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ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ
УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО
ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«РОССИЙСКАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ ПРАВОСУДИЯ»
РОСТОВСКИЙ ФИЛИАЛ
КАФЕДРА ЯЗЫКОЗНАНИЯ И ИНОСТРАННЫХ ЯЗЫКОВ
Английский язык.
Сборник устных тем
для студентов очной формы обучения
(специальность 030501.65 – «Юриспруденция»)
Ростов-на-Дону
2010
Авторы-составители:
Сосканова М.Р., кандидат философских наук, старший преподаватель кафедры языкознания и иностранных языков Ростовского филиала Российской академии правосудия
Лысенко Н.А., старший преподаватель кафедры языкознания и иностранных языков Ростовского филиала Российской академии правосудия
Рецензенты:
Кудряшов И.А., доктор филологических наук, профессор ФОУ ВПО ПИ ЮФУ.
Гришечко О.С., кандидат филологических наук, доцент ФОУ ВПО ПИ ЮФУ.
Сборник одобрен кафедрой языкознания и иностранных языков Ростовского филиала Российской академии правосудия (протокол № 5 от 25 декабря 2009 г.)
Рекомендован к изданию УМС Ростовского филиала Российской академии правосудия (протокол № 2010 г.).
© Ростовский филиал Российской академии правосудия, 2010
© Сосканова М.Р. Лысенко Н.А., 2010
Предлагаемый сборник направлен на развитие навыков чтения, перевода и монологической речи студентов первого и второго курсов юридического факультета, изучающих английский язык на дневном отделении.
Лексический материал подобран с учетом требований, предъявляемых студентам 1 и 2 курса юридического факультета очной формы обучения.
Основными целями пособия являются:
Содержание
CLIMATE AND WEATHER
Warming-up questions
THE SEASONS AND THE WEATHER
There are four seasons in a year: spring, summer, autumn and winter. Every season lasts three months.
Winter usually begins in December and ends in March. In Russia winter is usually a cold season. It often snows, the rivers and lakes are frozen over. The average temperature is about 5 degrees below zero.
It gets dark early in the evening. It gets light late in the morning. In winter we have the shortest days and the longest nights. It is difficult and unpleasant to get up early in the morning in winter because it is dark and cold, the sky is often grey, nature is sleeping.
But winter is a good time for sports. In winter we can go in for such kinds of sport as skating and skiing. It is very pleasant to go skiing in the country on a bright sunny day. At the end of winter the sun begins to shine as brightly as in spring, but it is not so warm as in spring yet.
Spring comes in March. The sun begins to shine more brightly, the days become longer and the first spring flowers appear everywhere. Everything is so fresh and so beautiful, nature awakens after a long sleep of winter. Everybody enjoys the beginning of spring. The birds return from the South. Everything around is full of life and joy, the sky is blue and cloudless.
At the beginning of spring it is still cold, but at the end of spring it gets much warmer. Sometimes it rains. But the rain does not last long, sometimes there are storms with thunder and lightning, and it is not so warm as in summer.
Summer is the warmest season of the year. It begins in June and ends in August. July is the warmest month of the year. The sky is blue. The sun is bright and hot. In summer we have the longest days and the shortest nights. It rains but the rain is warm and the flower smell sweet. Most people have their holidays in summer and spend a lot of time in the open air. The countryside looks very nice and most people leave town for the country. We can swim and bathe, we can play tennis and football, have a walk through the fields and meadows.
After summer comes autumn. Autumn is the harvest time, when the fruit and vegetables become ripe, the corn gets golden in the fields. Autumn is very beautiful at the beginning when it is still warm and the leaves are getting yellow and red. In late September people enjoy Indian Summer, when the weather is still warm and in the air you can feel gossamer. Little by little the days become shorter and the nights become longer. It gets colder and colder. In October and November it often rains and people put on raincoats and take umbrellas. The streets, the houses, the trees are wet with rain, heavy clouds hang in the sky. But every season is pleasant in its own way.
CLIMATE
In the first place the climate varies according to altitude. On the equator at a height of 8,000 metres it is no warmer than in England at sea level. The highest point is the coldest.
Another factor is the effect of ocean currents. Thus the British Isles lie in the way of the warm Golf Stream. The warm air rising from the Golf Stream surrounds Great Britain and prevents the freezing of the rivers even on the coldest days. In spite of lying at the same distance from the equator Moscow and London have a different climate: the average temperature in London is higher than that in Moscow.
Finally there are the effects of prevailing winds blowing across the Atlantic and carrying warm air, which keeps the winter climate mild, moist and foggy.
The climate of a country is one of the factors that influence the style of its architecture. It can be best illustrated by British residential buildings. The weather in England is often cloudy and there are few sunny days. Therefore, the windows in an English house are of a large size to catch as much light and sunshine as possible.
Since there is much rain in England, typical British houses have high, steep roofs where rain water and melting snow can easily flow down.
Most of the houses have a fireplace which forms the most characteristic feature of an English home.
The plan of an English house also differs from that of the houses where we live. English architects plan some apartments vertically instead of planning them horizontally, so that an English family having a separate apartment lives on two or sometimes three floors with rooms connected with a narrow staircase. They find it the most convenient style of apartment.
An Englishman prefers to have an individual cottage in the suburbs. But the problem of housing brought about great changes into the architectural design of modern houses which differ greatly from those of the older type. The typical features of ah English house are disappearing one by one, which makes it look like a standard residence in any country.
Comprehension check
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Warming-up questions
Environmental protection is one of the main problems of today. Industrial civilisation is characterised by numerous factories and power stations, automobiles and aeroplanes. Technological progress improves people’s lives, but at the same time it causes numerous problems that were unimaginable in the past centuries. Through their daily activities people pollute and contaminate land, water and air. Today pollution has become a universal problem. Both the atmosphere of the Earth and the depths of the oceans are poisoned with toxic wastes created by the humans. Millions of species – animals, birds, fish have already disappeared from our planet; thousands of others will be gone tomorrow. Natural resources are exhausted; the ecology of the planet is disbalanced. The survival of our civilisation depends on the ability of mankind to find a way out. The task of protecting the nature is of primary importance now.
Big cities face the environmental catastrophe. Concentration of millions of people on a tiny area causes numerous problems. Some of them can be solved only at the expense of creating new ones. For example, air pollution is caused by the ever-increasing number of automobiles that help to cope with the transportation problem. The need for energy generates pollution on a large scale. Energy that derives from fossil fuels contaminates the atmosphere. Nuclear power plants threaten air, water and land. The necessity to employ all the inhabitants of the city leads to the creation of new factories that produce not only consumer goods, but wastes and smog as well. Constant carbon dioxide emissions is a characteristic feature of big cities. Pollution of water by both industrial and domestic users creates the problem of water deficit. One form of pollution that is characteristic of large urban cities is noise that has destructive influence on a person’s mind. Litter is another issue that people face in big cities. As a result of it big industrial centres today look more like garbage dumps.
It would be naive to think that the environmental problems are limited to big cities only. Our Earth is a living entity; land, air and water are inseparable. Water contaminated in big cities runs to the major rivers that then flow into oceans and seas, thus affecting places far from the point of origin. The atmosphere is in constant movement; the air polluted in the United States can travel the next day to Russia poisoning our people.
Another source of global danger is acid rain. It is a relatively new kind of pollution. Acid rains appeared as a reaction of the atmosphere to the air contamination. Acid rains damage water, forest, and soil resources. Acid rains cause the disappearance of fish from many lakes, bring death to the forests and woods in Europe and America. One more danger comes from the depletion of the ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. If it continues it will damage all living organisms on our planet.
The only thing that people fail to realise is that humanity is also part of the biosphere and that people depend completely on the environment. The war on nature that mankind is waging today is a kind of collective suicide. People pollute the air that they breathe, poison the water that they drink. The most evident example of such suicidal tendencies is smoking. Smoking not only harms the health of the smoker, but also is destructive for others. That is why many countries passed laws to restrict smoking in public and at work.
Beginning with the 1960s the pollution problems have received great publicity. Recently the environmental movement has gained widespread support. Environmental activists, organisations of volunteers do their best to stop pollution of our planet. Due to such groups many laws aimed at environmental protection have been passed. Such laws as the Clean Air Act, Water Pollution Control Act, Endangered Species Act led to considerable specific improvements in the environment. Numerous chemicals, fertilisers and gases that were once used in agriculture and industry are banned today. Standards for food have become strict, because agricultural chemicals, used for growing crops, may poison people and end up in food and water supply. In many countries purifying systems for treatment of industrial waters have been installed, measures have been taken to protect rivers and seas from oil waters.
Greenpeace organisation was created in 1987. This organisation carries out numerous campaigns against the global environmental pollution. The protection of natural resources and wild animals is becoming a political programme in every country.
Public attention to the problem of pollution has now become part of the contemporary life. The solution of this global problem requires the co-operation of all nations. People also worry about the dangers resulting from massive releases of radioactive materials from nuclear weapons, which, if used on a major scale, could seriously endanger the humanity. Another concern is accidents at nuclear power plants. In 1978 a nuclear power plant in the United States suffered a severe accident leading to radioactive contamination of water and atmosphere. In 1986 the Chernobyl nuclear power plant near Kiev suffered a fire and a serious breakdown that led to a radioactive explosion. The contaminated air was soon carried to northern and eastern European countries that suffered radioactive rains.
To protect nature people should change their attitude to it. Man should stop taking from nature everything he needs and give it his love instead. Otherwise the price that mankind will have to pay will be too high. It is good that at last people started to realise that they should keep air and water clean by establishing strict pollution control. Efforts are made to reduce pollution from automobile engines by developing pollution-free engines, which may eventually eliminate the more serious air pollution problems. Certain countries have already agreed to limit their carbon dioxide emissions. Moreover, the strong public reaction can facilitate the exercise of absolute pollution control in various contamination industries.
Comprehension check
WORK AND JOBS
Warming-up questions
There may be different types of work.
You work with your hands if you do manual work, and then you are called a blue-collar.
Blue-collar workers do manual work, work in factories, or build things.
Manual workers often work outdoors, for example as gardeners or road builders.
People who work in a factory or a shop get wages, the money paid every week by their employer.
If you do office work (and work in an office), then you are called a white-collar.
White-collar workers have jobs in offices, banks, company management and so on.
They are called employees, because they are paid to work for someone else.
Employees, especially people in a profession (such as a teacher or a lawyer), get a salary.
It is the money paid every month by their employer.
Both in an office and in a factory you can work with people, and then your job involves a lot of contact with people and not just machines.
If you work in a team, you work together with other people in a group and not alone.
You can work both part-time or have a full-time job.
Someone who has a part-time job works for only part of each day or week.
Someone who works full-time, works for all the hours of a week during which it is usual for people to work or study.
Some people work independently for different companies and are not employed by one particular company.
They are called freelancers.
Others are self-employed – they work for themselves and are not employed by a company.
There are some positive aspects of work, like job satisfaction and job security – when you get enjoyment from doing your work and are not in danger of losing your job.
Other positive aspects of work are: a pay rise – an Increase in the amount of money you are paid for your job, a bonus – money added to your wages as a reward for good work, perks – something that you get legally from your work in addition to your wages, such as goods, meals, or a car, and other fringe benefits – additional services or advantages given with a job besides wages.
Paid holiday, pension contributions and sick pay also add to job satisfaction.
However, there are also negative aspects of work such as work-related stress, discrimination m the workplace, understaffing and unsocial hours.
Comprehension check
MY FUTURE PROFESSION
Warming-up questions
While at school I changed my mind many times and couldn’t decide what to choose: psychology, history, law, languages… There are many opportunities and many interesting and useful professions. Finishing school is the beginning of the independent life for school leavers. And we must understand that choosing a profession or career for our future life is a serious problem. If it is difficult for you to make the right choice, then follow the advice of your parents.
As for me I’ve make my choice long ago. My dream is to become a lawyer and I hope that this profession will be my future occupation for a long time. Law is a very useful and important subject because it deals with people and their behaviour.
I’ll try to do my best to be helpful for people in trouble and for our society. To my mind the job shouldn’t be only a matter of future wealth but it should also be interesting and useful for society. I know that my interest in the chosen subject insufficient but if I am lucky, I’ll have a chance to study different aspects of law, listen to experienced lectures, attend seminars of practical lawyers, famous professors. I realize that it’s a difficult task and I have to work twice as hard as others. I took a prepatory course at Rostov State Economic University, where we were given lectures and seminars on social sciences, Russian and English languages. I’m looking forward to becoming a student. If I fail at the exams, I’ll make another attempt next year. Nevertheless if it were not for hope, the heart would break. I really want to be a student, it is so interesting! I want to take part in all student’s events and amateur activities.
Comprehension check
IN THE USA: THE MEDIA
Warming-up questions
WHAT’S ON TV?
On the average, American viewers watch TV four hours a day, and usually tune to one of the national commercial networks: ABC, NBC, CBS, or Fox Broadcasting Company. These stations attract about 98 percent of TV audiences. During a sixty-minute TV program, they show about twelve minutes of commercials.
The commercial networks broadcast a variety of shows: news, drama, soap operas, comedy, sports, music, movies, children’s programs, game shows, and talk shows. There is a lot of competition for viewers, especially during prime time, from 7 to 11 P.M.
PBS (Public Broadcasting Service) is the only noncommercial network. It is supported by government and private funding and broadcasts more serious drama, performing arts, science, public-affairs documentaries, and educational children’s programs. All five networks broadcast twenty-four hours a day.
Some viewers pay to receive a wider selection of programs on cable television. There are up to 500 cable stations. Two well-known ones are HBO (Home Box Office), which shows movies, and CNN, which specializes in news.
ON THE AIR
Across the United States there are more than nine thousand radio stations. Almost all of them are commercial, except for National Public Radio stations. Listeners can tune into all kinds of stations: pop or classical music, news, sports, or community radio. Talk radio shows are very popular. Listeners call in and ask the talk show host or guests questions about anything from cooking or car repair to politics or health.
IN THE NEWSPAPERS
Eight out of ten Americans read a tabloid or standard newspaper every day. There’s something for everyone to read, because there are 1,700 daily and 6,300 weekly newspapers. Often newspapers are delivered early in the morning so people can read them before leaving home for the day to go to work.
Standard newspapers have long articles about local, national, and international news, while tabloid newspapers include short news articles and a lot of photos, stories about famous people, comic strips, advice columns, and horoscopes.
Most newspapers are regional rather than national, although some are distributed all over America. The New York Times, for example, is available in New York and in most big cities.
The paper with the largest circulation (1.9 million copies a day) is The Wall Street Journal, which specializes in business news.
On Sundays The New York Times has fourteen sections, and weighs up to five pounds! The table of contents for a Sunday edition includes: Arts and Leisure; Automobiles; The City; Editorials and Op-Ed; Magazine; Money and Business; Real Estate; Regional Weeklies; SportsSunday; Television; Travel; Week in Review.
Comprehension check
IN BRITAIN: THE MEDIA
Warming-up questions
THE NATIONAL PRESS
British people like reading newspapers. They read more newspapers than in any other European country.
There are two types of newspaper in Britain: tabloid and broadsheet. Tabloids (The Daily Mirror, The Sun) have lots of stories about famous people; the photos are large; the headlines are big and there is not much text. Tabloids sell many more copies than broadsheets. Broadsheets (The Times, The Guardian) have long articles with lots of information; some pages report international news; the photos and the headlines are smaller than in the tabloids. A broadsheet newspaper is double the size of a tabloid newspaper. It is more difficult to hold. The differences between the tabloids and the broadsheets are breaking down. Broadsheets now have a tabloid section, and now have stories about famous people.
Sunday newspapers are a part of the British way of life. These newspapers only appear on Sundays and are more popular than the daily newspapers. They concentrate on general issues and famous people. Some people spend all day reading Sunday newspaper.
MAGAZINES
There are thousands of weekly and monthly magazines in Britain. They can be divided into four main categories: specialist magazines, general magazines, women’s magazines and teenage magazines. Young people below the age of 18 do not buy newspapers, but they do buy magazines. Many more girls than boys buy magazines. Their main interests seem to be boys, pop music, clothes and makeup. Smash Hits is a music magazine which both girls and boys buy. Just Seventeen is one of the most popular girl’s magazines. Shout is popular with young teenage girls.
WHAT’S ON ‘THE BOX»?
Over 99 per cent of British homes have a TV and the average person watches “the box” 26 hours a week. There are four (non-satellite) TV channels in Britain: BBC1, BBC2, I TV and Channel 4. BBC1 and BBC2, the two state channels, do not show adverts. ITV and Channel 4, the two independent channels, do show adverts.
BBC1 and ITV tend to broadcast popular programmes: sports programmes, recent films, the news, game shows, children’s programmes and soaps. BBC2 and Channel 4 show programmes which usually attract much smaller audiences: TV plays, classical concerts, foreign films and programmes for minority groups. Only eight per cent of British homes subscribe to satellite or cable TV.
LET’S WATCH A VIDEO
About 70 per cent of UK households now have a video recorder. People mostly use them to record TV programmes which they then watch at a more convenient time.
Teenagers aged between 14 and 16 like getting together with friends to watch a video. They often choose films with an 18 rating. These videos ore unsuitable for people below the age of 18 because they are violent, but many teenagers watch them anyway.
RADIO WAVES
The BBC broadcasts on five national and 32 local radio stations. Each of the BBC radio stations specialises in a particular type of programme: Radio 1 specialises in rock music; Radio 2 in popular music and light entertainment; Radio 3 in classical music; Radio 4 in current affairs and drama; Radio 5 in current affairs and sport.
Most people listen to the radio in the morning. They like background music while getting ready to go to school or driving to work.
Comprehension check
GEOGRAPHY OF THE USA
Warming-up questions
The United States of America is a big and diverse country. It is the fourth largest country in the world after Russia, Canada and China.
The United States of America is in the central part of the North American Continent. The country is washed by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and by the Pacific Ocean on the west. In the north, the USA shares its border with Canada and in the south with Mexico.
The present territory of the USA consists of three parts:
The continental US is divided into three areas:
Eastern –highland;
Central – a plain;
Western – mountaneous, including the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and Sierra Nevada.
The chief rivers are the Mississippi River with its tributaries, the Missouri and the Ohio, also the Rio Grand, the Colorado and the Columbia. The Mississippi River – called by Native Americans “Father of Waters” – lives up to that tribute to its size, power, and majesty. The second longest river in the world after the Nile, the Mississippi extends almost 4,000 miles.
In the northern part of the USA there is a region of the five Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario). The Lakes play an important role in the economic life of both the United States of America and Canada.
The USA has many climates. There are places that are warm all year round, and there are places covered with ice and snow where summer never comes.
The USA is a highly developed industrial country. It is rich in oil, gas, copper, gold, silver and other metals. The country has rich deposits of coal and iron ore in the Appalachian range, and oil and gas in Texas and California.
Of all the regions in the continental U.S., Alaska and Hawaii are in sharp contrast to each other. The geography and climate and kinds of people who have settled them have shaped their destinies differently. But all are bound together by a way of life that is American.
Comprehension check
THE AMERICAN POLITICAL SYSTEM
Warming-up questions
The United States of America is a federal union of 50 states plus one independent district- the District of Columbia. The District of Columbia is the territory of the city of Washington, the national capital. Washington, D.C., lies between two states: Virginia and Maryland on the Potomac River. This place was selected personally by the first President of the United States – George Washington. In 1791 he purchased the land from private owners.
Washington, D.C., is the seat of the Federal Government of the United Sates. The Federal Government is made up of three branches – the Executive, the Legislative and the Judicial Branches.
The function of the Executive Branch is to carry out laws of the nation. It consists of the President, Vice-President and the President’s Cabinet. The members of the cabinet are chosen by the President. Most of them are called Secretaries: the Secretary of State, Agriculture, Labour etc. The President and Vice-President are chosen in a national election for a four year term of office and may be reelected for a second time. They must be native-born citizens, at least 35 years old and members of a political party. In the USA there are two major parties: the Democratic Party (symbolized by a “donkey”) and the Republican Party (its symbol is an “elephant”), and many small parties. The White House in Washington is the residence of the US President.
The Legislative Branch, Congress, is where the laws are made and adopted. The seat of the US Congress is the Capitol. Congress is made of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate includes 100 members (2 from each state) and is presided over by Vice-President. Senators are elected for 6 years and only one third retire in rotation. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members and is presided over by the Speaker who is elected among the members of the House. The members of this House are elected for only 2 years. Election day is always in November. Inauguration day is on the 20th of January. On this day the new President is sworn.
The Judicial Branch is headed by the Supreme Court, which settles any disputes involving the national government or disputes between two or more states. The Supreme Court consists of Chief Justice and eight associate Justices who are appointed for life.
The whole system of American government is based on the principles established in the Constitution and Bill of Rights. The present Constitution was proclaimed in 1787 after the war of Independence in Philadelphia.
The State government follows the same pattern as the Federal Government. Each state has an Executive Branch headed by the Governor, a Legislative Branch and a Judicial Branch. State governments manage local affairs while the Federal Government deals with national and international problems that involve more than one state.
Comprehension check
THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Warming-up questions
2. What are the US state Courts and their functions?
In the United States there is a dual court system composed of a federal judiciary and 50 states judiciaries. The federal judiciary consists of the Supreme Court and the system of federal courts. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial organ of the U.S.A. It meets in the Supreme Court Building of white marble in Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court is made up of the Chief Justice and eight associate justices. They are all appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. Every judge is appointed for life, or until he chooses to resign. One of the most important duties of the justices is to decide whether laws passed by the Congress agree with the Constitution.
By creating the Supreme Court and authorizing the establishment of other Federal courts, the Constitution created the judicial power, that is the power to hear and decide the two classes of cases – criminal and civil. The jurisdiction of the Federal courts may include cases which concern the interpretation of the Constitution, of treaties between the U.S. and foreign countries. All cases involving a violation of Federal criminal laws are heard in a Federal court. They include cases relating to internal security, immigration, etc.
Immediately below the Supreme Court stand the Courts of Appeals, created in 1891 to facilitate the disposition of cases. With few exceptions, cases decided in the district courts go next to the appeals courts. Only the Supreme Court reviews the decisions of the appeals courts.
94 district courts are located in the states. Most cases and controversies start in district courts. Here nearly all accused of committing federal crimes are tried.
The Court of Claims consisting of a chief justice and four associate justices was established in 1855. This court hears claims of private individuals against the government for breach of contracts, unpaid salary, property taken for public use and personal injuries. To adjudicate controversies arising within custom houses, the custom court was established in 1890.
Comprehension check
1.What is the federal judiciary made up?
HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE USA
Warming-up questions:
There is no national system of higher education in the United States. American higher education developed its own pattern by the adaptation of two traditions: the collegiate tradition of England and the university tradition of the continent.
American colleges and universities are either public or private. A public institution is owned and operated by a government, either a state or municipal government. But it does not mean that it is absolutely free. The state colleges or universities charge a fee for tuition or registration. This fee is higher for those who come from outside the state. A private institution receives no direct financial aid from any government, municipal, state or federal. The money used to pay the operating expenses has a threefold origin:
Of the nation's nearly 1,900 institutions of higher learning are state or city institutions. About 1,200 are privately controlled. Approximately 700 of these are controlled by religious groups.
In general, higher education in the USA may be divided into two broad fields: liberal arts (languages, history, science and philosophy) and professional (agriculture, law, engineering, medicine, etc.).
Admission to colleges and universities is by selection the results of SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test). SAT results are not the only items requested by institutions of higher education. Most schools will ask for
The selection for admission is complex. No single factor carries overwhelming weight and the final decision is based on many factors, both academic and non-academic.
The course of studies usually lasts four years for Bachelor's Degree. Students are classified as freshmen, sophomors, juniors and seniors. A freshman is a first-year student, a sophomor - a second-year student, a junior - a third year student, and a senior - a fourth-year student. A student working for the Bachelor's Degree (BA or BS) is called an undergraduate; one working for the Master's (MA or MS) or Doctor of Philosophy Degree (PhD) is called a graduate student. Some students receive scholarships which pay all or part of their tuition. A person on such a fellowship is called a university fellow.
The American academic year usually runs from the middle of August to the beginning of May. If one takes summer classes, it runs until the beginning of July. Most schools divide the academic year into 3 terms or 2 semesters. Achievement is measured by grades which are given on papers and tests during the course of semester and a final examination at the end of the term.
A grade point average (GPA) is determined at the end of term to show student's overall achievement. Grades are usually on a four-point scale, with letters to indicate the levels of achievement. «A» is the highest mark, the letters go through «B», «C», «D», «F» the last of which denotes a failure.
Higher educational institutions usually are governed by a hoard of regents or a board of trustees.
The executive head of a college or university is usually called the president. The various colleges or schools which make up a university are headed by deans. The subject groups within each school are headed by a professor who is designated as department head or chair. Other members of the department hold academic ranks, such as instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor. Graduate students who give some part-time service may be designated as fellows or GAs (Graduate Assistants).
Comprehension check
LEGAL EDUCATION IN THE USA
Warming-up questions
Legal education mode in the USA is rather complex consisting of several important stages. It takes seven years to become a lawyer in the USA. That means four years of undergraduate study for a bachelor’s degree followed by the graduate Juries Doctor (JD) law degree. Law is not offered at the undergraduate level; so students read law only at law schools. Law students need to develop the three basic skills: communication skills both written and spoken; research skills; and especially analytical thinking skills. These abilities can be developed by any major: social sciences, history, economics, humanities, and engineering. So a bachelor’s degree at any top college or university that provide highly efficient background will give a better chance for admission.
It’s not really difficult to enter a law school, if a person has high undergraduate grades and also score high on the LSAT (Law School Admission Test). This test measures reading and verbal succeed in law school. It consists of five 35-minute sections of multiple choice sections will contribute to the applicant’s score. These sections include one reading comprehension section, one analytical reasoning section, and two logical reasoning sections, an experimental section which can be any of the above and finally, and an essay writing section. A successful applicant becomes a happy student.
During the first year of law school the students usually take major courses such as Constitutional Law, Contracts, Property Law, Torts, Civil Procedure and Legal Writing. There is also a Program of Legal Research and Writing. The students learn how to work with documents just the way a lawyer usually does. They attend the library, write legal memoranda, draft documents, and prepare briefs. The students also participate in the school’s moot competitions in which the skills of argumentation are developed, in mock trials under the supervision of experienced lawyers and judges, and in legal clinic activities. A special clinical semester is aimed at gaining practical experience by young lawyers. It is a hands-on learning model when students develop their lawyering skills working with real clients. The clinical semester is offered for the second on third year students.
For upper-level students the courses are mainly optional. There usually is a broad range of offerings from which a student can plan his or her own curriculum. It depends on the perspective practice area he or she is aiming at. But at the same time it’s essential to deepen and broaden the basic legal literacy and understanding the law as a whole.
When the student graduates from the school, he or she gains the Juries Doctor degree and looks for a job. He may find the position but he can’t practice law. He must be licensed or admitted to the Bar. All states require that applicants for admission to the Bar pass a written Bar Examination; most jurisdictions also require applicants to pass a separate written Ethics Examination.
Comprehension check
THE AMERICAN LEGAL PROFESSION
Warming-up questions
The American legal profession, like American law, has it roots in England, but with significant differences. In England, the legal profession is divided between office lawyers, known as solicitors, and courtroom lawyers, known as barristers.
In the United States, there is no division of the profession, and a lawyer frequently does both office work and courtroom work. There is, however, a great deal of variety in the types of f work done by lawyers.
Attorney
Depending upon the circumstances and the needs of the client, the lawyer may be a counselor, a negotiator, and/or a litigator. In each of these roles, the lawyer will need to engage in factual investigation.
With respect to each of these roles, the lawyer will do the following:
Counselor: Attorney will help advise the client how to order the client’s affairs.
Negotiator: Lawyer will work with opposing counsel to try to get a favorable resolution for the client. The art of negotiation involves many techniques individual to particular attorneys and the circumstances. The client always retains the right to accept or reject a settlement negotiated or offered by the opposing party.
Litigator: In litigating, the attorney will help pick a jury and participate in pre-trial motions.
Fact Investigator: All of the lawyer’s roles require the investigation of relevant facts, including locating and interviewing witnesses.
A lawyer is to be a zealous advocate of the client, in this respect the lawyer must advocate on the client’s behalf and avoid conflicts of interest. The lawyer is also an officer of the court and is required to deal fairly and honestly with the court and with its other officers, including the lawyer’s opponents.
Judge
The judge is the final arbiter of the law. The judge is charged with the duty to state, as a positive matter, what the law is. In addition, the judge is to maintain order in the courtroom.
Judges in federal courts are appointed by the President with the «advice and consent» of the Senate. Many state court judges are elected by popular vote.
Jury
The jury, a group of local citizens, is the fact-finder in most trials. The jury will receive instructions from the judge as to the law, and its members will assess the facts as they perceive them in light of the law, as instructed, to return a verdict.
Comprehension check
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE UK
Warming-up questions
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland comprises the four countries of England, Scotland (including the Orkney and Shetland Islands), Wales and Northern Ireland. Their capitals are London, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast.
The chief regional administrative units are called “countries” in England and Wales, “regions” in Scotland, and “districts” in Northern Ireland. In addition there are “Dependencies” of the Crown.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the official name of the state which is sometimes referred to as Great Britain or Britain (after its major isle), England (after its major historic part) or the British Isles.
Great Britain is situated on the British Isles. The British Isles consist of two large islands, Great Britain (in which are England, Wales and Scotland) and Ireland (in which are Northern Ireland and the independent Irish Republic), and 5,500 smaller islands.
The North Sea, the Strait of Dover (or Pas de Calais), and the English Channel (or La Manche) separate Great Britain from the European continent. The western coast of Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea.
The surface of the British Isles varies very much. It is flat in Eastern England, Scotland and Wales are hilly and mountainous. The main mountain ranges are:
There are sixteen lakes to the north-west of England. This part of the country, called the Lake District, is the most beautiful part of Great Britain.
There are many rivers in Britain. England’s best known river is, of course, the Thames which flows through Oxford where it becomes navigable on through London, and finally out to the North Sea ending in its broad estuary over 8km wide. It is also the longest, at 346km.
The river Severn is the longest in total, but its source is in the mountains of Wales, and the parts which run through England are shorter than the Thames. So the most important rivers of England are the Thames, the Trent and the Severn.
Comprehension check
THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE UK
Warming-up questions
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy.
This means that it has a king or a queen as its Head of State. The present British monarch is Queen Elizabeth II. The monarch has very few functions and can only reign with the support of Parliament, which consists of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The supreme legislative power is vested in the Parliament, which sits for 5 years unless sooner dissolved. House of Commons is the real governing body of the UK, it introduces new bills. Then they go to the House of Lords for approval, and finally the monarch signs them. Only then they can become laws.
The House of Commons has 650 popularly elected members, known as Members of Parliament (or MPs), each of whom represents an area of the UK.
The executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and his cabinet. The government is usually formed by the political party which is supported by the majority in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party that has a majority in the House of Commons. Each new Prime Minister can make changes in the size of his cabinet, appoint new ministers and make other changes.
The Prime Minister takes policy decisions with the agreement of his ministers. He holds Cabinet Meetings at his official residence at No 10 Downing Street which is very near the Houses of Parliament in Westminster.
The Power of the Cabinet is controlled by Parliament. Each minister is responsible for a particular area of government. For example, the Minister of Defence is responsible for defence policy and the armed forces, the Home Secretary for law and order and immigration.
The House of Lords consists of more than 1,000 hereditary lords and peers. It has very little power.
The two main political parties in Great Britain are the Conservative party and the Labour party.
The judiciary branch of the government determines common law and is independent both the legislative and the executive branches.
There is no written constitution in Great Britain, only precedents and traditions.
Comprehension check
THE COURT SYSTEM OF THE UK
Warming-up questions
I
The most common type of law court in England and Wales is the magistrates’ court. There are 700 magistrates’ courts and about 30,000 magistrates.
More serious criminal cases then go to the Crown Court, which has 90 branches in different towns and cities. Civil cases (for example, divorce or bankruptcy cases) are dealt with in County courts.
Appeals are heard by higher courts. For example, appeals from magistrates’ courts are heard in the Crown Court. The highest court of appeal in England and Wales is the House of Lords. (Scotland has its own High Court in Edinburgh, which hears all appeals from Scottish courts.) Certain cases may be referred to the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg.
The legal system also includes juvenile courts (which deal with offenders under seventeen) and coroners’ courts (which investigate violent, sudden or unnatural deaths). There are administrative tribunals which make quick, cheap and fair decisions with much less formality. Tribunals deal with disputes between individuals, and disputes between individuals and government departments (for example, over taxation).
II
Nowadays courts can be created only by act of Parliament. Courts can be classified in a number of ways, for example, superior and inferior courts. The most usual difference is, however, between criminal and civil courts.
In criminal cases the courts are the first to hear cases are the magistrates’ courts and the Crown Court (for most serious cases). The Court of appeal in London has a Criminal Division and a Civil Division. It hears appeals in criminal cases from the Crown Court, and in civil cases, from county courts and the High Court. The highest court of Appeal in England, Wales and Northern Ireland is the House of Lords (Scotland has its own High Court).
Magistrates’ Courts
A magistrates’ court usually consists of a ‘bench’ of three lay, unpaid magistrates known as justices of the peace ‘JP’s. There are nearly 28,000 lay magistrates serving some 450 courts.
Usually those charged with criminal offences first appear in a magistrates’ court. The less serious offences are tried by the magistrates themselves. The most serious offences, such as murder, manslaughter, rape and robbery, are tried on indictement (or formal accusation) only by the Crown Court. Usually those charged with such offences first appear before a magistrates’ court, which decides whether to commit them to the Crown Court for trial.
Youth Courts
Cases involving people under 18 are heard in youth courts (formerly juvenile courts). These are special magistrates’ courts. There are restrictions on public access and media coverage.
The Crown Court
The Crown Court sits at about 90 centres and it presided over by High Court judges, full-time ‘circuit judges’ and part-time recorders. England and Wales are divided into six circuits for the purpose of hearing criminal cases.
The Crown Court tries the most serious offences. All contested cases are presided over by a judge sitting with a jury.
The High Court deals with the more complicated civil cases (it also cover some serious cases) as well as dealing with appeals from tribunals and from magistrates’ courts in both civil and criminal matters. It has several divisions, such as the family division dealing with the family problems or the Chancery Division dealing with wills, administration of property, etc.
Comprehension check
THE LEGAL PROFESSION IN GREAT BRITAIN
Warming-up questions
The legal profession in England is divided into two main groups, barristers and solicitors. A popular definition of the distinction between solicitors and barristers is that barristers do the court work and solicitors do the office work. In practice, the major volume of court work is done by solicitors and barristers do much “office” work. At present no solicitor, however experienced, may represent a client at a full hearing in any of the higher courts. On the other hand, a barrister, however inexperienced, may represent clients in the House of Lords.
Being a solicitor does not simply involve acquiring a knowledge of the theory and practice of the law. It also requires high standards of conduct and an onerous obligation to the courts. The full title of a solicitor is “Solicitor of the Supreme Court”. All solicitors are automatically officers of the court. They have duties to the court which sometimes override the duties to their clients. For instance, solicitors must not knowingly allow their client to tell lies in the witness box. If a client confesses their guilt to a solicitor, the solicitor would be committing an offence if he or she then called the client to give evidence that they were innocent.
Many barristers, especially junior barristers, spend much of their time on paperwork, giving opinions, drafting pleadings and other documents related to court proceedings, but also drafting contracts, trust deeds, and other formal legal documents which are not immediately connected with litigation.
A person seeking to qualify as a solicitor can become a trainee solicitor after three years of university legal education and one extra year doing the legal practice course. As a trainee solicitor it is possible to obtain a paid position even before qualifying.
The young would be barrister has much less chance of earning anything before he qualifies, must then obtain a seat in chambers from which he can try to build up a practice, knowing that, times will probably be hard for a few years. He has to meet his own expenses, cover his own holidays and buy his own (very expensive) sick-pay insurance. In return he gets the satisfaction of wearing a wig, and of being self-employed. Doubtless also, being a barrister still sounds a much more glamorous occupation than being a solicitor.
Comprehension check
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Warming-up questions
The Russain federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies about one-seventh of the earth’s surface. It covers the eastern part of Europe and the northen part of Asia. Its total area is about 17 million square kilometers. The country is washed by 12 seas of 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic and the Atlantic. In the south Russia borders on China, Mognolia, Korea, Kazakhstan, Georgia and Azebaijan. In the west it borders on Norway, Finland, the Baltic States, Belorussia, the Ukraine. It also has a sea-border with the USA.
There is hardly a country in the world where such a variety of scenery and vegetation can be found. We steppes in the south, plains and forests in the midland, tundra and taiga in the north, highlands and deserts in the east.
There are two great plains in Russia: the Great Russian Plain and the West Biberian Lowland. There are several mountain chains on the territory of the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. The largest mountain chain, the Urals, separates Europe from Asia.
There are over two million rivers in Russia, Europe’s biggest river, the Volga, flows into the Caspian Sea. The main Siberian rivers – the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena – flow from the south to the north. The Amur in the Far East flows into the Pacific Ocean.
Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world’s deepest lake (1,600 metres) is Lake Baikal. It is much smaller than the Baltic Sea, but there is much more water in it than in the Baltic Sea. The water in the lake is so clear that if look down you can see the stones on the bottom.
Russia has one-sixth of the world’s forests. They are concentrated in the European in the european north of the country, in Siberiea and in the Far East.
On the vast territory of the country there are varios types of climate, from arcric in the north to subtropical in the south. In the middle of the country the climate is temperate and continental.
Russia is rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources.
Russia is a parliamentary republic. The Head of State is the President. The legislative power is exercised by the Duma.
The capital of Russia is Moscow. It is its largest pilitical, scientific, cultural and industrial centre. It is one of the oldest Russian cities.
Today there are a lot of opportunities for this contry to become one of the leading countries in the world. It has great past and promising future.
Comprehension check
THE POLITICAL SET-UP OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Warming-up questions
The Russian Federation is a democratic legally based federal state with a republican form of government.
The three branches of power in the Russian Federation – executive, legislative and judicial – are represented by the President and the Government; Federal Assembly (the Council of the Federation and the State Duma) and Courts of the Russian Federation respectively.
Generally speaking, the President enforces the laws that Parliament passes, and the Supreme Court interprets these laws if any question arises.
The President of the Russian Federation is given executive power. According to the Constitution, President is the head of state. He is the guarantor of the Constitution and of human and civil rights and freedoms. He is elected for a term of six years in a universal vote by a secret ballot, and has the right to be elected for a maximum of two terms. As chief executive, he has the responsibility of enforcing federal laws. He appoints and removes high federal officials. He makes final decisions on foreign policy, declares and annuls any government decisions, which contradict them. He is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
The Government of the Russian Federation consists of the Chairman of the Government, Deputy Chairmen of the Government and federal ministers. The government of Russia represents, serves and protects the Russian people at home and abroad.
The Chairman of the Government (the Prime Minister) is appointed by the President with consent of the State Duma. He tenders his resignation after Presidential elections but is not obliged to do this after Parliamentary elections. The Chairman proposes to the President candidates for the office of Deputy Chairmen of the Government and federal ministers. The Chairman determines the guidelines of the work of the Government of the Russian Federation and organizes its work.
Federal Assembly – the Parliament of the Russian Federation is vested with representative and legislative power and is composed of two Houses – the Council of the Federation and the State Duma. The division of responsibilities between chambers is traditional for the parliaments of other countries. The essential feature of modern Russia is that the upper chamber (Council of Federation) includes the representatives of the executive power of the regions.
The Council of the Federation (or the Federation Council) is the upper Chamber of the Russian Parliament with a total of 175 seats, comprises two representatives from each state of the Russian Federation. It is elected for a term of two years and cannot be dissolved by the President. It endorses the legislative acts adopted by the Duma, takes decisions on impeachment of the President, appoints the justices of the three Supreme Courts, appoints and discharges the Procurator-General.
The State Duma is the lower chamber of the Russian Parliament. It consists of 450 deputies and is elected every four years. It initiates impeachment proceeding against the President, endorses the appointment of the Prime-Minister, drafts and endorses laws.
The Judicial System consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Court of Arbitration. This third branch of government is independent from the other two branches – legislative and executive, and is no longer subordinate to them. Justices, the members of these Courts, are nominated for their posts by the Federation Council. Judges are irremovable.
The Constitutional Court stays apart from the general court system. It decides cases exclusively on the basis of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The Court limits its considerations to matters of law. The Court does not consider political cases. The Constitutional Court has evolved to be the true protective body of citizens’ rights within the Russian Federation court system. According to the Constitution, the Constitutional Court consists of 19 justices nominated by the President and approved by the Federation Council. The term of the Constitutional Court Justices is 12 years. According to the Law, the independence of Constitutional Court Justices is ensured by their irremovability, statutory immunity, equal voting rights. The Chairman, Deputy Chairman and Justice-Secretary are elected individually by secret ballot for a three-year term in a plenary session of the Constitutional Court.
The President of the Russian Federation is Dmitriy A. Medvedev.
Comprehension check
JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Warming-up questions
The judicial system in Russia is structured according to two basic principles, implying that decisions and sentences which did not come into force can be appealed only once and only at the immediately superior court. Higher courts’ decisions and sentences cannot be appealed or protested. In civil and criminal cases there are courts of primary jurisdiction, courts of appeal and higher courts, which arbitrate lower courts sentences and decisions, already in force.
The judicial system of the Russian Federation is established in keeping with the Constitution (Article 7 “Judiciary Power”) and the Federal Constitutional Law “On the Judicial System of the Russian Federation”, issued on December 31, 1996.
The highest judicial body is the Constitutional Court, composed of 19 judges who are appointed by the President and approved by Council of the Federation. The Constitutional Court’s mandate is to rule on the constitutionality of legislative and executive actions.
Below the Constitutional Court are the Supreme Court and the Supreme Arbitration
Court. The Supreme Court rules on civil, criminal and administrative law, and the Supreme Arbitration Court handles economic suits.
As with the Constitutional Court judges for these high courts are appointed by the President and approved by the upper house of the legislature. They may only be citizens of the Russian Federation who have reached the age of 25, have a higher juridical education and a record of work in a juridical profession of not less than 5 years. Additional qualification requirements are established for higher courts. Judges are independent and are subject only to the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal legislation. Judges are not replaceable and enjoy immunity. The 1978 Constitution had established life terms for judges but the 1993 Constitution changed appointments of high Court judges to 12-year terms.
Also the Russian judicial system consists of republic supreme courts, okrug courts, regional courts, Moscow and St. Petersburg city courts, district courts and military courts.
98 – 99% of all civil and criminal cases are judged by general courts at the lowest levels, called people’s (district and city) courts. They also judge administrative offences, complaints about unlawfulness and unfounded arrests and implement courts’ decisions concerning property confiscation etc. There are 2,454 public courts in Russia with 13,000 judges. 85 courts of the Russian Federation (region, krai, and republic) with a staff of 2,800 judges constitute the next link of general courts. They judge the most difficult cases, taken on at their own initiative, cases where death sentences may be given. They also regulate the lawfulness and validity of sentences and other public court decisions which did not come into force.
Comprehension check
HIGHER EDUCATION IN RUSSIA
Warming-up questions
According to the Law on Education in Russia, the overall system of education in this country is made up of several stages.
They include nursery\preschool education, primary\elementary education, secondary education, vocational or technical education, university education and post-university studies.
Compulsory schooling starts at the age of 6\7 and covers a 9-year course of studies, so the minimum school-leaving age is 14\15.
To continue with their studies and then go on to a university, students have to stay at school for another two years and either take final exams or do Unified State Tests at the end.
USTs provide university examination boards with a unified basis for selecting applicants.
University education in Russia is not compulsory and may be provided either on a fee-paying basis or free of charge.
Admission standards may differ, but competition for free university places is very high.
Most universities offer both full-time and part-time undergraduate courses of studies which take 4 or 5 years.
The system of baccalaureate (4-year undergraduate course of studies) and magistrate (further 2-year course) is currently being introduced in Russian universities.
This means that a student is awarded the degree of a Bachelor of Science (or Arts) upon the completion of a 4-year course of studies, and is granted the degree of a Master (of Arts or Sciences) after another two years of studies.
More traditional is a 5-year course of studies that gives both professional and teaching qualifications and an opportunity to do research during the 3-year post-graduate course of studies, which leads to the degree of a Candidate.
The highest degree at the post-university level in Russia is a Doctor of Science (Russian term).
Russian university education is a fairly uniform system.
An academic year is divided into two terms (or semesters), the autumn term starting in September and ending in January, the spring term starting in February and ending in June.
The system of assessment includes credits and exams which are taken at the end of each term, and a course paper or project which is submitted at the end of an academic year.
Course papers\projects are written as part of research work guided by a scientific supervisor.
Final examinations at the end of the course of studies, and a diploma research paper complement the system of assessment.
The uniformity of the university education leaves little freedom in the choice of subjects to be studied.
The first two years of studies cover a compulsory set of liberal arts courses such as world history, philosophy, native and foreign language, mathematics, economics, and the basics of future specialization.
Majoring (specialization) starts in the third year of studies and involves doing courses related to your major (subject or field of study representing student’s principal interest).
Teaching is done in the form of lectures and seminars (or practical classes), during which a lecturer (or an instructor) encourages students to discuss the most important issues of the current courses.
University facilities may be located either on campus or elsewhere and traditionally include libraries, sports grounds and gyms, a computer center, halls of residence (both on campus and off campus), catering facilities, student medical center and university community center.
Comprehension check
ROSTOV ACADEMY OF JUSTICE AND LEGAL TRAINING IN RUSSIA
Warming-up question
Russian higher education is a fairly uniform system.
The first two years of studies are devoted to liberal arts courses such as world history, philosophy, native and foreign language, mathematics, economics, and the basics of future profession.
Majoring (specialization) starts in the third year of studies and involves doing courses related to your major (subject or field of study representing student’s principal interest).
Teaching is done in the form of lectures and seminars (or practical classes).
Attending lectures and seminars is compulsory, and calling the roll is a most common procedure of checking the attendance.
Academic facilities traditionally include a central library and a number of smaller specialized ones, several sports grounds and gyms, a number of computer centers, halls of residence (both on campus and off campus), catering facilities, student medical center and university community center.
Academic year is divided into two terms (or semesters), the autumn term is from September to January, the spring term is from February to June.
The system of assessment includes credits and exams, which are taken at the end of each term, and a course paper which is submitted at the end of the academic year.
Course papers are part of research work of a student with his\her scientific supervisor.
Final examinations at the end of the course of studies, and a diploma research paper complement the system of assessment.
Russian Academy of Justice is a state-run institution for professional education. It was set up by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Supreme Court of Arbitration of the Russian Federation.
Rostov branch of the Academy trains students at the Faculty of Law in three majors: civil law, criminal law and state law. It offers re-training and upgrading programmes for the officers of Federal courts of general jurisdiction and Judicial department of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.
There are 8 departments at Rostov branch.
They are: the department of civil law; the department of international law; the department of the theory and history of state and law; the department of criminal law; and the department of lingustics and foreign languages, the department of liberal and social sciences, the department of state law, department of physical culture.
The full-time course of studies at the Faculty of Law provides for the following:
An in-depth knowledge of liberal arts and foreign languages.
Fundamental theoretical training in jurisprudence.
An opportunity to major in civil, criminal, international or state law.
An opportunity to get hands-on experience in the courts of general jurisdiction, courts of arbitration, legal agencies, legal advisor’s offices, public prosecutor’s offices.
An opportunity to take part in student exchange programmes.
An opportunity to take part in international programmes on comparative legal studies, law making and law application.
Those who complete the course of studies qualify as lawyers and are recruited by executive and legislative bodies, the Bar, businesses and other agencies.
Russian Academy of Justice is very active internationally. It cooperates with the federal Judicial Centre of the USA, General department for Legal Issues of the Council of Europe, British Council, Oxford University and many other agencies and institutions.Rostov branch of the Academy houses the recently founded Centre for Juvenile Justice.
Comprehension check
THE LEGAL PROFESSION IN RUSSIA
Warming-up questions
1. Are you going to work as a lawyer after finishing the academy?
2. Is a lawyer a well-paid profession in Russia?
Lawyers in private practice in Russia work mostly within colleges of advocates – self-managed cooperative-type organizations. There are about nineteen thousand advocates in more than one hundred colleges. The highest body of advocates’ self-management is the general meeting of a college. The presidium headed by the chairperson is the executive board of each college. The presidium is elected by the general meeting for a term of three years.
Colleges of advocates are formed in accordance with territorial subdivisions – in the cities, regions (oblasts), republics or autonomous entities. In its territory any college is represented by law firms or legal aid offices, which render all regular legal assistance to citizens: advocates counsel people, draft legal documents, represent plaintiffs or defendants in civil litigation, and provide defense in criminal proceedings.
There are now more and more American-type law firms in Russia functioning separately from colleges of advocates and especially involved in representing private businesses.
Many lawyers are employed by the law offices of enterprises, ministries and agencies as in-house counsel (jurisconsult). These lawyers have all powers of an attorney, but they represent their single and permanent “client” – their respective organization. There are about twenty thousand of them in Russia, and in view of the economic reform this body is growing.
Of course, many in the legal profession teach or do academic research work. In Russia there are forty institutions of higher education in law (either a law school attached to a university or a separate entity called a “juridical institute”). New private law schools are popping up. There are also separate research centers in law, the most prominent of which is the Institute of State and Law under the Academy of Sciences of Russia.
Comprehension check
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Warming-up questions
International law constitutes that body of rules which governs the relationships between sovereign states. These rules of law emanate from the free wills of states as expressed in conventions or by usages which are generally accepted as expressing principles of law. The object of these rules is to regulate the relations between these co-existing independent communities as means of achieving common aims deemed important in the collective opinion of the international community. See the Lotus Case (1927). Since international law is the product of forces within international society, in order to understand the nature of the international legal system, it is necessary to analyse the structure and processes which function within the global society.
Historically, although several systems of international law have existed since antiquity, contemporary international law has its origins in Medieval Europe. Arguably, the most notable historic development was the signing of the Peace of Westphalia 1648 which established an embryonic sovereign state system in Europe. Prior to this agreement, the creation of a sovereign state system had been retarded by the transnational authority of the Pope in spiritual matters and the control of the Holy Roman Emperor in political concerns. In the signature of the Peace of Westphalia the Emperor acknowledged restrictions on his dominion in favour of the territorial autonomy of the various nation states which had previously composed the Empire, whilst simultaneously the treaty recognised the limits of the authority of the Pope.
International society since then has remained a pluralistic structure of sovereign states. Sovereignty in the relations between states is synonymous with independence. This independence allows states to regulate the internal constitutions of their territories and to enter into international relations with other sovereign states.
Comprehension check