growth nd development in the semntic structure of the word
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Semantic change – changes of both synchronic and diachronic nature, which concerns the semantic content of the word. New meanings would appear by means of semantic shift (q.v.) and semantic transference (q.v.), which lead to the growth of polysemy. Causes for s.ch. can be both extralinguistic and linguistic.
Diachronic Approach - growth and development in the semantic structure of the word.
Synchronic Approach - coexistence of various meanings at the same historical period of the development of the language.
Causes of semantic change:
- Historical causes.
Ex.: “car” which goes back to Latin “carfus” which meant a four wheeled (vehicle) wagon, despite of the lack of resemblance.
- Psychological causes.
Ex.: “lady’s room” instead of the “lavatory”
- Linguistic causes
Tendency of a language to borrow a particular metaphorical development of a word from another language.
Types of Semantic Change
- Widening/Extension - range of meanings of a word increases so that the word can be used in more contexts than were appropriate before the change
dog - 1) specific powerful breed of dog => all breeds or races of dog
cupboard - 1) table upon which cups or vessels were placed, a piece of furniture to display plates - closet or cabin with shelves for the keeping cups and dishes =>AE: small storage cabinet
- Narrowing (specialisation, restriction) - range of meaning is decreased so that a word can be used appropriately only in fewer contexts than before the change
meat - 'food' in general ;
hound - OE hund 'dog in general' => species of dog (long eared hunting dog) ;
wife - OE 'woman' =>'woman of humble rank or low employment' => 'married woman, spouse'
girl - ME 'child or young person of either sex' =>'female child, young woman'
- Metaphor - involves relationship of perceived similarity
root (of plant) => > root of plant, root of word, root in algebra, source
stud - 'good-looking sexy man '(of slang origin) derived from stud 'a male animal used for breeding
chill - "relax, calm down' of slang origin, original 'to cool'
4. Metonymy - inclusion of additional senses which were originally not present but which are closely associated with word's original meaning
- tea - 'drink' => 'evening meal accompanied by drinking tea';
cheek 'fleshy side of the face below the eye' < OE: cēace ' jaw, jawbone'
5. Synecdoche - kind of metonymy, involves part-to-whole relationship
- hand 'hired hand, employed worker';
- tongue 'language'
6. Degeneration/Pejoration - sense of a word takes on a less positive, more negative evaluation in the minds of the users
- knave 'a rogue' < OE: cnafa ' a youth, a child' > 'servant' ;
- spinster 'unmarried woman' < 'one who spins' ;
- silly 'foolish, stupid' < ME sely 'happy, innocent' < OE sælig ''blessed, blissful'
- disease 'illness' < 'discomfort'
7. Elevation /Amelioration - shifts in the sense of a word in the direction towards a more positive value in the minds of the users
- pretty < OE: prættig 'crafty, sly'
- knight 'mounted warrior serving a king' 'lesser nobility' < OE cniht 'boy, servant' >'servant' > 'military servant';
- dude 'guy, person' < in 1883 a word of ridicule for 'man who affects an exaggerated fastidiousness in dress, speech and deportment', a dandy'
8. Taboo replacement and avoidance of obscenity
- ass 'long-eared animal related to a horse' - donkey;
- cock 'adult male chicken' - rooster,
- bloody nose - blood nose/bleeding nose
- toilet : WC, bathroom, lavatory, restroom, loo, john
9. Hyperbole
- shift in meaning due to exaggeration by overstatement
- terribly, horribly, awfully 'very'
10. Litotes - exaggeration by understatement.
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