Если у вас возникли сложности с курсовой, контрольной, дипломной, рефератом, отчетом по практике, научно-исследовательской и любой другой работой - мы готовы помочь.
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1. Контрольное задание выполняется студентами в каждом семестре в установленные графиком учебного процесса сроки.
2. Из пяти вариантов контрольного задания необходимо выполнить один вариант. Номер варианта зависит от двух последних цифр зачетной книжки. Первый вариант выполняют студенты, номер зачетной книжки которых оканчивается на цифры 1 или 2; второй вариант – 3 или 4; третий вариант – 5 или 6; четвертый вариант – 7 или 8; пятый вариант – 9 или 0.
3. Контрольные работы выполняются в отдельной тетради, на обложку которой наклеивается специальный лицевой бланк. Все графы лицевого бланка аккуратно заполняются.
4. Контрольные работы должны выполняться чернилами, аккуратно, четким почерком. При выполнении контрольной работы оставляйте широкие поля для замечаний, объяснений и методических указаний рецензента.
Контрольное задание располагается в тетради по следующему образцу:
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Английский текстЗадание 1. Переведите |
Русский тексттекст на русский язык. |
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5. Контрольные работы должны быть выполнены в той последовательности, в которой они даны в настоящем пособии. Перед каждым заданием указывается его номер. Текст задания пишется полностью.
6. К заданию прилагается список использованной литературы, в который входят учебники, учебные пособия, двуязычные словари, грамматические справочники, указываются авторы и место издания.
7. В конце проставляются дата выполнения и подпись.
8. Если контрольная работа выполнена без соблюдения указаний или не полностью, она возвращается без проверки.
9. После проверки контрольного задания преподавателем делается работа над ошибками. Для этого необходимо повторить соответствующие грамматические правила.
10. При получении от рецензента проверенной контрольной работы внимательно прочитайте и ознакомьтесь с замечаниями рецензента и проанализируйте отмеченные в работе ошибки.
Все предложения, в которых были обнаружены орфографические и грамматические ошибки и неточности перевода, перепишите снова в исправленном виде в конце данной контрольной работы.
Отрецензированные контрольные работы являются учебными документами, которые необходимо сохранять. При подготовке к собеседованию по контрольной работе, необходимо повторить весь материал работы, усвоение которого проверяется во время собеседования.
1.Грамматические функции и значения слов that, one, it.
2.Пассивный залог(The Passive Voice) видо-временных форм Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect.
3.Функции глаголов to be, to have, to do.
4.Простые неличные формы глагола. Инфинитив в функции: а)подлежащего; б)составной части сказуемого; в)определения; г)обстоятельства цели.
5.Бессоюзное подчинение в определительных и дополнительных придаточных предложениях.
Образец выполнения упр. 2
Пассивный залог(The Passive Voice) видо-временных форм Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect.
The main question has already been discussed.
Главный вопрос уже обсудили.
has been discussed - Present Perfect Passive
His scientific work is much spoken about.
О его научной работе много говорят.
is spoken - Present Indefinite Passive
Образец выполнения упр. 3
Грамматические функции и значения слов that, one, it.
1. It is necessary to use the latest means of control in latest means of control. Необходимо использовать в промышленности новейшие средства контроля.
2. One should agree that that experiment was of great importance for our research.Следует согласиться, что тот эксперимент имел большое значение для нашего исследования.
3. It is hydrogen that will be the main source of energy in the car of the future. Именно водород будет основным источником энергии в автомобиле будущего.
Образец выполнения упр.4
Функции глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. Some of these corporations have been in existence for many years. – Некоторые из этих корпораций существовали на протяжении многих лет.
2. Unsuccessful businessman has to sell his private assets to pay his business debts. – Неудачливый бизнесмен вынужден продавать свои частные активы, чтобы покрыть долги своего предприятия.
3. The owner does not have enough capital for expansion. – Владелец не имеет достаточно капитала для расширения.
Образец выполнения упр.5
Бессоюзное подчинение в определительных и дополнительных придаточных предложениях.
1. What is the name of the book you are reading?
Как называется книга, которую ты читаешь?
2. The region we must explore possesses great natural wealth.
Район, который мы должны исследовать, обладает огромными природными ресурсами.
Образец выполнения упр.6
Инфинитив в функции: а) подлежащего; б) составной части сказуемого; в) определения; г) обстоятельства цели.
Taxes are sometimes imposed, in order to support domestic industries. – Налоги иногда используются с целью поддержать внутреннего производителя.
to support – инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели.
Fair trade is an organized social movement which promotes standards for international labour, environmentalism, and social policy in areas related to production of Fair-trade labelled and unlabelled goods. The movement focuses in particular on exports from developing countries to developed countries.
Fair trade’s strategic intent is to deliberately work with marginalised producers and workers in order to help them move from a position of vulnerability to security and economic self-sufficiency. It also aims at empowering them to become stakeholders in their own organizations and actively play a wider role in the global arena to achieve greater equity in international trade. Fair trade proponents include a wide array of international religious, development aid, social and environmental organizations.
The most widely recognized definition of fair trade was created by FINE, an informal Association of the four main fair trade networks. According to this definition, fair trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, which seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers - especially in the South. Fair trade organizations, backed by consumers, are engaged actively in supporting producers, awareness raising and in campaigning for changes in the rules and practice of conventional international trade.
Fair trade advocates generally support the following principles and practices in trading relationships: creating opportunities for economically disadvantaged producers, transparency and accountability, capacity building, payment of a fair price, gender equity, working conditions and environmental protection. A price that covers not only the costs of production but enables production which is socially just and environmentally sound management is known as a fair price. In the regional or local context it is one that has been agreed through dialogue and participation.
Most fair trade import organizations are members or certified by one or several national or international federations. These federations coordinate, promote and facilitate the work of fair trade organizations.
Fair-trade labeling is a certification system designed to allow consumers to identify goods which meet agreed standards. Overseen by a standard-setting body and a certification body, the system involves independent auditing of producers and traders to ensure the agreed standards are met. Fair-trade certification guarantees not only fair prices, but also the principles of ethical purchasing. These principles include adherence to ILO agreements such as those banning child and slave labour, guaranteeing a safe workplace and the right to unionise, adherence to the United Nations charter of human rights, a fair price that covers the cost of production and facilitates social development, and protection and conservation of the environment. The Fair-trade certification system also promotes long-term business relationships between buyers and sellers, crop prefinancing and greater transparency throughout the supply chain.
Notes:
1. fair trade – торговля на основе взаимной выгоды, «справедливая торговля»
2. environmentalism – экологизм, энвайронментализм (учение об окружающей среде)
3. stakeholders – заинтересованные стороны; заинтересованные круги
4. trading conditions – торговая конъюнктура
5. fair price – настоящая цена
6. ILO (International Labour Organization) – МОТ, Международная организация труда (специализированный орган ООН)
7. supply chain – канал поставок
8. FINE – ФИНЕ – неформальная ассоциация четырех ведущих организаций, связанных с торговлей на основе взаимной выгоды (ФЛО, ИФАТ, НЕВС, ЕФТА).
I. Прочитайте текст (без словаря).
II. Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
1. A price that covers not only the costs of production but enables production which is socially just is known as a fair price.
2. Large corporations growing beyond national boundaries may receive a type of subsidy besides being empowered to play a wider role in the global arena.
3. The goods exported from the Third and Second Worlds are often subjected to trade barriers.
4. Fair trade specifies how the work of men and women would be valued and rewarded.
5. Many of these issues have implications for trade, although the precise mechanisms by which trade is affected are not always well defined.
III. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения слов it, that, one.
1. Fair price in the regional or local context is one that has been agreed through dialogue and participation.
2. Following private investors’ retreat from equity and bond investments in U.S. dollar-denominated assets, the central banks of these countries have become one of the most important sources of financing for the large U.S. current account deficit.
3. It is due to producers’ independence.
4. It is the commodity crisis that has encouraged a price race to the bottom.
5. Such a rise would have important negative effects on all oil-importing economies, particularly those of low- and middle-income countries that face current account constraints.
IV. Перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на разные значения глаголов to be, to have, to do.
1. The International Fair Trade Association (IFAT) has nearly 300 member organizations in over 60 countries.
2. In Europe more resolute steps to redress government deficits and to create the fiscal room necessary to deal with the fiscal consequences of aging will be necessary if long-term interest rates are to remain low.
3. Some criteria have to be fulfilled under Fair Trade to protect it from abuse.
4. Should these countries decide to rebalance their reserve portfolio by slowing the pace at which they accumulate dollar-denominated reserves, either downward pressures on the dollar will accentuate, or interest rates will have to rise in order to attract sufficient private capital inflow.
5. Each person is always paid for their contribution to the production process.
V. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на бессоюзное подчинение.
1. Farmers’ decisions about how much to sell depend on the price they receive for their harvest.
2. The principles and practices in trading relationships fair trade advocates support include creating opportunities for economically disadvantaged producers, transparency and accountability, capacity building, payment of a fair price, gender equity, working conditions and environmental protection.
3. Fair-trade labelling is a certification system a consumer can use to identify goods which meet agreed standards.
4. Long-term business relationships the Fair-trade certification system promotes contribute to business contacts between buyers and sellers, social development, protection and conservation of the environment.
5. The way the regulation of international trade is done will show the efficiency of the government.
VI. Перепишите следующие предложения и переведите их на русский язык, обращая внимание на функцию инфинитива в предложении.
1. Fair trade involves transparent management and commercial relations to deal fairly and respectfully with trading partners.
2. Patterns of regional integration tend to confirm the view that usually trade has preceded trade agreements.
3. Fair trade relationships provide continuity, during which producers and their marketing organizations can improve their management skills and their access to new markets.
4. Because countries begin with broadly similar production and export structures, the scope for using regional trade to establish patterns of specialization and diversification in manufacturing production is limited.
5. EFTA’s (The European Fair Trade Association) goal is to promote fair trade and to make fair trade importing more efficient and effective.
VII. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите следующий текст.
VIII. Ответьте письменно на следующие вопросы:
1. What are the purposes of fair trade?
2. What organizations are the proponents of fair trade?
3. What principles and practices are generally supported in trading relationships?
4. When was the current fair trade movement shaped in Europe?
5. What is known as a Fair-trade labelling?
Forms of Business Organization in Laos.
Under the Business Law (1994), the Ministry of Trade and Tourism (MTT), Department of Enterprise Registration is responsible for registering all businesses in a Company Register. The Business Law makes no distinction between foreign and domestic companies. There are several types of business forms in Laos.
The Business Law regulates the formation, conduct of affairs, and liquidation of all companies. The Bankruptcy Law of 1994 also deals with liquidations. In order for a company to be considered as a lawfully established juristic entity, it must be properly registered with the MTT and obtain an Enterprise Registration Certificate. If no errors or omissions are made in the application form or in the documentation submitted, the application will be processed within 10 to 30 days.
Most importantly, a foreign investor must first obtain a Foreign Investment License (FI License) before applying for a Business License. The Articles of Association of a foreign investor will already have been vetted and approved by the Department of Domestic and Foreign Investment (DDFI) as part of the approval process to obtain a FI License.
Representative and Branch Offices
The FI Law permits the establishment of both representative offices and branch offices in Laos. Under the DDFI interpretation of a representative office, such an office cannot conduct business on its own, but must refer all business operations to units outside the country. The procedures for registering a branch office are the same as for any other type of company. A branch office is regarded as the same legal entity as its parent company. The parent company, therefore, can be held responsible for all liabilities of the branch in Laos.
Partnership
A partnership can be formed between two or more partners to carry out business. There is no capital requirement for a partnership. The partnership can be managed by either or all of the partners or by a designated manager.
Limited Liability Company
A limited liability company is comprised of from one to twenty shareholders. It must have a registered capital of at least kip 5,000,000 ($US 470 as of April 2003). A limited liability company is the most common structure for conducting business in Laos. Its liabilities to others are separate from those of its shareholders.
Sole Trader Enterprise
A sole trader enterprise is a business entity with a minimum registered capital of 1,000,000 kip created by one person who is fully liable for the activities of the entity. The owner of such a business acts on behalf of the entity and may assign a manager to run the business.
Public Company
A public company can be created by a minimum of seven shareholders. All shares in the company must have equal value. Shareholders in public companies are liable up to the limit of their unpaid capital contribution. A public company’s registered capital must be 50,000,000 kip or greater.
The management of a public company is conducted by the Executive Council, which includes 5 to 17 members, including one or two workers’ representatives.
Mixed Enterprise
A Joint-Venture enterprise is a joint enterprise between the state on one side, and other forms of private business entities on the other side. In mixed enterprises, the state must hold at least 51% of the shares.
Types of Business Organization
Different types of business entities offer their own distinct benefits and negatives. Generally speaking, it is to the owner's benefit to hire a lawyer to handle the incorporating duties, if needed. The cost is not usually that huge, and lawyers come equipped with red-tape cutting brains (at least the good ones do).
By choosing the best type of business entity from the beginning, people can avoid later problems and costs that are not necessary. Here are the types of business organization to be considered:
General Corporation: Known as a "C" corporation, it may have an unlimited number of stockholders. It usually involves more than 30 stockholders or large public stock offerings, and each stockholder's personal liability is more often limited to their investment.
Close Corporation: Probably the best choice for a lone individual starting a company or one started by a small group of people. The number of stockholders is limited to 30, and directors wishing to sell stock must first offer it to other stockholders.
S Corporation: For those who wish to be taxed as if they were still sole proprietors or partners. It pays federal income tax on its profits, offers limited liability for the individual. S Corporation income is reported only on the stockholders' personal income tax. There can be no more than 75 stockholders.
Sole Proprietorship: One person owns and runs the company and is responsible for all liability, profit, or loss.
Partnership: Two people go together to form a business, and together are responsible for all liability, profit, or loss. Types of partnerships include general, limited (where only one of the two is liable for the partnership beyond making a contribution, and joint venture (in place for a pre-determined amount of time).
There are a number of things to consider when starting a business. For those who engage in a small business, such as a sole proprietorship, a partnership, or a small S Corporation, they must consider all things good and bad that can happen and then make plans to deal with those things.
The bottom line is that a business is a business and cannot be operated like a hobby. That doesn't mean you can't enjoy it, but it does mean you have to pay attention to the same details that every business must in order to make it profitable. And, believe me, there is no greater enjoyment in business than profit.
Forms of Business Organization (Partnership)
Business activities can be operated under various forms, such as sole proprietorships, partnership, limited company, etc. In deciding under which form the business should be operated, one must consider various essential elements such as nature of the trade, capital investment, knowledge and ability to operate the business, etc. in order to be successful.
There are two different types of Partnership, i.e. General Partnership and Limited Partnership. The general rules governing all two forms of partnership are basically the same but the liabilities of the partners differ significantly, depending upon the type of the partnership.
General Partnership
A general partnership is a private contractual relationship among the partners and is defined as a partnership in which all partners are, jointly and unlimitedly, liable for all of the obligations. Each partner must contribute money, property or services to the partnership. If the partnership contract does not specify the devising of profits or losses, the share of each partner in the partnership's profits and losses is in proportion to his or her contribution.
All partners are bound by the acts done by any of them in the ordinary cause of the business of the partnership. No partner may acquire an individual right against a third person by virtue of a transaction in which his own name did not appear individually.
A partner who has withdrawn from the partnership still remains liable for the obligations incurred on account of the partnership before his or her withdrawal. A new partner is liable for all the partnership obligations incurred prior to his or her becoming a partner. All partners in general partnership have equal right in the management of the partnership.
Limited Partnership
Limited partnership has two type of partners, i.e. those with a limited liability and those with unlimited liability. For the limited partner the liability is limited to the amount of their contribution to the partnership. The general partners are jointly and unlimitedly liable for all obligation of the partnership. The law requires that there must be at least one unlimited liability partner, general partner, in a limited partnership.
A limited partnership must be managed by the general partners only. Unlike a partner in a general partnership, a limited partner in a limited partnership may carry on any business even if it is in competition with the partnership. A limited partner may transfer his or her interest in the partnership without consent of the other partners. The death of a limited partner or his or her bankruptcy or incapacity does not give right to the dissolution of limited partnership.
Freedom of Incorporation
Negative opinion regarding corporations persisted through to the turn of the eighteenth century, although in England chartered companies made significant inroads in the insurance and transportation industries due to the need to raise large amounts of capital and to diversify risk. Moreover, quasi-corporations existed in shipping and tin mining. These sectors were under the special jurisdiction of admiralty and stannary courts. Both court systems operated under the principle of customary law, where legal principles adapted to suit business practice instead of conforming to a set of abstract legal principles, as was characteristic of both civil and natural law.
In contrast, under the common law, many corporations had to constitute more circuitously, given the difficulty of obtaining a charter. Through the trust device, promoters hoped to establish joint-stock firms having transferable shares and the ability to sue and be sued. However, this device could not be used to attain limited liability. Beginning in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, such unincorporated companies appeared in the silk, wool, food, and beer industries, but were notably absent in the cotton and metal industries. In this period the number of companies increased five-fold, and many of them were unincorporated.
The growth in unincorporated businesses occurred despite their illegality under the Bubble Act (1720). This act had been dormant but was resurrected in a number of court rulings in the period 1808 to 1812. The legal threat to the unincorporated companies dissipated only when the act was repealed in 1825. Under a strict interpretation of the common law they were still illegal, but a business-friendly regime at both the chancery- and common-law courts had ruled that such companies were in the public interest. However, continued uncertainty prompted Parliament to enact company legislation that had as its main tenet freedom of incorporation. A chief concern focused on whether freedom to incorporate should be constrained to guard against overpromotion and stock speculation. However, lessons from incorporation experiences in the United States and France ultimately resulted in the English Companies Act of 1844 granting freedom of incorporation, and leaving investors to protect themselves. However, corporations were required to accurately report half-yearly earnings to stockholders.
Freedom to incorporate with limited liability in Britain did not come until 1856. Free incorporation with limited liability soon followed in France, and by 1860 most U.S. states had adopted it. Finally, by the last quarter of the nineteenth century many continental European nations had followed suit, ushering in the modern corporate era.
Forms of Business Organization (S Corporation)
An “S Corporation” is a corporation that elects to be taxed under Subchapter S of the Internal Revenue Code and receives IRS approval of its request for Subchapter S status. As a legal entity, the S corporation is separate and distinct from the corporation’s owners (the stockholders).
An S corporation can issue only one class of stock. Prior to January 1, 1997, an S corporation can have no more than 35 stockholders. In tax years beginning after December 31, 1996, the maximum number of eligible stockholders is increased from 35 to 75.
After December 31, 1996 a testamentary trust can hold S corporation stock for up to two years from the date of the grantor’s death. (Prior to January 1, 1997, the holding period is 60 days.) Generally, this change will make it easier to settle an estate where a testamentary trust is established and receives S corporation stock in the estate settlement process. Consult your attorney for advice and guidance on applications of this longer holding period to the administration of any testamentary trust that receives S corporation stock.
As a separate legal entity, the corporation finances and records are established and maintained completely separate and distinct from the finances and records of the stockholders. Through a resolution adopted at a stockholders meeting held in accordance with the bylaws of the corporation, one or more officers or employees of the corporation are authorized to conduct business on behalf of the corporation. The resolution typically includes an authorization with specified limits to borrow and repay funds as needed for business operations. Credit arrangements are made in the name of the corporation with loan documents signed by the authorized person or persons after the lender has received a certified copy of the authorizing resolution. If the corporation is newly formed, small (has few assets), or has a limited record of credit use, it’s likely that a lender will require personal guarantees by one or more officers or stockholders before approving a credit application received from the corporation. If personal guarantees are given, the signer(s) usually have unlimited liability for the debts of the corporation.
The Corporate Charter includes information on the purpose(s) for which the corporation is organized and the life of the corporation. (A corporation often has perpetual life.) Bylaws of the Corporation are the “rules” for conducting the organizational life of the corporation.
Moderate legal costs are incurred in setting up a typical S corporation and annual costs are incurred for stockholders meetings, tax return preparations, and preparing other yearly reports and summaries as needed for management and as desired by stockholders. Public notice of the formation and continued operation of a corporation is required and is accomplished through filings with the Secretary of State’s Office.
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