження дозволу:

You may go with who(m)

you will.

Можеш іти з ким хочеш.

May I use your phone?

Можна скористуватися вашим телефоном?

Форма might вживається в питальних реченнях для вираження ввічливого прохання:

Might I have a word with you?       Дозвольте звернутися до вас.

Заперечна форма may not означає заборону, але вона рідко вживається. У таких випадках звичайно вживається заперечна форма дієслова must (іноді саn):

May we use dictionaries?

Можна користуватися словниками?

No, you must not.

Hi, не можна.

Дозвіл або заборону можна виразити також за допомогою виразів to be allowed і to be permitted, які вживаються замість may стосовно дії у минулому або майбутньому часі:

We were allowed to use dictionaries.

Нам дозволили користуватися словниками.

Well be allowed to use dictionaries.

Нам дозволять користуватися словниками.

Для вираження докору, несхвалення, осуду звичайно вживається лише форма might:

You might be more attentive. Ти міг би бути уважнішим(зараз).

Perfect Infinitive після форми might виражає докір  відносно того, що дія не відбулася в минулому.

You might have written me a little something, anyhow.

У всякому разі ти могла б написати мені хоч кілька слів

(але не написала).

Дієслово must

Дієслово must має лише одну форму. Дія виражена інфінітивом у сполученні з must, може відноситись до теперішнього і майбутнього часу:

Не must be at school now.

Зараз він мусить бути в школі.

She must come tomorrow.

Вона має прийти завтра.

Must може відноситись до минулого часу в додаткових підрядних реченнях, якщо дієслово-присудок головного речення стоїть у минулому часі:

Не said that she must consult a doctor.

Він сказав, що вона повинна порадитись з лікарем.

Дієслово must виражає обов'язок, необхідність. У цьому значенні must вживається у стверджувальних і питальних реченнях лише з неозначеним інфінітивом:

То catch the train I must get up at six.

Щоб потрапити на поїзд, я мушу встати о 6 годині.

Must we come to school tomorrow?

Нам треба приходити в школу завтра?

Для вираження необхідності стосовно минулого і майбутнього часу вживається дієслово to have у відповідних часових формах:

He had to wait a quarter of an hour.

Він мусив чекати чверть години.

Ill have to pay him

something.

Мені доведеться щось заплатити йому.

У заперечних реченнях must виражає заборону. У цьому значенні must вживається лише з неозначеним інфінітивом:

You must not talk aloud in the reading-hall.

У читальному залі не дозволяється голосно розмовляти.

Коли йдеться про те, що нема потреби, необхідності виконати дію, вживають заперечну форму дієслова need – need not (needn’t) або заперечну форму модального дієслова to have:

Must we come to school tomorrow? No, you needn't.

Треба нам приходити в школу завтра? Hi, не треба.

You don't have to learn the poem by heart.

He обов'язково вчити цей вірш напам'ять.

Дієслово must вживається для вираження наказу і поради. У цих значеннях воно вживається у стверджувальних і заперечних реченнях з неозначеним інфінітивом:

Tomorrow you must come

to school at eight.

Завтра ви повинні прийти до школи о восьмій годині.

You must not read this book.

He треба читати цієї книжки.

It is not interesting.

Вона нецікава.

Дієслово must вживається для вираження припущення, що межує з упевненістю. У цьому значенні must вживається лише в стверджувальних реченнях, але з усіма формами інфінітива.

Сполучення must з Continuous Infinitive виражає припущення, що дія відбувається в момент мовлення або протягом теперішнього періоду часу:

They must be surrounding the house.

Вони, напевно, оточують будинок.

Якщо дієслово не вживається у формах Continuous, то припущення стосовно теперішнього часу виражається сполученням must і з неозначеним інфінітивом:

Не must be eighty years old.       Йому, напевно, вісімдесят років.

Сполучення must з Perfect Infinitive виражає припущення, що дія відбулася в минулому:

She must have caught cold.

Вона, напевно, застудилася.

Дієслово must не вживається для вираження припущення стосовно майбутнього часу. Припущення щодо майбутніх дій можна висловити за допомогою слів evidently, probably або виразів to be sure, to be likely, to be unlikely та ін.:

He is not likely to return soon.

Він навряд чи скоро повернеться.

Evidently she'll be late.

Напевно,  вона  запізниться.

МОДАЛЬНІ ДІЄСЛОВА SHOULD, OUGHT

Дієслова should, ought майже не різняться за значенням. Вони виражають моральний обов'язок, пораду, рекомендацію. Should вживається з інфінітивом без частки to. Після ought інфінітив вживається з часткою to:

You should visit her.

Вам слід відвідати її.

Не ought to go in for sport.

Йому слід займатися спортом.

§ 11. ПОРЯДОК СЛІВ В АНГЛІЙСЬКОМУ РЕЧЕННІ

РОЗПОВІДНІ РЕЧЕННЯ 

(word order. AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES)

Для англійського речення характерний прямий порядок слів, тобто на першому місці стоїть підмет, на другому – присудок, на третьому – додаток, на четвертому – обставина.

Таблиця 36. Порядок слів у розповідному реченні

Підмет

Присудок

Додаток

Обставина

The teacher

Учитель

The student

Студент

asked

задавав

asked 

задавав

the student questions

студенту питання

the teacher questions

учителю питання

at the lesson.

під час уроку.

at the lesson.

під час уроку.

§ 12. ПИТАЛЬНІ РЕЧЕННЯ

(INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES)

Загальне питання — це питання до змісту всього речення, яке потребує відповіді «так» чи «ні». У загальному питанні вживається зворотний порядок слів.

Мета загальних питань – отримати від співрозмовника підтвердження або заперечення висловленої думки. Вимовляється загальне питання з піднесенням тону в кінці речення:

- Do you like this part of the country?   

- Вам подобається цей куток країни?

- Yes, I do.   

- Так.

Запитання до окремих членів речення називаються спеціальними. Вони починаються питальними словами who хто; what що, який; where де, куди; how many скільки та ін.

Серед спеціальних запитань розрізняють:

а) запитання до різних членів речення, крім підмета і його означення;

б) запитання до підмета і його означення.

У запитаннях до різних членів речення після питального слова порядок слів такий самий, як у загальних запитаннях: допоміжне або модальне дієслово, підмет, основне дієслово, потім усі інші члени речення:

Where do you live?

Де ви живете?

How did you meet her?

Як ви зустріли її?

What did you do this

afternoon?

Що ви робили сьогодні після полудня?

How long have you known him?

Як довго ви знаєте його?

У спеціальних запитаннях, що відносяться до підмета або його означення, порядок слів, як у розповідному реченні – інверсії немає, допоміжне дієслово to do в Present Indefinite і в Past Indefinite не вживається. Якщо питальне слово є підметом , то після нього, як і в розповідному реченні, стоїть присудок:

Who goes to the cinema?   Хто йде у кіно?

Якщо питальне слово – означення до підмета, після нього безпосередньо ставиться підмет, а потім присудок:

Whose children are playing in the yard?

Чиї діти граються у дворі?

Альтернативні запитання  це запитання вибору. Вони складаються з двох частин, з'єднаних сполучником or. Альтернативні запитання можуть мати структури як загальних, так і спеціальних запитань. Якщо альтернативне запитання не відноситься до підмета, воно вимагає повної відповіді:

Is he a doctor or an engineer?

Він лікар чи інженер?

Where does he live: in Kiev or in Poltava?

Де він живе: в Києві чи в Полтаві?

Якщо альтернативне запитання відноситься до підмета, то допоміжне або модальне дієслово вживається також і перед другим підметом. Таке запитання вимагає короткої відповіді:

Do you work there or does your brother? – My brother does.

Ви там працюєте чи ваш брат? Мій брат.

Розділове запитання складається з двох частин. Перша частина – розповідне речення в стверджувальній або заперечній формі, друга – коротке загальне запитання, що складається з підмета, вираженого особовим займенником, який відповідає підмету першої частини, та допоміжного або модального дієслова. Якщо присудком першої частини є дієслово в Present Indefinite або в Past Indefinite (крім дієслів to be і to have), в другій частині вживаються відповідні форми допоміжного дієслова to do.

Якщо перша частина розділового запитання має стверджувальну форму, то в другій частині вживається заперечна форма, а після заперечної першої частини друга частина має стверджувальну форму. Перша частина розділового запитання має стверджувальну форму, якщо той, хто запитує, сподівається на стверджувальну відповідь, і заперечну, якщо передбачається заперечна відповідь:

You've brought your luggage with you, haven't you?

Ви привезли з собою свій багаж, чи не так?

You haven't seen him yet, have you?

Ви ще не бачили його, чи не так?

But she loves you, doesn't she?

Але вона любить вас, правда?

І didn't say that, did І?

Я не казав цього, чи не так?

You want some money, don't you?

Вам потрібні гроші, правда?

§ 13. УЗГОДЖЕННЯ ЧАСІВ У ДОДАТКОВОМУ

підрядному РЕЧЕННІ

(sequences of tenses)

1. Правило узгодження часів характерне лише для додаткових підрядних речень. Воно полягає в тому що: якщо присудок головного речення стоїть у минулому часі, то присудок додаткового підрядного речення вживається в одному з минулих часів. В українській мові подібної залежності немає.

2.

а) Для позначення дії, що відбувається одночасно в головному і підрядному реченнях, дієслово-присудок додаткового підрядного речення стоїть у Past Indefinite (або Past Continuous) і перекладається теперішнім часом:

І didn't know he could speak French.

Я не знав, що він може розмовляти французькою мовою.

б) Для позначення дії, що передує дії, яка виражена присудком головного речення, як правило, вживається Past Perfect (в українській мові – минулий час):

Не said (that) she had gone away.   Він сказав, що вона пішла.

в) Для вираження майбутньої дії з точки зору минулого часу вживаються форми Future in the Past (в українській – майбутній час):

І knew you would be late.    Я знав, що ти запізнишся.

§ 14. БЕЗСПОЛУЧНИКОВІ підрядні РЕЧЕННЯ

(asyndetic affirmative sentences)

В англійській мові підрядні додаткові і означальні речення часто поєднуються з головним без сполучника, оскільки сполучники that, which, what, who, whom можуть випускатися.

Додаткові підрядні речення перекладаються з сполучником що або без нього:

І know he has returned.    Я знаю, (що) він повернувся.

При перекладі означальних підрядних речень треба ввести сполучник який:

A letter written in pencil is difficult to read.  Лист, який написано олівцем, важко читати.

§ 15. УМОВНІ РЕЧЕННЯ

(CONDITIONAL SENTENCES)

В англійській мові існує три типи умовних речень.

1. Умовні речення першого типу виражають реальну, здійснену умову. Такі умовні речення виражають дію, умова здійснення якої у майбутньому:

У цьому типі умовних речень дієслово в підрядному реченні стоїть у Present Indefinite, а в головному – у Future Indefinite; українською мовою обидва дієслова перекладаються майбутнім часом:

If the weather is fine tomorrow,

we will go to the country.

Якщо завтра буде хороша погода, ми поїдемо за місто.

2. Умовні речення другого типу виражають малоймовірну умову. Дія, виражена в цих реченнях, і умова її реалізації перебувають у сфері теперішнього чи минулого.

В умовних реченнях другого типу в підрядному реченні вживається Past Indefinite, а в головному реченні вживається форма умовного способу – would з усіма особами з Indefinite Infinitive відмінюваного дієслова (без частки to).

Дієслово to be у цьому випадку вживається у формі were з усіма особами однини і множини.

Українською мовою ці речення перекладаються дієсловом умовного способу, тобто дієсловом у формі минулого часу з часткою би:

If he were here, he would help us.

Якби він був тут, він допоміг би нам.

3. Умовні речення третього типу виражають дію, умови реалізації якої лежать виключно в минулому і тому вона є нездійсненою.

В умовних реченнях третього типу у підрядному реченні дієслово стоїть у Past Perfect, а в головному реченні стоять допоміжні дієслова should, would з Perfect Infinitive (без частки to).

Українською мовою ці речення перекладаються дієсловом минулого часу з часткою би:

If I had seen him yesterday,

I should have asked him about it.

Якби я бачив його вчора, я запитав би його про це.

Примітка. В умовних реченнях другого і третього типу сполучник if у підрядному реченні можна випускати. Тоді дієслова had, were, could, might, should ставляться перед підметом

Were he here, he would help us.

Якби він був тут, він допоміг би нам.

ТАБЛИЦЯ НЕПРАВИЛЬНИХ ДІЄСЛІВ

Infinitive

Past Indefinite (Simple)

Past Participle

1

2

3

4

be

bear

beat

become

begin

bring

build

buy

catch

choose

come

cost

cut

do

draw

eat

fall

бути

нести; народжувати

бити

ставати

починати

приносити

будувати

купувати

ловити

вибирати, обирати

приходити

коштувати

різати

робити

малювати

їсти

падати

was, were

bore

beat

became

began

brought

built

bought

caught

chose

came

cost

cut

did

drew

ate

fell

been

born(e)

beaten

become

begun

brought

built

bought

caught

chosen

come

cost

cut

done

drawn

eaten

fallen

1

2

3

4

feed

feel

fight

find

get

give

go

grow

have

hear

hold

keep

know

lead

learn

leave

lie

lose

make

mean

meet

pay

put

read

ring

rise

run

say

see

годувати

відчувати

битися

знаходити

отримувати

давати

ходити

рости

мати

чути

тримати

тримати

знати

вести

учитися

залишати

лежати

втрачати

робити

означати, мати на увазі

зустрічати

платити

класти

читати

дзвонити

вставати, підніматися

бігати

казати

бачити

fed

felt

fought

found

got

gave

went

grew

had

heard

held

kept

knew

led

learned, learnt

left

lay

lost

made

meant

met

paid

put

read

rang

rose

ran

said

saw

fed

felt

fought

found

got

given

gone

grown

had

heard

held

kept

known

led

learned, learnt

left

laid

lost

made

meant

met

paid

put

read

rung

risen

run

said

seen

1

2

3

4

sell

send

show

sit

sleep

smell

speak

spend

spread

stand

take

teach

tell

think

understand

undergo

write

продавати

посилати

показувати

сидіти

спати

пахнути

говорити

витрачати

поширювати

стояти

брати

навчати

розповідати

думати

розуміти

зазнавати

писати

sold

sent

showed

sat

slept

smelled, smelt

spoke

spent

spread

stood

took

taught

told

thought

understood

underwent

wrote

sold

sent

shown, showed

sat

slept

smelled, smelt

spoken

spent

spread

stood

taken

taught

told

thought

understood

undergone

written


ГРАМАТИЧНІ ВПРАВИ

Grammar exercises

I. Вживання часів Active Voice

Вправа 1. Вставити дієслово to be в Present Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I ... a pupil. 2. My father ... not a teacher, he ... a scientist. 3. ... your aunt a doctor? – Yes, she ... . 4. ... they at home? – No, they ... not at home, they ... at work. 5. My brother ... a worker. He ... at work. 6. ... you an engineer? – Yes, I ... . 7. ... your sister a typist? – No, she ... not a typist, she ... a student. 8. ... your brother at school? – Yes, he ... . 9. ... your sister at school? – No, she ... not at school. 10. My sister ... at home. 11. ... this your watch? – Yes, it ... . 12. She ... an actress. 13. This ... my bag. 14. My uncle ... an office-worker. 15. He ... at work. 16. Helen ... a painter. She has some fine pictures. They ... on the walls. She has much paper. It ... on the shelf. The shelf ... brown. It ... on the wall. Helen has a brother. He ... a student. He has a family. His family ... not in Moscow,  it ... in Kyiv.

Вправа 2. Вставити дієслово "to be" в Present, Past чи Future Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. My father ... a teacher. 2. He ... a pupil twenty years ago. 3. I ... a doctor when I grow up. 4. My sister ... not ... at home tomorrow. 5. She ... at school tomorrow. 6. ... you ... at home tomorrow? 7. ... your father at work yesterday? 8. My sister ... ill last week. 9. She ... not ill now. 10. Yesterday we ... at the theatre. 11. Where ... your mother now? – She ... in the kitchen. 12. Where ... you yesterday? – I ... at the cinema. 13. When I come home tomorrow, all my family ... at home. 14. ... your little sister in bed now? – Yes she ... 15. ... you ... at school tomorrow? – Yes I ... 16. When my granny ... young, she ... an actress. 17. My friend ... in Moscow now. 18. He ... in St. Petersburg tomorrow. 19. Where ... your books now? – They ... in my bag.

Вправа 3. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

(USUALLY) 1. My sister (to get) up at eight o'clock. 2. She (to be) a school-girl. She (to go) to school in the afternoon. 3. Jane (to be) fond оf sports. She (to do) her morning exercises every day. 4. For breakfast she (to have) two eggs, a sandwich and a cup of tea. 5. After breakfast she (to go) to school. 6. It (to take) him two hours to do his homework. 7. She (to speak) French well. 8. My working day (to begin) at seven o'clock. I (to get) up, (to switch) on the radio and (to do) my morning exercises. It (to take) me fifteen minutes. At half past seven we (to have) breakfast. My father and I (to leave) home at eight o'clock. He (to take) a bus to his factory. My mother (to be) a doctor, she (to leave) home at nine o'clock. In the evening we (to gather) in the living-room. We (to watch) TV and (to talk).

Вправа 4. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслово в Present Continuous. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

(NOW) 1. The boys (to run) about in the garden. 2. I (to do) my homework. 3. John and his friends (to go) to the library. 4. Ann (to sit) at her desk. She (to study) geography. 5. A young man (to stand) at the window. He (to smoke) a cigarette. 6. The old man (to walk) about the room. 7. The dog (to lie) on the floor. 8. You (to have) a break? 9. What language you (to study)? 10. Who (to lie) on the sofa? 11. What they (to talk) about? 12. It still (to rain).

Вправа 5. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Continuous чи в Present Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I (not to drink) coffee now. I (to write) an English exercise. 2. I (not to drink) coffee in the evening. I (to drink) coffee in the morning. 3. Your friend (to do) his homework now? 4. Your friend (to go) to school in the morning? 5. Look! The baby (to sleep). 6. The baby always (to sleep) after dinner. 7. My grandmother (not to work). She is on pension. 8. My father (not to sleep) now. He (work) in the garden. 9. I usually (to get) up at ten o'clock in the morning. 10. What your sister (to do) now? – She (to wash) her face and hands. 11. When you usually (to come) home after school? – I (to come) at three o'clock. 12. Your cousin (to work)? – He (to work) at a hospital. 13. Your sister (to study) at an institute? – No, she (to study) at school. 14. My cousin (to go) to school every day. 15. My mother (not to play) the piano now. She (to play) the piano in the morning.

Вправа 6. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Continuous чи в Present Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I (to read) books in the evening. 2. I (not to read) books in the morning. 3. I (to write) an exercise now. 4. I (not to write) a letter now. 5. They (to play) in the yard now. 6. They (not to play) in the street now. 7. They (to play) in the room now? 8. He (to help) his mother every day. 9. He (to help) his mother every day? 10. He (not to help) his mother every day. 11. You (to go) to school on Sunday? 12. My friend (not to like) to play football. 13. I (not to read) now. 14. He (to sleep) now? 15. We (not to go) to the country in winter. 16. My sister (to eat) sweets every day. 17. She (not to eat) sweets now. 18. They (to do) their homework in the afternoon. 19. They (not to go) for a walk in the evening. 20. My father (not to work) on Sunday. 21. He (to work) every day.

Вправа 7. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Continuous чи в Present Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I (to write) a composition now. 2. I (not to drink) milk now. 3. I (to go) for a walk after dinner. 4. I (not to go) to the theatre every Sunday. 5. He (not to read) now. 6. He (to play) now. 7 He (to play) now? 8. My mother (to work) at a factory. 9. My aunt (not to work) at a shop. 10. You (to work) at an office? 11. My friend (to live) in St. Petersburg. 12. My cousin (not to live) in Moscow. 13. The children (not to sleep) now. 14. The children (to play) in the yard every day. 15. They (not to go) to the stadium on Monday. 16. She (to read) in the evening. 17. She (not to read) in the morning. 18. She (not to read) now. 19. Your father (to work) at this factory? 20. You (to play) chess now? 21. Look at the sky: the clouds (to move) slowly, the sun (to appear) from behind the clouds, it (to get) warmer. 22. How is your brother? – He is not well yet, but his health (to improve) day after day. 23. Listen! Who (to play) the piano in the next room?

Вправа 8. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Continuous, Present Simple чи в Future Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. He (to go) to the theatre tomorrow. 2. We (to go) to school in the morning.  3. Look! Kate (to go) to school. 4. You (to help) your mother tomorrow? 5. I (not to play) the guitar now. 6. My brother (to play) the guitar every evening. 7. They (not to take) care of the garden next summer. 8. You (to like) apples? 9. You (to eat) apples tomorrow? 10. Nick (to read) many books. 11. Mother (to work) every day. 12. He (not to sleep) now. 13. Your brother (to go) to the exhibition next Sunday? 14. We (not to go) to the zoo tomorrow. 15. I (not to learn) the poem now. 16. She (to live) in San Francisco. 17. My father (to shoot) very well. 18. He is very strong. Look! He (to carry) a very heavy box. 19. My sister (not to like) coffee. 20 When you (to go) to bed every day? 21. What he (to read) now? 22. What he (to read) every day? 23. What he (read) tomorrow? 24. Where she (to go) tomorrow? 25. You (to give) me this book tomorrow?

Вправа 9. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в необхідному часі. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. If you (to translate) this article into Ukrainian, I shall use it in my report. 2. If she (to be) in Kiev now, she will meet you at the railway station. 3. If you (not to hurry), you will miss the train. 4. If it (to rain), we shan't go to the country. 5. When my friend (to come) to Kiev, we shall go to the Russian Museum. 6. What will you be doing when he (to come) to your place? 7. Don't forget to pay for your dinner before you (to leave) the canteen. 8. I shall be able to translate this article if you (to give) me a dictionary. 9. You will have to work hard at home if you (to miss) the lesson. 10. Where will you go when you (to come) to London? 11. The child won't be healthy if you (not to give) him much fruit. 12. I shan't have dinner before mother (to come) home.

Вправа 10. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Simple чи Future Simple. (Усі речення відносяться до майбутнього). Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Don't go away until mother (to come) back. Give her the note as soon as she (to come). 2. You (to go) to the library with us? – No, I .... I (to stay) here and (to help) Jane with her grammar. I (to come) to the library after I (to finish). 3. Ring me up before you (to come). 4. I (to speak) to Mary if I (to see) her today. 5. I (not to speak) to him until he (to apologize). 6. Peter (to introduce) us to his friend as soon as we (to meet) them. 7. We (to go) to the station to meet Sergei when he (to come).

Вправа 11. Перепишіть наступний текст у минулому часі (що розповіла мама). Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

On Tuesday I get up at half past six. I go to the bathroom and wash my hands and face and clean my teeth. Then I dress, go to the kitchen and cook breakfast for my family. At half past seven my son gets up and has breakfast. I have breakfast with my son. My son eats a sandwich and drinks a cup of tea. I don't drink tea. I drink coffee. After breakfast my son leaves home for school. I don't leave home with my son. On Tuesday I don't work in the morning. I work in the afternoon. In the evening I am at home. My husband and my son are at home, too. We rest in the evening. My son watches TV, my husband reads newspapers and I do some work about the house. At about eleven o'clock we go to bed.

Впpава 12. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present чи Past Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. My friend (to know) Spanish very well. 2. Who (to ring) you up an hour ago? 3. He (to live) on the third floor. 4. It (to take) you long to find his house yesterday? 5. When your lessons (to be) over on Monday? 6. I (to have) dinner with my family yesterday. 7. Her friends (to be) ready at five o'clock. 8. One of her brothers (to make) a tour of Europe last summer. 9. Queen Elizabeth II (to be) born in 1926. She (to become) Queen of England in 1952. 10. You always (to get) up at seven о’clock? – No, sometimes I (to get) up at half past seven.

Вправа 13. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present, Past чи Future Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I (to go) to bed at ten o'clock every day. 2. I (to go) to bed at ten o'clock yesterday. 3. I (to go) to bed at ten o'clock tomorrow. 4. I (not to go) to the cinema every day. 5. I (not to go) to the cinema yesterday. 6. I (not to go) to the cinema tomorrow. 7.You (to watch) TV every day? 8. You (to watch) TV yesterday? 9. You (to watch) TV tomorrow? 10. When you (to leave) home for school every day? 11. When you (to leave) home for school yesterday? 12. When you (to leave) home for school tomorrow? 13. My brother (to go) to work every day. He (to leave) home at a quarter past eight. As the office he (to work) at (to be) near our house, he (to walk) there. He (not to take) a bus. Yesterday he (not to go) to work. Yesterday he (to get) up at nine o'clock. 14. You (to have) a PT lesson yesterday? No, I... . 15. What you (to buy) at the shop yesterday? – I (to buy) a book. 16. Yesterday my father (not to read) newspapers because he (to be) very busy. He (to read) newspapers tomorrow.

Вправа 14. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в одному з наступних часів: Present Continuous, Present Simple, Past Simple чи Future Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. He (to spend) last summer in the country. 2. He (not to spend) last summer in the country. 3. He (to spend) last summer in the country? 4. Where he (to spend) last summer? 5. She (to help) mother yesterday. 6. She (not to help) mother yesterday. 7. She (to help) mother yesterday? 8. How she (to help) mother yesterday? 9. Kate (to cook) dinner every day. 10. Kate (to cook) dinner tomorrow. 11. Kate (to cook) dinner now. 12. Kate (to cook) dinner yesterday. 13. I (not to eat) ice-cream every day. 14. I (not to eat) ice-cream now. 15. I (not to eat) ice-cream tomorrow. 16. I (not to eat) ice-cream yesterday. 17. You (to go) to school every day? 18. You (to go) to school now? 19. You (to go) to the south next summer? 20. You (to go) abroad last summer? 21. What your brother (to do) every day? 22. What your brother (to do) now? 23. What your brother (to do) tomorrow? 24. What your brother (to do) yesterday?

Вправа 15. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Past Simple чи Past Continuous. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I (to play) computer games yesterday. 2. I (to play) computer games at five o'clock yesterday. 3. He (to play) computer games from two till three yesterday. 4. We (to play) computer games the whole evening yesterday. 5. What Nick (to do) when you came to his place? 6. What you (to do) when I rang you up? 7. I (not to sleep) at nine o'clock yesterday. 8. What he (to do) yesterday? – He (to read) a book. 9. What he (to do) the whole evening yesterday? – He (to read) a book. 10. She (to sleep) when you came home? 11. My brother (not to play) tennis yesterday. He (to play) tennis the day before yesterday. 12. My sister (not to play) the piano at four o'clock yesterday. She (to play) the piano the whole evening. 13. When I came into the kitchen, mother (to cook). 14. She (to cook) the whole day yesterday. 15. We (to wash) the floor in our flat yesterday. 16. We (to wash) the floor in our flat from three till four yesterday. 17. You (to do) your homework yesterday? 18. You (to do) your homework from eight till ten yesterday? 19. Why she (to sleep) at seven o'clock yesterday? 20. He (to sit) at the table the whole evening yesterday.

Вправа 16. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Past Simple чи Past Continuous. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. When I (to come) home, my little sister (to sleep). 2. When Nick (to come) home, his brother (to play) with his toys. 3. When mother (to come) home, I (to do) my homework. 4. When father (to come) home, Pete (to sleep). 5. When mother (to come) home, the children (to play) on the carpet. 6. When I (to get) up, my mother and father (to drink) tea. 7. When I (to come) to my friend's place, he (to watch) TV. 8. When I (to see) my friends, they (to play) football. 9. When I (to open) the door, the cat (to sit) on the table. 10. When Kate (to open) the door, the children (to dance) round the fir-tree. 11. When Tom (to cross) the street, he (to fall). 12. When I (to go) to school, I (to meet) my friend. 13. When we (to go) to the cinema, we (to meet) grandmother. 14. When grandmother (to go) home, she (to see) many children in the yard. 15. Henry (to walk) about in the forest, he (to see) a bear cub. 16. When we (to walk) about in the forest, we (to see) a hare. 17. When I (to wash) a floor, I (to find) my old toy under the sofa. 18. When granny (to read) a book on the sofa, she (to fall) asleep. 19. When I (to play) in the yard, I suddenly (to see) my old friend. 20. When Nick (to run) about in the yard, he (to fall).

Вправа 17. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в одному з наступних часів: Present Simple, Past Simple, Present Continuous, Past Continuous. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Nina (to celebrate) her birthday yesterday. Her room looked beautiful. There (to be) many flowers in it. When I (to come) in, somebody (to play) the piano, two or three pairs (to dance). 2. Listen, somebody (to play) the piano. 3. I (to like) music very much. 4. When I (to look) out of the window, it (to rain) heavily and people (to hurry) along the streets. 5. What you (to do) at seven o'clock yesterday? – I (to have) supper. 6. When I (to come) home yesterday, I (to see) that all my family (to sit) round the table. Father (to read) a letter from my uncle who (to live) in Kiev. 7. Where you (to be) yesterday? – I (to be) at home the whole day. – How strange. I (to ring) you up at two o'clock, but nobody (to answer). – Oh, I (to be) in the garden. I (to read) your book and (not to hear) the telephone. 8. What you (to do) at five o'clock yesterday? – I (to work) in the library. – I (to be) there, too, but I (not to see) you. 9. Yesterday I (to work) at my English from five till seven. 10. It (to rain) the whole day yesterday. 11. Where your sister (to be) now? – She (to be) in her room. She (to do) her homework.

Вправа 18. У наступних реченнях зміните час дієслова на Present Perfect. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I am eating my breakfast. 2. We are drinking water. 3. He is bringing them some meat and vegetables. 4. You are putting the dishes on the table. 5. They are having tea. 6. She is taking the dirty plates from the table. 7. The children are putting on their coats. 8. The pupils are writing a dictation. 9. My friend is helping me to solve a difficult problem. 10. I am learning a poem. 11. She is telling them an interesting story. 12. Kate is sweeping the floor. 13. The waiter is putting a bottle of wine in front of him. 14. Susan is making a new dress for her birthday party. 15. She is opening a box of chocolates.

Вправа 19. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова у формі, що вимагається, так щоб одержати Present Continuous чи Present Perfect. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. What are you (to talk) about? 2. We have just (to talk) about it. 3. He has just (to say) something about it. 4. She is (to tell) them some interesting story. 5. He has (to tell) us nothing about it. 6. She has (to tell) them some stories about dogs. 7. We have (to have) two lessons today. 8. They are (to have) a meeting. 9. She has not (to speak) yet. 10. They have (to ask) me several questions. 11. He has already (to learn) the rule. 12. I am (to write) an exercise. 13. What is he (to do)? – He is (to read) a newspaper. 14. Have you (to read) any stories by Jack London? 15. What are you (to do) here? – I am (to write) a letter to my friends. 16. Who has (to write) this article? 17. What language are you (to study)? 18 We have already (to learn) a lot of English words. 19. What is she (to teach) them? 20. Who has (to teach) you to do it? 21. He has just (to do) something for us. 22. Have you (to find) the book? 23. What are you (to look) for?

Вправа 20. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Perfect чи Past Simple. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. We (to travel) around Europe last year. 2. My father knows so much because he (to travel) a lot. 3. I (to see) Pete today. 4. She (to see) this film last Sunday. 5. Alex (to meet) his friend two hours ago. 6. I just (to meet) our teacher. 7. The children already (to decide) what to do with the books. 8. Yesterday they (to decide) to help their grandmother. 9. Helen speaks French so well because she (to live) in France. 10. She (to live) there last year. 11. The rain (to stop) and the sun is shining in the sky again. 12. The rain (to stop) half an hour ago. 13. Mary (to buy) a new hat. 14. I (to buy) a pair of gloves yesterday. 15. The wind (to blow) off the man's hat, and he cannot catch it. 16. The weather (to change), and we can go for a walk. 17. The wind (to change) in the morning.

Вправа 21. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present Perfect, Present Simple, Present Continuous, Past Simple чи Past Continuous. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. They (to go) to the Hermitage last week. 2. They (to be) to the Hermitage twice this week. 3. After school yesterday he (to come) home, (to have) dinner, (to read) an article from the latest magazine and (to begin) doing his homework. 4. When your friend (to return) from the south? – She (to return) yesterday. – You (to go) to the station to meet her? – No, I ... , I (to be) too busy. 5. With whom you (to discuss) this question yesterday? 6. I (to see) this film this week. I like it very much. 7. When I (to enter) the kitchen, I (to see) that my mother (to stand) at the table and (to cut) some cabbage. She (to cook) dinner. 8. As soon as I (to hear) a cry, I (to run) out of the room and (to see) that a child (to lie) on the ground and (to cry). "What (to happen)? Why you (to cry)? You (to hurt) yourself?" I asked. 9. As soon (to see) him, I (to understand) that he (to work) hard. He (to write) something and (not to notice). 10. When I (to come) home yesterday, they (to run) and (to sing) merrily. "We (to learn) a new song!" they cried. 11. When the young man (to enter) the room, she (to look) at him in surprise. "What you (to want) to tell me?" she (to say). "Why you (to come)?" 12. It (to rain) hard when I (to leave) home yesterday, so I (to return), (to put) on my raincoat and (to start) again. 13. Your brother (to return) from the north? – Yes, he (to come) a few days ago. 14. You (to be) to the Crimea? When you (to be) there? – I (to be) there in 1993. 15. Where (to be) your brother? – He just (to come) home. He (to take) a shower in the bathroom now.

Вправа 22. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Past Simple чи Past Perfect. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. When I (to come) home, mother already (to cook) dinner. 2. When father (to return) from work, we already (to do) our homework. 3. When the teacher (to enter) the classroom, the pupils already (to open) their books. 4. Kate (to give) me the book which she (to buy) the day before. 5. Nick (to show) the teacher the picture which he (to draw). 6. The boy (to give) the goats the grass which he (to bring) from the field. 7. Mother (to see) that Nick (not to wash) his hands. 8. The teacher (to understand) that Lena (not to do) her homework. 9. I (to know) that my friend (not yet to come). 10. Tom (to return) from the cinema at five o'clock. 11. Tom (to return) from the cinema by five o'clock. 12. I (to finish) my homework at seven o'clock. 13. I (to finish) my homework by seven o'clock. 14. He (to think) that he (to lose) the money. 15. Ann (to tell) me that she (to see) an interesting film. 16. When I (to wake) up yesterday, father already (to go) to work. 17. Nick (to think) that his father (not yet to come) home. 18. Mary (to tell) us that she (to cook) a good dinner. 19. Yesterday I (to find) the book which I (to lose) in summer. 20. When we (to come) to the station, the train already (to leave).

Вправа 23. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в одному з наступних часів: Present, Past, Future Simple; Present, Past Continuous; Present, Past Perfect. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. When you (to come) to see us? – I (to come) tomorrow if I (not to be) busy. 2. I (not to like) apples. 3. He (to come) home at five o'clock yesterday. 4. I (to ring) you up as soon as I (to come) home tomorrow. 5. I (to show) you my work if you (to like). 6. He (to come) home by six o'clock yesterday. 7. Pete certainly (to help) you with your English if you (to ask) him. 8. This little boy never (to see) a crocodile. 9. Send me a telegram as soon as you (to arrive). 10. Let's go for a walk. The rain (to stop) and the sun (to shine). 11. If you (to help) me, I (to do) this work well. 12. I always (to get) up at eight o'clock, but tomorrow I (to get) up a little later. 13. What you (to read) now? – I (to read) Tom's book. I (to be) in a hurry. Tom (to come) soon, and I (to want) to finish reading the book before he (to come). 14. As soon as you (to see) your friend, tell him that I (to want) to see him. 15. When I (to come) home yesterday, my brother (to sleep).

Вправа 24. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в одному з наступних часів: Present, Past, Future Simple; Present, Past Continuous; Present, Past Perfect. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Yesterday Nick (to say) that he (to read) much during his summer vacation. 2. At the age of twenty my father (to combine) work and study. 3. A great number of students (to study) in the reading-room I (to enter) it last night. 4. The storm (to rage) the whole night, and the sailors (to try) to do their best to save the ship. 5. Mike's friends could hardly recognize him as he (to change) greatly after his expedition to the Antarctic. 6. When I (to enter) the hall, the students (to listen) to a very interesting lecture in history. 7. Hello! Where you (to go)? Nowhere in particular. I just (to take) a walk. 8. Our students (to do) all kinds of exercises and now they (to be) sure that they (to know) this rule well. They (to hope) they (to make) no mistakes in the test-paper. 9. The expedition (to cover) hundreds of kilometers, but they still (to be) far from their destination. 10. You (to go) to Great Britain next year?

Впpава 25. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в одному з майбутніх часів: Future Simple, Future Continuous чи Future Perfect. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I (to do) my homework tomorrow. 2. I (to do) my homework at six o'clock tomorrow. 3. I (to do) my homework by six o'clock tomorrow. 4. When I come home tomorrow, my family (to have) supper. 5. When you come to my place tomorrow, I (to read) your book. I (to do) my homework by the time you come. 6. Don't come to my place tomorrow. I (to write) a composition the whole evening. 7.I (not to go) to the cinema tomorrow. I (to watch) TV the whole evening. 8. What you (to do) tomorrow? 9. What you (to do) at eight o'clock tomorrow? 10. You (to play) volley-ball tomorrow? 11. You (to do) this work by next Sunday? 12. When you (to go) to see your friend next time? 13. How many pages you (to read) by five o'clock tomorrow? 14. Tomorrow I (to begin) doing my homework as soon as I come from school. I (to do) my homework from three till six. My father (to come) home at seven o'clock tomorrow. I (to do) all my homework by the time he comes, and we (to go) for a walk together.

II. Вживання часів Passive Voice

Вправа 1. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Present, Past чи Future Simple Passive. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Bread (to eat) every day. 2. The letter (to receive) yesterday. 3. Nick (to send) to Kiev next week. 4. I (to ask) at the lesson yesterday. 5.I (to give) a very interesting book at the library last Friday. 6. Many houses (to build) in our town every year. 7. This work (to do) tomorrow. 8. This text (to translate) at the last lesson. 9. These trees (to plant) last autumn. 10. Many interesting games always (to play) at our PT lessons. 11. This bone (to give) to my dog tomorrow. 12. We (to invite) to a concert last Saturday. 13. My question (to answer) yesterday. 14. Hockey (to play) in winter. 15. Mushrooms (to gather) in autumn. 16. Many houses (to burn) during the Great Fire of London. 17. His new book (to finish) next year. 18. Flowers (to sell) in shops and in the streets. 19. St. Petersburg (to found) in 1703.

Вправа 2. Розкрийте дужки, вибираючи форму дієслова, що вимагається. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. The porter will (bring, be brought) your luggage to your room. 2. Your luggage will (bring, be brought) up in the lift. 3. You may (leave, be left) your hat and coat in the cloak-room downstairs. 4. They can (leave, be left) the key with the clerk downstairs. 5. From the station they will (take, be taken) straight to the hotel. 6. Tomorrow he will (take, be taken) them to the Russian Museum. 7. At the station they will (meet, be met) by a man from the travel bureau. 8. She will (meet, be met) them in the hall upstairs.

Вправа 3. Передайте наступні речення в Passive Voice, звертаючи увагу на місце прийменника. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: We often speak about her. – She is often spoken about.

1. We thought about our friend all the time. 2. The doctor will operate on him in a week. 3. The teacher sent for the pupil's parents. 4. They looked for the newspaper everywhere. 5. Nobody slept in the bed. 6. The neighbour asked for the telegram. 7. Everybody listened to the lecturer with great attention. 8. The senior students laughed at the freshman. 9. The group spoke to the headmistress yesterday. 10. The young mothers looked after their babies with great care. 11. Nobody lived in that house. 12. They sent for Jim and told him to preраге a report on that subject.

Вправа 4. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Passive Voice. Перекла-діть речення на рідну мову.

1. At the last competition the first prize (to win) by our team. 2. The question (to settle) as soon as they arrived. 3. Your report must (to divide) into two chapters. 4. Soon he (to send) to a sanatorium. 5. The book (to discuss) at the next conference. 6. The composition must (to hand) in on Wednesday. 7. Yesterday he (to tell) to prepare a speech. 8. The article (to publish) last week, if I am not mistaken. 9.The lectures (to attend) by all of us. 10. A taxi (to call) fifteen minutes ago, so we are expecting it any moment. 11 The young man (to introduce) to me only a couple of hours ago, but it seems to me that I've known him for years. 12. The rule explained by the teacher at the last lesson (to understand) by all of us. 13. The poem was so beautiful that it (to learn) by everybody. 14. I hope the invitation (to accept) by everybody. 15. The letter (to post) in half an hour. 16. It seems to me that music (to hear) from the next room.

Вправа 5. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Active чи Passive Voice. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Nobody (to see) him yesterday. 2. The telegram (to receive) tomorrow. 3. He (to give) this book next week. 4. The answer to this question can (to find) in the encyclopedia. 5. We (to show) the delegation the historical monuments of the capital. 6. You can (to find) interesting information about the life in the USA in this book. 7. Budapest (to divide) by the Danube into two parts: Buda and Pest. 8. Yuri Dolgoruki (to found) Moscow in 1147. 9. Moscow University (to found) by Lomonosov. 10. We (to call) Zhukovski the father of Russian aviation.

Вправа 6. Передайте наступні речення в Active Voice. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. This mountain has never been climbed before. 2. She told me that those newspapers had been carefully put away where they would not be lost. 3. Why have these cups been put here in this cupboard? 4. Nick was told to go home at once. 5. Invitations have been sent to all the old pupils to be present at the school's thirtieth anniversary. 6. All the passengers in the bus were listening to the story of the boy who had been saved from drowning by the quickness of the driver. 7. The work was finished in time. 8. The child is taken care of. 9. When was it done? 10. What museums were visited last year? 11. Have your compositions been handed in? 12. What has been said is true. 13 After the facts had been thoroughly explained to her, she no longer felt worried. 14. He was fined for crossing the street in the wrong place. 15. The Greeks were attacked by the Persians from the sea. 16. This book must be read by every student. 17. This film can be seen at our cinema. 18. Spartan children were taught by their parents to endure all hardships. 19. Which article was translated by your brother? 20. They were being taught drawing at that lesson. 21. This name was seldom mentioned in his novels. 22. I am often told about it. 23. This man has been much spoken of.

Вправа 7. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова в Passive Voice. Перекла-діть речення на рідну мову.

1. I am sure I (to ask) at the lesson tomorrow. 2 They told me that the new student (to speak) much about. 3. The hostess said that one more guest (to expect). 4. The newspaper said that an interesting exhibition (to open) in the Hermitage the next week. 5. This new dictionary (to sell) everywhere now. 6. All the texts (to look) through yesterday and not a single mistake (to find). 7. Two reports on Hemingway's stories (to make) in our group last month. Both of them were very interesting. 8. He said that Grandmother's letter (to receive) the day before. 9. Two new engineers just (to introduce) to the head of the department. 10. Don't worry, everything will be all right: the children (to take) to the theatre by the teacher and they (to bring) back to school in the evening.

ІІІ. Модальні дієслова

Вправа 1. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Mike can run very fast. 2. They can understand French. 3. Kate can speak English well. 4. My brother can come and help you in the garden. 5. Can you speak Spanish? 6. Can your brother help me with mathematics? 7. His little sister can walk already. 8. The children cannot carry this box: it is too heavy. 9. My friend cannot come in time. 10. This old woman cannot sleep at night. 11. His sister can cook very well. 12. I can sing, but I cannot dance.

Вправа 2. Перепишіть наступні речення, додаючи слова, дані в дужках. Замініть модальне дієслово can (could) виразом to be able to, де це необхідно. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I can give you my book for a couple of days (after I have read it). 2. He can ski (for ten years). 3. We knew that she could swim (since a child). 4. You cannot take part in this serious sport competition (until you have mastered good skills). 5. I could not solve the problem (before he explained it to me). 6. They can (never) appreciate your kindness. 7. I was sure you could translate that article (after you had translated so many texts on Physics). 8. You can go to the country (when you have passed your last examination). 9. We can pass to the next exercise (when we have done this one).

Вправа 3. Перекладіть на українську мову.

1. May I go to the post-office with Mike? 2. May I take Pete's bag? 3. Don't give the vase to the child: he may break it. 4. May we take notes with a pencil? 5. You may not cross the street when the light is red. 6. May I shut the door? 7. May I invite Nick to our house? 8. You may go now. 9. If you have done your homework, you may go for a walk. 10. Don't go to the wood alone: you may lose your way. 11. It stopped raining, and mother told us that we might go out. 12. May children play with scissors?

Вправа 4. Вставити модальне дієслово may (might) чи вираз to be allowed to. Вставити to be allowed to тільки в тих випадках, де may (might) вжити не можна. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. ... I bring my sister to the party? 2. He asked if he ... bring his sister to the party. 3. After they had finished their homework, the children ... watch TV. 4. He ... join the sports section as soon as he is through with his medical examination. 5. Becky's mother said that everybody ... take part in the picnic. 6. He ... go home if he likes. 7. As soon as the boy ... leave the room, he smiled a happy smile and ran out to join his friends outside. 8. The doctor says I am much better. I ... get up for a few hours every day.

Вправа 5. Вставити модальні дієслова may чи can. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I ... finish the work tomorrow if no one bothers me any more. 2. ... we come and see you next Sunday at three o'clock in the afternoon? 3. What time is it? – It ... be about six o'clock, but I am not sure. 4. Only a person who knows the language very well ... answer such a question. 5. ... I come in? 6. Let me look at your exercises. I ... be able to help you. 7. I ... not swim, because until this year the doctor did not allow me to be more than two minutes in the water. But this year he says I ... stay in for fifteen minutes if I like, so I am going to learn to swim. 8. Libraries are quite free, and any one who likes ... get books there. 9. I ... come and see you tomorrow if I have time. 10. Take your raincoat with you: it ... rain today. 11. Do you think you ... do that?

Вправа 6. Вставити модальні дієслова may чи can. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. You ... come in when you have taken off your boots. 2. Be careful: you ... spill the milk if you carry it like that. 3. Most children ... slide on the ice very well.   4. I don't think I ... be here by eleven o'clock tomorrow, but I ... be. 5. ... you see anything in this inky darkness? 6. You ... go when you have finished your compositions. 7. What shall we do if the train is late? It ... be late, you know, after the terrible snowstorms we've had. 8. When ... you come and see me? |– Let me see: I ... not come tomorrow, for I must be at the meeting, but on Sunday I'll find time. Yes, you ... expect me on Sunday about three o'clock. Will that be all right?

Вправа 7. Вставити модальні дієслова may (might) чи can (could). Пере-кладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. ... I use your pen? 2. ... I find a pen on that table? 3. You ... read this book: you know the language well enough. 4. You ... take this book: I don't need it. 5. ... I help you? 6. ... I ask you to help me? 7. ... you help me? 8. I ... not imagine her speaking in public: I knew that she was so shy. 9. Something was wrong with the car: he ... not start it. 10. A fool ... ask more questions than a wise man ... answer. 11. She asked me if she ... use my telephone. 12. The school was silent: nothing ... be heard in the long dark corridors. 13. Waiting ... be endless, you know. 14. ... you tell me the nearest way to the city museum? 15. They ... think that I am too weak to take part in the excursion, but I am strong enough to do any kind of hard work, indeed. 16. He knew this period of history very well: he had read everything on the subject he ... find in the rich university library.

Вправа 8. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. You must work hard at your English. 2. You must learn the words. 3. Must we learn the poem today? 4. It must be very difficult to learn Chinese. 5. You must not talk at the lessons. 6. Everybody must come to school in time. 7. Don't ring him up: he must be very busy. 8. You must not make notes in the books. 9. I must help my mother today.

Вправа 9. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I had to do a lot of homework yesterday. 2. She had to stay at home because she did not feel well. 3. Pete had to stay at home because it was very cold. 4. Mike had to write this exercise at school because he had not done it at home. 5. They had to call the doctor because the grandmother was ill. 6. Why did you have to stay at home yesterday? – Because my parents were not at home and I had to look after my little sister. 7. I have not written the composition. I shall have to write it on Sunday. 8. We did not have to buy biscuits because granny had baked a delicious pie. 9. Will you have to get up early tomorrow?

Вправа 10. Перепишіть наступні речення в минулому часі. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. It is already twenty minutes past eight. You must go or you will be late for the first lesson. 2. I am very tired. I feel I must go to bed at once, or I shall fall asleep where I am sitting. 3. We can't wait for them any longer; we must ring them up and find out what has happened. 4. I am thinking hard, trying to find a solution of the problem. There must be a way out. 5. It is quite clear to everybody in the family that he must start getting ready for his examination instead of wasting time. 6. It is impossible to do anything in such a short time. I must ask the chief to put off my report. 7. I don't mean that you must do everything they tell you.

Вправа 11. Заповніть пропуски модальними дієсловами can, may чи must. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. What ... we see on this map? 2. ... you speak Spanish? – No, unfortunately I... 3. At what time ... you come to school? 4. ... I come in? 5. You ... not smoke here.    6. ... take your book? – I am afraid not: I need it. 7. He ... not speak English yet. 8. I have very little time: I ... go. 9. They ... go to the park today because they are busy. 10. You ... read this text: it is easy enough.

Вправа 12. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I was to wait for her at the railway station. 2. We were to go to the cinema that afternoon. 3. They were to start on Monday. 4. He was to telephone the moment she was out of danger. 5. Roses were to be planted round the pond. 6. There was to be a discussion later on. 7. We were to get there before the others. 8. He was to tell her where to find us. 9. She was to graduate that year. 10. She was to wear that dress at the graduation party. 11. He is to come here at five o'clock. 12. The train was to leave at five-fifteen.

Вправа 13. Вставити модальні дієслова to have to чи to be to. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. She ... to send a telegram because it was too late to send a letter. 2. They decided that she ... to send them a telegram every tenth day. 3. You ... to learn all the new words for the next lesson. 4. Do you know this man? He ... to be our new teacher of history. 5. Who ... to go to the library to get the new books? - I was, but I couldn't because I ... to finish some work at the phonetics laboratory. 6. It is raining. You ... to put on your raincoat. 7. "The patient ... to stay in bed for a few days," ordered the doctor. 8. The child had stomach trouble and ... to take castor oil. 9. I told her she ... to open the window for a while every day. 10. The agreement was that if Johnny White could not repay the money he had borrowed, then Luke Flint ... to have the right to sell the land. 11. If I don't ring up before six o'clock, then you ... to go to the concert hall alone and wait for me at the entrance. Is that clear? 12. The planters ... to gather their cotton at once, as they had been warned that heavy rains were expected. 13. I ... to wear glasses as my eyesight is very weak. 14. Johnny White ... to borrow from Luke Flint at a high interest, for there was no one else in the district who lent money. 15. "Cheating is a very nasty thing," said the teacher, "and we ... to get rid of it."

Вправа 14. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. My sister cannot write this letter: she is very busy. 2. My sister need not write this letter: I shall phone them. 3. She cannot buy bread. 4. She need not buy bread. 5. You cannot read so many books. 6. You need not read so many books. 7. Nick cannot go to school today. 8. Nick need not go to school today. 9. They cannot translate this article. 10. They need not translate this article. 11. They could not write the composition. 12. They need not have written the composition. 13.I could not go to the library. 14. I need not have gone to the library. 15. He could not stay there for the night. 16. He need not have stayed there for the night. 17. We could not do all this work. 18. We need not have done all this work. 19. She could not cook such a big dinner. 20. She need not have cooked such a big dinner.

Вправа 15. Вставити модальні дієслова may, must чи need. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. ... we hand in our compositions tomorrow? – No, you ... not, you ... hand them in after Sunday. 2. ... John really do this today? – No, he ... not, he ... do it tomorrow if he likes. 3. You ... not let this cup fall. 4. ... I help you with your coat on? 5. ... I take this book for a little while? – I am sorry, but I ... return it to the library at once. 6. Alec ... practise this sound specially, but the other pupils ... not: they all pronounce it properly. 7. They ... come at any time they like between ten and twelve in the morning, but they ... not come if they don't want to. 8. ... I go there right now? Yes, you ... .

Вправа 16. Вставити модальні дієслова can, may, must чи need. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I ... not go out today: it is too cold. 2. ... I take your pen? – Yes, please. 3. We ... not carry the bookcase upstairs: it is too heavy. 4. We ... not carry the bookcase upstairs ourselves: the workers will come and do it. 5. When ... you come to see us? – I ... come only on Sunday. 6. Shall I write a letter to him? – No, you ... not, it is not necessary. 7. ... you cut something without a knife? 8. Peter ... return the book to the library. We all want to read it. 9. Why ... not you understand it? It is so easy. 10. ... we do the exercise at once? – Yes, you ... do it at once. 11. ... you pronounce this sound? 12. You ... not have bought this meat: we have everything for dinner.

Вправа 17. Перепишіть спочатку всі речення, у яких модальне дієслово may (might) виражає дозвіл, а потім речення, у яких воно виражає припущення. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Children may borrow books from the school library. 2. I may show him your reports later. I don't know. 3. Your hair is getting rather thin, sir, may I advise to change your parting? 4. Mother, may I have a glass of light beer? 5. I may have wrecked my own life, but I will not let you wreck yours. 6. Justice may be slow, mother, but it comes in the end. 7. He may have written the letter, but the signature is certainly not his. 8. It might have been worse. 9. May I come and see you some day? 10. We asked the teacher if we might use dictionaries.

Вправа 18. Перепишіть спочатку всі речення, у яких модальне дієслово must виражає повинність, а потім речення, у яких воно виражає припущення. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. You must be a fool to think so. 2. The work must have been carried out in secret for quite a long time. 3. The question must be solved before we begin doing anything. 4. Mind, you mustn't spend all the money. 5. You must take a taxi if you want to catch that train. 6. You must tell your mother about it. 7. But she must have seen him! 8. Oh, John, think how she must be suffering! 9. Is she waiting? She must have been waiting for an hour. 10. "Oh, Auntie," he answered, "you mustn't talk like that." 11. And remember, you must come and see the baby as soon as you can. 12. You must go home now, Georgie.

Вправа 19. Перефразуйте наступні речення, вживаючи модальне дієслово must. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: Probably I left my textbook in the classroom. I must have left my textbook in the classroom.

1. Probably I left my bag in the canteen. 2. Probably you left your umbrella in the bus. 3. Probably Mary forgot to call me. 4. Probably mother took my umbrella. 5. Probably I have seen you before: your face is familiar to me. 6. Probably you left your exercises-book at school. 7. Evidently she has left the town. 8. Probably Mike has gone to the teachers' room. 9. Probably Tom and Nick are playing football. 10. Probably Helen has got a bad mark. 11. Evidently they have solved the problem. 12. Evidently the pupils have finished writing their composition. 13. Obviously he forgot to warn them. 14. Evidently the meeting was cancelled. 15. Evidently he forgot to send them a telegram. 16. Evidently there was something wrong with the tape-recorder.

Вправа 20. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Не must have taken it. 2. He had to take it. 3. He must be trying to find the lost stamp. 4. You must try to find the lost stamp. 5. She must be the youngest child in this group. 6. If you want to become a good football player, you must be an all-round athlete. 7. I had to read the letter twice before I understood it. 8. He must have read the letter many times. 9. What must you think of me? 10. They must be talking about us.

Вправа 21. Скажіть, що, на ваш погляд, ці події не могли відбутися. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: Yesterday I saw Pete in the assembly-hall. You can't have seen Pete in the assembly-hall yesterday.

1. Boris was in the canteen five minutes ago. 2. Robert took two bags with him. 3. That was Ann who plugged in the tape-recorder. 4. Nick has been doing the recording for two hours already. 5. It was Mary who rewound the tape. 6. The teacher let me take the tape home. 7. The teacher permitted us to use the dictionary. 8. Nick got up at seven and did his morning exercises. 9. It was Kate who aired the room. 10. There were a lot of pupils in the library yesterday. 11. It was John who broke the radio-set. 12. I saw Ann in the library yesterday.

Вправа 22. Дайте пораду, використовуючи модальне дієслово should і слова, дані в дужках. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: Her diction is not very good (to read aloud). She should read aloud.

1. The boy is a little pale. (to play out-of-doors) 2. I am afraid you will miss that train. (to take a taxi) 3. There is no one in. (to try the room next door) 4. I have a slight irritation in my throat. (to smoke less) 5. This child doesn't want to eat soup. (not to give her sweets before dinner) 6. She makes a lot of spelling mistakes. (to copy passages out of a book) 7. The dog is afraid of him. (not to shout at the dog) 8. The students are unable to follow what I am saying. (not to speak so fast).

Вправа 23. Вставити модальні дієслова should чи must. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. a) You ... have studied the material thoroughly. I see you have made no mistakes in the test-paper. b) You ... have studied the material thoroughly. Then you would not have made so many mistakes. 2. a) She ... have followed the doctor's advice. She would have recovered by now. b) She ... have followed the doctor's advice. She looks very fine. 3. a) You ... have ignored the instructions of your sports coach. That's why you lost the game. b) You ... have followed the instructions of your sports coach. Then you would have won the game. 4. a) She ... have forgotten to take her medicine. b) She ... have remembered to take her medicine. 5. a) I ... have got on the wrong bus. I cannot recognize the places we are passing. b) I ... have looked carefully at the number of the bus. Now I must change buses, and I am afraid I shall be late.

Вправа 24. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Не must have sold his piano. 2. He may have sold his piano. 3. He might have sold his piano. 4. He can't have sold his piano. 5. He should have sold his piano. 6. He shouldn't have sold his piano. 7. He needn't have sold his piano. 8. He didn't have to sell his piano. 9. He had to sell his piano. 10. He was to sell his piano.

Вправа 25. Вставити придатні модальні дієслова (must, can, need). Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. If you want to improve your English, you ... work very hard. 2. ... I take this book? – Certainly, but you ... not give it to anybody. 3. Mother, ... I go to the country tomorrow? No, you ... not. The doctor says you ... stay at home for a day or two. 4. There is something wrong with your television-set. You ... call a repairman. – Oh, we ... not do it! My brother ... fix it himself. 5. ... we bring these text-books every day? – No, you ... not: you ... take them from the library. 6. ... you go to the country with us? – No, I am afraid I ... not: I ... go to the library.

Вправа 26. Вставити придатні модальні дієслова (must, may, can, need, to have to, to be able to). Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. You ... not come to help them tomorrow: the work is done. 2. You ... not change the whole text as the beginning is all right. You ... only rewrite the second part of it. 3. ... you help me now? – I am afraid not: I am in a great hurry. I shall be free in the evening. Come to my place at about eight, and I ... help you. 4. John ... not tell us the rules of the game: we know them. 5. ... I return the book to you on Friday? I am afraid I ... not finish it before. – No, that is too late. You ... bring it to me not later than Wednesday. 6. It is already six o'clock. We ... hurry if we don't want to be late. 7. ... you translate this text into English? I think I ... 8. They spent all the morning on the river bank. Only Ann ... return home as she ... not stay in the sun for such a long time.

ІV. ІНФІНІТИВ

Вправа 1. Складіть п'ять речень з кожної таблиці.

I

am

glad

to meet you.

He

is

happy

to hear it.

She

are

pleased

to be late.

We

was

sorry

to have missed the train.

You

were

not to have been informed about it.

They

will be

to be given this  chance.

I

want

to tell you everything about it.

like

to be troubled when I am working.

hate

to play basket-ball.

to be visited when I am ill.

to be sent there.

I

can

find that magazine.

He/She

may

be found there.

We

must

show you the way to the station.

You

be shown the way to the station.

They

bring the children home.

Вправа 2. Визначте функцію інфінітиву у реченнях. Перекладіть їх на рідну мову.

1. Everyone had a wish to say something. 2. He decided to go alone. 3. We must work hard to live. 4. The question must be answered. 5. It was difficult to believe. 6. She was going to my rooms to see my aunt. 7. She had no desire to open her heart to her aunt. 8. The great thing is to make a good breakfast. 9. I am ready to go with Annie. 10. Nothing could be done before morning. 11. It wasn't safe to cross the bridge at night. 12. To earn a living he became a salesman. 13. The man was the first to speak. 14. I am too old to be given a hiding. 15. This is my bench, and you have no right to take it away from me.

Вправа 3. Вставте "to" де потрібно. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I like ... play the guitar. 2. My brother can ... speak French. 3. We had ... put on our overcoats because it was cold. 4. They wanted ... cross the river. 5. It is high time for you ... go to bed. 6. May I ... use your telephone? 7. They heard the girl ... cry out with joy. 8. I would rather ... stay at home today. 9. He did not want ... play in the yard any more. 10. Would you like ... go to England? 11. You look tired. You had better ... go home. 12. I wanted ... speak to Nick, but could not... find his telephone number. 13. It is time ... get up. 14. Let me ... help you with your homework. 15. I was planning ... do a lot of things yesterday. 16. I'd like ... speak to you. 17. I think I shall be able ... solve this problem. 18. What makes you ... think you are right? 19. I shall do all I can ... help you. 20. I like ... dance. 21. I'd like ... dance. 22. She made me ... repeat my words several times. 23. I saw him ... enter the room. 24. She did not let her mother ... go away. 25. Do you like ... listen to good music? 26. Would you like ... listen to good music? 27. That funny scene made me ... laugh.

Вправа 4. Складіть п'ять речень з кожної таблиці.

I

saw

him

enter the house.

Не/She

heard

her

leave the room.

You

watched

them

play the piano.

We

noticed

you

sing.

They

the girl

approach the river.

I

made

him

(to)

learn the poem by heart.

He/She

let

them

do the exercises again.

We

caused

you

go home.

You

forced

me

buy it.

They

read it aloud.

І

want(s)

her

to become an economist.

He/She

wanted

them

to work here.

We

like(s)

you

to speak English.

You

should like

me

to sing this song.

They

would like

the boys

to stay here.

I

expect(s)

him

to come back at  five.

He/She

expected

them

to help them.

We    

me

to arrive on Monday.

You

you

to win the match.

They

us

to answer the letter at once.

I

considered

him

to be brave.

He/She

believed

you

to be an honest man.

We

thought

us

to be lazy.

You

knew

them

to be about twenty-five.

They

supposed

me

to be a good student.

I

find(s)

it

difficult.

He/She

found

the  film

to be easy.

We

the subject

to be funny.

You

the story

to be dull.

They

the flat

to be comfortable.

Вправа 5. Складіть з двох речень одне, використовуючи Complex Object. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: Mary opened the window. I saw it. – I saw Mary open the window.

1. Peter took my pen. I saw it. 2. He ran to the river. I saw it. 3. The girl smiled. I noticed it. 4. The children shouted in the next room. I heard it. 5. She played the violin. My brother heard it. 6. The man tried to open the door. We saw it. 7. They got into a taxi. He saw it. 8. Somebody knocked at the door. We heard it.

Вправа 6. Складіть з наступних речень одне, використовуючи Complex Object. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

A) 1. We watched the dockets as they unloaded the ship. 2. They watched me as I made my bed. 3. Mother saw him as he climbed over the fence. 4. I watched them as they played ice hockey. 5. Nobody noticed her as she went away.

B) 1. We expect that he will come back at 7. 2. They expect that their football team will win the game. 3. She expected that her friend would write her a letter. 4. I expect that you will come in time. 5. He expects that his friends will help him.

C) 1. I think that he is a good engineer. 2. I suppose that he is about forty. 3. I believe that they are at home now. 4. I know that she is very modest. 5. They believe that he is honest.

D) 1. My wish is that you should tell me about it. 2. Her parents' wish is that she should enter a music school. 3. Our wish is that you should go to the forest with us. 4. His father's wish is that he should become an engineer. 5. My wish is that you should stay here.

E) 1. I desire that he should see me off. 2. I desire that she should go shopping. 3. We desire that he should repair our radio set. 4. I desire that he should stop smoking. 5. I desire that they should return tomorrow.

Вправа 7. Вставити "to" де потрібно. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Make him … speak louder. 2. Help me … carry this bag. 3. My son asked me … let him … go to the theatre. 4. She asked me … read the letter carefully and … write an answer. 5. The man told me not … walk on the grass. 6. Let me … help you with your work. 7. We had better … stop to rest a little. 8. I don’t know what … do. 9. He was seen … leave the house. 10. We heard the siren … sound and saw the ship … sail off. 11. I cannot … go there now, I have some work … do. 12. During the crossing the passengers left the ship … toss. 13. You must make him … practice an hour a day. 14. She was made … repeat the song.

Вправа 8. Знайдіть Complex Object. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Tell me what you would like me to do. 2. Seeing her enter the room he rose to greet her. 3. Hearing the bell ring he went to see who was at the door. 4. Did you feel the bridge shake? 5. I don’t like you to say such things. 6. Put on a thicker coat, I don’t want you to catch cold. 7. We knew him to be very brave. 8. He asked for a telegram to be sent to his son. 9. We expected the steamer to arrive in Yalta yesterday. 10. We lay in the shade of the tree, waiting for our friends to come.

Вправа 9. Складіть п’ять речень з кожної таблиці.

He 

is 

reported 

to know this language. 

She 

are 

said 

to be  writing a play. 

You 

was 

 

 

to have finished school. 

They 

were 

 

 

to have arrived in Kiev. 

 

 

 

 

to have been teaching for five years. 

I

am 

expected

to arrive in Kiev  tomorrow. 

He 

is

known

to be very strong. 

She 

are 

believed

to be interested in chemistry. 

You 

was 

considered

to make a present for her. 

They 

were 

supposed

to be a lover of music. 

I

am 

seen 

 

to cross the street at that place. 

He 

is

heard 

to play volley-ball. 

She 

are 

watched 

to burst out laughing. 

We 

was 

noticed 

to unlock the door. 

You 

were 

 

 

to approach the building. 



I
 

seem(s) 

to understand spoken English. 

He 

appeared 

to have recognized me. 

She 

happened 

to be cooking dinner. 

We 

proved 

to know the city very well. 

They 

chanced 

to meet them at the exhibition. 

I 

am 

sure 

to come back in time. 

He 

is 

certain 

to know French. 

We 

are 

likely 

to lose the match. 

You 

was 

unlikely 

to solve the problem. 

They 

were 

 

to get an excellent mark. 

Вправа 10. Перефразуйте речення, використовуючи Complex Subject замість Complex Object. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: I saw her read the letter. – She was seen to read the letter.

1. We heard her sing a Russian folk song. 2. I saw him put his coat on. 3. They heard the clock strike nine. 4. We saw the rider disappear in the distance. 5. We saw the plane take off. 6. They expected him lo return in a fortnight. 7. We know her to be a talented actress. 8. Everybody supposed him to be a foreigner. 9. Everybody considered him to be a great man. 10. I expect the telegram to be sent tomorrow.

Вправа 11. Перефразуйте наступні складні речення у просте, викорис-товуючи Complex Subject. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

A) 1. It is said that they work on the farm. 2. It is believed that she knows several foreign languages. 3. It is said that the film is very interesting. 4. It is supposed that he understands Spanish. 5. It is reported that the cosmonauts feel well.

B) 1. It is said that Kate is preparing for her entrance examinations. 2. It is said that they are working in the field. 3. It is reported that the painter is working at a new picture. 4. It is believed that he is writing a historical novel.

C) 1. It is reported that the delegation arrived in Paris on the 10th of September. 2. It is reported that the spaceship has reached the moon. 3. It is believed that this house was built in the 18th century. 4. It is said that she has been teaching mathematics for thirty years.

D) 1. It is expected that he will arrive on Monday. 2. It is supposed that the book will be published next year. 3. It was expected that the film would be shown in May. 4. It was supposed that the weather would be fine in April. 5. It is expected that he will buy a car.

E) 1. It seems that they live in the same house. 2. It seems that he is composing a new symphony. 3. It seems that he knew it long ago. 4. It seems that she is listening. 5. It proved that you were right. 6. It turned out that the text was very difficult.

Вправа 12. Перефразуйте речення згідно з моделлю. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Mоdel: It is (im) probable that he will come tomorrow. – He is (un) likely to come tomorrow. He will certainly come. – He is sure to come. He will probably come. – He is likely to come.

A) 1. It is probable that it will rain before evening. 2. It is improbable that she will forget her promise. 3. It is probable that the winter will be very cold this year. 4. It is probable that they will be late. 5. It is improbable that this medicine will help him.

B) 1. They will certainly like this film. 2. The doctor will certainly do his best. 3. He will probably forget the address. 4. She will probably catch cold. 4. He will certainly do his duty. 6. The weather will probably change.

Вправа 13. Знайдіть Complex Subject у наступних реченнях. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. He seems to know all about this matter. 2. The question appears to be of great importance to them. 3. The results of the test seemed to have disappointed them. 4. He seemed to want to do it himself. 5. He didn’t appear to be surprised at this news.6. The goods don’t appear to have been packed very carefully. 7. He doesn’t seem to have been discouraged by his failure. 8. She seemed to have been waiting for a long time. 9. He happened to look in that direction and saw a man run out of the house. 10. The plan proved to be a great success. 11. She happens to know him. 12. I happened to leave my office early that day. 13. My friend seems to be having a good time at the seaside. 14. They seem to be waiting for you downstairs. 15. This plant seems to have been producing such equipment since 1996. 16. There seem to be no objections to their proposal. 17. There appear to exist other methods of making this test. 18. There seemed to be many obstacles in their way. 19. There proved to be another solution of the problem. 20. There happened to be a surgeon among them.

Вправа 14. Складіть п’ять речень з кожної таблиці.

It 

is 

necessary 

for 

me 

to stay here. 

 

was 

important 

 

you 

to go there at once. 

 

will be 

dangerous 

 

him 

to cross the river here. 

 

 

high time 

 

us 

to buy it. 

 

 

better 

 

them 

to take a taxi. 

The best thing 

is 

for 

me 

to invite them. 

 

was 

 

him 

to see a doctor. 

 

will be 

 

you 

to wait. 

 

would be 

 

us 

to go there by plane. 

 

 

 

them 

to go home. 

I 

wait(s) 

for 

me 

to speak. 

He/She 

waited 

 

him 

to go out. 

We 

will wait 

 

you 

to send an invitation. 

You 

 

 

us 

to come back. 

They 

 

 

them 

to answer. 

Вправа 15. Перефразуйте наступні складні речення у прості, викорис-товуючи Prepositional Infinitive Complex. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. It is necessary that we should start early in the morning. 2. It is necessary that she should come here in time. 3. It is important that he should work systematically. 4. It is necessary that you should air the room twice a day. 5. It is necessary that you should go in for sports.

Вправа 16. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Nature has many secrets to be discovered yet. 2. To improve your phonetics you should record yourself and analyse your speech. 3. This is the book to be read during the summer holidays. 4. To be instructed by such a good specialist was a great advantage. 5. To play chess was his greatest pleasure. 6. The child did not like to be washed. 7. Isn't it natural that we like to be praised and don't like to be scolded? 8. Which is more pleasant: to give or to be given presents? He is very forgetful, but he doesn't like to be reminded of his duties.

Вправа 17. Знайдіть інфинитивні комплекси у наступних реченнях і встановить їх функцію. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Then, he seemed to hear a voice. 2. I saw her look at him. 3. What do you want me to do? 4. Jude watched her disappear in the direction of the hotel. 5.She made her brother talk of himself. 6. I never expected you to ask him at all. 7. My father doesn't want us to know each other. 8. He seemed to be looking for words. 9. Her face seemed to have become much more youthful. 10. We saw him enter the station. 11. Mr.Rochester is not likely to return soon. 12. She seemed not to listen to him. 13. Clyde felt himself tremble. 14. I don't like to hear you speak so of Harry. 15. You don't seem to understand how hard it is. 16. We are not likely to remain alone much longer.

V. ДІЄПРИКМЕТНИК

Вправа 1. Складіть п’ять речень з кожної таблиці.

I 

approached 

the woman 

reading a newspaper. 

He/She 

came up to 

the man 

sitting on the bench. 

We 

pointed to 

the boys 

playing basket-ball. 

You 

called 

the girls 

working in the garden. 

They 

the children 

digging potatoes. 

The man

The woman

The boy

The girl

The student 

sitting in the corner

standing at the window making the report approaching us

crossing the street 

is my best friend.

lives in our house.

is a good swimmer.

works at this plant.

dances very well. 

I 

sat 

smiling. 

He/She 

stood 

reading a newspaper. 

We 

approached me 

singing. 

You 

went  away 

trembling. 

They 

read the letter 

listening to the song. 

Entering the room 

I 

apologized to her. 

Opening the door 

he/she 

decided to tell her the truth. 

Seeing her 

we 

greeted her. 

Coming home 

you 

recognized her at once. 

Hearing her voice 

they 

found nobody there. 

When 

reading the story 

I 

heard a knock at the door. 

While 

playing chess 

he/she 

used a dictionary. 

 

preparing the report 

we 

fell  asleep. 

 

watching television 

you 

forgot about it. 

 

translating the text 

they 

remembered you. 

Having 

read the book 

I 

decided to take a short rest. 

 

written the letter 

he/she 

went shopping. 

 

cleaned the room 

we 

switched on the TV set. 

 

done it 

you 

went to the post-office. 

 

finished it 

they 

went for a walk. 

I 

was reading 

a book 

printed in our town. 

He/She 

bought 

the newspaper 

published last month. 

We 

looked for 

an article 

received this morning. 

You 

took 

the magazine 

written by Professor Brown. 

They 

used 

 

 

The agreement

The treaty

The document

The contract 

concluded by them

signed last year 

made there 

serves the cause of peace.

was soon broken.

is useful for both sides.

has been carried out.

was approved by our people. 

Вправа 2. Встановити форму дієприкметника. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. The article on agriculture published in this magazine was written by my friend. 2. While examining the cases discharged from the ship, he noticed that some of them were broken. 3. The boy playing in the garden is my sister's son. 4. What do you call a ship built for the transportation of timber? 5. You can get the book recommended by our teacher in the library. 6. He asked her to go on with her story, promising not to interrupt her again. 7. Not receiving any letters from her father, she sent him a telegram. 8. The books lying on the table belong to my son. 9. The textile goods produced by the factory are in great demand. 10. He left the office at three o'clock, saying he would be back at five. 11. The steamship Clyde”, belonging to Smith & Co., was chartered by “Exportkhleb” for the transportation of wheat sold to a British firm in Liverpool. 12. He stood leaning against the tree. 13. He lay on the sofa reading a newspaper. 14. Seeing her he raised his hat.

Вправа 3. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Everybody looked at the dancing girl. 2. The little plump woman standing at the window is my grandmother. 3. The man playing the piano is Kate's uncle. 4. Entering the room, she turned on the light. 5. Coming to the theatre, she saw that the performance had already begun. 6. Looking out of the window, he saw his mother watering the flowers. 7. Hearing the sounds of music we stopped talking. 8. She went into the room, leaving the door open.

Вправа 4. Знайдіть дієприкметники, встановіть їх форму і функцію. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Dressing myself as quickly as I could I went for a walk. 2. She came into the dressing-room to look for things belonging to their father and mother. 3. Mary stood for a time in silence, watching and listening. 4. Still looking at me, she shook her head while I was speaking. 5. I saw a passing shadow on her face. 6. Thousands of students marched through the streets of major Italian cities today. 7. He walked around, saying nothing. 8. I turned back, and going softly across the hall and gently opening the door I looked in. 9. Mary sat still looking at the writing. 10. We sat there talking about our pleasant old Canterbury days. 11. They ran to the steps leading down the water. 12. The doctor sat in his study chair, covering his face with his hands.

Вправа 5. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. My sister likes boiled eggs. 2. We stopped before a shut door. 3. Tied to the tree, the goat could not run away. 4. They saw overturned tables and chairs and pieces of broken glass all over the room. 5. This is a church built many years ago. 6. The books written by Dickens give us a realistic picture of the 19th century England. 7. She put a plate of fried fish in front of me. 8. The coat bought last year is too small for me now. 9. Nobody saw the things kept in that box.

Вправа 6. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. The boy lay sleeping when the doctor came. 2. The broken arm was examined by the doctor. 3. While being examined, the boy could not help crying. 4. Having prescribed the medicine, the doctor went away. 5. The medicine prescribed by the doctor was bitter. 6. The dress bought at the department store was very beautiful. 7. While using a needle you should be careful not to prick your finger. 8. While crossing the street one should first look to the left and then to the right. 9. People watching a performance are called an audience. 10. Being very ill, she could not go to school. 11. The first rays of the rising sun lit up the top of the hill. 12. The tree struck by lightning was all black and leafless. 13. Being busy, he postponed his trip. 14. The door bolted on the inside could not be opened. 15. Having been shown the wrong direction, the travellers soon lost their way. 16. The room facing the garden is much more comfortable than this one. 17. Having descended the mountain they heard a man calling for help. 18. Flushed and excited, the boy came running to his mother. 19. He stood watching the people who were coming down the street shouting and waving their hands.

Вправа 7. Замінити виділені частини речення дієприкметниковими конструкціями. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. All the people who live in this house are students. 2. The woman who is speaking now is our secretary. 3. The apparatus that stands on the table in the corner of the laboratory is quite new. 4. The young man who helps the professor in his experiments studies at an evening school for laboratory workers. 5. People who take books from the library must return them in time. 6. There are many students in our group who take part in all kinds of extra-curricular activities.

Вправа 8. Замінити наступні складні речення дієприкметниковими конструкціями. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

  1.  Model: The boys who live in this house formed a football team. – The boys living in this house formed a football team.

1. Most of the people who work at our factory have received comfortable flats in new houses. 2. Many students who learn English are members of our English club. 3. The man who sells newspapers showed me the way to the post-office. 4. The children who spend their holidays in the country help the farmers with their field work. 5. The woman who teaches English at our school studied in Kiev.

  1.  Model: The girls who are watering flowers are my friends. – The girls watering flowers are my friends.

1. The man who is making the report is our history teacher. 2. The workers who are repairing the road go home by bus. 3. The girl who is reciting the poem is our teacher's daughter. 4. The boys who are playing hockey live in our house. 5. The women who are working in the field will go to the exhibition.

  1.  Model: When we arrived in London, we went sightseeing the city. – Arriving in London, we went sightseeing the city.

1. When she heard her name, she turned round. 2. When we saw our teacher, we stopped and waited for her. 3. When he came home, he switched on the TV set. 4. As I entered the hall, I saw my friends dancing round the fir-tree. 5. As I went out of the shop, I met my group mate.

  1.  Model: When I read this story, I came across many new words. – When reading this story, I came across many new words.

1. When the students discussed this novel, they expressed their thoughts in good literary language. 2. When Jane cooked dinner, she forgot to salt it. 3. When Paul studied at the University, he published several scientific articles. 4. While I was waiting for you, I read this magazine.

  1.  Model: When she finished her work, she went home. – Having finished her work, she went home.

1. After we had passed our examinations we went to a summer camp. 2. As I had lost my key, I couldn't get in. 3. When Nick had a dictionary, he did not have to go to the reading-hall every day. 4. As we had booked tickets beforehand, we went to the theatre half an hour before the performance began. 5. After they received the telegram, they packed and left for Glasgow.

  1.  Model: They study at the institute, which was founded 150 years ago. – They study at the institute founded 150 years ago.

1. We live in a house, which was built last year. 2. She received a telegram, which was sent yesterday. 3. I’ve got a TV set, which was made in Minsk. 4. The decisions, which were adopted at the congress, are supported by people. 5. The machines, which are made at out plant, are exported to many countries of the world. 6. The cotton, which is grown here, is of good quality.

Вправа 9. Замінити виділені частини речення дієприкметниковими конструкціями. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. When he arrived at the railway station, he bought a ticket, walked to the platform and boarded the train. 2. As he was promised help, he felt quieter. 3. After he was shown in, he was told to take off his coat and wait for a while. 4. Robinson started the building of the house at once and finished it before the season of rains set in. 5. He poured out a cup of coffee, sat down in an armchair and looked at the woman who was sitting opposite him. 6. When he had left the house and was crossing the street, he suddenly stopped as he remembered that he had forgotten to phone his friend. 7. He looked at me and hesitated: he did not know what to say. 8. As he had long lived in those parts and knew the place very well, he easily found his way to the market place. 9. He has no language problems, because he has been studying English for a long time. 10. After I had written this exercise, I began to doubt whether it was correct. 11. Take care when you cross the street. 12. Students should always be attentive while they are listening to the lecturer. 13. There are many students who study music. 14. Don't you feel tired after you have walked so much?

Вправа 10. Знайдіть Participial Constructions та перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. In the afternoon, with the wind from the south, the big canoes had come drifting across the waters. 2. The concert over, the lottery came next. 3. Dinner being over, Bathsheba, for want of a better companion, had asked Liddy to come and sit with her. 4. Now he sat down in an armchair opposite Charlie, sat bolt upright, with his hands on his knees, and looked hard at Charlie. 5. Abraham too looked well, his cheeks filled out, his eyes cheerful. 6. Then, with her heart beating fast, she went up and rang the bell. 7. She sat on the steps, with her bare arms crossed upon her knees. 8. Mr.Pickwick's mouth and chin having been hastily enveloped in a large shawl, his hat having been put on his head and his great coat thrown over his arm, he replied in the affirmative. 9. With the watch in her hand she lifted her head and looked directly at him, her eyes calm and empty as two holes. 10. With Lowell closely watching, he slowly removed a paper and spread it carefully on his desk. 11. The door of the opposite parlour being then opened, I heard some voices. 12. Catherine looked at me all the time, her eyes happy. 13. I admired her, with love dead as a stone. 14. They lived the life of normal suburban children, school and holidays passing in a gentle rhythm. 15. The first bustle of installation over, time hung heavy on his hands. 16. The child lay on the bed, its eyes shut, flushed and sweating, breathing in short whistling gasps. 16. Now this Miss Barbary was extremely close ... for a female, females being generally rather given to conversation.

Вправа 11. Знайдіть Participial Construction та перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. There being a strong wind that day, it was impossible to go boating. 2. It being Saturday, everyone went out of town. 3. The novel completed, I was able to take a month's holiday. 4. Time permitting, they will discuss the matter tomorrow. 5. This being so, I should like to ask him to return next week. 6. He stood aside, with his hands in his pockets, watching her. 7. Dinner over, they went to the father's study. 8. This being done, they left for home. 9. The conference over, he returned to the office.

Вправа 12. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. The next morning, it being Sunday, they all went to church. 2. For the moment the shop was empty, the mechanic having disappeared into a room at the back. 3. There being nothing else on the table, Oliver replied that he wasn't hungry. 4. Mrs.Maylie being tired, they returned more slowly home. 5. Their search revealing nothing, Clyde and she walked to a corner. 6. The wind being favourable, our yacht will reach the island in no time. 7. I had long tasks every day to do with Mr.Mell, but I did them, there being no Mr. and Miss Murdstone here. 8. It being now pretty late, we took our candles and went upstairs. 9. He being no more heard of, it was natural to forget everything. 10. He started about five, Riggs having informed him that the way would take him three hours. 11. Our horses being weary, it was agreed that we should come to a halt. 12. It having been decided that they should not go out on account of the weather, the members of the party were busy writing their notes. 13. The wind stirring among trees and bushes, we could hear nothing. 14. You can set your mind at ease, all being well. 15. There being no chance of escape, the thief was arrested on the spot. 16. Oliver knocked weakly at the door and, all his strength failing him, sank near the door. 17. The bridge having been swept away by the flood, the train was late. 18. There being little time left, they hired a cab to get to the theatre in time. 19. It being cold and damp, a fire was lighted for the weary travellers to warm themselves by. 20. It being pretty late, they decided to postpone their visit. 21. The hour being late, she hastened home. 22. The sun having set an hour before, it was getting darker. 23. The weather being cold, he put on his overcoat. 24. The weather having changed, we decided to stay where we were. 25. The weather being very warm, the closet window was left open. 26. And the wind having dropped, they set out to walk. 27. The vessel being pretty deep in the water and the weather being calm, there was but little motion. 28. The resistance being very high, the current in the circuit was very low. 29. This material being a dielectric, no current can flow through it.

Вправа 13. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. This being understood, the conference was over. 2. The constraint caused by the old man's presence having worn off a little, the conversation became livelier. 3. This done, and Sikes having satisfied his appetite, the two men lay down on chairs for a short nap. 4. The concert being over, the lottery came next. 5. Dinner being over, the old lady asked Barbara to come and sit on the sofa near her. 6. Then, the house search proving that she was not there, Asa went outside to look up and down the street. 7. All the necessary preparations having been made with utmost secrecy, the army launched an attack. 8. The treaty having been signed, trade was at once resumed. 9. About eleven o'clock, the snow having thawed, and the day being finer and a little warmer than the previous one, he went out again. 10. Dinner being over, we assembled in the drawing-room. 11. The fifth of June arriving, they departed. 12. His directions to the porter finished, he came up to his niece. 13. The cathode heated, the electrons leave the surface and move to the anode. 14. Electrons moving through a wire, electrical energy is generated.

Вправа 14. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. They went down the stairs together, Aileen lingering behind a little. 2. He lifted the lid and kept it in his hand while she was drinking, both standing. 3. She danced light as a feather, eyes shining, feet flying; her body bent a little forward. 4. We walked very slowly home, Agnes and I admiring the moonlight, and Mr. Wickfield scarcely raising his eyes from the ground. 5. They walked quickly through street after street, the Dodgers leading. 6. He was standing there silent, a bitter smile curling his lips. 7. The dog sat close to the table, his tail thumping now and again upon the floor, his eyes fixed expectantly on his master. 8. Then they heard the noise of the plane, its shadow passing over the open glade. 9. She remembered him talking, his glasses magnifying his round blue eyes. 10. She sat staring into the fire, the sock forgotten on her knee. 11. He heard the bathers coming up the sandy road, their voices ringing through the quiet. 12. They continued their way, the boy sobbing quietly, the man ashamed. 13. The electrons move with varying velocities, their velocity depending on the temperature and nature of the material. 14. Any moving object can do work, the quantity of kinetic energy depending on its mass and velocity. 15. Radio was invented in Russia, its inventor being the Russian scientist A.S.Popov.

Вправа 15. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. She stood listlessly, her head dropping upon her breast. 2. She rose from the bed and removed her coat and stood motionless, her head bent, her hands clasped before her. 3. Pale-lipped, his heart beating fast, Andrew followed the secretary. 4. Jack sat silent, his long legs stretched out. 5. The speaker faced the audience, his hand raised for silence. 6. He sat down quickly, his face buried in his hands. 7. Clyde sat up, his eyes fixed not on anything here but rather on the distant scene at the lake. 8. She hurried along, her heels crunching in the packed snow.

Вправа 16. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Не slowly and carefully spread the paper on the desk, with Lowell closely watching. 2. She was standing on the rock ready to dive, with the green water below inviting her. 3. Twenty minutes later he came out of number seven, pale, with his lips tightly compressed and an odd expression on his face. 4. Little Oliver Twist was lying on the ground, with his shirt unbuttoned and his head thrown back. 5. The girl wandered away, with tears rolling down her cheeks. 6. The moonlit road was empty, with the cool wind blowing in their faces. 7. She sat on the steps, with her arms crossed upon her knees. 8. Then, with her heart beating fast, she went up and rang the bell. 9. Little Paul sat, with his chin resting on his hand. 10. He stood, with his arms folded. 11. Lanny stood looking at the lorry rolling away, with his cheek burning and his fists clenched. 12. She stood there, with her brows frowning, her blue eyes looking before her. 13. He leant a little forward over the table, with his wrists resting upon it. 14. And then came the final moment, with the guards coming for him.

Вправа 17. Перефразуйте наступні речення, використовуючи Absolute  Participle Complex. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

  1.  Model: As the weather was fine, we went for a walk. – The weather being fine, we went for a walk.

1. As my friend lives far from here, I go to his place by bus. 2. As the play was very popular, it was difficult to get tickets. 3. As it is rather cold, I put on my coat. 4. As his mother teaches English, he knows the language very well. 5. As her son was ill, she could not go to the theatre.

  1.  Model: As my brother had locked the door, I couldn't get into the room. – My brother having locked the door, I couldn't get into the room.

1. As our teacher had visited India, we asked him to tell us about that country. 2. When the match had ended, the people went home. 3. As my friend had bought the tickets beforehand, we did not need to hurry. 4. After the sun had risen, we continued our way. 5. As his sister had broken his spectacles, he had to buy a pair of new ones.

  1.  Model: As the bridge was destroyed, we couldn't cross the river. – The bridge being destroyed, we couldn't cross the river.

1. As all shops were closed, we couldn't buy anything. 2. As the road was being repaired, I couldn't go there by bus. 3. As the book was being printed, we hoped to get it soon. 4. As houses are built very quickly nowadays, we'll soon get a new flat. 5. As the waiting room was being cleaned, the passengers were not let in.

  1.  Mоdel: When the work had been done, they went home. – The work having been done, they went home.

1. When the house had been built, we got a new flat. 2. As the key had been lost, she couldn't get into the room. 3. As the road had been repaired, we could go there by bus. 4. When the waiting room had been cleaned, the passengers were let in. 5. As all the tickets had been sold out, we couldn't see the performance.

Вправа 18. Знайдіть дієприкметникові комплекси. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. She opened the door and heard their voices speaking. 2. She found the old man and his granddaughter sitting at breakfast. 3.Antony saw his younger brother coming. 4. She had seen him reading it over. 5. I saw the mild eye of the good old doctor turned upon me for a moment. 6. That done, he felt almost obliged to leave the room. 7. And so often he overheard them discussing so interesting things. 8. Her heart beating, Mary hurried home. 9. I saw him going downstairs early in the morning. 10. Sorrowfully did Job return, neither Mrs. Wilson nor Mary having seen him. 11. He saw her sitting in bed, her golden hair floating behind her.

VI. Ступені порівняння

Вправа 1. Дайте відповіді на наступні запитання. Перекладіть запитання на рідну мову.

1. Which month is longer: March or April? 2. Is Moscow larger than Minsk?  3. Which is the largest city in the world? 4. Which is the largest city in the United Nationals of America? 5. Is the Black Sea deeper than the Caspian Sea? 6. Which is the deepest lake in Russia? 7. When are days longer: in winter or in summer? 8. Which is the longest day of the year? 9. Which is the shortest month of the year? 10. When is it warmer: in April or in May? 11. When is it colder: in October or in November? 12. Which country is larger: England or the United Nationals of America? 13. Which is the largest country in the world? 14. Is literature more interesting than grammar? 15. Is chemistry more difficult than physics? 16. Which is the most difficult subject? 17. Which is the most interesting subject?

Вправа 2. Перекладіть наступні речення та зробіть зміну за моделлю.

Model: Nick is neither stronger nor weaker than Tom. – Nick is as strong as Tom.

Tom is strong. Jack is stronger than Tom. – Tom is not so strong as Jack.

1. The Dnieper is long. The Volga is longer than the Dnieper. 2. My room is neither larger nor smaller than his room. 3. This watch is neither better nor worse than that. 4. Snowdon is high. Ben Nevis is higher. 5. Paul is neither older nor younger than his friends. 6. It is warm today. It was warmer yesterday. 7. July is neither longer nor shorter than August. 8. I shall be busy tomorrow. Today I am busier. 9. This street is neither wider nor narrower than that. 10. This story is interesting. That story is more interesting.

Вправа 3. Дайте відповідь на запитання.

1. Does Peter drive the car as carefully as Tom? 2. Does a taxi run as fast as a bus? 3. Did Jane speak as calmly as Helen? 4. Did you come as late as your brother? 5. Does Nick speak English as slowly as Peter? 6. Does Susan speak French as well as her mother? 7. Does Harry get up as early as his father? 8. Does Jack do his grammar exercises as carelessly as he did last year?

VII. Слова - замінники

Вправа 1. Зробіть зміну у реченнях, використовуючи займенники this (these). Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: This stadium is better than the stadium in our town. – This stadium is better than that in our town.

1. Our flat is more comfortable than the flat of our neighbour. 2. The price of a motor car is higher than the price of a motor cycle. 3. The windows of our classroom are larger than the windows of our flat. 4. Though he is young, his face is like the face of an old man. 5. The sum of 5 and 7 is equal to the sum of 9 and 3. 6. These flowers are more beautiful than the flowers growing near our house.

Вправа 2. Зробіть зміну, використовуючи замінник one. Перекласти речення на рідну мову.

Model: The red pencil is sharper than the blue pencil. – The red pencil is sharper than the blue one.

1. The new flat is more comfortable than old flat. 2. The white dress is as nice as the yellow dress. 3. The brown shoes are as dear as the black shoes. 4. The thin book has as many pages as the thick book. 5. The cotton dress is not so dear as the silk dress. 6. This film is more interesting than that film. 7. I don’t like this coat. Show me another coat. 8. The shop assistant showed me two suits of different colours. I chose the blue suit.

VІІІ. Безсполучникові речення

Вправа 1. Перекладіть наступні речення:

1. He opened the letter she had brought. 2. The house we live in is in the centre of the town. 3. He is not the man I am looking for. 4. What is the title of the film you have seen this week? 5. Where is the young woman we have just spoken to? 6. That’s the girt I want to invite to the party. 7. Here is the girt Bill wants to take to the pictures. 8. I don’t like the weather we are having today. 9. I am sure the trip will be wonderful. 10. I hope I’II get some more letters from her. 11. I think she will go to the station to meet her friends. 12. He says he was at the cinema. 13. Do you think you’ll get a lot of presents? – I am sure, I will. 14. I hope I shall be able to visit you and see the far-off land of Siberia during this summer. 15. I know you are fond of English. 16. I am sure you like films of this kind. 17. I don’t think I can go and see this film. 18. It was the most interesting lecture I’ve ever listened to. 19. You can take any seat you like. 20. Is there anything you want?

Вправа 2. Перекладіть наступні речення:

1. I’ve done all I could. 2. There’s nothing more I want to say. 3. I hope you are ready now. 4. I see you are feeling better. 5. He said he was busy. 6. I think it’s all right. 7. That is the young girl I often meet at the bus stop. 8. I want to talk to the boy my friend knows very well. 9. I think there are some pictures in that English book. 10. What is the title of the book you have read this week? 11. I am sure you can’t get the book from our library. 12. I am not quite sure this picture is as good as that are. 13. I am glad you are with us again. 14. It’s a pity you couldn’t come. 15. The boy you’ve just talked to is my sister’s friend. 16. This is the article my friend is going to read. 17. Where is the magazine I’ve got today? 18. I don’t understand the language they are speaking. 19. They say they have come from Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. 20. Tell them we shall read this book with pleasure. 21. I remember she lives somewhere in the north, does not she? 22. I am glad you have come. 23. Let’s hope you’ll pass your examinations well. 24. This is the book I was telling you about.

IX. Умовні речення

Запам'ятаєте три типи умовних речень

1

2

– If the weather is fine, we shall play outside.

Якщо погода буде гарна, ми будемо грати на відкритому повітрі.

1

2

– If you ring me up, I shall tell you something.

 Якщо ти мені подзвониш, я тобі дещо розповім.

– If the weather were fine, we should play outside.

– Якби погода була гарна (сьогодні; завтра), ми б грали на відкритому повітрі.

– If you rang me up, I should tell you something.

– Якби ти мені подзвонив (сьогодні, завтра), я б тобі дещо розповів.

– If the weather had been fine, we should have played outside.

– If you had rung me up, I should have told you something.

– Якби погода була гарна (вчора), ми б грали на відкритому повітрі.

– Якби ти мені подзвонив (вчора), я б тобі дещо розповів.

Вправа 1. Розкриваючи дужки, напишіть кожне речення три рази, утворюючи умовні речення I, II і III типів. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: If you (to be) free, I (to come) to see you.

If you are free, I shall come to see you.

If you were free, I should come to see you.

If you had been free, I should have come to see you.

If I (to see) her, I (to be) glad.

If I see her, I shall be glad.

If I saw her, I should be glad.

If I had seen her, I should have been glad.

1. If you (to be) busy, I (to leave) you alone. 2. If I (to live) in Moscow, I (to visit) the Tretyakov Gallery every year. 3. If I (to get) a ticket, I (to go) to the Philharmonic. 4. If I (to live) near a wood, I (to gather) a lot of mushrooms. 5. If my father (to return) early, we (to watch) TV together. 6. If she (to know) English, she (to try) to enter the university. 7. If my friend (to come) to see me, I (to be) very glad. 8. If mother (to buy) a cake, we (to have) a very nice tea-party. 9. If we (to receive) a telegram from him, we (not to worry). 10. If you (not to work) systematically, you (to fail) at the examination.

Вправа 2. Перепишіть кожне з наступних речень двічі, утворюючи речення нереальної умови: а) стосовно до сьогодення чи майбутнього (II тип), b) стосовно до минулого (III тип). Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. If I am not too busy, I shall go to the concert. 2. If no one comes to help, we shall be obliged to do the work ourselves. 3. If you put on your glasses, you will see better. 4. What shall we do if they are late? 5. Will you be very angry if we don't come? 6. Will he be very displeased if I don't ring him up? 7. They will all be surprised if I make such a mistake. 8. If he doesn't come in time, shall we have to wait for him?

Вправа 3. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова у формі, що вимагаються. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I should be delighted if I (to have) such а beautiful fur-coat. 2. If it (to rain), we shall have to stay at home. 3. If he (to work) hard, he would have achieved great progress. 4. If it is not too cold, I (not to put) on my coat. 5. I (to write) the composition long ago if you had not disturbed me. 6. If he (not to read) so much, he would not be so clever. 7. If my friend (to be) at home, he will tell us what to do. 8. If he were not such an outstanding actor, he (not to have) so many admirers. 9. If you (to give) me your address, I shall write you a letter. 10. If she (not to be) so absent-minded, she would be a much better student. 11. If my sister does not go to the south, we (to spend) the summer in St. Petersburg together. 12. If they (not to go) to Moscow last year, they would not have heard that famous musician. 13. If you (not to get) tickets for the Philharmonic, we shall stay at home. 14. If you were not so careless about your health, you (to consult) the doctor.

Вправа 4. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова у формі, що вимагаються. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. If she (to ask) me yesterday, I should certainly have told her all about it. 2. If you (to do) your morning exercises every day, your health would be much better. 3. If he is not very busy, he (to agree) to go to the museum with us. 4. If I (not to be) present at the lesson, I should not have understood this difficult rule. 5. If he reads fifty pages every day, his vocabulary (to increase) greatly. 6. If they (to know) it before, they would have taken measures. 7. If I (to get) this book, I shall be happy. 8. If you really loved music, you (to go) to Philharmonic much more often. 9. If you had not wasted so much time, you (not to miss) the train. 10. If you (not to miss) the train, you would have arrived in time. 11. You (not to miss) the teacher's explanation if you had arrived in time. 12. You would have understood the rule if you (not to miss) the teacher's explanation. 13. If you (to understand) the rule, you would have written the test-paper successfully. 14. If you had written the test-paper successfully, you (not to get) a "two". 15. Your mother (not to scold) you if you had not got a "two". 16. If your mother (not to scold) you, you would have felt happier.

Вправа 5. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова у формі, що вимагаються. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. If it (to snow), the children will play snowballs. 2. If I (not to know) English, I should not be able to enjoy Byron's poetry. 3. I (not to do) it if you did not ask me. 4. If men (to have) no weapons, would wars be possible? 5. You will never finish your work if you (to waste) your time like that. 6. If I (to have) his telephone number, I should easily settle this matter with him. 7. If I (to have) this rare book, I should gladly lend it to you. 8. The dish would have been much more tasty if she (to be) a better cook. 9. He never (to phone) you if I hadn't reminded him to do that. 10. Your brother (to become) much stronger if he took cold baths regularly. 11. If he (to be) more courageous, he would not be afraid. 12. If the fisherman had been less patient, he (not to catch) so much fish. 13. If you (to put) the ice-cream into the refrigerator, it would not have melted. 14. If I (to know) the result now, I would phone her immediately. 15. If you had let me know yesterday, I (to bring) you my book.

Вправа 6. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова у формі, що вимагаються. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. If you (to ring) me up, I shall tell you a secret. 2. If you (to be) a poet, you would write beautiful poetry. 3. If he did not read so much, he (not to know) English literature so well. 4. If he (to come) to our house yesterday, he would have met his friend. 5. If he (not to pass) his examination, he will not get a scholarship. 6. If she (not to help) me, I should have been in a very difficult situation. 7. My father would have more free time if he (not to read) so many newspapers. 8. If only you had let me know, I (to go) there immediately. 9. If I were a famous singer, I (to get) a lot of flowers every day. 10. If you (not to buy) coffee, we shall drink tea. 11. If he is free tomorrow, he certainly (to come) to our party. 12. My brother would not have missed so many lessons if he (not to hurt) his leg. 13. If my friend (to work) in my office, we should meet every day. 14. If you spoke English every day, you (to improve) your language skills. 15. If you get a "five", your mother (to be) happy. 16. If she (to return) earlier, she would have been able to see him before he left. 17. If these shoes were not too big for me, I (to buy) them.

Вправа 7. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи дієслова у формі, що вимагаються. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. How slippery it is! If it (not to rain), it (not to be) so slippery. 2. I am glad I was able to attend the lecture yesterday. You (to be) displeased if I (not to come)? 3. Let's take a taxi to the railway station: we have very much luggage. If we (not to have) so much luggage, we (to walk). 4. Stop working and let's go inside: it is too dark. If the evening (not to be) so dark, we (to continue) the work. 5. I don't believe you: you only say that you want to know languages. If you (to be) really interested in languages, you (to study) them. 6. I am sorry that you do not read English novels; if you (to read) them, I (to lend) you some very interesting ones. 7. You say that you did not read yesterday's papers; if you (to read) them, you (to see) the announcement of Professor X's coming to our town. 8. He is not ill: if he (to be) ill, he (not to play) tennis so much. 9. He was not ill last week: if he (to be) ill, he (not to take) part in the football match.

Вправа 8. Утворіть умовні речення. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. You did not ring me up, so I did not know you were in trouble. If ... . 2. You left the child alone in the room, so he hurt himself. If ... . 3. They spent a year in the tropics, so they got very sun-tanned. If ... . 4. It rained heavily, so we got drenched to the skin. If ... . 5. Why didn't you watch the cat? It ate all the fish. If ... . 6. A huge black cloud appeared from behind the forest, so we had to turn back and hurry home. If ... . 7. The travellers had no camera with them, so they could not take photos of the beautiful scenery. If ... . 8. There was no sugar left, so we had to go to the shop late in the evening. If ... . 9. This house is very nice and comfortable, but it is not very good for living because it is situated close to a chemical plant and the air around is very bad. If ... . 10. He is an excellent specialist, but I cannot ask his advice because I am not acquainted with him. If ... . 11. You cannot enjoy this merry evening party because you have a toothache. If ... . 12. You know the material well enough, but you are very absent-minded, and that's why you always make many mistakes. If ... . 13. We shall not go to see them because it is very late. If ... . 14. Naturally she was angry, because you were in her way. If ... .

Вправа 9. Утворіть умовні речення. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Не always gets top marks in mathematics because it is his favourite subject and he works a lot at it. If ... . 2. I did not translate the article yesterday because I had no dictionary. If ... . 3. We lost our way because the night was pitch-dark. If ... . 4. The box was so heavy that I could not carry it. That's why I took a taxi. If ... 5. I had a bad headache yesterday, that's why I did not come to see you. If ... . 6. The ship was sailing near the coast, that's why it struck a rock. If ... . 7. He was not in town, therefore he was not present at our meeting. If ... . 8. The pavement was so slippery that I fell and hurt my leg. If ... . 9. They made a fire, and frightened wolves ran away. If ... . 10. It is late, and I have to go home. If ... . 11. I was expecting my friend to come, that's why I could not go to the cinema with you. If ... . 12. The sea is rough, and we cannot sail to the island. If ... . 13. He is busy and does not come to see us. If ... . 14. The girl did not study well last year and received bad marks. If ... . 15. He broke his bicycle and so he did not go to the country. If ... . 16. He speaks English badly: he has no practice. If ... .

Вправа 10. Розкрийте дужки, вживаючи форму, що вимагається, після "I wish". Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. I wish I (to know) Spanish. 2. I wish I (not to drink) so much coffee in the evening: I could not sleep half the night. 3. I wish you (to read) more in future. 4. I wish I never (to suggest) this idea. 5. I wish we (to be) at yesterday's party: it must have been very merry. 6. I wish we (to meet) again next year. 7. Don't you wish you (to see) that performance before? 8. They wished they (not to see) this horrible scene again. 9. The unfortunate pupil wished he (not to forget) to learn the rule. 10. I wish (to have) a season ticket to the Philharmonic next winter. 11. I wish I (to consult) the teacher when I first felt that mathematics was too difficult for me. 12. I love sunny weather. I wish it (to be) warm and fine all the year round. 13. I wish I (not to lend) Nick my watch: he has broken it. 14. I wish you (to send) word as soon as you arrive. 15. I wish (not to have) to do my homework every day. I wish you (to go) skiing with me yesterday: I had such a good time!

Вправа 11. Перефразуйте наступні речення, вживаючи "I wish". Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

Model: It's a pity you are ill. I wish you were not ill.

1. It's a pity you are not with us these days. 2. My friend regrets not having entered the university. 3. He was sorry not to have had enough time to finish his test-paper. 4. It's a pity we shan't be able to reach home before tea-time. 5. I am sorry I made you upset by telling you this news. 6. What a pity you don't know enough Physics. 7. Unfortunately they won't return before Christmas. 8. The student was sorry he had not studied the material better and had shown such poor knowledge at the examination. 9. It's a pity that you did not send for us last night.

Вправа 12. Утворіть умовні речення. Не забудьте про змішані випадки. Перекладіть речення на рідну мову.

1. Не is not a first-class sportsman now because he did not train enough last year. If ... . 2. The pupils were active because they wanted to understand this difficult material. If ... . 3. The pupils did not understand the homework because they were inattentive. If ... . 4. The pupils worked hard and did well in their examinations. If ... . 5. She won't try to enter the foreign languages department because she is not good at foreign languages. If ... . 6. I shall go to the dentist because I have toothache. If ... . 7. He is groaning with pain now because he did not go to the dentist to have his tooth filled. If ... . 8. She does not go to the polyclinic because she does not need any treatment. If ... . 9. He will not go to see the play as he was present at the dress rehearsal. If ... . 10. He went to Moscow specially to hear this famous singer because she is fond of him. If ... . 11. We did not go to the refreshment room to have a glass of lemonade because we were not thirsty. If ... . 12. She could not mend her dress herself because she had no needle. If ... .


Список використаної літератури

references

  1.  Верба Г.В., Верба Л.Г. Довідник з граматики англійської мови. – Київ: Освіта. – 1993. – 285 с.
  2.  Довгорук Л.Я. Англійська мова для студентів економічних спеціальностей. Житомир: “Рута”, 2001. – 383 с.
  3.  Качалова К.И. Израилевич Е.Е. Практическая грамматика английского языка. – Киев, 1995. – 555 с.
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  5.  Кунатенко Й.Ю., Лавриненко Т.П. та ін. English Reading: Посібник для позаауд.читання з англ.мови. – Київ: КНЕУ, 2001. – 404 c.
  6.  Новий англо-український українсько-англійський словник. – Київ: “A.С.К.”, 2002. – 880 c.
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Навчальне видання

Моісєєва Фаріда Ахметівна, доцент,

Бурдакова Олена Леонідівна, ст.викладач,

Гавриліна Олена Іванівна, ст.викладач

Economics Nowadays

Навчальний посібник

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розповсюджувачів видавничої продукції ДК № 1106 від 05.11.2002 р.




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